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A Database is a collection of data in a standardized format, designed to be shared by the

multiple users. A Data Base Management System is software that defines a database, stores the
data, supports the query language, produces reports and creates data entry screens.
The set of facilities and collection of various instructions or commands regarding the
definition, maintenance and control over the database is said to be DBMS.

Advantages of DBMS All Data

Approach: -
DBMS provides solution to the DBMS
basic data storage and retrieval problems.
Using DBMS, programmers can Queries
concentrate on application development and
Program 1 Program 2
saving time and money in developing new Reports
systems and simplifying maintenance of
existing applications.
DBMS focuses of data. First define the data. Then all queries, reports and programs access
the data through the DBMS. It always handles common problems such as concurrency and
security.

Explicit Advantage set of DBMS are as follows

o Minimal Data Redundancy – It decreases the rate of Data repetition
o Data Consistency – The existence and availability of data is predictable
o Integration of Data – The correlation of data and their relationship is maintained
o Sharing of Data – It is of multi-user concept making available of data to all
o Ease of Application Development – The task relating data’s are taken care by DBMS
o Uniform security, privacy and Integrity – maintained by the DBMS is its importance
o Data Independence – Separation of data definition from the program.

Components of a DBMS: -
DBMS is evaluated based on the various components that are commonly provided along
with the package. These form the evaluating factors between the different available DBMS which
has their own strengths and weakness. They are as follows:
1. Database Engine: It is the heart of the DBMS. It is responsible for storing, retrieving, and
updating the data. It is the one that affects the performance (speed) and the ability to handle
large problems (Scalability). Other components rely on the engine to do their functions.
Example: Microsoft access “jet engine”
2. Data Dictionary: It holds the definitions of all of the data tables. It describes the type of data
that is being stored, allows the DBMS to keep track of the data and helps the developers &
users find them on need. Eg: Msysobjects of MS – Access, sys.dba_tables of Oracle holds data
about the tables in the database
3. Query Processor: It is one of the fundamental components that enable developers & users to
store and retrieve data effectively. DBMS refers to data dictionary to create a query. On
executing, DBMS query processor works with the database engine to find the appropriate data.
4. Report writer: It enables to set up the report on the screen to specify how items will be
displayed or calculated. It can also be standalone application assisting the formation of reports.
5. Forms Generator: It helps the developer create input forms. They can include the graphs and
images. It also provides support for traditional, 3GL to access the database. It enables the
developers to build forms by dragging and dropping items on the screen like report writer.

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6. Application Generator: It
helps build a complete
All Data
application with menus &
help files. It is a collection of
forms and reports designed Database engine
for the specific user task. It Data dictionary 3GL
Communication Connector
consists of tools that assist the Security
Network
developer in creating a Query Processor
complete application package.
Form Report Program
7. Communication &
Builder writer
Integration: Communication
Application Generator
& Integration utilities
designed to store and use data in several databases running on different machines, even if they
are in different locations. 3GL connector provides utilities that connect traditional languages
with the database engine.
8. Security & Other Utilities: As a database is shared, DBMS must also be responsible for
establishing and maintaining security access controls. Individuals or group of users can be
granted specific privileges and how their actions can be restricted to specific areas of the
database.

History of DBMS: -
1. Hierarchical Databases: It claims that business data often exhibits a hierarchical relationship
and is relatively fast as long as access the data from the top.
2. Network Databases: It is the network of connection between the data elements. The primary
goal of network model was to searching for data from different perspectives
3. Relational Databases: Data is stored in separate sets of data. The tables are not physically
connected instead, data is linked between columns.
Three elements came together to make the relational database the predominant
method for storing data. First, theoreticians defined the basic concepts and illustrated the
advantages. Second, programmers who built DBMS s/w created efficient components. Third,
h/w performance improved to handle the increased demands of the system.
4. Object – Oriented Databases: The goal is to define objects that can be reused in many
programs – thus saving time and reducing errors.

Feasibility Study: -
The goal of a feasibility study is to determine whether a proposed project is worth pursuing.
The study examines two fundamental categories: Costs and potential benefits.
Costs Benefits
Up – Front / One – Time Costs Costs Savings
o Software o S/w Maintenance
o Hardware o Fewer errors
o Communications o Less data maintenance
o Data conversion o Less user training
o Studies and design Increased Value
o Training o Better access to data
On – Going costs o Better decisions
o Personnel o More timely reports
o Software upgrades o Faster reaction to change
o Supplies o New products and services
o Support Strategic Advantages
o S/w & H/w maintenance o Lock out competitors
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Class Diagrams: -
A model is a simplified abstraction of real–world system. Conceptual models are based on user
–views of the system. Implementation models are based on the conceptual models and describe
how the data are stored. Three common types of models are used to design systems.
1. Process model: These are displayed with a collaboration diagram or DFD. It is explained in
detail in systems analysis courses and are used to redesign the flow of information within an
organization.
2. Class or Object model: These are ER diagrams used to show 10 entities or objects in system.
3. Event model: These shows how the message are passed between various objects

Database Design: -
1. Identify the exact goals for the system
2. Talk with the users to identify the basic forms and reports
3. Identify the data items to be stored
4. Design the classes (tables) and relationships
5. Identify any business constraints
6. Verify the design matches the business rules

Communicating with users is a critical step where most important aspect is to identify
i. Exactly what data to collect
ii. How the various pieces of data re related
iii. How long each item needs to be stored in the database

Identifying user requirements: Here we need to gather 3 basic pieces of information are
(1) The data that needs to be collected,
(2) The data type (domain) and
(3) The amount of data involved.

Designing systems with UML: -

There are different primary types of the UML diagrams as mentioned below
 Class diagram: Shows the static model of things that exist and their relationships
 Use Case Diagram: shows how actors will user the functionality of the system
 Sequence Diagram: Represents an interaction or set of messages exchanged among
objects. Specifically shows interaction over time
 Collaboration Diagram: Shows the interaction and links among objects. Does not show
time as separate dimension. It is a process diagram
 Statechart diagram: Shows the sequence of states that an object goes through during its
lifetime in response to stimuli
 Implementation diagram: shows the structure of the code of the run – time modules.
The class diagram is the most important for the database design where others are used to
find the flow of the data over the programs and process.

Some basic definitions regarding the Class Diagrams

o Entity: Something in the real world that you wish to describe or track
o Class: description of an entity that includes its attributes (properties) and behavior (methods)
o Object: one instance of a class with specific data
o Property: A characteristic or descriptor of a class or entity
o Method: A function that is performed by the class
o Association: A relationship between two or more classes
In general there are three types of relationships occur among entities such as
one–to–one, one–to–many, many–to–many.
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When more than two classes are related, it is called an n–array association as follows:
Entity 1 1 1
Entity 2 1 *
Entity 3 * *
Entity 4

Employee

Component Product

Assembly
Aggregation Association is a collection form one to one component where one
component formed from different components is composition association. Generalization
association is the common component found from the various sub set of components.

Data types: -
The following table shows common data types and their variations I three database systems.
The text types in SQL server and oracle beginning with an N hold Unicode character sets,
particularly useful for non–Latin–based languages.
Access SQL Server Oracle
Text
Fixed Char, nchar CHAR
Variable Text Varchar, nvarchar VARCHAR2, NVARCHAR2
Memo Memo Text, ntext LONG
Number
Byte (8 bits) Byte Tiny int INTEGER
Integer (16 bits) Integer Smallint INTEGER
Long (32 bits) Long Int INTEGER
(64 bits) NA Bigint NUMBER(127,0)
Fixed precision NA Decimal(p,s) NUMBER(p, s)
Float Float Real NUMBER, FLOAT
Double Double Float NUMBER
Currency Currency Money NUMBER(38,4)
Yes / No Yes/no Bit INTEGER

Date / Time Date / Time Datetime DATE

Smalldatetime
Image OLE object Image LONG, RAW,BLOB
Auto Number Auto number Identity SEQUENCES
Rowguidcol ROWID
A relatively new domain is a separate category for objects or binary large objects is BLOB.
It enables to store any type of objects created by the computer.

Events: -
Events are another important component of modern database systems. Three basic types of
events occur in a database environment
1. Business events that trigger some function, such as a sale triggering a reduction in inventory
2. Data changes that signal some alert, such s an inventory that drops below a preset level,
which triggers a new purchase order
3. User interface events that trigger some action, such as a user clicking on an icon to send a
purchase order to a supplier

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Data Normalization: -
A relational database is a collection of carefully defined tables. A table is a collection of
columns (attributes) that describe an entity. Individual objects are stored as rows (tuples)
within the table. Two important aspects to a relational database are that
(1) All data must be stored in tables and
(2) All tables must be carefully defined to provide flexibility and minimize problems
o Data normalization is the process of defining tables properly to provide flexibility, minimize
redundancy, and ensure data integrity. The goal of database design and normalization is to
produce a list of nicely behaved tables.
o The primary key is a column or set of column that identifies a particular row.
o Table using more than one column as part of primary key is called composite keys (or
concatenated keys). It’s needed in table containing 1–to–many or many–to–many
relationships.
o Surrogate keys are used only within the database and are often hidden so users do not even
know that they exist over the database.
o The normalization pattern is been implemented in tables in order to get the following
advantages such as 1. Save space, 2. minimize duplication, 3. Protecting the data to
ensure its consistency , 4. Provide fast transaction by sending less data
o First Normal Form (1NF): The repeating sections in a table is put them into a separate table.
When a table has no repeating groups, it is said to be in 1NF. That is, for each cell in a table
(one row and one column) , there can be only one value. This value should be atomic in the
sense that it cannot be decomposed into smaller pieces.

Second Normal Form (2NF): Each non-key column must depend on the entire key. IT is only an
issue with concatenated keys. The solution is to split off the parts that depend on only part of the
key. The key here consists of the PART and WAREHOUSE fields together, but
WAREHOUSE-ADDRESS is a fact about the WAREHOUSE alone. The basic problems
with this design are:The warehouse address is repeated in every record that refers to a
part stored in that warehouse./If the address of the warehouse changes, every record
referring to a part stored in that warehouse must be updated./Because of the redundancy,
the data might become inconsistent, with different records showing different addresses
for the same warehouse./If at some point in time there are no parts stored in the
warehouse, there may be no record in which to keep the warehouse's address./

Third Normal Form (3NF): To be in a 3NF a table must already be in 2NF and every nonkey
column must depend on nothing but the key. There are no repeating groups within a table, and each
nonkey column depends on a whole key and nothing but the key. The EMPLOYEE field is the
key. If each department is located in one place, then the LOCATION field is a fact about
the DEPARTMENT -- in addition to being a fact about the EMPLOYEE. The problems
with this design are the same as those caused by violations of second normal form:The
department's location is repeated in the record of every employee assigned to that
department./If the location of the department changes, every such record must be
updated./Because of the redundancy, the data might become inconsistent, with different
records showing different locations for the same department./If a department has no
employees, there may be no record in which to keep the department's location./

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o Boyce–Codd Normal Form (BCNF): Here, we have explicitly recorded the hidden
relationship – so we no longer need to worry about losing important relationships when we
delete rows.
o Fourth Normal form (4NF): 4NF problems arise when there are two binary relationships, but
the modeler attempts to show them as one combined relationship.
o DKNF: It describes ultimate goal in designing of a database. Splitting the tables makes the
primary keys unique. The previously hidden relationship between major and discipline is made
explicit through a foreign key constraint. For a table in DKNF, it must be in 3NF and 4NF.

Data Integrity: -
In general four different types of constraints are faced in the data integrity
1. The first one is nothing but the field must be greater or lesser than the specificity.
2. A second type of constraint is to choose data form a set of predefined options.
3. A third type of data integrity is a bit more complicated but crucial in a relational database.
4. A referential integrity exists when a value for a foreign key can be entered only if the
corresponding value already exists in the originating table.

Converting class diagram to Normalized Tables: -

Each normalized table represents a business entity or class. Hence a class diagram can be
converted into a list of normalized tables. Likewise, a list of normalized tables can be drawn as a
class diagram. The first action is identifying the various relationships in the given in the class
diagram and their respective pattern of converting.
The important rule here is that relationships are handled by placing a common column in each
of the related tables. This column is usually a key column in one of the tables.
o One–to–many Relationships: Add the primary key from the one – side into the many side
table.
o Many–to–many relationships: Use a new intermediate table to link the two tables.
o N–ary Associations: As long as the binary associations are one–to–many, each column in the
assembly class will be part of the primary key.
o Generalization or sub–types: Create new tables for each sub type. Use the same key in the new
tables and in the generic table. Add attributes specific to each of the subtypes.
o Composition: In normalizing, first decide how to handle the subclasses. Second, handle the
composition by storing the appropriate component keys values into main table.
o Recursive Associations: The new table would probably have additional data to describe the
relationship between the two categories. Here an entity can be linked to itself.

Data Dictionary: -
o A data dictionary or data repository consists of metadata, which is data that describes the data
stored in the database. It typically lists all of tables, columns, data domains and assumptions
o Computer Aided Software Engineering (CASE) tools help with software design. One of their
strengths is the ability to create, store and search a comprehensive data dictionary.
o DBMS Table Definition: In case of MS – Access, Note the primary key indicator and text size
limits and numeric subtypes are defined the list at the bottom of the form on creating table.
In Oracle Schema manager for creating tables, Primary and foreign keys are set in the
constraints tab. For primary key, it is must to check that the values cannot be null.
In MS SQL server form for creating tables, the similarity to MS Access design from
exists but the relationships and constraints are specified on the properties form.
o Data Volume and Size: First estimate the size of each row and then estimate the number of
rows in the table. If there is a concatenated key, we will usually multiply an average value
times the number of rows in a prior table.

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