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SAE TECHNICAL 2017-36-0142

PAPER SERIES E

Biojet Fuel – A Tool for a Sustainable Aviation Industry. A

Technical Assessment
FABIO COELHO BARBOSA
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2017-36-0142

Biojet Fuel – A Tool for a Sustainable Aviation Industry

- A Technical Assessment

Fábio Coelho Barbosa

FCB Research and Consulting

Copyright © 2017 SAE International

Abstract industry focused on identifying sustainable and economically feasible

biologically derived feedstocks, conversion process and supply
chains, to make biojet fuel competitive with fossil based jet fuel in
The aviation industry currently holds a share of 2% global
the medium term. Moreover, as crude oil supply and pricing become
greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Although relatively small,
less predictable, conventional jet fuel prices will trend upward. This
estimated demand increase indicates an up to 350% emission rise in
work is supposed to present an overview of the current state of the art
2050, in the so called “no action scenario”. These emissions are
of biojet fuel technical knowledge (from feedstock, conversion
injected into the upper atmosphere, with a potentialized stronger
methods to in use performance analysis), associated with an
greenhouse effect than at ground level. In this context, ambitious
economic assessment, followed by some illustrative case studies, into
emission reduction targets have been proposed into a global
a unique document, to make available to the reader the current most
commitment, focused into a long term carbon emission reduction
relevant available biojet fuel technology knowledge into a review
strategy, which would lead to net GHG emissions to peak in 2020,
format.
and then halves by 2050, based on 2005 levels, while accommodating
increased air transport demand. To achieve this challenging goal, a
multifaceted approach is required, ranging from technology oriented Introduction
actions, like revolutionary aerodynamically driven design, new
composite lightweight material and engine technology improvement, The aviation industry has been seeking for an alternative fuel that
as well as improved ground and flight operational practices. enable the compliance of stringent emission standards, followed by at
However, such an ambitious target cannot be achieved solely by least the same safety, technical and economic performance and
technology and operational improvements within the aviation reliability provided by oil derived jet fuel. In this context, there is a
industry alone. In this context, the so called Sustainable Aviation great potential for the use of bioderived aviation fuel. Biofuels, made
Fuels (SAF), most particularly biofuels (biojet fuels), have been from renewable derived material, may offer the same or better
identified as having the potential to make a significant contribution to performance, with GHG decrease potential of 50 to 80 percent, as the
a carbon emission reduction pathway in the aviation industry, as they biofuel feedstock absorbs CO2 during its growth cycle through the
allow a 50 to 80 percent GHG reduction into a lifecycle basis, photosynthesis process. Biofuel use also reduces sulfur emissions,
compared to fossil fuel emissions, as well as a reduction in sulfur, soot and particulates [1]. From an economic standpoint, fuel is the
soot and particulate emissions. Biojet fuel, the generic term that largest operating cost in the aviation industry, and the unstable prices
describes biofuel for jet engines, made from renewable, biologically of crude oil hamper long-term planning and expense budgeting.
derived material, is basically a liquid fuel produced through chemical Renewable feedstock-derived jet fuels can reduce the dependency of
processes/conversion pathways, with the same or better performance the aviation industry on one single energy source, avoiding the
properties available on conventional jet fuel (petroleum based). They volatility of petroleum prices, and potentially reducing greenhouse
may be used in the so called drop-in fuel concept, which allows gas (GHG) emissions [2]. Moreover, differently from ground
compatibility with existing engines, aircraft, fuel storage and transportation biofuel markets, which faces medium to long term
distribution system, as well as be blended with existing tradition declining demands, due to competition from non-liquid fuels (such as
(petroleum based) jet fuel in increasing quantities (currently up to natural gas, battery-electric, or fuel-cell hydrogen-powered vehicles),
50%). From a technical perspective, biojet fuels perform as well as or aviation fuel markets are likely less vulnerable to competition from
better than traditional petroleum based jet fuel. Nevertheless, current 1
non-liquid fuels , because the greater energy density of liquid fuels is
availability of aviation biofuels is limited and their costs are still
higher than petroleum based jet fuels, basically due to production
processes’ technology immaturity and small scale production. 1
There is no foreseeable new technology into the medium term to power
However, there are currently ongoing efforts from the aviation
flight beyond hydrocarbon fuels. Hydrogen fueled engines, for example, faces
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substantial in aviation due to the energy efficiency implications of limitations complemented by economic measures (e.g., voluntary
hauling the fuel itself and the physical constraints of airplane design purchase of carbon offsets); iii) committing to net carbon emissions
and performance. Another feature of aviation fuel markets that is (one half of 2005 levels, by 2050), through the combination of
relevant to biofuels producers is the concentration of jet fuel demand advanced technologies and large volumes (up to 40% at 2040) of
at major airport hubs [3], which facilitates distribution procedures. biofuels [3].
Aviation industry is focused on the so called drop-in aviation biofuel,
which allows direct blending with oil derived jet fuel and used
without any change to airplanes, engines or fueling infrastructure.
There is a great effort on research to develop sustainable feedstocks
and approve fuel pathways to expand the biofuel supply focused on
the identification of biomass sources that can be grown, harvested
and processed sustainably and at a competitive price with fossil-
based fuels, rather than electing an unique feedstock [1], allied with
recent initiatives to develop commercially viable and sustainable
processes that produce long-lasting renewable jet fuels with low
production costs and low greenhouse gas emissions [2]. Current
availability of aviation biofuels is limited. Estimates of production
costs for biomass-derived kerosene-equivalent fuels (hereafter
referred to as ‘biojet’) are considerably higher than the market price
of petroleum-derived jet fuel (kerosene), due to the the high cost of
production, which is commonly attributed to three factors: i) the
immaturity of biojet technology, ii) the small number of active
Figure 01. Aviation Industry GHG Emissions Commitments.
producers, and iii) competition between biojet and other premium Reproduced from [7]
(subsidised) biofuel markets, which encourages biofuel producers to
focus on other end products [4]. In this context, it is necessary to
It is important to highlight the effect of aviation emissions, as the
identify pathways to make feasible the production of the required
combustion products are mostly injected directly into the upper
volumes of biojet fuels into the short and medium term (respectively
atmosphere, which causes a somewhat stronger GHG effect than the
to 2020 and 2035), as well as key opportunities to establish
same volume combusted at ground level carriers [8].
sustainable supply chains [4].
Development of sustainable alternative jet fuels would allow the CO2
Aviation Fuel and Emissions Scenarios Overview emissions reduction of up 80%, on a full carbon life-cycle basis. The
primary focus needs to be on biofuels from second generation
Aviation industry currently contributes to 2-3% of world total sources, such as non edible crops, waste biomass algae, which can be
Greenhouse – GHG emission. Although small, projected industry produced sustainably to minimize impacts on food crops and fresh
3
growth (5% annually), as well as diversification by other industries, water usage . As of 2017, there have been reported a great number
aviation industry contribution to GHG is expected to come under passenger flights (over 1,500), which have clearly demonstrated
pressure [5]. The aviation industry has also faced regulatory risks safeness and technologically soundness use of drop-in biofuel jet,
associated with GHG emissions, which have been translated into which ultimately can be blended with existing jet fuel in increasing
2
emissions taxes and other regulatory actions. Moreover, by limiting quantities as they become available [7].
emissions, aviation industry potentially avoids climate change driven
costs in the future, which may be attractive to customers and/or
investors into a climate change scenario [3]. In this regard, to avoid a
Jet Fuel Basics
patchwork of overlapping and potentially conflicting national and
regional policies, a framework for addressing CO2 emissions from Jet fuel, known as Jet A and or A-1 is a standardized product - which
aviation must be developed at a global level [7]. A mid term target is traditionally uses crude oil as a feedstock - used to power current
to stabilize net aviation CO2 emissions from 2020 onwards (carbon commercial aviation industry. They are complex mixtures containing
neutral growth) subjected to critical aviation infrastructure and hundreds of hydrocarbon species in varying amounts, depending on
technology advances. A long-term goal would be the reduction of the crude oil, refinement process and the time of the year. Its average
aviation net carbon emissions by 50% in 2050, compared to 2005 composition is typically around 20% paraffins, 40% isoparaffins,
levels [7]. Specific targets and pathways to achieve these ambitious 20% naphthenes and 20% aromatics [9]. Each of these components
targets include: i) increasing fuel efficiency by an annual average of plays a critical role4 in providing specific fuel characteristics. Jet fuel
1.5% per year on a revenue ton mile basis through 2020, which will
largely come from replacing old with new, more efficient aircraft; ii)
limiting net carbon emissions at the 2020 level, with industry 3
First-generation biofuels (derived from food crops such as rapeseed,
sugarcane and corn – which can also be used as food for humans and animals)
has raised a number of important questions related to changes in use of
agricultural land, the effect on food prices and the impact of irrigation,
significant technical barriers and requires storage technologies, like pesticides and fertilizers on local environments [6]. Second generation
nanotechnology storage, which is still into research phase, with potential biofuels, on the other hand, brings a GHG lifecycle reduction, a diversified
commercialization in a long way off [6]. supply chain (more diverse geographical fuel supply through non edible fuel
crops) [6].
2
The European Union’s carbon tax on air transport is an example of a recent
increase in regulatory costs associated with GHG emissions [3]. 4
As an example, the high hydrogen-to-carbon ratio of paraffins and
isoparaffins enhances the heat density per unit mass of fuel; naphthenes help
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has its specification settled by American Society for Testing Biojet Fuel Properties Snapshot
Materials – ASTM5 (D1655) and the United Kingdom (UK) DEF
STAN 91-91 [5]. These specifications are broadly equivalent and
Biojet fuel is a term that describes fuel for jet engines, made from
focus primarily on performance properties rather than chemical
renewable, biologically-derived raw materials, produced through
composition, basically due to the complexity and variability of
chemical processes/conversion pathways, with the same or better
chemical compositions, depending on the feedstock used. Technical
performance properties available on conventional jet fuel (petroleum
literature has reported several key fuel requirements to the
based). The conversion pathways are driven to produce biofuels to
development of aviation fuels (including biofuels), i.e.: energy
chemically mimic petroleum derived jet fuel [10], and, hence, biojet
content, freeze point, thermal stability, viscosity, combustion 6
fuel has a similar chemical composition as Jet A-1 fuels [11].
characteristics, lubricity, material compatibility and safety properties
[4]. The Table 01, that follows, presents an overview of jet fuel
properties, their purpose and required specification. Strictly speaking, feedstocks can currently be converted to jet biofuel
through different approved processes. Each process, however,
Table 01 – Jet Fuel Properties
produces only some of the hydrocarbons found in petroleum-based
jet fuel, which contains aromatic compounds, along with linear,
Fuel Requirement Purpose Specification
branched, and cyclic paraffins – saturated hydrocarbons containing 8
to 16 carbon atoms. This mixture creates a fuel with the lubricity,
Energy Content Affects aircraft range Minimum energy density by
mass
freezing point, and energy density, among other specified properties,
Freeze Point Impacts ability to pump fuel at Maximum allowable freeze that keep it from boiling, freezing, or absorbing water in the variety
low temperature point temperature.
of conditions experienced by a plane on land or in the air. Because
Coke and gum deposits which Maximum allowable deposits
current aviation biofuels contain only linear and branched paraffins,
Thermal Stability can clog or foul fuels systems
and nozzles
in standardized heating test they have to be blended with petroleum-derived fuels to create a jet
fuel with the physical properties specified by ASTM [10]. As such,
Viscosity impacts ability of biojet fuel produced by current refinery processes does not contain
Viscosity fuel nozzles to spray fuel and Maximum allowable viscosity
of engine to relight at altitude enough aromatic compounds, which accounts for up to 25% of fossil
jet fuel by volume, and are needed for proper lubrication and sealing.
Particulates formation into Maximum allowable sulphur Currently, an up to 50% blend by volume, between biojet and fossil
Combustion Features
combustion and exhaust and aromatic contents
jet fuel fuel, is allowed for meeting jet fuel performance and
specifications [12].
Impacts upon ability of fuel to
Maximum allowable amount
Lubricity lubricate fuel system and
of wear in a standardized test
engine controls
Biojet fuel must be certified by a representative industry body before
operating commercial flights. The certification process involves
Avoid problems with fuel Maximum acidity and
Material contact with a large range of mecaptan concentration and extensive fuel property, component performance and compatibility
Compatibility metals, polymers and minimum aromatics testing. Unlike ethanol or biodiesel, available biojet fuel is
elastomers. concentration
chemically similar to hydrocarbon molecules found in conventional
Avoid explosion in fuel Minimum fuel electrical refined products. Therefore, once blended and certified, these
Safety conductivity and allowable
handling and tanks products are suitable for use in unmodified jet engines into the so
flash point.
called ‘drop-in’ concept, which prevents additional cost and risk [5].
Source: [4] Recent advances in fuel production technology have resulted in biojet
fuel that not only meets, but exceeds many of the current
Synthetic jet fuels (including biofuels) and synthetic/petroleum fuel specifications for jet fuel [6]. The feedstocks already been used to
blends ‘drop in’ fuels are considered to be equivalent to conventional produce biojet fuel fit basically into three categories (plataforms): i)
jet fuel (ASTM D1655) and can be mixed (into supply infrastructure Vegetable oils, which includes oil from seeds, like camelina,
and aircraft) without the need for separate tracking or approval [4]. jatropha, rapeseed, mustard, corn, as well as palm oil, and used
The global nature of the aviation industry means sustainable aviation cooking oil; ii) Lignocellulosic biomass (wood and agricultural
fuel must be “drop-in”, compatible with existing engine, aircraft and residues); and iii) Sugar [8], within different conversion pathways.
fuel distribution systems. Development of a fuel that is incompatible Regardless of the feedstock/conversion pathway adopted, it is
with these systems would result in considerable cost (e.g., aircraft, obtained linear and branched paraffins (C8-C16 compounds), as
engine and fuel distribution system modification and duplication) and shown in the Figure 2, that follows (biojet fuel production pathways
risk [9]. will be explained in details in the following section).

to reduce the freeze point, which is critical at high altitudes; and aromatics
contribute to material compatibility and prevent leaks in the seals of some
aircraft [9].

5
ASTM International is a non-government entity that sets the specification for
jet fuel that is used in the United States; the organization is integrated with the
U.S. Federal Aviation Administration’s regulatory and oversight authority.
6
Several other countries recognize the ASTM International jet fuel Biojet fuel are not chemically identical, but functionally equivalent to
specification as well [9]. petroleum-derived jet fuel [13].

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covers jet fuel for military use, but has also been widely adopted by
civilian users of jet fuel as well. China and Russia also have
comparable jet fuel standards [9].

Biojet Fuel (Biosynthetic) Manufacturing

Processes Overview
Renewable bio derived oils must be refined to ensure compatibility
with current engine and fuel systems. However, biofuel
manufacturing differs from crude oil refining, often requiring specific
processes not found in a petrochemical complex [5]. ASTM-already
approved processes for producing biojet fuel are: 1) the Fischer-
Tropsch - FT process, also called BTL - biomass to liquid, which was
approved in 2009); 2) the hydro-processed esters and fatty acids
process - HEFA, which was approved in 2011; 3) the hydro-
processed depolymerised cellulose to jet - HDCJ process, which is
also referred as Synthesized Iso-Paraffinic (SIP) fuel, approved in
June 2014; and 4) Alcohol to Jet (ATJ), this latter in an ongoing
approval process. Some other pathways are well-advanced in the
ASTM certification process [8].

A key aspect of biojet fuel production is the hydrogen H2 requirement

7
to upgrade oxygen-rich carbohydrate, lignin or lipid feedstocks to
Figure 02. Current Available Platforms for Bio Jet Fuel
hydrogen rich hydrocarbons that are functionally equivalent to
Production Schematics. Adapted from [10]
petroleum-derived jet fuel. Thus, some type of hydroprocessing step
will likely be required, with external sources of hydrogen used to
Aviation BioSyntetic Fuel (Biofuel) Certification remove oxygen in the form of water from the starting material, or to
Procedure saturate double bonds in a final polishing step [13]. The amount of
hydrogen needed to produce biojet fuel from a feedstock is
Synthetic jet fuels (biofuels and synthetic/petroleum fuel) blends are determined by the effective biomass feedstock hydrogen to carbon
specified by standards ASTM D7566, established in 2009. These ratio (Heff/C), which provides a useful metric to better understand
‘drop in’ fuels are considered to be equivalent to conventional jet fuel and compare the technical and economic challenges of the various
and can be mixed in aircraft and supply infrastructure without the drop-in biofuel processes [13].
need for separate tracking or approval, subjected to a blend limit of
up to 50%. The ASTM D4054 standard provides guidance on the Biojet Fuel Manufacturing Pathways
testing and property targets necessary to evaluate a candidate
alternative fuel, which requires that biofuel producers that wishes to
The literature available differs considerably across the pathways,
certify their products must collate the data required by D4054 in a
with the most detailed data available for pathways close to
research report and submit this to engine and airframe manufacturers
commercialization, while very limited for pathways in the earlier
for review. If the fuel is approved by these parties, it is balloted to the
stage of development [4]. From now on, it is presented in some detail
ASTM’s membership for approval to develop an annex to D7566.
the current available biojet fuel conversion pathways, ordered
The Figure 03, that follows, illustrates the certification process [4].
according technological and economic maturity.

Hydrogenated Ester and Fatty Acids (HEFA)

HEFA pathway is based on the hydroprocessing of natural oils and

fats (vegetable oils, animal fats or used cooking oil), in a process in
which oxygen is first removed from triglycerides by hydro
deoxygenation/decarboxylation, and double bonds are saturated by
the addition of hydrogen to produce long straight-chain
hydrocarbons. Vegetable oils and fats are triglycerides, which mostly
contain fatty acids with carbon numbers in the range C14 to C20, while
jet fuel contains hydrocarbons in the range C8 to C16. These straight
hydrocarbons mostly fall into the diesel range and are converted into

Figure 03. Biojet Fuel Certification Process. Adapted from [4] 7

In deoxygenation process, oxygen, which has a relatively high molecular
weight, which ultimately lower the energy content of the oil (MJ/kg) is
Besides ASTM, another important jet fuel certification authority is removed from the oil [11].
the British Ministry of Defence, whose Standard (DEF STAN) 91-91
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jet fuel by selective cracking and isomerization with hydrogen use. The composition of FT-SPK offers certain advantages over
The process is shown schematically in the Figure 4, that follows. conventional jet fuel. The specific energy (per unit mass) of neat FT-
SPK is 2% greater than petroleum jet fuel, due to its paraffinic
structure and low aromatic content, which reduces massic fuel
consumption, thus, increasing the potential payload of the aircraft –
and reducing energy consumption per unit of payload. On the other
hand, energy density (per unit volume) is 3% lower than petrol jet
fuel, due to its low aromatic content and paraffinic composition,
which reduces range, which may affect long distance flights. The low
Figure 04. Hydrogenated Esters and Fatty Acids (HEFA) Pathway.
Adapted from [8]
aromatic content also creates fuel leak risks, because Nitrile rubber
seals may expand with aromatic contact, as well as lower lubricity,
which may worsen engine components wear [4].
Chemically speaking, hydrotreated vegetable oil-based biojet fuel is a
mixture of paraffinic hydrocarbons and are free of sulfur and
aromatics. HEFA fuel is of very high quality and its properties are Direct Sugar to Hydrocarbon (DSHC)/Fermentation to
very similar to the GTL and BTL jet fuels produced by FT-synthesis Jet Fuel (FtJ)
[8]. The so called "green diesel", which is chemically similar to
HEFA biojet fuel, but that requires less hydroprocessing (hence, a DSHC pathway, also known as Fermentation to Jet (FTJ) [4],
higher yield and a lower cost) is proposed to be used into low converts sugar to a pure paraffin molecule that can be blended with
blending ratios (up to 15%)8 as a strategy to introduce a volume of conventional jet fuel, through an advanced fermentation process
biofuel in aviation at a lower cost. (biological conversion), which is carried out under aerobic
conditions, unlike ‘traditional’ fermentation of sugars to ethanol. The
Biomass to Liquids Pathway (BtL) feedstock used can be any cellulosic material, which is pretreated
using enzymatic hydrolysis, and, then, the resulting juice of simple
The biomass to liquids (BtL) process involves the gasification of sugars is filtered to remove lignin-rich solids and the sugar stream
biomass feedstocks, followed by Fischer-Tropsch synthesis of the sent directly to the biological conversion or further processed to
resulting syngas. It is also known as gasification/Fischer-Tropsch concentrate the sugars by evaporation or other means. After the
synthesis (GFT). The ASTM-certified fuel produced by this pathway biological conversion, the resultant product must be separated from
is called Fischer-Tropsch synthetic paraffinic kerosene (FT-SPK) and the water phase. DSHC pathway involves a yeast fermentation
efforts are underway to develop a second fuel, Fischer-Tropsch process to produce the unsaturated fermentation product, known as
synthetic kerosene with aromatics (FT-SKA) [4]. BTL consists into farnesene (trademark), which is subjected to another conversion
gasification of feedstock (basically woody biomass, agricultural process that results in the hydrogenated and saturated hydrocarbon.
residues, manure and industrial wastes, and the drier portions of This approved pathway is developed by a collaboration between
municipal solid waste – MSW), which is previsouly pretreated to French petroleum refining and distribution company Total and
reduce particle size and moisture content, i.e. densify biomass. The California-based industrial bioscience company Amyris. The process
pretreated feedstock is gasified at high temperatures and pressures is schematically shown in the Figure 06, that follows.
with a controlled volume of oxygen to generate synthesis gas
(syngas), a mixture mostly composed of carbon monoxide and
hydrogen, which is, then, conditioned to remove CO2 and impurities
such as tar, H2S, COS, HCN, NH3 and HCl, through a combination of
physical and chemical processes, such as thermal or catalytic
cracking, scrubbing, filters and cyclones, depending on the feedstock.
The clean syngas is, then, subjected to Fischer-Tropsch synthesis,
during which it reacts with hydrogen in the presence of a metallic
catalyst (commonly iron, cobalt or nickel), at temperatures between Figure 06. Direct Sugar to Hydrocarbons (DSHC/FtJ) Pathway.
150°C and 300°C and pressures of 10 to 40 bar. The resulting product Adapted from [8]
is a mix of saturated hydrocarbons, ranging from gases to waxes,
which are, then, upgraded to liquid fuels through conventional
This pathway has been approved for commercial aviation use by the
refining methods used in petroleum refineries, like hydrocracking and
ASTM, but as of 2014, it was used only in blends of up to 10% with
distillation, or oligomerization [4]. The Figue 05, that follows, shows
conventional oil derived jet A1, because it is not a mixture of
schematically the BtL pathway.
hydrocarbons, and, therefore, does not meet some of the ASTM
performance standards (for example, density and boiling range) [4].

Hydrotreated Depolymerized Cellulosic (HDCJ) Jet

Pathway

This pathway begins with a thermal reaction to convert

Figure 05. Fischer-Tropsch/BtL Pathway. Adapted from [9] lignocellulosic raw materials into a liquid, in which subsequent
hydrotreatment removes the oxygen to yield hydrocarbons, from
which jet fuel blending components are distilled. Compared to
alternative jet fuel from most of the other processes, HDCJ is
8
In order to comply with jet fuel freezing point requirements. relatively high in aromatics compounds [9]. This pathway is based on

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pyrolysis9 oil produced from lignocellulosic biomass by fast

pyrolysis. The feedstock for the pyrolysis process can be any dried
and granulated carbon-rich feedstock including biomass. The outputs
are CO2, flammable gases (mainly CO, CH4, H2, C2H6, and C2H4),
bio-oil, charcoal and ash. Gasification of products is performed in the
presence of an oxidizing agent (generally steam) to produce a rich
hydrogen gas and carbon monoxide (that together produce syngas),
volatiles (represented as methane) and CO2. After the gasification
process, the syngas is further processed into hydrocarbon chains of Figure 08. Alcohol Oligomerization to Jet Fuel (AtJ) Pathway.
varying lengths, which are then refined to isolate the desired jet fuel, Adapted from [8]
using the existing techniques commonly implemented in petroleum
refineries [8]. The Figure 07, that follows, shows schematically the Despite the unsuitability of ethanol and butanol for direct use in
HDCJ pathway. blends11 with Jet A1, the fuels produced by upgrading them are
considered to be highly compatible with existing aviation
infrastructure. Unlike BtL and HEFA pathway derived fuels, AtJ Jet
Fuel contain aromatics, negating the need for additives. Proponents
of the AtJ pathway are hopeful that AtJ fuels may be suitable for use
as neat jet fuels [4].

Figure 07. Hydrotreated Depolymerized Cellulosic Jet (HDCJ) Pathway. Lignin to Jet (LtJ)
Adapted from [8]

LtJ pathway uses ethanol produced from lignocellulosic biomass,

Fuels produced from HDCJ pathway have high aromatic and low through the separation of lignin from cellulose and hemicellulose
oxygen content, as well as few impurities – all desirable using steam. The lignin is catalytically deoxygenated and
characteristics for jet fuel applications. However, Mawhood R. et.al. depolymerised, then purified, before the desired end-products
[4] reports that upgrading bio-oil to jet fuel requires extensive (benzene, toluene and xylene) but it also produces bio-naphtha. These
hydrodeoxygenation, entailing the consumption of large quantities of products can be converted into high value chemicals and fuels
hydrogen, which makes them expensive. (including jet fuel) by standard industrial processes. Data available on
LtJ pathway are still very limited [4].
Alcohol Oligomerization to Jet Fuel (AtJ)
The Figure 09, that follows, shows a summary of biojet fuel
AtJ pathway produces biojet fuel from alcohols, such as ethanol or conversion pathways (feedstocks and processes).
butanol by oligomerization10. The alcohols used as feedstock can be
produced from sugars or lignocellulosic biomass, and, thus, have
greater potential to produce jet fuel in very large volumes, compared
to use of vegetable oils/fats via the HEFA pathways. The alcohols
produced undergo a four-step upgrading process to create
hydrocarbons in the jet fuel range. First, they are catalytically
dehydrated to generate olefins, then oligomerised, typically in the
presence of catalysts, to produce a middle distillate containing diesel
and kerosene fractions. Finally, the middle distillates are
hydrogenated and distilled [4]. Jet fuel obtained by AtJ pathway is
quite similar to oil sourced jet fuel and its economic feasibility
depends on the source from which alcohols are produced. AtJ
pathway is schematically shown in the Figure 08, that follows.

Figure 09. Biojet Pathways Schematic. Reproduced from [13]

11
Neither ethanol nor butanol are currently considered suitable for direct
9 blending with conventional jet fuel, as the high volatility and low flash point
Process of direct thermal decomposition of organic matter in the absence of of both are considered to present a safety hazard on board aircraft. Ethanol in
oxygen. particular may have corrosion effects on fuel handling systems and has a
tendency to attract water (which would freeze at altitude). Further, the specific
10
Alcohol oligomerization involves linking short chain alcohol molecules to energy and energy density of ethanol and butanol are significantly lower than
form jet fuel range hydrocarbons, in a process in which water and/or oxygen for conventional Jet A (approximately 40% and 23% for the two alcohols,
are removed from the alcohol molecules and hydrogen is added [8]. respectively) [04].

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Biojet Fuel Manufacturing Process Fuel Readiness use among heat, electricity and chemical inputs. Each crop has
Level (FRL) benefits and drawbacks in terms of costs, availability, yields, etc.
Wastes have been increasingly considered as a viable feedstock
option, and some interesting biojet fuel initiatives have been
The Figure 10, that follows, compares the Fuel Readiness Level proposed and evaluated based on waste as feedstock. Algal oils,
(FRL) of the assessed pathways. which have attracted significant attention from the aviation sector,
due to the fact that there are no issues related to land use, could
potentially replace vegetable oils in the biofuels process, but they will
be only commercially available within the medium term (up to 8
years). Moreover, due to very high infrastructure cost for industrial
algal cultivation, it is not clear when the advanced biofuels cost will
be competitive over fossil jet fuel from conventional plants [14]. The
Figure 11, that follows, shows feedstocks according their relative
costs and the required technical efforts for biojet fuel manufacturing.

Figure 10. Biojet Conversion Technologies FRL (2014 Status).

Adapted from [4]

Based on a FRL perspective, HEFA can be considered the most

advanced pathway (FRL 8-9), followed by BtL (FRL 7-8), with
several fuel developers involved with this pathway. However, the
high costs, low revenues, capital intensity and technological
uncertainties weakens investment propositions at present.

Mawhood R. 2014 [4] reports that technologies covered by the

DSHC/FtJ pathway are at FRL 5-7. A first fuel production process
has been certified by the ASTM, with the producer (Amyris/Total), as
well as a second producer (REG Life Sciences) with an an
operational pilot plant. Current production routes focus on sugar as a
feedstock and, in a lesser extent, from lignocellulosic materials.
Given the current status of DSHC/FtJ pathway and assuming a Figure 11. Feedstocks and Relative Costs and Technical Efforts to Biojet Fuel
Manufacturing [15]
progression rate of 3-5 years per FRL, it is realistic to project the
start-up of a first commercial sugar-processing plant around 2020
(corresponding to FRL 9). Prospects for the technological Logistics improvements are required for biofuel production, as most
development of this pathway are not, however, considered as robust feedstocks are bulky material or have low unit value. The
as for BtL, due to the small number of active jet fuel developers. The improvement of feedstock and jet biofuel logistics is a significant
most advanced technologies in the AtJ pathways are at FRL 6. need for the economic competitiveness of the various pathways for
Commercial interest in ATJ is significant, with multiple companies the production of jet biofuels [16].
and airlines actively involved in fuel development. A key strength of
the pathway is its flexibility to process alcohols synthesized by a Biojet Fuel Sustainability Approach
wide range of methods and from diverse feedstocks. Several
partnerships targeting the production of jet fuel exist between Biojet fuel can contribute to significant reduction of aviation-related
companies that synthesize alcohols, and those that convert alcohols to GHG emissions, provided the right feedstock and conversion
fuels. Certification of AtJ fuel (corresponding to FRL 7) was technology are used. de Jong S. et. al. [16] reports that conversion
expected during 2014-2015. Mawhood R. [4] estimates pathways based on residues or lignocellulosic crops yield low Well to
precommercialization activities (FRL 8) for this pathway to be Wake (WtWa) GHG emissions, with the FT pathway showing the
underway by 2020, with commercial operations (FRL 9) being highest GHG emission savings (86–104%), followed by BtL (77–
foreseeable if the technology progresses well. The HDCJ pathway 80%), pyrolysis (54–75%), used cooking oil (UCO) based HEFA
represents a range of diverse fuel conversion technologies being (68%), sugarcane (71–75%) and corn stover-based ATJ (60–75%)12.
developed by several companies in collaboration with airlines [4]. Lokesh K. et. a l, 2015 [17] reports a Lifecycle Emissions numerical
modelling and non-linear/dynamic simulation of a twinshaft turbofan
Finally, LtJ is the least advanced of the pathways reviewed, being at engine/aircraft13 in which Camelina SPK, Microalgae SPK and
the pilot stage of development and being promoted by only one Jatropha SPK delivered 70%, 58% and 64% GHG savings,
organization. It is unlikely that this pathway would be able to
contribute meaningfully to biojet fuel production by 2020 [4].
12
Does not include emissions from land use change and can, thus,
Feedstock Assessment overestimate or underestimate the GHG emission performance in specific
contexts [16].

A major concern associated with biojet fuel is the availability and 13

According to the author, this model precisely calculates the life cycle
quality of feedstock, as there is a limited range of feedstocks that emissions of the advanced biofuels through a multi-disciplinary study
meet the requirements to produce the physical and chemical entailing hydrocarbon chemistry, thermodynamic behaviour and fuel
characteristics of jet fuel. Regarding feedstock supply, there is an combustion from engine/aircraft performance, into a lifecycle approach.
effort to focus on non edible crops and avoid biomass competition for
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respectively, relative to the reference fuel (Jet-A1). Moreover, the

14
Net Energy Ratio/ Net Energy Balance Ratio analysis indicated
that current technology for the biofuel processing is energy efficient
and technically feasible, with Net Energy Balance Ratios of 1.158,
1.135 and 1.16415 [17], as shown for each phase of production
process, in the Figure 12, that follows.

Figure 13. Schematics of a Combustion Process in a Rich-Quench Gas

Turbine Combustor. Reproduced from [19]

The combustion properties of biojet fuel, which is composed of

straight and branched-chain paraffin molecules, are very similar to
that of traditional petroleum–fuel components, and thus modeling of
the combustion of biojet and jet fuel blends can be accomplished in a
a similar way as for Jet A1 fuel. The flame propagation speeds of
Figure 12. Net Energy Balance Ratio. Reproduced from [17] biojet blends are found to be very similar to that of traditional Jet A1
[19]. The reduced aromatic content of biojet fuels improves
The GHG emission performance of renewable jet fuel, may be further combustion, as increased aromatic content is associated with poorer
improved by using sustainable hydrogen sources or applying carbon combustion efficiency (increased CO, unburned HC and soot
capture and storage. Based on the character and impact of different emissions). As such, the use of biojet fuel has been reported to show
co-product allocation methods, it is recommended the adoption of an the reduction of NOx and soot particulate emissions, CO emissions in
energy and economic allocation approach (which includes non- some cases, and to reduce fuel burn and, thus, improve fuel economy
energy co-products) at a global level, as it may leverage the universal in aviation engine tests. The improvement in fuel efficiency is due to
feature of energy allocation, while adequately valuing non-energy co- the increased energy content of biojet fuels, compared to the
products [16]. aromatics that make up a significant portion of Jet-A1 [19]. An issue
related to the lack of aromatic content is the drying out and shrinking
Regarding regulated pollutant emissions, biojet fuel use has reduced of seals, which could result in fuel leakage, which sets the aromatic
emissions as shown in the next section. content in any biojet/jet fuel blend at a minimum of 8%, even though
no scientific evidence for the necessary aromatic content has been
reported [19].
Biojet Fuel Effect on Engine Performance and
Emissions Kinder L. D. and Rahmes T. [20] reported in 2009 performance and
emission tests comparing a baseline Jet A1 with 50 percent and 25
Jet engines burn liquid jet fuel injected into the combustion chamber percent Bio-SPK fuel blends. Specific Fuel Consumption (SFC)
in a continuous way through an atomizer coupled with a swirling (performance testing) was measured at several power settings from
airflow and a bluff body to provide a recirculation zone of hot ground idle to take-off, as well as start times, lean-blow out margin,
combustion products, which has the role of flame stabilization and acceleration and deceleration times (operability testing). Regulated
engine blow-off prevention. The non premixed flames result in high emissions, i.e. nitrogen oxides (NOx), carbon monoxide (CO),
temperatures and, thus, high NOx and soot emissions due to high hydrocarbons (HC), and the smoke number were measured. A series
temperature fuel-rich regions on the fuel cloud [19]. of engine ground runs were reported prior to the test flight, including
a switch of fuel at various progressions of Engine Pressure Ratio
(EPR) settings, which showed no change into an operational focus.
The Figure 14, that follows, shows engine fuel flow data from the
EPR of 1.4, where it can be seen the 1.07 percent lower fuel flow for
14
Conceptually, NER defines ratio between the amount of non renewable the engine running on biojet fuel blend, consistently with the 1.08
primary energy used to produce biofuel and the energy available in the percent higher energy density per unit mass of the fuel blend.
biofuel, which means that the lower the NER the more energy efficient is the
pathway. If the NER is lower than 1, the system produces more energy than
the fossil energy that was spent to produce the biofuel, of course excluding the
solar energy embedded in the biomass [18]. Alternatively, some authors use
the Net Energy Balance Ratio concept, which is also the ratio of the total
amount of energy embedded in biofuel production process over the stage's
total amount of fossil derived energy footprint [17].

15
The author [17] emphasizes that, although net energy return from the
processes was positive for a rather innovative pathway (concieved in 2009)
from non-food crops, it is acknowledged that it requires further techno-
economic optimizations to satisfy a global demand into a feasible way.

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lower flame temperatures with further biojet fuel addition, due to the
H/C ratio differences between the baseline and the biofuel. CO and,
to a greater extent, HC emissions are highly variable because the
emissions levels are low (near the instrument calibration limit for
HC), and these emissions can be influenced by small variations in
engine state and ambient conditions. The observed increase in CO
and HC emissions might also be explained by the reduction in flame
temperature, as the level of these emissions typically increase with
decreasing flame temperature, as colder temperatures lead to
incomplete carbon oxidation [21].

In 2016, Wang W.C. et. al. [2] have reported experimental tests of
autoignition characteristics, laminar flame speeds, and extinction
stretch rates of conventional jet fuel and alternative jet fuels derived
from FT and oil hydroprocessing. The derived cetane number (DCN)
Figure 14. Engine (RB 211 524G) Ground Run Engine Fuel Flow Running on
of alternative jet fuels are higher than conventional jet fuel due to its
Jet A1 and 50% Bio-SPK Blend. Reproduced from [20]
lower aromatic content, compared to conventional jet fuel (more than
16 20%). Moreover, high n-paraffin content of alternative fuels also
For the test flights on different aircrafts , a detailed analysis for makes them more reactive, resulting in higher DCN. Alternative fuels
parameters such as altitude, airspeed, engine pressure ratio, N1%, have a shorter ignition delay than conventional jet fuel and the
N2%, N3%, EGT (C°), P3, fuel flow, and throttle angle, as well as pressure increase due to ignition in the combustion chamber is higher
borescope analyses were reported before and after each test to detect for alternative fuel. The impacts of biojet fuel on engine performance,
any potential engine deterioration. The conclusion was that for all the operability, hardware, and emissions were also studied, and no
test flights, the blended biofuel displayed no adverse effects on any of significant differences in engine acceleration response time with
the aircraft systems [20]. Regarding emissions, Rahmes T.F. et. al. biojet fuel blends (up to 50%) were observed. For the emission tests,
[21] have reported emission tests for general thrust settings in it has been reported a slight reduction in NOx by 1%–5% due to the
accordance to International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) differences in ambient conditions and flame characteristics. Carbon
requirements for take-off, climb, approach, and idle thrust settings monoxide (CO) and unburned hydrocarbons emissions were reported
(i.e., 100%, 85%, 30%, and 7% thrust), commonly referred as the to be increased by 5%–9% and 20%–45%, respectively, because of
landing and take-off (LTO) cycle. Emissions results reveal a the reduction of flame temperature, the influence of spray quality and
reduction in NOx and smoke emissions with biojet fuel blends, flame location. The smoke emission was reduced by 13%–30% due
consistent with expectations, as NOx generation in the gas turbine to the lower aromatic content and higher H/C ratio. There has not
17
combustor is known to be thermal in nature . Similarly, smoke been reported any engine degeneration or unusual odors found when
generation was inversely proportional with H/C, and directly testing the biojet fuel in engines [2].
proportional to the aromatic content, the former increased with biojet
fuel addition, while the latter reduced with biojet fuel.
DOT/FAA [22] documented an engine and combustor (a 1,460 lb
thrust, two-spool turbo fan with a reverse-flow combustor and dual-
channel) test performed by Pratt & Whitney (P&W) in the evaluation
of a branched C15 Farnesane paraffin for use as a jet fuel blending
stock, produced using a direct sugar to hydrocarbon (DSHC) process.
The engine tests were performed at six performance points18, with a
20% biojet fuel blend. Specific Fuel Consumption (SFC), gaseous
emissions: carbon monoxide (CO), unburned hydrocarbon (UHC),
carbon dioxide (CO2), oxides of nitrogen (NOx), smoke number, and
particulate matter (PM) were measured. No difference was observed
in engine operability for the biojet (Amyris Farnesane) fuel blend,
compared to that of the baseline Jet A-1 fuel. No negative impact was
observed on SFC, gaseous emissions, smoke number, or PM.
Inspection of fuel system components showed no adverse effects
Figure 15. LTO Emissions and Maximum Smoke Number for Biojet Fuel from operation on the biojet (Farnesane) fuel blend. When analyzing
Blends. Adapted from [21] the engine starts performance with both the baseline Jet A-1 and
Amyris Farnesane fuel blend, the parameters time to light (TTL) and
The impact on NOx reduction is more pronounced with the 50% time to idle (TTI), as well as the peak inter turbine temperature (ITT)
blend compared to the 25% blend, most likely due to the resulting can be used to evaluate the quality of the engine start. While
differences within the measured values can be seen, previous testing
has indicated that the variation observed between fuels is within the
16
Boeing 747-400 equipped with Rolls Royce RB 211-524G engines, Boeing amount of scatter which can be expected for these types of
737-800 equipped with CFM International CFM56-7B and Boeing 747-300 measurements. This data indicated that the fuels demonstrated
eqipped with Prat&Whitney JT9D-7R4G2. During the tests, only one engine
was fed with Biojet blend [20].

17 18
Thermal-NOx is dominant over prompt-NOx and no fuel-bound NOx is Ground idle (GI); 30% power; 50% power; 85% power; 93% power and
present, as fuels are Nitrogen-free [21]. 100% takeoff power (1,460 lbf thrust) [22].

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approximately equivalent engine start characteristics. The net feature poses a marked extension effect on engine’s component life
differences in acceleration and deceleration times demonstrated by (hot and cold sections) [23].
the biofuel blend, relative to the baseline Jet A-1, are not considered
large enough to have a significant impact on the operability of the Biojet Fuel Economic Assessmet
engine [22]. Engine performance was also evaluated by taking steady
state measurements at the six representative power settings. A five
minute stabilization time was used prior to taking any performance Aviation industry (both civilian and military) is concerned about
measurements. The results showed that the biofuel blends had no petroleum supply disruptions and see biofuels as a means of reducing
significant impact on SFC, low rotor speed (N1) or high rotor speed the impact of a sharp reduction in petroleum supply. Jet fuel may
(N2), as shown in the Table 02, that follows [22]. represent as much as 40% of the cost of flying a commercial airliner
[9]. Airlines operate in a highly competitive, low-margin market and
Table 02. Engine Test Data
can be expected to use alternative fuels only if they are cost-
competitive with the conventional counterpart. However, the biggest
hurdle for the introduction of biojet fuel in commercial flights is the
price gap between fossil jet fuel and Jet A-1, which is currently 2-4
times19, limited volumes available, as well as little incentives for
biofuel producers to scale-up the production due to the small demand
by carriers. Drop-in fuels are the only current candidates for aviation,
as any perceived production cost advantages of non-drop-in fuels do
not stack up against costly incompatibilities with the current
equipment and infrastructure [24]. Biojet fuels do not necessarily
need to be competitive on their own in the short term, since there are
policies in place that give incentives to produce and use alternative
aviation fuels [15]. While there is considerable uncertainty about the
future price of conventional jet fuel, prices are generally expected to
Source: [22] increase in the coming decades, due to increased global demand for
crude oil, although in the short term, prices have been historically
Regarding emissions, tests showed that the Amyris Farnesane 20% low. The Figure 17, that follows, shows jet fuel projections, which
blend had no impact on UHC, CO, or NOx emissions. Any variation are driven primarily by crude oil prices, and are projected to increase
shown is within expected test scatter. Jet A-1 and 20%/80% Amyris quickly. By 2040, the jet fuel price paid by airlines is projected to be
Farnesane/Jet A-1have similar aromatic content, which explains that 40% higher than the price in 2014, in real terms, and 123% higher in
SAE Smoke Number are considered similar [22]. nominal terms [9].

Figure 17. Jet Fuel Price Projections from U. S. Federal Aviation

Administration (FAA) and Annual Energy Outlook (AEO).
Reproduced from [3]

Public data on biojet fuel prices are scarce, but early indications show
a premium over biojet fuel. This difference is expected to be reduced
through a variety of mechanisms, including technological innovation
and scale production effect. Beyond supporting measures, a key to
Figure 16. Engine Emissions Jet A-1 and DSHC 20% Blend. the deployment of alternative fuels in aviation is to bring costs on par
Reproduced from [22]

19
Lokesh K. [23] reports that biojet fuels burn relatively cooler (lower Beside the high cost of feedstock, biofuel production process as well as the
combustion flame temperatures) and deliver the same level of supply chain (segregated with extensive quality control) is still more complex
thermodynamic performance similar to Jet-A1. This combustion than with fossil jet fuel and this adds to the costs [25].

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with fossil fuels, which requires efficiency improvements and Worldwide Biojet Fuel Activities/Case Studies
reduced costs of both conversion processes and feedstock production
[15], further support and investments in research and development, as
Biojet technology and deployment has been steadly progressing into
well as the demonstration and scale-up of technologies [15]. The
the recent years. Biofuel test flights are intended to mature the biojet
biggest challenge lies in ensuring a steady, reliable, cost-effective and
fuel production technology and to show producers there is demand
sustainable supply of biojet fuel. The ledgling aviation biofuels
for biofuel, as well as to mature engine long term effects tests. British
industry will need to catch up and this will require capital from the
Virgin Atlantic has pioneered and was the first airline to use first
investment community and start-up incentives from governments
generation biofuel (made from Brazilian babassu nuts and coconuts
[26]. Regarding policies to stimulate biojet fuel markets,
oil mixed with kerosene in a 20% blend with Jet A1 - Virgin's B747
governments should target the main barriers: costs, demand and
had one of its four engines connected to an independent biofuel tank)
supply [24]. Moreover, climate change policy is supposed to change
in a 2008 technical flight (with pilots and technicians - no
the economics of using conventional Jet A1, through taxation
passengers) between London's Heathrow and Amsterdam, in a
mechanisms, like the addition of a carbon tax in fuel price paid by
partnership with Boeing, General Electric and biofuel manufacturer
airlines, a measure proposed for airlines flying to and from European
[27].
airports, which are supposed to add the cost of carbon dioxide
emission allowances to the cost of buying conventional jet fuel [26].
Airlines or governments (usually on behalf of the military) have In 2011, the German carrier Lufthansa was the world‘s first airline to
entered into supply contracts, based on paying many multiples of the test the use of biofuel in regular operations. As part of the burnFAIR
petroleum jet fuel price, which has created incentives to companies to research project, Lufthansa operated an Airbus A321 (D-AIDG)20
produce biojet fuel. The supply costs for early biojet production have into a six-month trial (June to December 2011) on four times daily
included large added margins related to low scale production, as well Frankfurt-Hamburg scheduled service, into 1,187 flights, using
as the effect of previous and current research and development traditional jet fuel in one engine and 50% blended biofuel using a
(R&D). It is expected that these prices are already beginning to fall combination of jatropha, camelina and animal fats feedstock derived
significantly as competitive sources of commercial volumes of biojet biojet fuel in the other engine (Biokerosene mixture consumption:
come onto the market, partly driven by major allocations of grants 1,557 tons). The main objective of this long-term trial, known as
and research funding [8]. Pure Sky, was to gather experience and study the effect of biofuel on
engine maintenance and engine life, which revealed no differences
compared to traditional oil derived fuel and proved the suitability of
HEFA biojet fuel has historically cost more than fossil-derived jet
biosynthetic kerosene in routine airline operations [27], [29].
fuels. Pricing for advanced biojet fuels based on lignocellulosic
feedstocks is less clear as these technologies are still in the
demonstration phase and not yet commercially available. However,
they are also expected to cost more than fossil fuels. Another
challenge for the aviation sector will be competition with ground
based transportation biofuels, such as biodiesel, for which some
governments have already established policies to encourage
feedstock production and biodiesel use [13].

Lokesh K. [23] reports an economic feasibility analysis which entails

hypothetical biofuel price prediction, which infers that biojet fuels,
Figure 19. Lufthansa A321 Pure Sky Landing. Reproduced from [28]
over a user-defined medium-range mission profile, costs an
additional 95-100% in terms of aircraft Direct Operating Cost (DOC),
relative to that operated with conventional Jet fuel, within short and Regarding exhaust measurements, DLR Institute for Combustion
medium term. According to this study, advanced biofuels are able to Technology scrutinized the pollutants in the exhaust gas from the
exhibit financial competitiveness from 2020 onwards, relative to oil aircraft engines, which revealed similar levels of NOx and CO
based jet fuel only against a backdrop of persistent conventional jet measured in both engines. Airplane powerplants were subjected to
fuel price volatility and severe environmental taxation between the boroscopic tests. Both engines were inspected (borrowed) three times
analysis periods (2020-2075). The Figure 18, that follows, shows that during the test program: i) before the start of the test flights; ii) as an
with the intrusion of stringent emission caps, high levels of aviation interim examination; iii) and after completion of the test flights.
CO2 taxes and incessant increase in conventional jet fuel, a clear Investigations were carried out on the combustion chambers, turbine
demand for biojet fuel is expected to be created, as they become an blades, turbine vanes and the wall of the two stages of the high-
economically feasible choice of fuel from 2030 onwards. pressure turbine, for each of the two engines and revealed no
abnormalities and no discernible differences between the engine
operated with the biojet fuel blend and the conventional kerosene
engine [28]. There were also performed detailed analysis of sediment

20
The Airbus A321 with the designation D-AIDG had been delivered to
Lufthansa just before the start of the test flights. In this way, it was ensured
that engines and fuel-carrying parts on both sides of the aircraft were in the
same state at the start of the pilot test. This was necessary in order to be able
to derive meaningful statements at the end of the pretreatment test from the
comparison of the components which are operated with biokerosine mixture
and the parts operated with conventional kerosene [28].
Figure 18. Estimated Price of Biofuel Pathways [23]
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and changes to the seals of both tanks. No sign of any abnormal

behavior resulting from the use of biofuel was found. Major fuel
bearing parts between tank and engine were dismantled, and parts
and sensors check for sediment and functionality concluded they
were perfectly normal and no deposits were found in the inspection
of both fuel tanks. During the test phase, the routine messages from
the aircraft on the major engine parameters were increased and the
data subjected to additional evaluation. The findings were that the
fuel flow rate of the engine powered by the biofuel was about one
percent lower than that of the engine powered by conventional fuel,
due to the energy density of the biofuel blend be, on average, about Figure 20. KLM B777-200 Biofuel Fueled Take-Off. Reproduced from [25]
one percent higher than that of conventional fuel [29]. Although the
succesful tests' results, the company reported that would not make
Four different batches of sustainable jet fuel blend were used for the
regular use of the biofuel until global production increased to a level
JFK Green Lane program, as shown in the Table 03, that follows, that
that could support routine operations [27].
shows the feedstock and the percentage of neat sustainable jet fuel
each batch [25].
Radich T. [9] also reports that Alaska Airlines, KLM, and United
Airlines launched biojet fuel commercial flights in 2011 to
Table 03. Biojet Fuel Batches for JFK Green Lane Program
demonstrate the fuel integration in regular service. In 2012, it was
accomplished the first airline offtake agreement21. In 2014, the first
volumes of biojet from a commercial biojet plant in Brazil were used
in revenue service and two more offtake agreements were signed.
Also in 2014, the U.S. Department of Defense (DoD) announced the
willingness to purchase biojet blends for general use, whenever
available at competitive prices.

KLM, following a successful biojet test flight in 2009, in 2011

cofounded SkyNRG to supply sustainable jet fuel to itself and other Source: [25]
aircraft operators and undertook a series of transatlantic commercial
flights using SkyNRG biojet fuel [9]. In March 2013, KLM, after In general, sustainable jet fuels made from UCO provide a reduction
demonstration flights followed by several commercial flights, in overall CO2 lifecycle emissions up to 80% compared to fossil
introduced a series of weekly flights for a period of 6 months (26 fuels, while sustainable jet fuels made from Camelina provides a 70%
weeks) from New York to Amsterdam focusing further progress in reduction [25]. The CO2 savings realized are shown in the Figure 21,
developing the biofuel value chain and in promoting the importance that follows.
of a breakthrough for scalable, affordable and sustainable biofuels,
with innovative partnerships (joint project with Schiphol Group,
Delta Air Lines, and the Port Authority of New York) to encourage
multi-hub operations and share expertise next to developing new
markets for sustainable biofuels. The sustainable jet fuel used for the
weekly flights on B777-200 aircraft was 100% U.S.based fuel made22
from used cooking oil (UCO) and camelina oil sourced and supplied
by SkyNRG certified by the Roundtable on Sustainable Biomaterials
23
(RSB) [15]. The 26 flights within the JFK Green Lane Program
were fuelled with a total of 145,000 gallons (app. 430 Mt) of
sustainable jet fuel.
Figure 21. CO2 Savings on JFK Green Lane Program. Adapted from [25]

The costs for the different batches of sustainable jet fuel blends for
the JFK Green Lane program were around 3 – 4 times higher than
fossil jet fuel [25]. In May 2014, KLM launched a series of biofuel
21
A contract between an airline and a biojet producer for biojet supply, in flights to Aruba and Bonaire over a six-month period, operating an
which agreements may be negotiated before the producer invests in capacity Airbus 330-200, with biofuel sourced by ITAKA and supplied by
to produce the fuel. In such cases, the airline agrees to purchase the fuel if it SkyNRG [30].
can be made available within a specified price range at a future date and the
producer can use the agreement to obtain financing for the project on more
favorable terms [9]. In 2012, British Airways committed to purchase biojet fuel from
Solena Fuels over an 11-year period, to begin in 2017. In March
22
Produced and blended by KMTex (Port Arthur, TX) and transported to JFK
2014, Solena selected a former petroleum refinery about 20 miles
by truck [25]. east of London to site for the facility to supply British Airways. The
fuel is to be FT-SPK produced from biomass separated from
23
RSB is an international, multi-stakeholder initiative that brings together municipal solid waste [9], which is a significant problem for London,
farmers, companies, non-governmental organizations, experts, governments where almost half the city’s four million tonnes of municipal waste is
and inter-governmental agencies concerned with ensuring the sustainability of sent to landfill, often transported long distances to the disposal site.
biomass production and processing [15]. As such, the Greater London Authority sees great potential in
recovering energy from waste and the Mayor proposed a zero waste
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to landfill target by 2025 [26]. The proposed technology (Solena’s The Brazilian carrier GOL has been working with the Brazilian
patented plasma technology) is supposed to convert all forms of Biojet Fuel Platform, focused on the target of use biofuel blending in
biomass into clean renewable energy, in which the very high its whole fleet. It has achieved 200 flights with a 4% biofuel mixture
temperatures convert virtually any type of organic material, during the FIFA World Cup, using 92,000 L of HEFA supplied by
including waste (e.g. food waste from households and businesses) UOP. GOL also is committed to use the newly approved Biojet fuel
agricultural and forestry residues, into energy, as shown in the Figure from Amyris/Total. Supported by Boeing and Interamerican
22, that follows. Development Bank (IDB). The first commercial flight with this fuel
was in September 2014 [33], on a 10% blend of Amyris’s
Synthesized Iso-Paraffins (SIP) jet fuel, as well as in some flights
between Sao Paulo (Brazil) and Orlando (United States). It intends to
use the blended SIP fuel in all of its Boeing 737 fleet, with biojet fuel
produced at the Brotas, Brazil facility [9].

Besides reducing greenhouse gas emissions up to 80% on a lifecycle

basis, compared to traditional oil derived jet fuels, Amyris [35]
reports that studies have shown that farnesane reduces particulate
matter emissions by 3% near airports and major metropolitan areas.
This renewable jet fuel, which is made in Brazil from sugarcane, can
be up to 30% more efficient (in a land use basis - liters/hectare)
compared to other renewable fuels and it could become
approximately 70% more efficient than such fuels, when new
technologies, like sugar from cellulosic feedstocks, become
commercially available [35].

Figure 22. London - Solena Schematics Project Schematics. In December 2014, Boeing performed several successful test flights
Reproduced from [26] with a 15% blend of green diesel into the so called 787
ecoDemonstrator plane. Data generated during these flights is being
The technology can convert low value hydrocarbon bearing biomass used to support industry approval of green diesel for commercial
into a renewable biosynthetic gas, with a planned input capacity of aviation [1].
500,000 tonnes of waste per year. Linked to a Fischer-Tropsch unit,
the biosynthetic gas is then converted into biofuels (1,170 barrels of In 2016, it was announced an agreement between Virgin Atlantic and
aviation biofuel and 630 barrels of bionaphtha per day). The plant is Lanzatech Company to launch a project to use jet fuel derived from
supposed to produce 20 MW net of green renewable power, which waste industrial gases from steel mills, via fermentation process. The
can be sold to the local electricity supply grid, with excess steam alcohol to jet (AtJ) fuel has passed all its initial performance tests and
used in a a district heating system, benefiting neighbors.The process initial analyses indicate the new fuel allows a 65% carbon saving,
generates no harmful pollution or toxic ash. The only waste by- compared to conventional jet fuel. The Lanzanol was produced in
product is an inert glass like material, which is an ideal alternative China at the RSB (Roundtable of Sustainable Biomaterials) certified
building aggregate, thus, reducing the reliance on natural sand and Shougang demonstration facility. The innovative AtJ process was
gravel, one of the globe’s natural depleting mineral assets [26]. developed in collaboration with Pacific Northwest National Lab
However, Biofuels Digest [31] reports that the project has been (PNNL) with support from the US Department of Energy (DOE) and
dropped due to Solena's inability to raise the necessary investment to with the help of funding from HSBC. LanzaTech and Virgin Atlantic
build the plant in light of low oil prices, as it needs US$70 per barrel have been working with Boeing and engine manufacturer to complete
oil prices to be competitive at the proposed 16 million gallon facility, the additional testing aircraft and engine, before approving the fuel
but struggled to convince investors amidst US$50 per barrel oil. for first use in a commercial aircraft. Assuming all initial approvals
British Airways is still committed to the project and is searching for a are achieved, the innovative LanzaTech jet fuel could be used in a
new supplier. proving flight in 2017, seeking approval for the use of fuel on routine
commercial flights, which would also help to pave the way to fund
On September 2014, the Lufthansa Group marked another milestone and build their first commercial jet fuel plant, in the UK, to supply
in its pioneering work in alternative fuels testing. The Lufthansa fuel to Virgin Atlantic and other airlines [35].
flight LH 190 from Frankfurt to Berlin Tegel was operated using a
10% blend of the new biofuel component farnesane. This was the In November 2016, Alaska Airlines used a blend of traditional jet
first scheduled flight in Europe to run on this fuel mix, which in April fuel and wood derived biofuel to fly from Seattle to Washington,
of this year received RSB (Roundtable on Sustainable Biomaterials) D.C., the first flight to use a 20 % blend of biofuel made of leftover
Certification. The flight was preceded by a rig test at Lufthansa wood from timber harvests in the Pacific Northwest, through an AtJ
Technik’s facility in Hamburg in autumn 2013 as part of the EU’s pathway. The wood-based fuel was developed by a Colorado-based
“Blending Study” project. The test showed that blending can improve company Gevo, which partnered with the Northwest Advanced
fuel emission characteristics. Farnesan was approved in June 2014 for Renewables Alliance (NARA) to develop the wood waste into
blending with petroleum-based kerosene. Lufthansa is project isobutanol, then converted to jet fuel, and also created the corn waste
coordinator in the “Blending Study” project financed by the biofuel mixture that Alaska Airlines flew with in June. Fuel producer
European Commission. This project analyses the blending behavior reported that the wood used in its process was forest residues, like
of various combinations of conventional kerosene and different types limbs, stumps, and branches leftover from timber harvests in
of biokerosene [32]. managed forests and on private land, which were usually burned. It
was not the first time to use a biofuel mixture, as in June, Alaska
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Airlines also flew two test flights on jet fuel mixed with biofuel made Current ASTM-approved processes for producing biojet fuel are: 1)
from non-edible parts of corn [36]. Fischer-Tropsch (FT) process, also called BtL (biomass to liquid; 2)
Hydroprocessed Esters and Fatty Acids process (HEFA); 3)
24 Hydroprocessed Depolymerised Cellulose to Jet - HDCJ process;
United Airlines announced in 2013 an agreement with AltAir fuels
to purchase up to 5 million gallons of biojet per year starting in 2014 and 4) Alcohol to Jet (AtJ). Some other pathways are well-advanced
and continuing through 2016. In March, 2016, the American carrier in the ASTM certification process. A key aspect of biojet fuel
began using a 30% biojet fuel blend [10] for regular scheduled flights production is the hydrogen H2 requirement to upgrade oxygen-rich
between Los Angeles and San Francisco. carbohydrate, lignin or lipid feedstocks, to hydrogen rich
hydrocarbons (functionally equivalent to petroleum-derived jet fuel).
The H2 requirement is nearly related to the ease of processing (the
simplest processes need the least H2 amount). A major concern
associated with biojet fuel is the availability and quality of feedstock,
as there is a limited range of feedstocks that meet the requirements to
produce the physical and chemical characteristics of jet fuel. There is
an effort to focus on non edible crops and avoid biomass competition
for use among heat, electricity and chemical inputs. Biojet fuel can
contribute to significant reduction of aviation-related GHG
emissions, provided the right feedstock and conversion technology
are used. Engines test data has shown slight reductions in fuel burn
(up to 1.07%) for engines running on biojet fuel blend, consistent
with the higher energy density per unit mass of the fuel blend (up to
Figure 23. United Biojet Fuel Regular Flight Los Angeles - San Francisco. 1.08%). For the test flights on different aircrafts, detailed analysis of
Reproduced from [15] engine parameters, have no detected any operational drawback and
potential engine deterioration. Biojet fuel has also been reported to
As of May 2017, scientific community awaits for public available show the reduction of NOx and soot particulate emissions, fuel burn.
data about performance with this biojet fuel experience. CO and unburned HC were reported to be increased, due to the
influence of flame temperature and fuel spray quality.
Summary/Conclusions
Airlines operate in a highly competitive, low-margin market and can
Aviation industry currently holds a share of 2% global greenhouse be expected to use alternative fuels only if they are cost competitive
gas – GHG emissions and there is a commitment to reduce this in with the conventional fuel counterpart. However, the biggest hurdle
50%, based on 2005 levels, a scenario in which biofuels have an for the introduction of biojet fuel in commercial flights is the price
important role. From a strategic and economic standpoint, a biojet gap between fossil jet fuel and Jet A-1, as well as limited biofuel
fuel strategy can reduce the dependency of the aviation industry on volumes available. While there is considerable uncertainty about the
one single energy source, avoiding the volatility of petroleum prices, future price of conventional jet fuel, prices are expected to increase in
and potentially reducing GHG emissions. Biojet fuel is also favored the coming decades, due to increased global demand for crude oil,
because there is no foreseeable new technology into the medium term although, in the short term, prices have been historically low. This
to power flight beyond hydrocarbon fuels, due to liquid fuel density, difference is expected to be reduced through a variety of
as well as hauling and physical constraints of airplane design and mechanisms, including technological innovation and scale production
performance. Moreover, the concentration of demand at major airport effect. Beyond supporting measures, a key to the deployment of
hubs facilitates logistic distribution issues. The industry is focused on alternative fuels in aviation is to bring costs on par with fossil fuels,
the so called drop-in aviation biofuel, which allows direct blending which requires efficiency improvements and reduced costs of both
with oil derived jet fuel and used without any change to airplanes, conversion processes and feedstock production. The biggest
engines or fueling infrastructure. Currently there is a research effort challenge lies in ensuring a steady, reliable, cost-effective and
to develop sustainable feedstocks and approve fuel pathways to sustainable supply of biojet fuel. Regarding policies to stimulate
expand the biofuel supply focused on the identification of biomass biojet fuel markets, governments should target the main barriers:
sources that can be grown, harvested and processed sustainably and costs, demand and supply. Moreover, climate change policy is
at a competitive price with fossil-based fuels, rather electing a unique supposed to change the economics of using conventional Jet A1,
feedstock, allied with initiatives to develop commercially sustainable through taxation mechanisms, like the addition of a carbon tax in fuel
long-lasting renewable jet fuels with affordable costs. Biojet fuel price. The supply costs for early biojet production have included
produced by current refinery processes does not contain enough large added margins related to low scale production, as well as the
aromatic compounds, which accounts for up to 25% of fossil jet fuel effect of previous and current research and development (R&D). It is
by volume, and are required for lubrication and sealing. This requires expected that these prices are already beginning to fall significantly
the use of blends of up to 50%. Biojet fuel must be certified by a as competitive sources of commercial volumes of biojet come onto
representative industry body before operating commercial flights. the market. Biofuel test flights are intended to mature the biojet fuel
production technology, to show producers there is demand for
biofuel, to mature engine long term effects tests, to drive further
progress in developing the biofuel value chain, and in promoting the
24
AltAir retrofitted the iddled capacity of a former oil refinery in Los Angeles
importance of a breakthrough for scalable, affordable and sustainable
to produce 30 million gallons per year of biojet fuel and renewable diesel [9]. biofuels, with innovative partnerships. Some carriers have tested
The refinery is located outside of Los Angeles and will convert non-edible biojet fuels in regular operations (followed by airlines x biofuel
natural oils and agricultural wastes into low-carbon, advanced biofuels and producers offtake agreement) with a promising scenario for the
chemicals [15]. medium and long term.

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Contact Information ITT: Inter Turbine Temperature;

Fábio Coelho Barbosa is a Mechanical Engineer/MSc Transport. The LII: laser Induced Incandescence ;
author is a Transport Researcher and Consultant. Contact:
[email protected] LTJ: Lignin to jet;

LTO: Landing and Take-off;

Acknowledgments
MSW: Municipal Solid Waste;
I would like to thank Mr. Kadambari Lokesh (University of
York/U.K.) and Mr. Bobby Sethi (Cranfield University/U.K.), for
helping the clarification of important technical concepts. PNNL: Pacific Northwest National Lab;

RJF: Renwable Jet Fuel;

Definitions/Abbreviations
SAF: Sustainable Aviation Fuel;
ACJ: Alcohol to jet;
sfc: Specific Fuel Consumption;
APR: Aqueous phase reforming;
SIP: Synthesized Iso-Paraffinic;
ASTM: American Society for Testing Materials;
SPK: Synthetic Paraffinic Kerosene;
ATJ: Alcohol oligomerisation to jet fuel;
TTI: Time to Idle;
BTJ: Biomass to liquids;
TTL: Time to Light;
BTL: Biomass to Liquid;
UCO: Used Cooking Oil;
CAAFI: Commercial Aviation Alternative Fuels Initiative;
UK: United Kingdom;
CO: Carbon Monoxide;
WtWa: Well to Wake;
DCN: Derived Cetane Number;

DOC: Direct Operating costs;

EIA: Energy Information Administration;

EPR: Engine Pressure Ratio;

FRL: Fuel Readniness Level;

FT- SPK: Fischer-Tropsch Synthetic Paraffinic Kerosene ;

FT: Fischer-Tropsch;

FTJ: Fermentation to jet;

GHG: Greenhouse Gas Emissions;

HDCJ: Hydro-Processed Depolymerised Cellulose to Jet;

HDCJ: Hydroprocessed Depolymerised Cellulose to Jet;

HEFA: Hydro-processed esters and fatty acids

ICAO: International Civil Aviation Organization;

IDB: Interamerican Development Bank;

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