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Principles of Personnel Administration

Subject: PRINCIPLES OF PERSONAL ADMINISTRATION Credits: 4

SYLLABUS

Personnel Administration

Characteristics of Public Personnel Administration in India, Functions and Significance of Personnel

Administration, Public Services and their Role in Administrative System Concept, Nature and Scope of
Personnel Administration

Civil Services in India

Classification of Services (Cadres), Generalists and Specialists, Development of Public Services in India
Bases of Bureaucracy, Civil Service in the Context of Modern Bureaucracy

Personnel Agencies

Career Planning and Development, Administrative Tribunals, Central and State Training Institutes
Personnel/UPSC/SPSC/SSC

Personnel Management Policies & Practices

Training, Performance Appraisal, Promotion, Recruitment (Reservation in Services), Personnel Policy

Working Conditions, Conditions of Service

Salary Administration (Including Incentives & Other Benefits), Administrative Ethics and Integrity in Civil
Services, Conduct and Discipline

Employer- Employee Relations

Motivation and morale, Employee unions, Rights of public servants, Joint consultative machinery

Suggested Readings:

1. N. Joseph Cayer, Public Personnel Administration, Wadsworth Publishing Company

2. Jacobus Johannes Nicolaas Cloete, Personnel Administration
3. Norma M. Riccucci, Public Personnel Administration and Labor Relations, M.E. Sharpe
 CHAPTER 1
PERSONNEL ADMINISTRATION

STRUCTURE
Learning objectives
Characteristics of public personnel administration in India
Functions and significance of personnel administration
Public services and their role in administrative system
Concept, nature and scope of personnel administration
Review questions

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit you should be able to:
Discuss the several features of public personnel administration in
India;
Discuss the several functions of personnel administration viz.
Manpower; planning, recruitment, training, promotion, salary
structuring and employees' welfare;
Discuss the meaning and importance of public services;
Highlight the scope and functions of public services;
Explain the concept of personnel administration; and
Discuss the scope of personnel administration.

CHARACTERISTICS OF PUBLIC PERSONNEL

ADMINISTRATION IN INDIA

FEATURES OF PUBLIC PERSONNEL ADMINISTRATION IN INDIA

Public personnel administration in India comprises the public services of

the country. Through now you necessity is familiar with the meaning and
scope of public services in India, their role in the administrative system
necessity has also become clear. The public personnel administration has sure
features which are dissimilar from the private administration in several ways.
Public personnel administration has to cater to the needs of larger number of
people and is engaged with the supply of varied services. Public personnel
administration does not exist in a vacuum. It is the product of vital public
policy, it operates under public scrutiny, it mirrors general social and
economic circumstances, and it has a continuous impact upon the general
welfare. The government is dependent on the public personnel system for the
implementation of its programmes, without proper utilization of human
services, no policy, programme or rule can be made successful.

Present Public Personnel Administration is a Legacy of the Past

The bureaucracy in India, especially the top bureaucracy is a spillover of
British rule. The East India Company promoted a service structure for meeting
their commercial and trading interests. In 1858 when the British Government
took over the reigns of administration in India, the political consolidation of
the country and use of the country‟s possessions to serve its own interests
became its aims. This described for minimum economic, social, and
developmental activities but maximum administrative stranglehold. The
superior civil services that are the higher civil services were manned through
either British or Indians recruited from higher economic and feudal strata of
society. The lower subordinate stages comprised only the Indians. The whole
system was an excellent instance of high and low, top and bottom, master and
servant.

The preponderant features of public personnel system were:

It was „elitist‟, exclusive in outlook and approach
It displayed despotism in action and behaviour
It maintained safe and wide aloofness from the people
It developed structural rigidity and functional frigidity
It was too hierarchic and precedent adherent
It had no human relations orientation
It had feudalist, and separatist attitude and temper
It had no welfare or development motivation.

India became independent in 1947, but could not develop or structure a

novel public personnel system. Our Independence was accompanied through
painful partition of the country, communal riots, and massive migration of
displaced persons and influx of refugees. Moreover we had to tackle with the
complicated troubles of integration of states, depletion of administrative
personnel due to voluntary retirement of British ICS officers and transfer of
Muslim ICS officers to Pakistan. If the health of the economy was bad on
account of the after effects of the Second World War and partition, the
condition of administration, particularly personnel administration was worse.
The vital administrative structure remained the same. There were gaps in the
cadre; experienced senior stage officers were very few in number and
competent personnel were just not accessible.

With the adoption of the Constitution in 1950 and commencement of our

first five Year Plan, lot of pressure came to be laid on the personnel system.
The elitist hierarchic authoritarian and rigid administration now had to be
revamped in order to meet the Constitutional objectives of liberty, equality,
fraternity, and justice. Our plan objectives viz. economic development,
industrialization, modernization, and social justice put the administration
under considerable strain, the administration had to be converted into a
development, and welfare oriented administration. We can say that after
Independence, two vital changes took place which greatly affected the role of
civil service. First, with the adoption of the system of parliamentary
democracy, the civil service became accountable to the political executive.
Secondly, civil service became an instrument of development.

Personnel system, for that matter any system necessity have a purpose
which has to be related to the objectives of the organization. In the case of
public personnel administration in India, its vital aim is the facilitation and
fulfillment of the goals of government. This is the rationale for creating the
government services; this is the justification for their subsistence. Once the
goals have been formulated, the public personnel system necessity rise to
implement the programmes and achieve the qualitative and quantitative targets
through judiciously harnessing the accessible possessions, keeping two
dimensions in view, time, and cost. For this purpose, public personnel system
is involved with the functions of recruitment, selection, placement, training,
health, safety, performance-rating, promotions, and general welfare of the
employees.

Augment in Development Functions

The extension of social security benefits and an enlarged public aid to
education have become very significant functions of the government. The
government has assumed the larger responsibility of achieving security and
well-being of all citizens. Implementation of these changes is not an easy task.
The skills and experience of public service is required for this purpose. The
public service is an essential social instrument, it bridges the gaps flanked by
legislative content and its fulfillment. Public service can help to establish and
strengthen the minimum circumstances required for economic development. It
is responsible for laying down circumstances for the maintenance of law and
order, development of infrastructural facilities and favorable administrative
structure. The public services through fixing sure general or specific output
objectives play an significant role in modifying the resource structure of the
country. The public services have now taken control of government
undertakings or semi-government bodies.
Rising Number of Public Personnel
Due to the augment in the social and economic functions of the
government, the number of public personnel is rising at a very fast rate. As the
tasks of the government are rising, the need for personnel to perform these
tasks is also rising. A large number of new departments, corporations,
commissions, and boards are now being set up. The Second Pay Commission
had estimated that on April 1, 1948, there were 14, 45,050 employees in the
Central Government. On June 30, 1957, this figure had increased to 17,
73,570. On January 1, 1965, it increased to 22, 64,795. On January 1, 1981, it
further increased to 32, 27,539. This shows that with every new activity of
government that aims at providing new services for the welfare of people, the
number of government employees is constantly rising.

Rising Number of Specialists in Public Services

The concept of Welfare State, augment in the aspirations of people and the
growth of science and technology has brought forth the demand for rising role
of specialists in administration. New specialism, new techniques, new methods
are now being expected from the civil servants. The role of the specialists in
public services has therefore become very crucial and their number in the
services is constantly rising.

Low Rate of Turnover of Employees in Government Service

The rate of turnover of government employees is quite low in India.
According to O Glenn Stahl, the employees leave their jobs for a diversity of
reasons like voluntary resignation, optional retirement, and instances of death
or frequent transfers. In India people accept the government service as a career
and do not resign on their own due to permanency and moderately good
circumstances of service. Reasonable hours of work, good leave entitlements,
provident fund and retirement benefits, and housing and health facilities attract
the people to public services and are even able to retain them. Sound
promotion policy is another factor which encourages public personnel and
fosters a feeling of belongingness in them. In addition, an adequate retirement
and pension system also encourage personnel to continue in service till their
retirement. Therefore the turnover of public personnel is quite low. Mainly
references of turnover are confined to the vacancies occurring due to death,
removal, dismissal, and retirement

Classification of governmental position is a necessity for a career service

based on merit. It enables rational standards or norms to be set up for the
selection of personnel, permits uniformity in the method of describing
dissimilar kinds of jobs, and establishes an alike basis for giving equal status
and equal pay for equal work. There are two well-recognized systems of
classification, one is Rank Classification, and the other is Duties or Position
Classification. India follows the system of rank classification. In India, the
public personnel are classified into „classes‟ as well as „services‟. We have
four classes of service, class 1, class 2, class 3, class 4, these are now
described Group A, B, C and D services, corresponding to differences in the
responsibility of the work performed and the qualifications required.

Another way of classification is into „services‟. Public personnel in India

are directly recruited to dissimilar services e.g. Archaeological Service,
Engineering Service, Post, and Telegraphs Traffic Service etc. Once the public
personnel are recruited to these services, they continue to be the members of
the scrupulous service until they retire or resign. At present public services are
classified into the following classes:
All-India Services
Central Services, Group A, B, C & D
State Services
Specialist Services
Central Secretariat Services, Group A, B, C & D

Rank classification system is very easy to understand and administer, it

promotes mobility through facilitating transfers within the services, it is
flexible in operation, and it opens more career opportunities for individuals.
But this kind of system violates the principle of „equal pay for equal work‟, it
does not describe the contents of any job in detail, it does not explain what is
expected of a post. This system is not conducive to the formulation of
scientific standards on which selection of personnel, training, posting, transfer,
career development, promotion etc. may be organized. The position
classification system prevalent in the USA, Canada, and Philippines etc. has
several advantages over rank classification system prevalent in our country.

Limited Political Rights of Civil Servants

Very limited political rights of the civil servants have been regarded as one
of the essential circumstances to maintain the discipline, integrity, and
political neutrality of the services. To ensure political neutrality of the public
services, the civil servants are denied direct participation in the political
activities. The Government of India‟s Civil Services Conduct Rules for
ensuring neutrality of the service in politics give the following:
Rule 5 of the Central Civil Service (Conduct) Rules, 1964, prohibits
civil servants from taking part in politics. They cannot be members of
any political party or any organization which takes part in politics nor
 can subscribe in aid of or assist in any other matter, any political
movement or activity.
Clause 2 of Rule 5 of the Central Civil Services (Conduct) Rules
requires the civil servants to endeavour to prevent any
member of their family from taking part in, subscribing in aid of, or
assisting in any manner any movement or activity which tends, directly
or indirectly, to be subversive of the government as recognized through
law. In case the civil servant fails to prevent a member of his family
from indulging in any of the aforesaid actions, he has to create a report
to the effect to the government.
Article 326 of the Constitution of India guarantees the right of
franchise to every citizen of India, whose age is 18 years or above and
who does not suffer from other disqualifications. But under the
Conduct Rules the civil servants are not free to provide an indication to
the public of the manner in which they propose to vote or have voted.
Rule 4 of the All India Services (Conduct) Rules, 1954, civil servants
is forbidden to canvass or use their influence in an election to any
legislature or local authority. Civil servants cannot express themselves
on political issues. According to Rule 8 of the Central Civil Services
(Conduct) Rules they are prohibited to communicate any official
document or information to any one whom they are not authorized to
communicate.

Therefore we can conclude that the political rights of the civil servants are
very limited. The higher civil servants necessity is above politics, as they have
to serve the changing governments drawn from dissimilar political parties with
the same vigor and honesty. According to Masterman Committee Report, “the
public interest demands the maintenance of political impartiality in the Civil
Service and confidence in that impartiality is an essential part of the structure
of Government ”. So, it is necessary that political rights of the civil
servants are limited.

Role of Public Service Commission in Public Personnel Administration

The Public Service Commission is an independent statutory body. In India,
the Public Service Commission has been so intended as to function only as an
advisory body. All rights concerning the appointments of personnel are vested
in the Government. The Constitution does not envisage vital role for the
Commission in personnel administration. The Constitution of India gives for a
Union Public Service Commission and for State Public Service Commissions
beside with a Joint Public Service Commission on the request of two or more
state governments. The functions of the Union and State Public Service
Commissions may be summarized as follows:
To advise the Government on matters concerning the method of
 recruitment and principles to be followed in creation appointments to
the civil services either directly or through promotion.
To conduct examinations, written as well as personality tests, for
appointments to the civil services of the respective governments.
To advise the government on matters relating to the suitability of
candidates for promotion and transfer. Recommendations for such
promotions are made through the concerned departments and
Commission is requested to ratify them.
The Commission is consulted on matters relating to temporary
appointments for periods flanked by one to three years, grant of
extension of services and re-employment of sure retired civil servants.
The Commission is also consulted on matters relating to regularization
of appointments, claims for the award of pension, claims for
reimbursement of legal expenses incurred through the Government
servants in defending legal proceedings instituted against them relating
to acts done in the execution of their official duties, claims for pension,
or compensation in respect of injuries sustained on duty.
The Commission is also consulted while creation of an order in any
disciplinary case in the circumstances like, (i) censure; (ii) withholding
of increments or promotions; (iii) reduction to a lower service, grade or
post; (iv) compulsory retirement; and (v) removal or dismissal from
service.
The Commission has to present to the President or the Governor, as the
case may be, its annual report, with its recommendations.

There is a provision that the Parliament and the State legislatures, as the
case may be, may confer additional functions on their respective Public
Service Commissions. Therefore the Public Service Commission is a
recruiting agency with purely advisory role, consulted also in sure disciplinary
and other matters. There are some statutory restrictions on the powers of the
Public Service Commissions. According to an amendment in Article, 320,
which was effected in 1961, it is not necessary for the President to consult the
UPSC in a case where he proposes to create an order for the removal,
dismissal or reduction in rank of a civil servant after he is satisfied that such
action is necessary in the interest of the security of the State..

PUBLIC PERSONNEL ADMINISTRATION IN INDIA: SOME DYS

FUNCTIONALITIES

Over the decades the personnel administrative system in the country has
developed sure functionalities and dysfunctionalities. To create public
personnel system effective, the dysfunctionalities have to be properly
recognized and removed. The Conference on Personnel Administration held in
1968 under the auspices of Indian Institute of Public Administration, New
Delhi, lay that “the existing personnel system did not meet the necessities of a
desirable personnel administrative system. The existing system leaned too
heavily on cadres. Our elite are more “status-oriented” rather than
“attainment-oriented”. The cadre system‟s sanction is based on the criterion of
an outdated selection system through means of a purely academic
examination. The necessities i.e. the desirable ingredients of a good and sound
personnel system were recognized as follows, namely:
The best man for the job
Rising professionalization
Competitiveness in selection for higher administrative positions
Placement to be job-oriented and not status trapped
Motivation for better performance
Equal pay for equal work
Objective evaluation of performance
Rational promotion and personnel development system
Appropriate organization of functions of government and appropriate
policies and practices to enable optimum personnel performance.

In a Seminar on “Public Services and Social Responsibility”, organized

through Indian Institute of Advanced Revise in Shimla (October 1973), some
of the feature inadequacies and weaknesses of the public service system in
India were recognized and debated. They were:
Bureaucracy, especially its higher echelons, has acquired a class
character. In operation, its instrumental role is often
subordinated, and it emerges as an end in itself.
The gap flanked by the administration and the citizen is widening.
Though unpalatable, it is, nevertheless, true that bureaucracy has been
somewhat insensitive to the needs of the latter and has lost credibility.
The public services are immobilized through their size. Today
bureaucracy has become a slow-moving and dull-witted giant.
There are contradictions and incompatibilities at dissimilar stages of
bureaucracy.
Frequent confrontations flanked by these stages paralyze the whole
machine.
The public services have become a prisoner of their own procedures
and precedents. Negative thinking appears to prevail. This leads to
inaction rationalized in several ways....
The public services are becoming increasingly inadequate in taking up
the new tasks and challenges. Even in the maintenance of law and
order, bureaucracy often finds itself ineffective. In the economic field,
its performance has usually been poor. It has rarely been able to take a
dynamic view of the emerging troubles. It tries to cure today‟s ill with
 yesterday‟s remedies, quite often these do not work.
The generalist tradition still prevails, on the contrary, need of the day is
specialization. Little attention appears to be given to evolving
structures for specialized roles to meet the challenges of the emerging
constellation of social needs.
In the general area of policy creation, the public services have not
given a convincing account of themselves; they act through hunches
and intuition rather than trained insights.

In its Report on Personnel Administration, the Administrative Reforms

Commission (ARC) (1968) while emphasizing the need for a new personnel
system dealt with several characteristics of personnel system in Central
Government and highlighted its shortcomings. The first of these shortcomings,
according to ARC, relates to professional inadequacy of the system to face the
great diversification of the functions which calls for a diversity of skills in the
higher administration. Secondly, ARC diagnosed that the “tenure system”
through which non-professional and non committed „birds of passage‟ are
brought temporarily, impeded “structure up new expertise in personnel‟.‟
Thirdly, it laid that “generalist” which has been the hallmark of Indian
personnel system has lost "its validity in many fields and is declining in
importance” as an inevitable consequence of rapidly “rising technological
sophistication” in administration. Fourthly, it would be in public interest to
cast the net wide and choose the best material in an effort to match jobs with
the persons possessing needed qualification. In the prevalent system, man job
match is not ideal, nor is it consciously practiced, in view of the application of
“cadre” concept. Fifthly, in the policy advice and managerial decisions where
specialist—professionals are not expected “to involve themselves directly” the
whole procedure is amateurish, frustrating and time consuming. Sixthly, there
is irrationality in the “remuneration pattern of the dissimilar services” which
does not “give for recognition of merit, adequate opportunities for promotion
and continuous incentive for good performance.” Eighthly, “adherence to
seniority has proved damaging to quality.” Finally “the present personnel
system does not create for a rational and optimum utilization of human
possessions.”

EVOLVING AN EFFICIENT PUBLIC PERSONNEL SYSTEM

The public personnel system has to perform several vital tasks, human
element is the mainly crucial part of any system, and it has to be adequately
utilized. Several dysfunctionalities that have developed in the public services
over the decades are posing a lot of hurdles in the pursuance of administrative
objectives. The troubles like the rising gap flanked by the administration and
citizens, the immobility of public services, red-tapist, obsolete methods of
operation etc. have to be tackled properly. In order to evolve an efficient
public personnel system a much more closer interaction is described for
flanked by the public servants and the citizens. The concept of isolation of
civil servants from the public has to be done absent with. Constant interaction
flanked by the public personnel and government can also solve the difficulties
to a great extent, a positive and cordial relationship flanked by the minister
and the public servant is needed. According to H. Finer, “Though adequately
organized the political side of the government, though wise the political
philosophy, high leadership and command, these will be of no effect without
the body of officials who are experts in applying power and wisdom to the
scrupulous cases and are permanently and specially employed to do so.”

There is a need for citizen‟s participation in administrative processes.

Citizens should not just be the recipients of the fruits of the implemented
programmes, they necessity actively take part in the formulation,
implementation and monitoring of plans as well. Role of voluntary agencies,
planning bodies at the grassroots stage and panchayat bodies has become very
significant. These bodies necessity aim at optimal utilization of human
possessions. Media can also play an effective role in removing the
dysfunctionalities of public personnel administer It can highlight the methods
adopted through administration in removal of citizens grievances. It can draw
the attention of people to the difficulties faced through citizens in their
interaction with the administrative personnel and the ways or methods through
which they can voice them. Media can highlight the role of nongovernmental
organizations and cooperatives in rising people‟s participation in
administration.

FUNCTIONS AND SIGNIFICANCE OF PERSONNEL

ADMINISTRATION

MANPOWER PLANNING

Before the formal procedure of selection of personnel begins, an

organization has to create an assessment of its necessities in conditions of
number of personnel needed for a job, definition of a job, the skills, and
specialization it entails the duration for which personnel are required, nature of
work etc. Manpower planning is engaged with these kind of activities.
Organizations whether large or small, whether public or private, are in
constant need of manpower. They require men and women for dissimilar
stages of positions for performing dissimilar types of jobs at dissimilar places
and intervals. The number of personnel with defined skills and specializations
needed at dissimilar periodic intervals has to be forecasted. Manpower
planning predicts the number of personnel an organization will have to hire,
train, or promote in a given period.

Manpower planning creates long range estimates of the general and

specific manpower needs of the organization for dissimilar activities. Through
anticipating the need for several kinds of ability necessities and stages of
personnel, well in advance, a manpower plan is able to provide adequate lead
time for recruitment, selection, and training of such personnel. It controls
delays and is a very effective device to develop the required sources from
which needed personnel can be made accessible. The objectives of manpower
planning are:
To ensure optimum use of human possessions currently employed
To assess or forecast future skills necessities if the organization‟s
overall objectives are to be achieved
To give control measures to ensure that necessary possessions, are
accessible as and when required
To determine recruitment stage
To anticipate the weaknesses of organizational procedures and avoid
unnecessary dismissals.
To determine training stages
To give a basis for management
To assess future accommodation necessities.

At the stage of manpower planning, planners have to take into

consideration several things. The planner necessity takes into account all such
variables which are beyond his/her control, these are wavering variables which
always affect the functioning of an organization, for instance strength of an
organization, investment, union rules etc. The planners also have to identify
those variables which are manipulative, for instance, productivity, incentives,
training etc. the planners necessity determine in advance the time horizons of
their plans since they affect the changeability of structures and functions
within the system.

Manpower planning can only be effective if goals are explicitly laid down.
Manpower planning has to determine the quality and quantity of personnel
needed for a specific job. The methods used for this purpose are job analysis,
job account, job specification, workload analysis, and work force analysis.
Without effective manpower planning, the other functions of personnel
administration viz. recruitment, placement, training, promotion, welfare of
employees etc. cannot be performed properly.
RECRUITMENT, TRAINING AND PROMOTION

Recruitment
Once the determination of manpower needs has been made, the
recruitment and selection processes can begin. Recruitment is the procedure of
searching for prospective workers and stimulating them to apply for jobs in the
organization. It is a positive function which aims at raising the selection ratio
that is the number of applicants per job opening. In contrast, the selection
procedure is a „negative‟ function because it attempts to eliminate applicants
leaving only the best to be absorbed in the organization. Recruitment
determines the tone and caliber of the services whether public or private. A
faulty recruitment policy inflicts a permanent weakness upon the
administration. Not even an effective training policy can create faultily
recruited persons bright and efficient. The vital elements of a sound
recruitment policy contain:

Discovery and cultivation of the employment market for posts in the

organization
Use of attractive recruitment literature and publicity
Use of scientific tests for determining abilities of the candidates
Tapping capable candidates from within the organization
Placement programme which assigns the right man to the right job; and
A follow-up probationary programme as an integral part of the
recruitment Procedure.

Recruitment implies matching the personnel features of potential

employees with the job necessities. The sources of recruitment can be broadly
classified into two: internal and external. Internal sources refer to the present
working force of an organization. In the event of a vacancy, someone already
on the payroll is promoted, transferred, or sometimes demoted. Filling a
vacancy from internal source has the advantages of raising the general stage of
morale of existing employees and of providing to the organization a more
reliable information about the candidate‟s suitability. The major weakness of
this source is that it may deprive the organization of a fresh outlook,
originality, and initiative. External sources refer to the methods adopted
through the organization to attract people from outside the organization
through a thorough assessment of their qualifications, skills, and potential.
Some of the methods of determining qualifications are the personal judgment
of the appointing officer, certificates of skill, character and education, record
of previous experience (educational and professional) and examinations.
Employment agencies, advertisements, field trips, educational institutions,
professional meetings, employees‟ referrals, unsolicited applicants etc. are
some examples of the external sources of recruitment.
 An organization cannot fill its vacancies from one single source only. It
necessity cautiously combine some of these services, weighing their cost and
flexibility, the quality of personnel they supply and their effect on the present
work force. A planned recruitment programme gives the organization with job
applicants from whom a required number of selections are made. There is no
standard selection procedure for recruitment. Usually the selection is made
through a written test or an interview or both.

The final step in the selection procedure is that of inducting the new
employee into the new social setting of his/her work. This is done through
familiarizing the employee with the new surroundings and the rules and
regulations of the organization. Several training methods are used to upgrade
the skills of the new recruits and integrate their goals with the organizational
goals; we will now discuss some of these methods.

Training
Training is a well-articulated effort to give for increased competence in the
service, through imparting professional knowledge, broader vision, and correct
patterns of behaviour, habits, and aptitudes. It should be a continuous
procedure in response to a continuously felt need. Training helps the entrant
through inculcating occupational ability and knowledge, through creation
him/her familiar with objectives of the organization and his/her potential
contribution in the furtherance of department‟s or organization‟s goals.
Training adjusts the employees with the constant changes in the goals and
techniques of organizations. The deficiencies of the new appointees may be
corrected through imparting them necessary training. Training helps broaden
the vision and outlook of the appointees. It equips those already in the service
for higher positions and greater responsibilities, it enhances the efficiency of
the employees, and helps build integrity and morale of the employees.

The conditions training and education are closely related. Training is the
art of rising the knowledge and ability of an employee for doing a scrupulous
job. It is concerned with imparting specific skills for a scrupulous purpose. On
the other hand education is a broader term; it is concerned with rising general
knowledge and understanding of the employee‟s total environment. The need
for training is universal. Everybody needs training so as to effectively
discharge the obligations of his/her office. It is a continuous procedure.

Training can be informal or formal. Informal training is training through

doing the work and learning from mistakes. The ultimate success of informal
training depends upon the experience and seniority of the senior officer and
his/her interest in the new entrant. The aim of formal training is to inculcate
administrative skills in the personnel through well-defined courses. Informal
training improves the quality of administration. Pre-entry training, orientation
training, in-service training, vocational training, post-entry training etc. are
some of the examples of formal training. Dissimilar methods of imparting
training can be lecture method, case revise method, syndicate method etc.
Whatever be the methods, the vital aims of training are always:
inculcating fresh knowledge in the middle of the employees
o upgrading their skills
o familiarizing the inducts to the organization, its environment,
work circumstances, rules, norms and goals
o attuning the employees to the new needs of the organization
o broadening the views and outlook of employees
o maintaining the morale of the employees
Development of novel attitudes; and reducing waste, accidents,
turnover and absenteeism.

Every administrative system necessity pays adequate attention to its

training necessities. A well trained, well-aware and properly skilled personnel
system is the very heart of an organization.

Promotion
Another vital function of personnel administration is promotion. The word
„promote‟ is derived from the Latin expression „promoter‟, it means „to move
forward‟. Promotion means advancement of an employee to a job better than
the present one in conditions of greater responsibilities, more prestige or
status, greater ability and augment in pay. The need for promotion arises from
a diversity of factors. An organization is able to retain the services of its
personnel through the device of promotion. Lower positions in the
organization are able to attract competent persons if it creates provisions for its
personnel to move higher. A sound policy of promotion fosters a feeling of
belongingness in the personnel, contributes towards the stability in policies
and practices and leads to structure up of traditions and conventions in the
organization.

According to W.F. Willoughby, a sound promotion system should fulfill

the following circumstances:
Adoption of standard specifications setting forth duties and
qualifications required for promotions in the government service
The classification of these positions into separate classes, series, grades
and services
The inclusion within this classification of all the higher administrative
positions except those having a political character
 The adoption, as far as possible of the principle of recruitment from
within for filling up of higher posts
The adoption of the principle of merit in determining the relative
merits of employees eligible for advancement.
The employees should be made aware not just of the opportunities for
promotion open to them but also of the definite lines beside which such
promotion is to be expected and the circumstances that necessity be fulfilled
through them in getting it. This means that there should be a definite goal
before them towards which they can work. There are two principles which are
used in the system of promotion:
Principle of seniority
Principle of merit.

The principle of seniority is an age-old principle. Employees attach great

importance to the length of service. According to H. Finer, “it is automatic and
avoids the need for creation individual distinctions flanked by one person and
another, of placing the young over the old, of measuring the responsibility for
the result of promotion.” But, this gives rise to two vital questions. Is the
employee with the longest service necessarily the mainly competent? If
employees automatically qualify for higher jobs through being senior, will
new employees be motivated to provide good performance? Yet, seniority
cannot be rejected altogether through using the internal method of promotion;
the administration can keep the morale of employees high and also encourage
a competitive spirit for better performance. Use of external method does give
for the competitive spirit to grow but in the procedure affects the morale of the
employees adversely. Using the principle of merit in promotion requires fair
practices.

In order to determine the merit of employees, a scientific system of

„performance appraisal‟ needs to be developed. It should be made as objective
as possible. The appraisal should be of regular and continuous nature and
should evaluate the quality, quantity, and styles of performance. It should
contain also an appraisal of the growth potential of an employee. Taking into
consideration the weak and strong points of both the principles, a mix of the
two is adopted in the organizations while selecting candidates for promotion;
both seniority and merit are given due weight age. Each organization necessity
has a sound promotion policy. If promotions get governed through favoritism,
the „left outs‟ will in all probability continue floating in the same organization
nursing grievances against employers. Therefore promotion has to be based on
just and fair norms as it is a powerful means in the hands of the organization to
reward its faithful workers. It is a powerful means to lead the employees
towards the desired goals.
Salary structuring
Development of a sound salary system is an significant function of
personnel administration. Salary has to be structured in such a way that the
employees of the organization feel adequately rewarded and possessions
accessible to the organization are optimally utilized. Following are the
necessities for the development of a sound pay system:
The pay structure should be simple and rational the pay of a post
should be related to the duties and responsibilities attached to that post
it should take into consideration the qualifications and experience
prescribed it should be comprehensive and adequate to enable the
employee to have a feeling of the total emoluments and to maintain a
sure standard of living and it should take into account the comparable
salaries paid in alternative occupations.

Comprehensibility and adequacy are the standard tasks of a sound pay

structure. Good compensation plans, well-administered, have a salutary affect
on the whole organization. Employees are happier in their work, cooperation
and loyalty are higher, and productive output is up and quality is better. In the
absence of such plans compensations are determined subjectively on the basis
of haphazard and arbitrary decisions. This makes many inequities which are in
the middle of the mainly dangerous sources of friction and low morale in an
organization. Although there can be both monetary and non monetary forms of
compensation prevalent in an organization, yet it is the former which is the
mainly vital element through which individuals are attracted to an
organization, persuaded to remain there and induced to engage in a behaviour
that is beneficial to the organization. Each organization should structure the
salaries of its employees in such a way that no employee feels inadequately
rewarded. Separately from vital salary, additional allowances such as house
rent allowance, conveyance allowance, recreation allowance, leave
encashment; festival loan etc. can be given to the employees. Moreover the
salary scales have to be constantly revised in view of price rise or augment in
profits for the organization

Employees, Welfare
Welfare of employees is one of the mainly significant functions of
personnel administration, a good personnel system always gives topmost
priority to the well- being of employees. A sound personnel policy, proper
recruitment and promotion techniques, conducive training methods etc. make
a sure physical and mental condition of the employees so necessary for good
performance. These circumstances need to be maintained as well. Motivation
of employees and structure up of their morale at dissimilar stages helps in
maintaining these circumstances. All kinds of welfare programmes in an
organization are to help in maintenance of these-circumstances only.
 Employees‟ benefit programmes make and stimulate morale which
contributes to the creation and maintenance of favorable attitude towards work
and work environment. These programmes contain fringe benefits such as
holidays, dissimilar kinds of leave entitlement education facilities, canteen
facilities, leave travel fare concession etc. Employee‟s physical condition is
maintained through safety and health programmes, group health insurance
plans, regular medical examinations, proper working circumstances like
proper lighting, ventilation, space, and equipment etc. These are all
employees‟ welfare measures. Maintenance of discipline and following a code
of conduct in the organization also helps in creating conducive work
environment in the organization which is significant for employees‟ welfare.
Penalties for violation of rules, for mis performance or for non-performance
vary widely in severity. The more usual forms of disciplinary action are
warning or reprimand, reassignment to other duties, suspension from duty for
a sure period of time, demotion to a position of lower rank or grade and
dismissal or removal from the service. Strict disciplinary actions are very
essential as they augment the efficiency of work, raise the morale of the
employees, and keep the inefficient out of the organization.

As a model employer, an organization gives several social welfare and

security services for its employees. These can be in the form of sure tangible
benefits. Some of these benefits supply financial protection against sure risks
such as illness accident, unemployment, and loss of income due to retirement.
Some other benefits give extra leisure, extra income and better work
environment. These programmes fulfill the physical, mental, financial, and
recreational as well as the social needs of the employees.

A proper retirement scheme is also very essential for employees‟ welfare.

The organization needs to assure its employees an easy and carefree life in
their old age. The age of retirement can be anywhere flanked by 50 and 65.
Proper retirement benefits attract talented persons to the organization; they
help the system of promotion, through these benefits efficiency of employee‟s
increases. Besides pension, some other benefits such as allowances to take
care of inflation, medical facilities, provident fund, family pension, travel
concessions are also provided to the retired employees. The primary aim of all
these benefits is to give necessary means of livelihood and freedom from sure
worries to the employees in their old age. Efforts necessity is made to give
counseling to help the retired personnel to utilize their time and money
effectively. All possible information should be passed on to employees who
are seeking retirement, external expertise can also be used through the
organization in conditions of financial planning, planning for a second career
etc. A cautiously devised retirement plan necessity always forms a part of
planning package of an organization.
 Redressal of employees‟ grievances is yet another very significant
characteristic of employees‟ welfare programmes. The interests of the
employees and the employers should not be in disagreement. Over the decades
there has been an rising consciousness about common needs and interests of
the employees. The employees‟ several ways and channels to solve the
troubles of the employees. Redresall cells in the organization should try to
remove the grievances of the personnel quickly and systematically. The
organization has to give to its employee‟s effective leadership. It has to
generate the will to work in the middle of the employees. Inculcation of
morale, of that spirit, that state of mind, which expresses itself in loyalty,
enthusiasm, cooperation, pride in the service and devotion to duty, is the end
of the whole personnel system. Employee‟s necessity has a sense of security,
attainment, and belongingness in the organization. Through attitude surveys
and proper recruitment, selection, promotion, training, salary structuring
policies, an organization can formulate appropriate welfare schemes and
develop a conducive work environment for its employees.

SIGNIFICANCE OF PERSONNEL ADMINISTRATION

The quality of an organization is dependent on the quality of its

employees, that is, the personnel it employs. With the development of science
and technology and growth of welfare functions in order to meet the demands
of expanding population the organizations whether public or private, have to
perform a large number of tasks varied and complex. It is only possible if the
personnel engaged in the attainment of objectives are efficient and sincere.

In the middle of the three components required for developmental tasks,

personnel, money and material, it is the personnel or the human element which
determines the quality and quantity of the performance and output. Even the
contribution of money and material to performance depends considerably
upon their manipulation through the human beings in an organization. Walter
R. Sharp has aptly remarked, “Good administration is a composite of effective
organization, adequate material facilities and qualified personnel... Even
poorly devised machinery may be made to work if it is manned with well-
trained, intelligent, imaginative, and devoted staff. On the other hand, the best
planned organization may produce unsatisfactory results if it is operated
through mediocre or disgruntled people. As per Ferrel Heady “The importance
of administration is approximately universally recognized amongst
commentators on development. Visually an effective bureaucracy is coupled
with a vigorous modernizing elite as a prerequisite for progress”

Therefore, we can say that without efficient personnel, the organizational

tasks can never be fulfilled. Without efficient bureaucracy, the government
can never create its plans and policies a success. The performance of the
organization and growth of its personnel is connected with the competence of
personnel constituting the organization. No country should neglect the
development of human possessions. We also witness a complete wastage of
human possessions due to unemployment, underemployment, and male
employment. Positive steps have to be taken to remove these troubles. The
augment in labour force necessity entail an augment in economically active
population. The greatest natural resource of a nation is its people. Investments
in developing human possessions through training, career development,
planning, counseling, selection, job-enrichment programmes and designing
appropriate performance appraisal and reward systems can go a long way in
maintaining the morale and motivation of people high. These programmes
consequently influence organizational effectiveness.

The mainly significant problem in public personnel administration is to

ensure that vast manpower resource employed in the state sector yields the
best possible return. Efficiency of public employees or the effectiveness of
personnel system depend on many factors, such as the quality of talent
attracted to and retained in the public service, nature of training which the
employees receive, values and motivation of employees, standards and norms
set up through formal and informal work groups, effectiveness in inter-
personal relationships, styles of supervision and leadership, nature and
adequacy of work tools and procedures for decision-creation and the character
of interrelationships with the political procedure and social environment.

The ARC had observed that “the present personnel system does not create
for a rational and optimum utilization of human possessions within the civil
service to the best advantage of administration as well as the community.”
Throughout the last 40 years, the country has taken up past developmental
responsibilities. This calls for an effective personnel system in order to
formulate and carry out organizational functions. Public as well as private
organizations are rising day through day, they both have a important role t6
play in pursuit of developmental goals and it is only through the help of right
personnel and management of the human possessions that these objectives can
be realized.

PUBLIC SERVICES AND THEIR ROLE IN ADMINISTRATIVE

SYSTEM

MEANING OF PUBLIC SERVICES

„Public Services‟ are usually defined to mean the civil services constituted
through the government to translate all its plans and programmes into
implement able action. In common usage, civil service means that branch of
governmental machinery which is concerned not with law creation but with
law enforcing functions. In the executive branch of the government, there are
two parts, the ministers, and civil servants. The civil servants carry out the
orders of the ministers and advise them in policy formulation. According to
E.N. Gladden, “Civil Service is the name of an significant government
institution comprising the staffs of central administration of the state. It s more
for it stands for a spirit essential to the success of modem democracy, an ideal
of vocation in public officials who devote their lives to the service of the
community‟‟ In administrative parlance, public services have a slightly wider
connotation in the sense that they are taken to cover, besides civil servants,
extended group of employees who may be working in public sector
undertakings, nationalized banks and other quasi-governmental organizations
funded wholly or partly through the government. While the civil servants are
the holders of civil posts, whose remuneration in India is paid out of
Consolidated Fund of India, others are not so paid. In Britain, they are also
accepted as “those servants of the crown other than holders of the political and
judicial offices, who are employed in civil capability and of course,
remunerated through budget passed through Parliament.‟

In brief, as H. Finer stated “Civil Service is a professional body of

officials, permanent, paid and skilled” and further, classified British Civil
Service into three categories, administrative (policy formulation and
execution); technical (scientific and specialized categories like doctors,
engineers etc.) and manipulative (executing orders of the first two classes).
Public services are an significant instrument of political modernization in the
developing societies. Well-knit and well-organized public bureaucratic
structure precedes electoral democracy. It gives stability and stability to the
system of government. Public services are a blend of sure characteristics viz.
expertise, vitality, and leadership. This blend enables the public services to
function in an independent and efficient manner.

RELATIONSHIP FLANKED BY THE GOVERNMENT AND PUBLIC

SERVICES

The art of governance and administration has been the integral

characteristic of human society. For governance, there has always been a
government, whatever is its form, and for carrying out the objectives of the
government, there have always been the public services. Public services have
always been an significant arm of the government for formulation,
implementation, monitoring, and evaluation of its programmes. Therefore, the
type, and the character of the public services would, no doubt, depend on the
kind of the government and the nature and the scale of the tasks to be
performed through it. As a consequence, whenever and wherever there is a
change in the government, the public services also undergo a change to some
extent.

Bureaucrats have more knowledge, experience, intergovernmental ties, and

time than the politicians. Both are actually dependent on each other. The
relationship flanked by the government and public services has provided that
the dichotomy flanked by policy formulation and implementation can never be
strictly maintained in practice. Experience has shown that this kind of
departmentalization flanked by governmental and administrative activities is
partly, but not wholly true. It is very hard for the government to be only
concerned with policy formulation whereas for the services to only deal with
administration of these formulated policies. Both in theory and practice, there
is frequent crossing of boundaries, as a result a relationship of
complementarily, mutuality and interdependability has developed flanked by
the two. The government sets the goals for public services; hence it is
instrumental as a tool to achieve these goals.

SCOPE OF PUBLIC SERVICES

The role of public services is changing with time. A status-quo bound

public services can never solve the new and rising administrative troubles.
Public services have to change in a way that is conducive to the development
innovative administrative programmes and systematic progress of the country.
Its scope is widening and one cannot think of all-round development without
effective public services.

Transition from Traditional’ to ‘Modern’ State

With the growth in the functions of the State, rising expectations of people
and development of science and technology, the role of the government has
undergone a substantial change. Government has to undertake the primary
responsibility of governance of its people. This governance involves
multifaceted functions in the political, social, and economic areas. Law and
order, internal security, defense against external aggression are some of the
sovereign functions of the state. As no government can exist or acquire
legitimacy in a political vacuum, the appropriate political systems necessity
necessarily is devised for survival and growth of the government. Likewise,
since people can‟t live on politics alone, their socio-economic needs will also
have to be catered to. Therefore social, political, and economic characteristics
of governance become critical areas of concern for the administration.

As the government grows and undertakes newer tasks and responsibilities,

administration also has to respond suitably and effectively. This administrative
response is possible only with a proper and rational organization of the public
services, for, administration will be reduced to nothing if there are no
competent public services to assist it. When the state changes its ideological
philosophy from the traditional to the modern, the administration also
undergoes a fundamental change. Therefore, when the state transcends itself
from „warfare‟ to „welfare‟, the administration undergoes a transition from
„law and order‟ orientation to „developmental‟ orientation.

If development becomes the focus, planning becomes essential, for it is

only through a systematic and scientific planning that the resource-
mobilization and input-utilization within the shortest time is possible in order
to attain optimal output. Administration therefore has to pay attention to policy
formulation, programme design, project management and programme
evaluation. For all this, efficient and effective public services are required
since efficiency in the conduct of government business depends primarily on
the skill of personnel employed through the state. Government cannot afford
to have personnel, within the services, who are not fit. Meritorious and
competent. When the country adopts development oriented goals and
objectives, the governmental duties become not only socio-economic ally
compulsive but also acquire new dimensions. This calls for efficient and
qualified personnel. Plans for administrative reforms can only be successful if
they are accompanied through a heightened attitude and motivated skill on the
part of the public personnel. A competent personnel is, therefore the
sinequanon of an effective public services and the qualities that are sought for
in public personnel are integrity, skill, dedication, devotion to duty,
intelligence, and diligence.

Growth in the Functions of Public Services

The public officials are required to perform all the tasks and duties arising
out of the obligations of the government in rendering service to its people.
Some of these tasks are, advising ministers on policy issues, supervising all
characteristics of administrative, technical, and scientific programmes,
economic and financial activities, social welfare, and services. They are also
engaged with delegated legislation, administrative adjudication, and public
relations.

With the augment in the welfare functions the purpose and the scope of the
administration have been totally reoriented. The U.N. Handbook noted: The
State is expected today to be the accelerator of economic and social change
and no longer the preserver of the status quo. And in its new role as the prime
mover and stimulator of national development, it is expected to spread the
benefits of economic and social progress to everyone. No longer dare a
government indefinitely limit the enjoyment of the fruits of the earth and of
man‟s labour and ingenuity to a small privileged class. Moreover, the modern
state is expected to achieve these purposes within the general framework of
the consent of the people, and with due regard to the rule of law and individual
human rights. It is hard today to find a State, whatever its present power
structure that does not call itself a democracy, a government of the people.

A modern State may act as the director, entrepreneur, or stimulator of

private initiative, or indeed in all the three capacities. In a socialist economy
practically all organized effort is placed in the public sector and its whole
management becomes the concern of the public services. Several countries
because of their prevailing social and economic circumstances and availability
of possessions are committed to reserving the largest possible sphere of
activity to private enterprise and local initiative. But even in these countries
vast rising functions and activities concerning national stage opinion are
undertaken through the government. The capitalist economies have witnessed
an expansion of their public services. In these countries, several such areas
have come up which are solely under the public sector, where the private
sector is not able to enter.

The twentieth century, therefore, is witnessing an extension of

governmental functions beyond all limits. The concept of welfare and service
State has been approximately universally accepted. Governments have taken
up the responsibility of utilization of manpower, natural possessions, and
technology to make an environment conducive to all-round economic
development and social well-being. This further strengthens the role of public
services. The demands of the people upon their government have become
insistent, the government is measured to be an agency to meet these urgent
demands and devise ways to overcome social and economic deficiencies in the
administrative system.

The Public Services have become today one of the mainly essential and
vital parts of the government. The civil servants perform a number of
functions. The major functions are:

Determination of Policy: The civil servants are actively involved in the

formulation and determination of the policy of the country. Although
policy is the sphere of the legislature, the technical demands of the
government‟s role call for the intervention of public servants in the
matters of policy formulation. The civil servants recommend policies
to the ministers. The ministers being amateurs cannot understand the
complexities of the public policy and consequently act on the advice of
the civil servants. So, the civil servants greatly influence the
formulation of the national policy. The civil servants suggest
alternatives to policy which are practically enforceable as they know
 how the policy works in practice.
Implementation of Legislation and Policies: The civil servants execute
the policies passed through the legislature. The civil servants exercise a
large sphere of discretion in the execution of laws and policies. He/she
weighs cautiously all the factors that may affect implementation before
taking an action. They have to see whether the law or policy is
favorable and enforceable, they necessity act impartially and honestly
according to legislative standards and the rule of law.
Delegated Legislation: The civil servants also frame departmental
legislation. The legislature gives a broad outline of the legislation and
delegates to the civil servants the power to create details of that
legislation. Delegated legislation has become very useful because the
legislature has no time to frame detailed rules and regulation and is not
familiar with the complexities of the modern legislation. The civil
servants frame rules and regulations and issue orders in accordance
with the legislation passed through the legislature. These rules are
therefore scrutinized through the legislature again and then enforced
through the civil servants.
Administrative Adjudication: The civil servants today exercise quasi-
judicial powers also. They determine the cases on issues involving the
rights and obligations of private citizens or parties. Some judicial
powers have to be in the hands of civil servants in order to secure
public interest and protect the poor from use.

The growth of administrative adjudication is the result of the need to have

reasonable and speedy justice in cases under social enactments and cases
involving technical complexities. The civil servants enforce policies and so are
able to provide judgment according to the necessities of the policies. Besides
these, the routine functions of civil services are licensing and inspection,
regulation of government policies, collection of taxes, taking note of working
circumstances etc. Therefore in brief, civil servants perform the functions of:
Advising the government concerning the programmes. Providing the
ministers with necessary information and statistics.
Implementing the plans, policies, and programmes formulated through
the Government.
Monitoring and evaluating the programmes of the Government.
Carrying out the tasks delegated to them through the Government.
Determining cases on issues involving rights and obligations of private
citizens and parties.
ROLE-MODELS FOR CIVIL SERVICES

Instrumentality Role
There is a general agreement that the civil services should play basically
an instrumental role in its operation, in as much as it is not the master but
agent of policy formulation and execution. It is, so, approximately universally
expected, and considerably accepted, that the services should be so intended
and structured as to respond systematically and willingly to the political
leadership and policy parameters this essentially represents a philosophy of
primacy of political control over administrative system.

Despite their participative and pervasive attendance in the policy

programmes of the state, the public services are not supposed to stray too
much from their instrumental role to become prime mover behind policy
creation. Fritz Morstein Marx credits “merit bureaucracies even in modern
nation states of the West as having contributed considerably to the viability of
the policy” through “professional outlook to every conduct of governmental
activities‟.‟ It is not the same thing to say that the public services cannot,
should not and need not, under any circumstances, involve themselves into
policy creation procedure, but through and large, the civil servants should not
involve themselves in policy creation full-fledged

Neutrality Role
The neutrality role of the civil services is in consonance with its
instrumentality role. It is therefore clear that if civil services have to perform,
in the right spirit of their structural functional framework, they have to be
“neutral” in their approach, outlook, and activities. No way should their
political values affect their conduct and behaviour. Civil servants are the
objective, dispassionate and non-partisan band of professionals who should do
a job entrusted to them with clinical proficiency, efficiency, and dedication.
Once a policy has been decided and decision taken to implement the
programme, all that civil servants should do is to try to use all the accessible
possessions in an optimum manner for the execution of the programme. In
other words, the civil services necessity not is allowed to. Take political sides.
The individual value system may certainly come into play while rendering
advice to the ministers or at the time of strategizing for policy but not
thereafter. The civil servants are not the political mediators but servants of the
state. Political neutrality is the sinequanon of civil servants, the civil service
and party politics should be kept poles separately. Therefore the civil servants
are expected to implement the policies decided upon through the government.
It is neither responsible for political content of programmes nor it has to
defend it in public.
Commitment Role
Should the civil servants be committed to the cause of a party, or the ruling
party or a person of the party? Intellectually? Emotionally? Ideologically?
Where should their commitment lie? Answers to such questions are very
significant for understanding the commitment role of the civil services.
Dissimilar views have been expressed on the subject. The first and the
common view hold that commitment means that the civil servants should be in
accord with the policy objectives of the government. Secondly, it has been
held that such a commitment should be to a new social and economic order,
and has to be consciously built and nurtured through the careers of civil
servants‟. The third view is a corollary to the second view, it says that
commitment should be related to the developmental philosophy of the state,
societal, economic and political, besides all the other modernizing and nation-
structure programmes Fourth view holds that commitment should, ideally, be
to the ideals of the Constitution of the country which represents the communal
wisdom of the people concerning the governance of the policy. And,
ultimately, commitment has to be to the conscience of the civil servants, their
belief, cultural and ethical values, and sense of justice and righteousness.

Civil servants have often displayed their personal alignment, identification,

and belongingness to political parties; they often display personal loyalty to
„the boss‟. This type of personalized commitment helps the civil servants in
better career progression and more accelerated delegation. But the term
committed bureaucracy does not mean a bureaucracy loyal to a scrupulous
political party; it does not even connote civil servants owing loyalty to a
scrupulous individual, political person or leader. It means that bureaucracy
should be committed to the objectives, ideals, institutions, and modalities
contained in the Constitution.

Impersonality Role
Civil services should, through and large adopt an „impersonality‟ profile
while dealing with matters concerning policies, programmes and issues. Civil
servants cannot afford to take or twist a decision on the basis of the persons
involved with it or the persons who can be affected through it, but should
strictly conform to the principles, rules, guidelines etc. They should govern the
matters before the government, irrespective of the status, standing, and
position of the affected individuals. Civil servants have to take a dispassionate
approach to troubles.
Anonymity Role
The role of anonymity requires that the minister has to answer for the
actions of civil servants in the Parliament. The civil servants therefore are
protected from criticism of Parliament. A minister has to protect the civil
servant who has executed his/her definite order. Minister is also responsible to
the Parliament for the wrong action of the civil servant. Therefore the
principle of anonymity goes hand in hand with the principle of ministerial
responsibility. It means that civil servants work behind the curtain; they cannot
openly come out and play a predominant role in politics. They have to
function in an environment of anonymity; this helps them in taking honest and
objective decisions.

Professionalism Role
The civil servants are employed for their knowledge, ability, expertise,
experience, competence, and merit. They necessity utilize all their skills to
implement the development programmes with full zeal and enthusiasm. The
civil servants necessity is trained to use all the mental, physical, and technical
skills at hand in a mainly effective and efficient manner. The aim should be to
train civil servants in such a way that maximum results can be achieved with
minimum inputs at the least cost within the shortest time frame. Professional
excellence, result motivation, and intellectual integrity should be their
motives. Learning and continuing education should be built into the system
itself, for that is the foundation for structure a professional super structure.
Professional role of the civil servants is the genesis of their subsistence.

THE CHANGING ROLE OF PUBLIC SERVICES

In view of the rising complexities of governmental tasks, the future

administrators necessity acquire knowledge in the fields of science and
technology, social and behavioral sciences, modern tools of management,
human relations in management and administrative research and development.
The Administrative Reforms Commission observed that the “role of
generalists” in administration is losing its validity in many fields. This is an
inevitable consequence of the rising application of science and technology in
solving administrative troubles.

In the context of the new challenges of change that the public services
have to face, the latter cannot escape two compulsions, one of version and the
other of professionalization. Several factors like changing political scenario,
rising aspirations of people, expanding scale of administrative operations,
rising size of administrative structure and developing science and technology
are forcing public services to adapt to the dissimilar changes and
professionalize itself. According to Gabriel A. Almond, the public services
have to attend to sure functions either in combination with political authorities,
confidentially, independently or single handedly and openly. He recognized
seven such functions and categorized them into input and output functions.
Input functions are political socialization, interest articulation and aggregation
and political communication. The output functions comprise rule-creation, rule
application and rule adjudication. For discharging these functions properly, the
public services necessity address themselves to two kinds of relationships, one
of mutual compliance, referring to „internality‟ relationship and other of
version, relating to „externality‟ relationship. Both influence the performance
of public services and necessity therefore be integrated. To cope up with these
colossal functions, the public services necessity acquires and develops
appropriate and adequate capacities. Unless they are fully equipped, they
cannot help in attainment of goals of the programmes and policies and can
lead to a wide gap flanked by declared objectives and their realization. The
public servants necessity undertake capability generation programmes (such
programmes necessity aim at rising the capability of public servants in order to
perform the administrative tasks properly) within the framework of specific
needs, particularistic environment, local culture and ethos. With the rising
involvement of public services in the public sector enterprises and other quasi-
government undertakings, they have to become more flexible and adaptable.

CONCEPT, NATURE AND SCOPE OF PERSONNEL

ADMINISTRATION

CONCEPT OF PERSONNEL ADMINISTRATION

The tasks of government are raising everyday. Development and welfare

orientations have led to the expansion of government and its administrative
machinery. As the tasks, responsibilities and activities of organizations
whether public or private multiply, the demands on personnel, at every stage,
in conditions of efficient discharge of their duties also rise. Therefore the task
of personnel administration is to, assure a steady source of people who can
contribute to the success of an organization and meet the rising demands of
development. To understand the concept of personnel administration, it is very
essential to first understand the meaning and nature of the term.

Personnel Administration: Meaning

Personnel administration is that part of administration which is concerned
with people at work and with their relationships within an organization. It
refers to the whole spectrum of an organization‟s interaction with its human
possessions from recruitment activity to retirement procedure. It involves
personnel planning and forecasting, appraising human performance, selection
and staffing, training and development and maintenance and improvement of
performance and productivity. Personnel administration is closely related to an
organization‟s overall effectiveness.

There is no standard definition of the term „personnel administration‟; still

there is a widespread unanimity in the middle of writers on its meaning, scope,
and purpose. According to Flippo, personnel function is concerned with the
procurement, development, compensation, integration, and maintenance of the
personnel of an organization for the purpose of contributing toward the
accomplishment of that organization‟s major goals and objectives. Dale Yoder
uses the term “manpower management” instead of “personnel management”
and comprises both labour relations and personnel administration within its
ambit. According to him, “the term effectively describes the processes of
planning and directing the application, development, and utilization of human
possessions in employment. Employers, employees, unions and public
agencies all have significant roles to play in these processes.

According to Thomas G. Spates, “personnel administration is a code of the

ways of organizing and treating individuals at work so that they will each get
the greatest possible realization of their intrinsic abilities, therefore attaining
maximum efficiency for themselves and their group and thereby giving to the
enterprise of which they are a part, its determining competitive advantage and
optimum results.” Michael Julius defines personnel administration as “the
field of management which has to do with planning, organizing, and
controlling several operative functions of procuring, developing, maintaining
and utilizing a labour force such that the:
“objectives for which the company is recognized are attained
economically and effectively;
„'„objectives of all stages of personnel are served to the highest
possible degree;
“Objectives of the community are duly measured and served.”

The Institute of Personnel Management in U.K. defines personnel

management as “that part, of the management function which is primarily
concerned with the human relationships within the organization. Its objective
is the maintenance of those relationships on a basis which, through
consideration of the well-being of the individual, enables all those engaged in
the undertaking to create their maximum personnel contribution to the
effective working of that undertaking.” The Indian Institute of Personnel
Management has also adopted this definition.

The above-mentioned definition was replaced in 1966 through a more

elaborate definition. It reads, “Personnel management is that part of the
management function which is concerned with people at work and with their
relationships within an enterprise. Its aim is to bring together and develop into
an effective organization the men and women who create up an enterprise and,
having regard to the well-being of an individual and of working groups, to
enable to create their best contribution to its in scrupulous, personnel
management is concerned with the development of policies governing:
Manpower planning, recruitment, selection, placement and termination
Education and training, career development
Conditions of employment, methods and standards of remuneration
Working circumstances and employees‟ services
Formal and informal communication and consultation both through the
representatives of employers and employees and at all stages
throughout the organization
Negotiation and application of agreements on wages and working
circumstances, procedures for the avoidance and settlement of
disputes.

Personnel management is also concerned with the “human and social

implications of change in internal organization and methods of working and of
economic and social changes in the community.” Therefore we can say that
personnel administration deals with the recruitment, placement, training,
disciplinary measures, monetary and non monetary incentives and retirement
benefits of the human beings or the personnel within an organization. It also
deals with the nature of human relationships in an organization, interaction
flanked by the human beings within an organization and interaction of human
beings with the organization. Personnel administration comprises all activities
and functions relating to policy formulation, planning, policy implementation,
social change and modernization, administrative reforms and public relations
in an organization. It aims at optimum utilization of human possessions in
order to achieve maximum results with minimum wastage of funds and
technology.

Personnel administration is variously recognized as „personnel

management‟, „labour relations‟, „manpower management‟, labour welfare
management‟, etc. But the term „personnel administration‟ connotes a wider
meaning, it comprises both personnel management and industrial relations.
Several a times the conditions labour relations and industrial relations are used
interchangeably with personnel administration but it is always better to
distinguish flanked by them. The term „labour relations‟ refers primarily to the
relation flanked by management and organized labour. It comprises
negotiations of contracts with unions. It deals with handling of differences
with unions and business mediators. Some organizations have a labour
relations officer or director whose primary task is to advise and assist top
management in their dealing with union representatives. This official may or
may not report to personnel administrator. In an unionized organization, where
there is no labour relations officer or director, the personnel administrator
performs the task of labour relations officer. Therefore personnel
administration aims at:
Effective utilization of human possessions
Desirable working relations in the middle of all members of the
organization
Maximum development'
Meeting the organization‟s social and legal responsibilities.

According to Michael J. Jucius, personnel management should aim at:

Attaining economically and effectively the organizational goals;
Srving to the highest possible degree the individual goals; and
Preserving and advancing the general welfare of the community.

To obtain these objectives, personnel administration is concerned with

planning, organizing, directing, coordinating, and controlling the cooperative
efforts of individuals within an organization.

Personnel function is crucial in any administrative organization. The

organization cannot afford to ignore it. Hence it becomes a vital responsibility
of the management, be in the government or in semi or non-government
organizations. The changes in the socio-economic environment have its effect
on management. The management environment keeps changing due to the
changes that occur in the total socio-economic environment. The political
environment also affects the work environment in an organization. Such
changes get reflected in personnel administration. These changes can be:
Changing mix of the personnel entering government service
organization
Changing values of personnel
Rising expectations of the government from their employees, and
Rising expectations of the people from the government at dissimilar
stages.

Therefore management is affected through the changes in the social,

economic, and political scenario. In fact it has to keep up with these changes.
A higher number from schedule castes, tribes and other economically
backward classes are joining the government service. A greater number of
people with higher education, more women, and more technically skilled
workers are also joining the government service. This has really changed the
ratios of working force. With the proliferation of activities under
„development‟ and „welfare‟ programmes, the employees are now expected to
be more competent and efficient. People at large expect the administration to
be efficient, effective, and sympathetic. People‟s involvement in
administrative activities is rising. Due to the constant demands on
administration, the role of personnel administration is also changing.

Personnel are required to perform „line‟ and „staff‟ functions; Activities

directly related to the primary objective of an organization are described as
„line‟ functions. The „staff‟ functions are those which facilitate and assist the
performance of line work. They are in the nature of secondary activities and
enhance the effectiveness of the line agencies. For instance, assistance in
processing and supplying the required number of personnel and training and
development of personnel are essentially staff functions. An organization
cannot function without the assistance of line and staff personnel. At the same
time, personnel function cannot be isolated from the rest of the administrative
functions. Personnel functions contain both line and staff activities in an
organization.

Personnel administration does not always function in a formal

organization. No organization can solely run on the basis of formal rules and
regulations, it comprises human beings who are structured in an authority and
responsibility network in order to carry out the tasks and activities for the
fulfillment of organizational objectives. This formal structure is
complemented, supported or sometimes obstructed and on occasions taken
over through the informal organization. Informal organization grows within
the formal organization. It is a natural phenomenon and is based on social and
cultural relations in the middle of the personnel of formal groups. Political,
economic, and psychological factors also contribute to the growth of informal
organization.

The functions of personnel administration are becoming more complicated

day through day. The troubles of personnel administration differ from one
organization to the other. Big organizations have more tasks to perform; they
employ more people and serve varied objectives. The task of personnel
administration in such organizations becomes more intricate. As personnel
administration deals with human beings all the time, the crucial functions of
motivation and morale of employees have to be performed through it. It has to
meet the rising needs of the people as well as satisfy the rising expectations of
its employees.

PERSONNEL ADMINISTRATION: DEVELOPMENT AND

DEVELOPMENT

While the development and development of personnel administration in

U.K. and U.S.A. was largely voluntary, in India, the growth of personnel
administration can be attributed to the efforts made through the government.
While in the West, the pioneering work in the field of personnel management
was motivated through the managerial preoccupation with the concept of
welfare, in India, unsystematic recruitment practices, rising labour unrest, loss
of production etc., initiated some interest in personnel management. In U.K.,
personnel administration had its origin in the concept of welfare as
propounded and practiced through some of the enlightened entrepreneurs, who
sought the establishment of modern personnel administration. The term
personnel management actually originated in the U.S.A.

It was F.W. Taylor‟s scientific management which laid the foundation for
the development of personnel administration. Taylor laid emphasis on
scientific selection and systematic training and development of the individual
worker. H.L. Gantt, a secure associate of Taylor, in scientific management
movements, foresaw the need for obtaining the willing cooperation of the
worker. He maintained that it was not enough to tell the worker how to do a
job, but it was also necessary to promote the skill and willingness to do a job.
Mary Parker Follet also laid stress on training and development characteristics
of management. The pioneers of scientific management, separately from rising
efficiency, aimed at fighting fatigue and monotony in the middle of the
workers.

Mainly significant breakthrough for personnel administration was Elton

Mayo‟s Hawthorne experiments and the human relations movement. These
experiments paved the way for using the disciplines of sociology, psychology,
industrial psychology, social psychology etc., with a view to understanding
employees and organizational behaviour and influencing them through a
motivational approach. All this led to the gradual development and
development of a theory and practice of personnel management. There were
also other events and influences which led to the growth of personnel
management. Several revolutionary concepts like mass production, mass
sharing and mass financing were evolved through industrial and business
empires. The labour shortages throughout the world wars and several labour
troubles posed a challenge to management. With the Great Depression in
1929) big business suffered a severe setback. The State, the public and the
trade unions, aimed at efficient professional management. Their demands were
elimination of waste and maximum utilization of possessions, particularly
human possessions. All these growths in America emphasized the fact that
management of people or personnel management is just as significant as the
management of production.

Therefore the entrepreneurial interest, separately from other events in the

sphere of worker welfare provided the source of inspiration for the
development of modem dynamic personnel administration. The history of the
development and growth of personnel management in our country is not very
old. It was the Royal Commission on Labour which recommended in 1931 the
appointments of Labour Officers to deal with the recruitment of labour to
settle their grievances. The industrial disputes of 1920s forced the government
and businessmen to think in conditions of labour troubles and promotion of
personnel management. The recognition of trade unions in India gave a new
perspective to the employer and employee relationship. Entrepreneurs like the
Tatas, Calico Mills, British India Corporation etc. had appointed Welfare
Officers as early as 1920. These Labour Welfare Officers performed the
functions of redresses of employee grievances and promotion of industrial
harmony.

In 1937 in Bengal, on the suggestion of the Government, the Indian Jute

Mills Owners‟ Association appointed a Labour Officer to bring about a
settlement of employee grievances with the mills and through 1939 five more
Labour Officers were appointed. Other Employers‟ Associations like Indian
Engineering Association, Indian Tea Association, the Engineering Association
of India etc., also followed the instance of Indian Jute Owners‟ Association in
appointing labour officers. In 1941, the Government of India initiated the
Tripartite Labour Conference with the representatives of Government, labour
and employees in order to promote uniform labour legislation determine a
procedure to settle industrial disputes, and promote consultations on industrial
matters affecting the country. Now they have become permanent and regular
characteristics of labour policy. In 1948, the Factories Act Rules laid down the
appointment, duties and qualifications of a new statutory officer in industry
described the Welfare Officer. The following years saw the emergence of yet
another officer described the Personnel Officer. The Personnel Officer deals
with labour welfare, industrial relations, and personnel administration. Several
companies in India now have specialized personnel departments and a full-
time Personnel Officer in charge.

Now the number of personnel is rising at a very fast rate, expenditure on

personnel is also correspondingly rising. There has also been a trend in regard
to the diversification in the personnel as more and more specialists, experts
and technicians are being appointed in government departments, public, and
private organizations. Modern personnel do not just deal with welfare of
employees but also aim at achieving profits for the organization. The motive is
to earn profits as well as benefits for the organization and its employees.

SCOPE OF PERSONNEL ADMINISTRATION

Personnel administration incorporates all characteristics of management of

persons in organization. The primary objective of personnel administration is
to ensure effective utilization of human possessions in pursuit of
organizational goals. The personnel administration departments should design
and establish an effective working relationship in the middle of all the
members of an organization through division of organizational tasks into jobs,
defining clearly the responsibility and authority for each job and its relation
with other jobs in the organization. Personnel administration necessity tries to
enthuse in the middle of the employees feelings of commitment, involvement,
and loyalty to the organization. The aim is to establish cordial relations in the
middle of the employees and do absent with frictional situations arising out of
personal jealousies, rivalries and prejudices. Personnel administration also has
to curb unfavorable practices like favoritism and nepotism in an organization.

Personnel administration has to concentrate on several characteristics of

management like recruitment, training, promotion, circumstances of service,
employee‟s welfare, employer-employee relations, and processes of morale
and motivation. It has to develop links with immediate, intermediate, and
external environment to create itself effective and efficient. As the tasks of
organization increase, the responsibilities of personnel administration also
augment accordingly. It is not possible to solve the troubles with a one-time
and one-stroke decision. Larger the system more is the complexities. Take for
instance, the Government of India, it is divided into ministries, departments,
divisions, units etc. It is spread over the whole length and breadth of the
country. Lakhs of people work in it; they operate at dissimilar hierarchical
stages and carry out a large diversity of functions. A number of services and
their division into groups constitute the whole workforce of the Central
government. Approximately similar is the situation in each state. Personnel
administration has to cater to all these characteristics. It requires continuous
managerial input.

Planning and providing for the regular supply of the needed manpower for
dissimilar positions and in dissimilar numbers is an significant task of the
government. The procedure of recruitment and utilization of each micro-unit
of human resource calls for effective personnel administration, likewise,
creating and maintaining desirable working relationships also call for a series
of continuous efforts on the part of the personnel. Those responsible for
personnel administration have to work for it constantly. The attainment of
these two objectives becomes easier if the organization gives appropriate
opportunities for individual development. These opportunities can be in the
form of training, internal, and external mobility, promotion, recognition, and
reward. They act as strong motivators and satisfiers. Besides, salary
structuring of lakhs of employees is a wholesome task because each category
has to be adequately and equitably compensated for the contribution it is
expected to create towards organization‟s objectives. This is also a work of
personnel administration. The working force also has to be subjected to sure
discipline in order to regulate proper performance of duty. Framing of conduct
rules, laying down procedures of disciplinary action, enforcement of those
rules and adoption of appropriate procedures are also a part of personnel
administration.

Employer-employee relations, provision for Joint Consultative Machinery,

establishment of public service tribunals for adjudication, adoption of welfare
measures and payment of retirement benefits etc. to the employees are the
added responsibilities of personnel administration. Trade unionism in the
middle of government employees has increased throughout the past few
decades. Both employer and employee unions have come up. There is now a
dire need for expert skills to foresee personnel needs and troubles and to plan
for their satisfaction and rectification. All this requires systematic personnel
administration. Therefore the scope of personnel administration is wide and
varied; moreover it is continuously expanding with the changes in
environment.

REVIEW QUESTIONS
Discuss the role of Public Service Commission in public personnel
administration.
The present public personnel administration is a legacy of the British.
Discuss.
What is meant through manpower planning?
Discuss the dissimilar principles used in the system of promotion.
Highlight the significance of personnel administration.
What is meant through 'public services'?
Highlight the relationship flanked by the government and public
services.
Discuss the nature of personnel administration.

CHAPTER 2
CIVIL SERVICES IN INDIA

STRUCTURE
Learning objectives
Classification of services (cadres)
Generalists and specialists
Development of public services in India
 Bases of bureaucracy
Civil service in the context of modern bureaucracy
Review questions

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After learning this unit you should be able to:
State the meaning, importance and bases of the classification of
services
Describe the present system of classification of services
Explain the meaning of generalists;
Discuss the role of generalists in administration
Explain the system of civil services existing in India until the advent of
the east India company;
Discuss the civil services under the east India company
Discuss the basis of position of bureaucracy;
State the meaning of bureaucracy and its several kinds; and
Highlight the expanding functions of bureaucracy.

CLASSIFICATION OF SERVICES (CADRES)

CLASSIFICATION OF SERVICES—MEANING AND IMPORTANCE

In simple words, classification is the procedure of division of things or

persons on the basis of common features. In personnel administration
classification means grouping of several positions on the basis of their duties
and responsibilities. Positions having similar duties and responsibilities are put
together in one class. A class has been defined through Stahl as “a group of
positions sufficiently alike in their duties and responsibilities to justify
common treatment in several employment processes”.

The importance of classification of services cannot be overemphasized.

Classification brings some orderliness into the system and creates for uniform
treatment of all the people who are grouped together on sure criteria. It also
creates possible justification of differential privileges given to sure separate
categories. The duties, responsibilities, qualification necessities, eligibility
circumstances, salary, status, even authority to be vested, all depend, to a great
extent, on the proper system of classification. Hence it has considerable
functional value and validity. According to Finer, “upon proper classification
depends the efficiency of recruitment, the possibility of creating a rational
promotional system, and the equitable treatment of people working in
dissimilar departments”.

Classification of services is significant because it determines the

operational jurisdiction of the services and the nature of the responsibilities to
be discharged as also the jobs to be performed through the incumbents of
dissimilar groups within the services. It facilitates identification of several
hierarchic layers and functional segments of the services at any given time.
Classification is an organizational tool of great importance, which, if
administered properly, can bring satisfaction to the functionaries.

BASES OF CLASSIFICATION

As said, earlier, classification is a procedure of grouping objects, alike in

one or more features, in classes, taking into account many criteria for such
classification. Hence it is significant for us to know the bases of such
classification. Functional identity is one such basis. Functions are determined
on the basis of job-tasks, duties, and responsibilities. When jobs similar in
nature are indexed, they form a group and there can be higher or lower groups
of broadly similar work units. The functionaries working on such jobs require
sure general or specific qualifications which are often related to the class of
such jobs.

There can be several bases of classification like qualifications, duties, and

responsibilities. From the administrative point of view, though, classification
on the basis of duties and responsibilities, nature and spheres of activities, job
similarities etc., is appropriate and useful. The duties and responsibilities
assigned to a position determine its significance rather than its qualifications
and salary. A number of similar or identical positions, when put together
constitute a „class‟. The positions which are in one class have identical
qualification necessities and salary structure. In India, the classes are further
grouped into broad occupational groups described „service‟ like All India
Services, Central, and State Services.

ADVANTAGES OF CLASSIFICATION

Classification of service is no more regarded as an organizational necessity

but as a functional necessity. Its main justification has been not only in
conditions of the systematization of the services it offers but also in the wide
and extensive support it gives to management. In addition, classification gives
for a major control mechanism and offers a set of both realistic and accurate
planning devices.
Facilitates Proper Division of Work
Classification system, as a tool of management, offers considerable
assistance in developing an administrative hierarchy and in creation proper
division of work. This creates it easy for the management to organize its work
and divide it properly amongst the several stages. Also, the classification
system sets out the necessary hierarchy and establishes the stages in it.

Removes Arbitrary Standards

The classification system, through institutionalizing pay structure and
other conditions of service based on sure objective criteria, can remove
arbitrary standards. This creates it possible for the management to remove
personalized thoughts in matters relating to civil-services and to ensure fair
treatment to employees. Such a system generates a substantial feeling of
security and justice in the minds of an average employee.

Promotes Employee Motivation

The classification system can be employed through the management for
directing its operations and for sustaining employee motivation and give
necessary incentives. A systematically developed classification scheme creates
it possible for the management to identify areas of work, differentiate flanked
by employees according to the job they do and also to promote employees
who show potentialities for doing higher type of duties, thereby giving
recognition to the deserving and meritorious personnel.

Ensures Effective Manpower Planning and Utilization

An immediate assessment of the kind and quantum of skills accessible
within an organization is easily made, thereby locating the persons qualified in
each category. It creates it easy to control the intake of skills in proportion to
the necessities and also to build up a personnel inventory.

Lays Down Uniform Work Standards

The classification system also creates it possible to devise uniform work
standards for the several stages which help in enhancing the productivity of
the existing personnel. It prevents wastage of skills, through seeing that an
employee is given tasks commensurate to his/ her skills. Exacting a minimum
standard of work output is made possible and high priced and scarce skills can
therefore be more effectively utilized.
Speeds up the Recruitment Procedure and Designates Training Needs
Classification is also a planning device. In an organization, once
specifications for necessary personnel and their qualifications are determined
at several stages, it becomes easy to plan for their supply. It becomes easy
especially for the recruiting agency to prescribe standards for application as
well as for examination of the candidates. The recruiting agency is then in a
position to stage the recruitment programme, advertise for a group of similar
jobs, organize the schedule of recruitment through time periods and even
devises a speedy recruitment procedure in a critical area.

Under a good classification system, the recruitment procedure will also

quickly indicate the training needs. In cases of dearth of personnel possessing
any scrupulous skills or requisite qualifications, it designates, to the concerned
authority, the need for developing sure related training programmes. Likewise,
when employees from a sure stage are being promoted to higher stage jobs, it
becomes easy in identifying the kind of training programme that can prove
helpful to these employees to meet the demands of the higher job.

Helps in Maintaining Uptodate Personnel Records

The classification system also creates it easy to maintain up-to-date
personnel records. Once record-keeping is made a part of the system,
individual cases or that of a group is amenable to organized treatment. Easy
availability of such records helps in knowing about the size of the service,
each of its stages, of its functional group as well as the rate of turnover. All
these are useful for management in handling several service troubles, revise
employment trends and patterns, and plan its personnel policies and
programmes.

KINDS OF CLASSIFICATION

Classification, being a procedure of grouping objects, alike in one or more

features into classes, there can obviously be many criteria for such
classification. But there are two well recognized kinds of classification, one
which was developed in the Britain and the other in the United States. The
vital distinction flanked by the British and the US systems really lies in the
“position” versus “rank” concept in the civil services. Approximately all over
the world, the government posts have been classified through these two well
recognized methods.
Position Classification
The more sophisticated of the two kinds is the „position‟ classification
system. This is prevalent in the USA. Position connotes a group of current
duties and responsibilities assigned through a competent authority requiring
the full time or part time employment of one person. It has been defined as the
work consisting of the duties and responsibilities assigned through competent
authority for performance through an employee or an officer. In position
classification, a person‟s rank, salary etc., depends on the functions of the
position—the duties and responsibilities attached to the job he/she performs.
Here the duties and responsibilities which are attached to the job are more
significant than the person discharging those duties. In the view of Milton M
Mandell “Through classification is meant the grouping of positions on the
basis of similarity of duties and qualifications necessities”. The International
Civil Service Advisory Board of the United Nations also endorsed this view
and states “It is the consensus of the organizations that the general stage of
duties and responsibilities constitutes the only realistic basis for achieving a
comparable classification of posts”.

In position classification, positions that are comparable are brought

together into a common group described „classes. The „class‟ or „class of
positions‟ is made up of positions which are sufficiently similar in (a) type of
subject matter of work, (b) stage of difficulty and responsibility, (c)
qualification necessities of the work, so as to enable similar treatment in
personnel and pay administration. So that is how a class is shaped in position
classification system. Now there is one more term recognized as „grade‟ and
let us understand what it is. A grade is used to denote all classes of positions
which (although dissimilar with respect to type or subject matter of work) are
sufficiently similar as to (a) the stage of difficulty and responsibility and (b)
the stage of qualification for the job. (For instance, civil engineer, accountant,
geologist etc.) Hence in a grade, all classes are brought together irrespective of
the occupation, but those which are of comparable stages of responsibility.

Under the position classification system, each position should be placed in

its appropriate class. Each class should be placed in its appropriate grade.
Therefore, we bring together positions which are alike or very closely related
into a class. Positions which are in one class are closely comparable in duties,
responsibilities and needed qualifications, and can be dealt with as a unit for
personnel, budgetary and organizational purposes. We bring together into
class-series all the classes which are in the same occupational group. Classes
in a series form a logical occupational pattern and describe the hierarchy of
responsibility for that occupational group. We have one more logical
grouping, that of grade. We bring together into a grade all classes, regardless
of occupation, which are. of comparable responsibility. Hence grades form
logical groups for the setting of pay scales.
Rank Classification
This kind of classification is followed in Britain and India. This is the
traditional way, in which public servants are classified in a hierarchical order
according to their rank, in a sense, as in the case of the Army. The
classification of the British “Treasury Classes” to which the Indian Public
Services is a secure parallel, is a good illustration of classification through
rank system. Here the status and salary of a person are determined with
reference to the service he/she is assigned after recruitment. For instance, a
person belonging to the Indian Administrative Service may serve either in the
Secretariat, or in the field or in any Corporation, but he/she would be drawing
the same salary and holding the same status in each case. Modem position
classification does not accept the traditional notion that environmental
background and general educational attainment creates a person qualified
enough to handle any and every type of job in the government. It is therefore a
science of administrative specification and requires that specific skills and
knowledge be prescribed and accepted for each „stage‟, „post‟ or „position‟ in
the public service. Position classification therefore tries to classify public
service on the basis of a uniform job language. In position classification, the
main objective is to lay the foundation for equitable treatment for the public
service employees through the accurate definition, orderly arrangement, and
fair evaluation of positions of each employee in the public service. Whereas
rank classification is based on job performance in respect of a cluster of
functional positions through a group of people, with diverse
qualifications/experience/aptitude but of same or similar rank, as in Army or
India‟s cadre based services.

CLASSIFICATION OF SERVICES IN INDIA THROUGHOUT THE

PRE-INDEPENDENCE PERIOD

As a result of the British rule, the civil services in India came to be

classified on the British pattern. The system of classification of services
throughout the British period also, underwent several changes time and again.
Let us now discuss briefly, the classification of services in the pre-
Independence period.

Classification of Services into Covenanted and Uncovenanted

Till almost the end of the 19th century, superior services in India were
manned approximately exclusively through Europeans, mainly of whom
belonged to what was recognized as the “Covenanted Services”. The civil
servants appointed in England for service in India had to subscribe to
covenants with the Company “through which they bound themselves not to
trade, not to receive presents, to subscribe for pensions and so forth”. The
Writers had to sign sure agreements and circumstances flanked by the
company and himself. These were embodied in an accompanying document
described „Covenant‟ and hence the term „Covenanted Civil Services‟,
evolved. The policy of the East India Company in the initial stages,
particularly since 1781, was to reserve all civil posts in India for the
covenanted civil servants from England. The Charter Act of 1793
categorically laid down that all civil posts below the rank of a councilor
should be filled through covenanted civilians recruited in England. But the
limited supply of covenanted civilians could not meet the rising needs of the
Company. So, persons who did not belong to the covenanted civil service
which comprised people from England, had to be appointed to serve in
subordinate capacities, and they came to be recognized those belonging to the
“Uncovenanted Service” in contradistinction to the covenanted civilians. The
uncovenanted service comprised mostly Indians.

Slowly, the spread of western education in India, aided principally through

the efforts of Lord Macaulay, awakened in Indians lively expectations of being
employed in the higher offices reserved for the Covenanted Civil Service. The
Charter Act 1833 provided that no formal positive disqualifications were to be
there in the employment of Indians in any office. Later, the Charter Act of
1853, threw open all posts in the Covenanted Civil Service to public
competition. But difficulties arising from the conduct of competitive
examinations being held in England practically debarred Indians, save in a
very few cases, from availing themselves of the right to compete. Then the
transfer of power from the Company to the Crown through the Government of
India Act, 1858 and the Proclamation of Queen Victoria promising “free and
impartial admission of Indians to offices in Her Majesty‟s Service” brought
new hopes to the people in the country.

Threefold Classification of Services as Recommended through Aitchison

Commission
In 1886, the Public Service Commission under the presidentship of Sir
Charles Aitchison (more widely recognized as Aitchison Commission) was set
up. It was to look at the system under which „natives of India‟ were admitted
to the higher branches of the civil administration i.e. Covenanted Civil Service
either under the Government of India Act, 1858 or the Act of 1870. It
recommended a three-tier system of classification of services:
The old Covenanted Service was to be designated “Imperial Civil
Service of India” recruitment to which was through conduct of a
competitive examination in England. 'They were appointed through the
 Secretary of State for India.
A local civil service in each province to be described the “Provincial
Civil Service” was recommended to be constituted consisting of all
those offices not reserved for the members of Covenanted Service. It
proposed to remove the lower grade appointments from this service
and to add at its top a few highly paid posts normally reserved for the
members of the Covenanted Civil Service. Recruitment to this service
was to be done in each province under several methods adapted to
local circumstances.
The third tier was “Subordinate Civil Service” which was to be
constituted through transferring the lower grade posts from the
uncovenanted service.

The orders of the Secretary of State on the Aitchison Commission report

were embodied in a resolution of the Government of India passed on 21st
April 1892. The old scheme of classification into covenanted and
uncovenanted was done absent with. The “Imperial Civil Service of India” and
the “Provincial Civil Service”, designated after the name of the province to
which it belonged, came into subsistence. The Imperial Services and the
Provincial Services constituted the higher services and separately from
Subordinate Services there was another category of Inferior Services
comprising clerks, typists, peons, and messengers. In the case of higher civil
services, the classification was based not on any rational formula of duties or
functions, but on the basis of their recruitment.

In fact, the Royal Commission on Public Services in India recognized as

Islington Commission (1912-15) pointed out this anomaly and suggested a
new classification, consisting of two classes in the Services—Class I and Class
II.

Changes brought about in the Classification of Services under the

Government of India Act, 1919
After the introduction of the Government of India Act, 1919, the Imperial
Services or superior services as they were described, came to be divided into
two classes according to the subjects administered, e.g., subjects which were
under the direct management of the central government in India and subjects
which were primarily controlled through the provincial governments. The
former were classified as Central Services and the other class which worked
primarily under the provincial governments came to be recognized as the All
India Services, as these were recruited through the Secretary of State to work
in any part of India.
 Since the Government of India Act, 1919 introduced the system of dyarchy
at the provincial stage; the departments of the provincial governments were
divided into „reserved‟ and „transferred‟. As a result, the services operating at
the provincial stage came to be differentiated into one sphere or the other.
Those services which were assigned primarily in the reserved sphere were the
Indian Civil Service, the Indian Police, the Irrigation Branch of the Indian
Service of Engineers (the whole cadre of this service in Assam, and except the
provinces of Burma and Bombay) and the Indian Forest Service. The
recruitment and control of these services was the responsibility of the
Secretary of State. The services which were functioning in the transferred
departments were the Indian Educational Service, the Indian Agricultural
Services, the Indian Service of Engineers (Roads & Structures branch), the
Indian Forest Service (in Bombay & Burma), and the civil side of the Indian
Medical Service.

It was decided to retain these services, not only in “reserved” areas but
also in “transferred” spheres, with the Secretary of State in Council continuing
to recruit and control them. The vital circumstances of service of all these
services were framed, determined, and guaranteed through Secretary of State
and in effect, they were the Secretary of State Services, with the right of
deployment vested ultimately in the superior authority in London. Following
the Government of India Act, 1919, changes were made in the service
structure. The superior or Imperial Services were separated into All-India
Services and the Central Services—usage that has sustained to this date. The
Civil Services (Classification, Control and Appeal) Rules made in 1930
indicated that the public services in India were categorized into (i) the All
India Services, (ii) the Central Services, Class I, (iii) the Central Services,
Class II, (iv) the Provincial Services, (v) the Specialist Services, and (vi) the
Subordinate Services. Of these, the Provincial Services came under the
jurisdiction of the provincial governments. The specialist services sheltered
some of the technical fields like engineering. The Central Services were
divided into (i) Class I, (ii) Class II, (iii) Subordinate Services, and (iv)
Inferior Services.

The main distinction then flanked by the Class I and Class II Services was
that for the former, all first appointments were made through the Governor-
General in Council while for Class II positions; a lower authority was
empowered to create the appointments. Class I and Class II officers usually
enjoyed the “gazette” status, while the „subordinate‟ and the „inferior‟ officers
had no such status symbol. The Subordinate Services consisted of posts
carrying ministerial, executive, or outdoor duties and the inferior services
those posts of peons or messengers, whose maximum pay at that time did not
exceed Rs. 30/- per month.
Recommendations of the First Central Pay Commission

The significant step in the direction of classification of services came in

1946, when the first Central Pay Commission reviewed the matter. It took
exception to the account of the services as “subordinate” and “inferior” on the
ground of its being derogatory and recommended its substitution through a
numerical calling. It recommended that these two services be described Class
III and IV respectively. The technical services were also drawn into the
classification so that no separate class of technical services is hereafter made.
Accordingly the fourfold classification of services into I, II, III & IV
was adopted through the Government.

CLASSIFICATION OF CIVIL SERVICES SINCE INDEPENDENCE

Civil Services, after Independence, have been categorized into three

kinds—All India Services (common to both Centre & States), Central Services
(for purely Central subjects) and State Services (for administration of subjects
under State jurisdiction). The All-India Services, like the Central Services, are
recruited and trained through the Central Government, but, for work, they are
assigned to dissimilar States. They serve state governments and their service
circumstances are also governed through states, except that the disciplinary
action against them can only be taken through the President of India in
consultation with the UPSC. Regularly, they also serve the central government
on deputation, and after a fixed tenure they are expected to return to their
respective states. The rules and regulations governing the new services are
framed in consultation with state governments and the Union Public Service
Commission (UPSC), accordance with All-India Services Act, 1951. Art. 312
of the Constitution of India have constitutionals the „formation of Indian
Administrative Service (IAS) and Indian Police Service (IPS)‟. This was done
on the eve of Independence as a result of the decision taken in Premiers‟
Conference in 1946. Later, Indian Forest Service was also incorporated as the
third All India Service.

Central Services

The Civil Services of the Union are classified into four categories as
follows:
o Central Services Class I: This category has services like Indian
Foreign Service, Central Health Service, Railway Service,
Central Secretariat Service etc.
 o Central Services Class II: This comprises services like Central
Secretariat Stenographer Service Grade I, Telegraph
Engineering Service, and Telegraph Traffic Service etc.
o Central Services Class III: This comprises services like Central
Secretariat Clerical Service, Post, and Telegraph Accounts
Service etc.
o Central Services Class IV: This category consists of peons,
sweepers, gardeners etc.
General Central Service.

Central civil posts of any class not incorporated in any other Central Civil
Service are deemed to be incorporated in the General Central Service of the
corresponding class and a government servant appointed to any such post is
deemed to be a member of that service unless he/she is already a member of
any other central civil service of the same class.

State Civil Services

These are services exclusively under the jurisdiction of the state
government, and primarily administer the state subjects. Though, in recent
years, 33-1/3% of posts in the All-India Services are filled through promotion
from the State Civil Services and 15% of these 33-1/3% quota from other
State Services. This triple scheme of services viz., All-India, Central and State,
somewhat reflects the constitutional pattern of concurrent subjects, union
subjects and state subjects. This is a unique characteristic of the federal system
in India which is not found elsewhere.

CRITICAL APPRAISAL OF THE EXISTING CLASSIFICATION

SYSTEM

The classification system of the services in India has been criticized on

several grounds—As the Second Pay Commission Report puts it, “the lines of
division run horizontally crossways the service, resulting in a grouping of
services and posts on a non-departmental and non-occupational basis”. There
may be many grades in one class, which may be indicative of the salary and
hierarchy in the services, but not of functions or occupation. The designation
of the officer in India does not indicate anything beyond his/her position in the
hierarchy of officials from top management to the lowest rung of the ladder.
For instance, the Class I services in India have the following hierarchy—
Secretary, Special or Additional Secretary, Joint Secretary (the top executives,
corresponding to the Administrative class of the British Civil Services). The
middle management (corresponding to the Executive class in the British Civil
Service) consists of the two stages viz. Deputy Secretary and Under Secretary.
Corresponding to the “Clerical Officers” class of the British Civil Service,
there is in India, the position of “Section Officer” or a “Superintendent”,
which is a class II post with “Gazetted” status. Below this stage, the posts of
Assistant belong to Class II without the “Gazetted” status. The upper division
clerks, lower division clerks, typists and the like positions are grouped in Class
III. Both these groups correspond roughly to the Clerical Assistant Class of the
British Civil Service. The Class IV staff comprises “peons” and “messengers”
and other employees performing “house-keeping functions”. Designations in
Class I category do not indicate the nature of work done through the
incumbent. The title of section officer in Class II only shows that the
incumbent is a first line supervisor, while usually, the titles below these stages
do indicate the nature of work of an incumbent.

This is precisely because of the fact that the civil services in India are
organized on the “generalist” principle rather than on the “specialist”
principle. But, at present the services, particularly at the higher stages, are
categorized into generalist, functional and technical services. The IAS, the
IPS, the IFS, and the Central Secretariat Service may fall into the first
category. The functional services contain the Indian Revenue Service, the
Indian Customs Service, the Defence Accounts Service, and the like. The
technical services contain Central Engineering Service, Telegraph Engineering
Service, etc. Unlike the practice in the US, there are no specific qualifications
needed for entry to the first two categories e.g., generalist and functional. In
India, training in functional subjects in the second category of posts is given
only after the initial recruitment, and there is no rigid professionalization, as in
the US.

The other differences flanked by the Class I and other services are: (a)
while all the first appointments to Class I posts are made through the
President, the lower authorities have been delegated powers to create such
appointments in other cases; (b) all posts in Class I, and the bulk of the posts
in Class II, are “gazetted” but others are not; (c) The President is the
disciplinary authority for the Class I, and the appellate authority for Class II;
the disciplinary and appellate authorities for Class III and IV are mostly heads
of departments or officers working under them; and (d) while direct
recruitment: to all Class I and Class II services/ posts is made in consultation
with the UPSC, there is no such general rule in regard to Class III and Class
IV services. The Indian Classification System has been criticized on several
grounds. In 1959, the employees‟ organizations represented to the Second Pay
Commission that the existing system of classification should be abolished on
the grounds that it promoted “class consciousness” and constituted a sort of
caste system “which may satisfy some vanities, but serves no public purpose”.
The Pay Commission, while agreeing with this view, noted:
 Other countries, including those with a large and complex civil service
organization, have apparently, not found it necessary to superimpose
upon their civil service grades and occupational groups a broad
horizontal classification like ours, and we do not think that any serious
inconvenience will be caused to the administration in India if the
classification under consideration is given up. We, so, recommend the
abolition of the present classification.

In spite of this specific recommendation, though, the classification of

services in India continues to be on the same pattern. Recently, another
suggestion about the regrouping of Central Services into a “unified” civil
service was made on the grounds that it will eliminate narrow departmental
prejudices, and will give the central administration with a body of people
trained in the work actually handled in the concerned departments and
agencies. Though, as a senior civil servant in India has pointed out that in view
of the fact that the Central, State, and All-India Services more or less reflect
the constitutional pattern of union, state and concurrent spheres of
administrative power, it is not, so, possible to have a unified civil service co-
terminus with the dimensions of the whole country.

Within the union and the state fields, separately the possibility of a unified
service could, perhaps, be measured, particularly in respect of non technical
services as distinguished from scientific and technical services. Moreover,
because of the need of rising professionalization in the services, it will not be
in the interest of efficient administration to constitute a “unified” civil service
for the Union Government. This is quite a controversial issue and in view of
the repeated advice through the Administrative Reforms Commission for such
a reform, the issue was examined at length at a later stage, but no decision was
taken officially. The classification system in India suffers from some other
defects. Firstly, the numerical calling in the classification i.e. Class I, II, III &
IV is only a matter of convenience,' as there is a constant overlapping of pay
criteria in services and posts flanked by two dissimilar classes. Secondly, the
system has never been intended nor planned either for orderly grouping of the
services or as a tool of managing the personnel. And thirdly, the dissimilar
provisions of pay and other benefits of service necessitate the maintaining of a
large staff to check and calculate those benefits. Therefore there is ample
justification for the system to be revised under a plan of classification for the
whole personnel of the government.
RECOMMENDATIONS OF THE ADMINISTRATIVE REFORMS
COMMISSION (ARC)

The extent of variations in some of the pay scales for jobs of similar and
comparable duties and responsibilities both at the centre and in the states, and
of the disparities in the pay scales obtaining flanked by one state and another
state for the same or similar positions has been a serious disturbing factor in
administration. As the Administrative Reforms Commission observed, “this is
one of the major factor for strikes, agitations, inter-service tensions and
rivalries, indifferent attitude to work, poor performance; frustration and low
morale of the employees. Jobs similar in nature and with comparable
difficulties, duties, and responsibilities should, so, carry the same scales not
only in the central government but also flanked by the Centre and the
States....”

There are several examples where sure jobs have been overvalued and sure
others carrying heavier responsibilities have been undervalued e.g. qualified
engineers in the Government of India doing only file work, of medical
personnel joining lower positions at the headquarters, qualified educationists
occupying a position in a Ministry requiring just an average competence, of
agricultural scientists being attracted to headquarters organizations for doing
routine paper work, leaving significant field positions. Likewise, the private
secretaries of ministers are in the grade of Deputy Secretaries and occasionally
even Joint Secretaries. There are similar anomalies even in the lower posts.
The existing pay structure introduces differences based on the Service origin
of the person holding the post. Secretariat posts usually carry a higher pay in
comparison with field posts. The pattern which prevails today does not take
into account the rapid changes which have taken place in the nature of work
that is done through the civil services. The ARC pointed out some of the
defects in the classificatory grading structure, which are as follows:
In the absence of a careful evaluation of the work-content of jobs at
sure stages and the matching of scales of pay thereto, the healthy
principle of equal pay for equal work cannot be implemented. Failure
to adopt this principle has an adverse effect on the morale of the
personnel, and also adds to the cost of administration.
The absence of a rational pay structure which could take into account
separate stages of work and responsibility creates it hard to put through
a programme of career development based on the discovery and
development of talent and a planned deployment thereof.
The subsistence of a multiplicity of scales of pay for dissimilar groups
neither creates for a rational system of remuneration related to work
content nor does it facilitate the selection of personnel from dissimilar
Services for higher positions.
 The posts in the civil service should be grouped into categories so that all
those which call for similar qualifications and involve similar difficulties and
responsibilities fall in the same category. The same pay scale should be
applied to all posts in the same category. The task of grading is burdensome,
but should not be an impossible one. All these posts could be evaluated and
assigned to common pay scales, each representing a grade. These grades may
be divided into three stages, namely, junior, middle, and the senior. The
progress of an officer of an recognized service in the middle of the grades
within each stage should, of course, be on the basis of proved performance.
ARC recommended that:
The posts in the civil service should be grouped into grades so that all
those which call for similar qualifications and similar difficulties and
responsibilities are grouped in the same grade. The number of such
grades may be flanked by 20 and 25.
All the Class I posts may be evaluated and assigned to, say, nine
common pay scales. These nine grades or pay scales may be divided
into three stages, namely, junior, middle, and senior. The progress of
an officer of an recognized Class I Service in the middle of the grades
within each stage should be on the basis of proved performance.
Promotions from the junior to the middle stage and from the middle to
the senior stage should be through selection.
The Department of Personnel should undertake, urgently, a detailed
revise for the purpose of determining the grades as well as the posts to
which they should be attached.

The Commission was of the view that after all the Class I posts under the
centre and those to be manned through the All-India Services in the states
have been evaluated and allotted to the several grades, other posts at the centre
as well as in the states be taken up for examination and the whole civil service
be brought into a framework of 20 to 25 grades. The advantages of such a
unified grading structure are:
An automatic upward movement in a time scale will be checked;
Each officer will have to display positive merit to deserve promotion
from one grade to the after that;
A more conscious assessment of each officer‟s work will become a
practical necessity with concomitant benefits;
It will give enough scope for genuine merit to earn accelerated
promotion and it will enable government to stop comparatively
mediocre officers at a stage where their unmerited progress should be
arrested;
The subsistence of identical grade in the dissimilar services will
facilitate mobility;
 The replacement of distinctive pay scales which now apply to
dissimilar services through a unified system will help in curing the
psychological complexes which such pay scales are, at present,
bringing in their wake; and
It will create it unnecessary to give; save in unusual cases, special pays
to secretariat posts.

With the pace at which the number as well as the diversity of jobs in the
civil service are rising, the task of getting the best person for each job will be
greatly facilitated through a unified grading structure.

RECOMMENDATIONS OF THE III & IV CENTRAL PAY

COMMISSIONS

In the civil service under the central government, the pay range within
which the scale of pay of a post falls normally determines its classification.
Many exceptions have been made to these general criteria and sure categories,
which on the basis of their pay range, though they qualify for the lower class,
have been placed in the after that higher class. The division of the civil service
into four classes was adopted on the recommendations of the First Pay
Commission. As said earlier, a number of employee associations had urged
before the Second Pay Commission, that this scheme of classification
promoted “class consciousness” within the service and should so, be done
absent with. The Commission came to the conclusion that the existing
classification served no practical purpose and, on the other hand, it had an
unhealthy psychological effect. The Commission recommended that the
classification should be given up and the amendments that would be necessary
in respect of the Central Civil Service (Classification, Control and Appeal)
Rules of 1957 and of sure other rules and orders should be accepted out.

The government, though, could not accept this recommendation since it

was found that the existing classification was convenient for personnel
management purposes. A proposal to replace the existing nomenclature of
Class I, Class II, Class III and Class IV through Group A, Group B, Group C
and Group D also seems to have been measured since the word „Class‟ might
hurt the susceptibilities of some sections of the employees. This proposal was
also not accepted since it was felt that a mere change in the name was of no
practical value. The Third Pay Commission, though, felt that, some type of a
classification for purpose of personnel administration was necessary. This
classification should take into account equivalence of the work content at the
dissimilar stages of several occupational groups to rationalize pay ranges. The
present system of classification is fairly well recognized, and the employees
have become accustomed to it. It has the advantage that orders can be issued,
or the existing orders amended, through referring to the scrupulous classes
sheltered. The Pay Commission though suggested that the term „Class‟ be
avoided, so as to make a healthy the government itself seems to have
contemplated at one time. In other words, it may be feasible to redesign ate the
existing Classes I, II, II and IV as Groups A, B, C and D. In conventionality
with the revised pay structure, the pay ranges applicable to each of these
groups should, according to the Third Pay Commission, is the following:

Like the Third Pay Commission, the Fourth Pay Commission also had an
occasion to go into the question of classification of services and posts. While
noting that the staff side of the National Council (JCM) had suggested
discontinuance of classification of employees under dissimilar groups, the
Commission was of the opinion that classification made it possible for
government to look at and decide matters of common interest to the group or
groups concerned. It played vital role in disciplinary matters also, besides
being through now a well understood system. The fourth Pay Commission
recommended group wise classification as follows:

GENERALISTS AND SPECIALISTS

GENERALISTS—MEANING

Before we discuss the role of generalists in administration, let us first

know the meaning of the term „generalist‟. According to Leonard White
“general administration is understood to mean those duties which are
concerned with the formulation of policy; with the coordination and
improvement of government machinery and with general management and
control of the departments”. Therefore a generalist administrator is concerned
with all kinds of administrative procedure indicated through the word
POSDCORB i.e. planning, organizing, staffing, directing, coordinating,
reporting, and budgeting

The generalists secure their entry in administration on the basis of their

having obtained a university degree, irrespective of the subjects in it. Their
having attained a sure stage of education designates the essential minimum
extent of intellectual and mental development. Also the posting of a generalist
civil servant in any department of the government has nothing to do with
his/her education or any administrative experience. For instance, a generalist
entrant with commerce background can be posted in irrigation department.

In a purely negative sense, a generalist is a person who is not an expert or

a scientist. But in a positive sense, the notion of a generalist is applicable to a
person who is described a professional administrator, if administration is to be
regarded as a field and a profession, as that of law, engineering or medicine. In
his/her professional capability a generalist possesses the skills and techniques
of a manager and a type of politician. As a manager, generalist is entrusted
with the responsibility of getting things done; and as a “politician”; he/she is
responsible for interpreting the public opinion in the context of the complex
social, economic, and even political troubles of the state. There are several
meanings attached to the term „generalist‟. In one strand of thought,
particularly the British, generalist means an amateur administrator who has
had education in linguistics or classics with a “liberal education augmented
through sure personal qualities of character, poise and leadership, good
intuitive judgment, right feelings, and a broad background rather than
narrowly specialized knowledge and skills”.

The second usage, very secure to what the Second Hoover Commission of
USA meant through a Senior Civil Service, identifies generalist as a “rank-in-
man corps” of highly experienced administrative specialists or career
executives who are accessible for flexible assignments and capable of
furnishing essential administrative advice and necessary policy support.

There is yet another school of thought which considers a person as a

generalist who is recognized through the proportion of administrative work
actually performed compared with his/her specialist duties. According to this
school, a specialist can turn out to be a generalist, when he/she performs
managerial or administrative duties, either in the higher hierarchies of his/ her
own functional field or outside his/her specific discipline.

A related and fourth usage refers to a person as a generalist who combines

both high competence in professional or administrative skills with training in
the area he/she administers. These are measured to be „super bureaucrats‟ who
can take a large and long- range view and are not limited through a narrow
picture of their substantive specialization.
 A generalist, has, though, been traditionally defined as one who possesses
no specialist or technical qualification in the sense of having earlier gone
through a specific vocational or professional course. But lately, even persons
belonging to techno-professional disciplines such as engineering, medicine,
agriculture etc., are gaining entry to the generalist fold, the assumption being
that there need be no correlation flanked by the substance of their specific
knowledge and the discharge of their generalist duties, howsoever specialized
some of these assignments may be. In an organization, be it a government
department or a public enterprise or any other administrative institution, as one
moves up in the hierarchy, the functions become more and more generalist in
nature. The generalist functions of policy creation and direction assume
importance. These functions more or less remain the same even in technical
departments like irrigation, health, agriculture etc. Hence what seems
significantly significant to be a generalist, is a mind, a mental discipline, a way
of thought and an angle of vision, which he/she acquires separately from the
liberal education, and through movement from post to post with wide-ranging,
diversified experiences. This helps the generalist in adopting a comprehensive
yet integrative approach to a diversity of troubles, uncontaminated through too
much knowledge about any one of them. Having recognized who a generalist
is, now let us discuss his/her role in administration.

ROLE OF GENERALISTS

The ancestry of the generalist dominating the administrative machinery at

the top can be traced to the administrative philosophy of England in nineteenth
century where generalist was made an absolute principle of administration.
The emphasis was on young graduates, who with no specific education or
technical background should form the elitist part of the administration. In
India also, as in England, this administrative arrangement came as the logical
extension of the same philosophy. The Indian Civil Service throughout the
British period dominated the administrative scene with its members deployed
on several positions in government. The experts and specialists throughout
those days were fewer in number and the Indian Civil Service was groomed
into an elite service.

If it is assumed that generalists are equipped with a vibrant mind and a

perceptive understanding of the whole field of administration, it is but natural
that they would be given the role of overseeing the top rung of the
administrative management. Therefore generalists have a supreme role in the
formulation of policy i.e. in assisting the political executives to evolve it—
with all the requisite data and advice as to the strong and weak points of a
projected policy. It is the generalist, who functioning usually as Secretary or
Head of Department, does the coordinating job and takes the necessary
measures, even in specialized matters, before they are put up to the ministers
who often are not specialists in those fields. The role of generalists in such
cases is one of the conveyor belt which funnels right type of data and advice in
such a manner that it can be used through top policy makers for action. The
„balancing‟ role i.e. performing re-conciliatory function flanked by conflicting
viewpoints is also played through the generalists. This is possible because of
their capability to view things in an overall perspective, generated on account
of their non-specialist background and exposure to wider fields of experience
and administrative reality.

The generalists also play a dominant role in problem-solving spheres.

Since mainly significant techno-professional work in the governmental
organizations has become inter-disciplinary, one arbiter in the form of a
generalist administrator is needed to articulate a rational, cost- effective,
mainly beneficial alternative solution. Moreover, in the implementation of
decisions, separately from policy formulation, the generalist‟s role is well
accepted and recognized.

The generalist has to function as a synthesizer, integrator, and coordinator

of knowledge as well as of action. He/she is a person who is supposed to be
competent enough to handle any situation or job pertaining to law and order,
emergency, public relations, planning, social change etc. The field experience
the generalist has is assumed to generate in him/her sure qualities like prompt
and sound decision creation, tact, imagination, objectivity, organizational
leadership etc. A special position is assigned to the generalists in
administration, as the political executives, who are usually lay people with
exposure to only peoples‟ troubles and not to technical expertise depend on the
„administrator‟ i.e. generalist, with whom they have identity of approach, ideas
and ideals.

SPECIALISTS—MEANING

A specialist is one who has special knowledge in some scrupulous field.

Specialists in government, are so, those who are recruited to posts for which
professional, scientific, technical or other specialist qualifications are essential
and comprises engineers, scientists, doctors, lawyers, statisticians, economists
and other technical people. To qualify as a specialist, the vital requirement
should be an „institutional‟ specialty, that is to say, one necessity have a pre-
employment spell of either techno-professional academic education and/or
pre-entry vocational or occupational training. The hallmark of a specialist is,
therefore, said to be devotion to the discipline, sustained commitment to
his/her professional cause and practice and pursuit of a specialty. Pro-
generalists usually view specialists as narrow, uni- disciplinary professionals
who treat all issues from a very limited angle or vision. Also they are
incapable of comprehending in a holistic manner the complexities of live
administrative and management troubles and hence are unfit to hold top policy
posts.
ROLE OF SPECIALISTS

There is no doubt that present day administration has become technical,

professional, and specialized. The concept of „development‟ viewed as a
dynamic procedure, directed towards transformation of the whole society
including socio-political and economic characteristics, has a major impart on
the functions of bureaucracy. If the state has to be accepted, in the procedure
of modernization, as regulator, mediator, provider of services, economic and
social diagnostician, the bureaucracy has to offer the vital support to the states
playing such a role. For doing so, the bureaucracy necessity is professionally
equipped... Whether it is an administration dominated through generalists or
specialists the fact remains that every one necessity be professional in the role,
as without professionalism the chances of success are limited.
The assumption that the technical element in the administration is a minor
factor or experts do not have holistic, comprehensive approach cannot be
totally correct. One of the significant factors responsible for the narrow
outlook of the specialists is the system of their education and training. It may
not likewise be correct that generalist has all the necessary specialized
elements or can fully comprehend and judge flanked by conflicting expert
advice. Hence, the services of both are required in administration.
The specialist inputs are required in tackling the complex and technical
troubles of modem administration which have become quite technical. Also
the several areas in the administration call for varied skills, expertise, and
experience. In programme planning in the scientific and technical fields, and
in execution of such projects, the specialists‟ inputs are vitally necessary. All
the policy creation and decision creation functions in the specialist jurisdiction
of the government necessity are the responsibility of the specialists.
Administration is taking charge of managing vast changes following the
assumption of all developmental functions through the government in the
social and economic life of the people. Administration in future is going to be
characterized through new growths in the fields of science and technology,
social and behavioral sciences, decision creation, human relations in
management etc. Each of these areas requires professionalistic intervention.
For instance, the introduction of the computer has made a important impact on
the nature of administration. It helps not only in information storage, retrieval,
and communication, but also in decision creation.
Separately from these, even in the traditional areas of administration there
is rising recognition of the role of specialists. For instance, a District
Collector, as head of the administration at district stage, in the discharge of
regular functions, requires the expert advice of other specialists working in the
district like the engineers, District Health Officers etc.
CONTROVERSY FLANKED BY THE GENERALISTS AND
SPECIALISTS IN INDIA

The genesis of the „generalist and specialist‟ controversy in India can

largely be traced to the concept of „nearness‟ or „remoteness‟ from the area of
top policy creation. It is more post- centered rather than person-oriented, and
the tussle flanked by the two is in reality for holding sure positions. The real
debate should be around formulating a satisfactory and adequate staffing
policy or better still, evolving a progressive, constructive and objective-
oriented, egalitarian personnel philosophy. Let us now discuss the reasons
responsible for the controversy flanked by the generalists and specialists.

Sure historical reasons are responsible for establishing the supremacy of

the generalist in Indian administration, which also accentuated the dichotomy
flanked by these two categories of personnel. It comprised young persons who
on the basis of a competitive examination gained entry to it. It was a
hierarchical career pattern from the district to the central stage with majority
of the posts reserved for members of the Indian Civil Service. The „intelligent
amateur theory‟ reigned supreme in the constitution of the generalist services.
As you all are aware, this sustained even after Independence as it was felt that
the old frame of public services was quite useful to give stability to the
government, in tackling the troubles of law and order, integration of princely
states etc. Hence the concept of All-India Services was evolved with the
Indian Administrative Service replacing the earlier Indian Civil Service.
Hence, the supremacy of the generalist civil service recognized in India, was
the result of sure historical circumstances. This led to resentment in the
technical and functional services which also wanted to be entrusted with
policy creation functions.

The suitability of the generalist for all policy creation positions is

questioned through specialists on the ground that the change in the functions
of government in present times calls for sure professionalism which is not
possessed to such an extent through the generalists. Also through reserving all
senior managerial positions to the generalists especially to the IAS, the
government is deprived of the expert advice and specialized knowledge of the
specialists. Though it is usually argued through the pro-generalists that the
field experience gained through them at the district and state stages in the
initial years of their career helps them in the task of decision creation. But the
specialists feel that this field experience is not enough to discharge the multi-
varied tasks of the government which requires special or expert knowledge.
And also, this sort of field experience is not just the prerogative of the
generalists as it can be secured through the specialists. For instance, a doctor
working in a Primary Health Centre is exposed to all sorts of field troubles as
can be experienced through a District Collector. This creates him/her acquire
sure administrative skills in addition to his/her technical competence.

Another point of contention flanked by the generalists and specialists

comes from their being organized into separate hierarchies. This leads to
situations where the expert advice rendered through the specialist is submitted
to the generalist for his/her approval. This is justified on the ground that since
specialists tend to have a biased outlook tilted towards their specialty and
since policy creation needs to consider matters in totality, the generalist is best
suited to take the final decision. This is due to specialists being denied access
to senior administrative positions.

Yet another characteristic of the controversy relates to the privileged

position enjoyed through the Indian Administrative Service due to high salary,
better career prospects, and also its monopoly of top administrative positions
as posts of secretaries in the government departments; in fact even the
positions of heads of mainly executive departments are reserved for the
generalists. Career wise too, a member of the Indian Administrative Service
after serving for about ten years or so in a state administration, moves to the
Central Secretariat and at times becomes even the Secretary of a department or
ministry. The specialists feel that their position and status in the administrative
hierarchy is not commensurate with the contribution they create to the
technological advancement of the country. Their being denied access to the
policy creation powers is attributed to their being overshadowed through the
generalists.

The generalists often move from one department to the other and at times
to a public enterprise or even a semi-movement institution. But the mobility of
the specialists is restricted in the sense that they are transferred or promoted in
the same department. The specialists view the frequent movement of the
generalists as a hindrance in the way of acquiring adequate and in-depth
knowledge in any one characteristic of the department‟s work.

This, the specialists feel may have a negative impact on proper policy
creation. The superficiality of this much spoken polarization flanked by a
generalist bureaucrat and a specialist technocrat is being slowly realized and
accepted in several quarters. It is being felt that the „intelligent amateur‟
theory prevalent in Britain throughout the nineteenth century does not hold
good now. With the growth of science and technology the administration has
become very complex in nature. Hence the present day administration requires
the services of both generalists and specialists and there is need for
encouraging cooperation flanked by the two.

India‟s Second Five Year Plan mentions that „distinction flanked by

administrators and technical personnel exercising administrative functions,
and/or flanked by officials in dissimilar grades and cadres which are
sometimes drawn, are already out of place‟. The Fourth Five Year Plan is even
more forthright in creation a commitment for altering the structure of
administration so that specialists, technicians, and experts may be enabled to
create their contribution in a reasonable manner at all stages of administration.

It is significant for us to discuss the recommendations of the

Administrative Reforms Commission (1969) on this issue. The Commission
took note of the fact that the nature of the functions of the government has
undergone a important change. With emergence of new areas of
administration it needs a diversity of skills to administer several programmes
of development. It felt that still a great relevance is placed on the „generalist‟.
Due to rising technological sophistication, the Commission observed that
several of the posts in the specialized and technical areas can be filled
adequately through experts who have the knowledge of the relevant discipline.
It is only due to their lack of opportunity and proper career development that
the specialists have not acquired necessary skills for holding the higher
administrative positions in the Secretariat. The Commission recommended (a)
a rational system of filling policy advisory positions with men possessing the
required qualifications and competence, (b) senior management posts to be
filled through both generalists and specialists, (c) adoption of a rational pay
structure so as to reflect the actual responsibilities of each job, (d) to enable
talent in the lower ranks to move up to higher positions in the civil service on
the basis of competence and performance.

The Fulton Committee (1968) in its report on the re-organization of the

British Civil Service also commented that “our aim is not to replace specialists
through administrators, or vice-versa. They should be complementary to one
another. It is rather, that the administrator, trained and experienced in his
subject matter, should enjoy a more fruitful relationship with the specialist
than in the past, and the service should harness the best contribution from
each”.

There is no denying the fact that in their own functional situations both
generalists and specialists have significant contributions to create. It is neither
feasible nor desirable to replace one category through the other. Indeed it is
not as though something tremendous is going to be achieved if all generalists
were to be replaced through specialists. Likewise, jobs of pure specialists
cannot also be taken over through generalists, as for instance, the functions of
the Chief of Army Staff cannot be taken over through a Secretary to a
Government department. Therefore, while, co-subsistence in the middle of the
specialists and generalists has to be accepted as a fundamental fact of
administrative life, the real issue is in what fashion or in what structure or role
the relationship should exist.
EVOLVING A APPROPRIATE WAY OUT

One way to tackle this problem is to experiment with integrated hierarchy

in place of present „separate‟ and „parallel‟ hierarchies. In separate hierarchies,
policy is determined through the generalists and the function of the specialists
is to execute it. Whereas in parallel hierarchy, each class has its own parallel
sub-hierarchy and work flanked by the two is coordinated through frequent
liaison. The organization of generalists and specialists in separate hierarchies,
with the policy and financial characteristics of the work reserved exclusively
for generalist administrators, has sure disadvantages such as slowing down the
procedure of decision creation and management, generating inefficiency and
preventing the specialists from exercising the full range of responsibilities
normally associated with their professions.

To overcome these and also to remove the barriers that at present debar the
specialists from reaching the top stages of management, wider outlets need to
be provided through suitably modifying the prevailing concept of „monopoly
of generalist‟ i.e. through encouraging liberal entry of specialists as
administrative and policy functionaries at key stages. More importantly the
specialists should be integrated into the main hierarchy, and beside with other
generalist administrators, sharing equal responsibilities in policy formulation
and management. They should enjoy identical status, executive responsibility,
and authority which would help in preservation of their morale and
confidence. Such an integration scheme enables technical experts to be in the
„central pipeline‟ so that technical advice and policy structures are not
separated into water-tight compartments. A total distinction flanked by policy
creation and executive functioning is neither possible nor desirable because
policy has often to flow out of executive experience. Integrated hierarchy
could be brought about through constituting a unified civil service consisting
of both generalists and specialists with uniform emoluments and other
circumstances of service. In India, while no steps were taken in this direction,
Pakistan went ahead in creating a unified civil service in 1973 wherein all the
services and cadres in their civil service were merged in one service.

Of late, sure measures have been taken in our country to induct specialists
into higher administrative positions at the Centre as well as in States. The
Department of Atomic Energy has all beside been headed through a nuclear
scientist. Likewise, the Department of Space and Electronics also had
technical persons as Secretaries and so is the case with the Department of
Science and Technology which has a scientist as a Secretary. Scientific
research organizations and departments are also dominated through scientists.

Another experiment which has been tried to provide specialists due place
in areas of policy creation and administration is conferring on them the ex-
officio status of Joint/Additional Secretary to the Government. For instance,
members of the Railway Board, who are heads of operating departments, are
ex-officio secretaries in the Ministry of Railways.

The present need obviously is for more purposive development of

professionalism in administration. The base of such professionalism is not
necessarily provided through a single specialty but a diversity of backgrounds
and disciplines. For instance, the administrators of price policy necessity know
in enough depth and detail all the economic implications of that scrupulous
measure. Hence it becomes essential for the government to organize at the top
an expert layer of personnel, who though initially coming from either the
generalist or specialist background, would need to be developed into a
professionally competent group in order not merely to effectively execute
programmes but also to aid and advise the top political executives in matters
of significant policies.

The ARC was also of the opinion that there is a need for more purposive
development of professionalism in public services. This could be brought
about through innovative training programmes and career planning and
development. It is desirable to inculcate the desired functional specialism
required for the generalists and also „generalist‟ qualifications for the
specialists. Though proper career planning is not being seriously thought of in
public services, the Department of Personnel, Training, has to think seriously
in this direction. The Central Training Division in the Department of
Personnel, through training programmes like the Executive Development
Programmes for senior officials, annual training conferences on specific
themes etc. is trying to create both the generalists and specialists aware of the
growths in the subject matter, and also about several characteristics of
management, programme planning etc.

One of the major causes of discontent in the middle of the specialists, as

discussed earlier, is the demand for higher salary and emoluments on par with
the generalists. It appears that the imbalances still persist.

DEVELOPMENT OF PUBLIC SERVICES IN INDIA

CIVIL SERVICES UNTIL THE ADVENT OF THE EAST INDIA

COMPANY

Until the Maury an period in Indian history beginning around 321 B.C.,
there is insufficient data on the structure of Indian public services or their
management. Kautilya‟s Arthasastra, written around 300 B.C., is an extensive
treatise on government and administration. It is mentioned that „Amatyas‟ and
„Sachivas‟ were the significant administrative functionaries throughout the
Maury an period. There were „sthanikas‟ who used to function as executive
officials. The highest ranking officers in the administrative hierarchy were the
„mantrins‟ who were chosen from amongst the „Amatyas‟. Throughout the
Gupta period too, it is said that civil administration was under the charge of
the „Mantrins‟. A new office of „Sandhivigrahika‟ who was in charge of
foreign affairs, was introduced throughout this period.

In ancient times, recruitment to these offices was done on the basis of

heredity and family background. In India, recruitment on the basis of open
competitive system was not recognized throughout that period, though in
China, such a system was in vogue since 120 B.C. Throughout the Moghul
period the administrative system was centralised. No distinction was made
flanked by the civil and military administration. Civil Service was organized
on a military basis and controlled through the military department. The
Moghul administration in India presented a combination of sure characteristics
of the Arabic administrative system with sure classical Indian administrative
practices. The attendance of this foreign element in the Moghul administration
can be illustrated through reference to their provincial administration.

In the early centuries of the Arab rule, especially in Egypt, two political
functions were sharply distinguished, the governorship and treasury. The
Governor (described „Amir‟) had control over the military and police only.
Alongside was the head of the treasury (described „Amil‟). These two officers
provided an effective system of neutral checks and balances. Under the
Moghul administration too, this was the relationship flanked by the „Subahdar‟
or provincial governor and the „Diwan‟ or the revenue chief of the province.

CIVIL SERVICES UNDER THE EAST INDIA COMPANY (1675-1875)

Formative Stage
The development of the civil services in India dates back to the first
quarter of the 17th century, when some British merchants, under the banner of
the East India Company, came to India for the purposes of trade. The earliest
organised civil service in British-India was the „Covenanted Civil Service‟
which constituted a group of men who accepted on the trade of the East India
Company and were recognized as its „civil servants‟. These were separate
from the naval and military officers of the company. The servants of the
company were purely commercial mediators, recognized as „factors‟ and were
in charge of the trading stations which were recognized beside the sea coasts.
These „factors‟ were neither statesmen nor administrators, but those who had
some knowledge of Eastern trade.
 In 1675, the company recognized a regular gradation of posts. Therefore a
young man was recruited first as an „apprentice‟ to later become a „writer‟
and, after serving in this capability for five years, could be promoted as a
„factor‟. The „factors‟ after putting in three years service could be promoted as
„Junior Merchants‟ who usually after a period of three years of service could
become „Senior Merchants‟. The business transacted through these officials
was commercial in nature. Initially, the power of appointment to these posts
vested with the Court of Committees but, in 1714, it was laid down that
appointments in the company were to be made through the recommendatory
nomination of the members of the Court of Directors. Every writer had to
enter into a covenant or indenture with the company. It was a long document
which contained several circumstances including faithful, honest, diligent, and
careful service and bound the writers to observe, keep, and fulfill each and
every order of the company and the Court of Directors. Hence they were
recognized as covenanted civil servants. This patronage principle operated in
varied modes and forms till 1833, when limited competitive element in the
selection of company writers was introduced.

1765-1853—The Mercantile Service Assuming the Role of an

Administrative Service
For over a century and a half, the service remained a purely commercial
service. Later, from 1760 onwards, as trade expanded administrative tasks
increased and the civil service of the company started assuming more
administrative responsibilities. Through 1765 the term „civil servant‟ came to
be used in the records of the company. The grant of Diwani to the Company
through the Moghuls in 1765, was another landmark in the territorial
acquisition of the company and consequent augment in the administrative
duties of the civil servants of the company. In 1772, the directors of the
company decided to function as diwans themselves and took over the
administration. Besides the civil service needed to be streamlined, as there was
the problem of the covenanted servants being engaged in private trade and
bribery.
 The Regulating Act of 1773 made a clear distinction flanked by the civil
and commercial functions of the company which resulted in a separate
personnel classification. The commercial transactions of the company were to
be kept separate from revenue and judicial administration, which were to be
mannered through a separate class of servants. The Act also prohibited private
trading through all those civil servants responsible for collection of revenues
or administration of justice. Private trading was restricted to those engaged in
commercial transactions. It forbade civil servants from accepting any gifts
from the people.

The patronage principle which was in vogue in the recruitment of servants,

was also extended to promotions in the service. Nepotism was rampant and all
this had an effect on the civil service which was demoralised. The Pitt‟s India
Act of 1784 with regard to civil service laid down that the vacancies in the
Governor General‟s Council were to be filled through the covenanted civil
servants. The Crown was given the power of removing or recalling any
servant of the company. The Act for the first time laid down age limits for new
entrants in the service of the company. It fixed the minimum age for
appointment to the post of writer at fifteen years and maximum at eighteen
years.

It can be said that the Charter Act of 1793 made a important contribution
to the development of civil services in India. It laid down that any vacancy
occurring in any of the civil offices in India “shall be filled from amongst the
civil servants of the company belonging to the Presidency in which such
vacancies occurred”. The Act excluded outsiders from entering the service
even though they enjoyed patronage in England. The Act tried to improve the
morale of the civil service through creation it a closed and exclusive service.
The maximum age limit for appointment to the post of writer was raised to 22
years.

In 1800, Governor General Wellesley, recognized the college at Fort

Williams with the objective of training civil servants. But this was not favored
through the Court of Directors. Finally, in 1806, the Court of Directors
decided to set up a training institution at Haileybury in England which was
accorded a statutory status through the Charter Act of 1813. The writers
nominated through the Court of Directors of the Company were required to
undergo two years of training at the institution and pass an examination before
they were confirmed as writers. The areas of training incorporated European
classical languages, law, political economy, general history, oriental languages
etc. This College was abolished later in 1857.

The designations of merchants, factors etc., sustained till 1842 even

though they did not perform any commercial functions after the Charter Act of
1833. This Act, which totally prohibited trade and commerce, proposed a
important change in the civil services. It proposed the introduction of a limited
competitive examination. The need for a strong bureaucracy was felt in the
1830s as a replacement for the patronage exercised through the Company. A
system of open competition through examination and adequate provision of
education and training of the civil servants was sought. The proposal for open
competition which was mooted for the first time through Lord Grenville in
1813, could never materialize.

Lord Macaulay, speaking in the British Parliament on 10th July, 1833 on

the Charter Act said „it is planned to introduce the principle of competition in
the disposal of writer ships and from this change I cannot but anticipate the
happiest results”. A clause was inserted in the Charter Act granted to the
company declaring that henceforth fitness was to be the criterion of eligibility
to the civil services irrespective of caste, creed, or color.

The proposal of having open competition did not come into effect till
1853, though the Charter Act contained a provision in this regard. The old
powers, rights, of the Court of Directors to nominate candidates for admission
to the College of Haileybury were to cease in regard to all vacancies which
occurred on or after April 1854. The Act provided for appointment of
members of the covenanted civil service of India on the basis of a appropriate
competitive examination which was to be held in London. The President of
Board of Control, Sir Charles Wood appointed a five-member Committee
headed through Lord Macaulay to advice on the measures to be adopted to
provide effect to the Act of 1853, which, at least in theory, threw open
appointments in the Indian Civil Service to competition without any
discrimination. The committee (popularly recognized as Committee on the
Indian Civil Service) laid down sure age limits for admission to the college of
Haileybury. It desired that the minimum age limit be raised to eighteen and the
maximum to twenty-five. It was in favor of civil servants entering the service
at a young age but also specified, that they should have received the best, the
mainly liberal, the mainly finished education that the country could then
afford. It laid emphasis on general education, strengthening of understanding,
which precedes special education or training in any ability. The Committee
recommended the selection of candidates on the results of a competitive
examination, and also laid stress on the need for completion of a period of
probation before the final appointment of the candidates. It was not in favor of
continuance of the College at Haileybury. It also laid down that the
examination should be so mannered as to ensure the selection of candidates
with thorough and not superficial knowledge.

These recommendations were accepted through the Board of Control and

regulations were framed governing the examination and selection of
candidates to the civil service. The first examination under the Board of
Control was held in 1856.

IMPERIAL CIVIL SERVICE (1858-1917)

On the termination of company‟s government in 1858, Indian

administration came directly under the Crown. The Government of India Act,
1858 vested the power of superior appointments of a political nature with Her
Majesty. Her powers, in actual practice, were exercisable through the
Secretary of State for India, a Minister of Cabinet rank, who was to be assisted
through an under secretary and a council of fifteen members. The powers and
functions exercised through the Board of Control and Court of Directors were
transferred to the Secretary of State in Council. The responsibility for the
conduct of competitive examinations for appointment to her Majesty‟s civil
service was transferred to the Civil Service Commission (set up in 1855) in
London.

With 1858, started a new era in the history of public services in India. The
system of reserving sure posts for the members of the covenanted service was
introduced. This sustained unto Independence and still to some extent is a part
of the successor service i.e. the Indian Administrative Service. The Indian
Civil Service Act, 1861 reserved sure principal posts to be filled from the
covenanted service. All these posts were put in a schedule. It also laid down
that any person, Indian or European, could be appointed to any of the offices
specified in the schedule annexed to the Act provided he had resided for at
least seven years in India. A person appointed under it had to pass an
examination in the vernacular language of the district in which he was
employed and also remain subject to such departmental tests and other
qualifications as the authorities might impose. All appointments were to be
reported to the Secretary of State and unless approved through him within
twelve months, were declared void. The provisions of this Act did not
obviously satisfy the Indian public opinion and its rising demand for
Idealization of services. The Act virtually remained a „dead letter‟ partly on
account of the disinclination of authorities to provide effect to it and largely
because of the vital difficulty in implementing the recruitment necessities of
the Act.

There was rising demand through educated Indians to secure employment

in the Covenanted Civil Service. There was failure on the part of British to
fulfill the assurance given in the Government of India Act, 1833 and Queen‟s
Proclamation of 1858. The Act provided that no Indian „shall through cause of
his religion, place of birth, descent, color, or any of them, be disabled from
holding any place, or employment‟ under the Government of the East India
Company. The selection based on patronage prevented Indians from getting
into the service. Though open competition was introduced under the Charter
Act of 1853, the provisions such as fulfillment of fitness criteria for
competition, holding of examination in London did not let Indians compete.

The British Parliament passed an Act in 1870 authorizing the appointment

of any Indian (of proved merit and skill) to any office or the civil service
without reference to the Act of 1861 which reserved specific appointments to
the covenanted service. It also did not create the desired headway, as the
opinion was divided on throwing open all civil appointments, or establishing a
proportion flanked by Indians and Europeans in the tenure of higher offices.

New rules were framed in 1879, which recognized the Statutory Civil
Service; it provided that a fifth of covenanted civil service posts was to be
filled through the natives. Only Indians were eligible to be appointed to this
through the local government subject to approval of Government of India and
the Secretary of State. Unluckily, the statutory system also failed to achieve
the purpose for which it was created. With the Indian National Congress,
passing in its very first session, in December, 1885, a resolution for
simultaneous civil service examination in England and India, the pressure for
Idealization increased further. The British government decided to consider the
question of admission of Indians either to the covenanted civil service or to the
offices formerly reserved exclusively to the members of the service.

Aitchison Commission
A Commission headed through Sir Charles Aitchison was appointed in
1886, to prepare a scheme of admission of Indians to every branch of public
service. It was expected to look into the question of employment of Indians
not only in appointments, ordinarily reserved through law for members of the
covenanted civil service but also in the uncovenanted service covering lower
stage administrative appointments. The Commission rejected the thought of
altering the system of recruitment to the covenanted civil service. It advised
the abolition of the Statutory Civil Service and advocated a three-fold
classification of civil services into Imperial, Provincial and Subordinate. The
provincial service was an exclusive sphere of extended Indian employment in
the public service. It also proposed a reduction of the list of the scheduled
posts reserved through the Act of 1861 for the members of the covenanted
civil service and the transfer of a sure number of posts to the provincial civil
service.

As recommended through the Commission, the Statutory Civil Service was

abolished. The designation covenanted civil service was also done absent with
and the civil services of the country were divided into three grades—the
imperial, provincial and subordinate civil service. The superior posts were
incorporated in the imperial civil service and recruitment to it was to be made
through the Secretary for State in Council. The provincial civil service was
designated after the name of the scrupulous province to which it belonged.
The lower stage grades of the uncovenanted service were constituted into a
subordinate service. The practice of holding examinations for entry to the civil
service in England, sustained as the Commission strongly advocated it. It was
of the view that since the Indian Civil Service represented the only permanent
English official element in India, examinations in England become essential to
maintain the English principles and methods of the government.

The demand for Idealization became persistent and there was mounting
pressure for holding simultaneous examinations in England and India. Once
again, the question of Idealization was examined through a Public Service
Commission in 1912 under the chairmanship of Lord Islington, the then
Governor of New Zealand. The Commission observed that at that time Indians
constituted only 5% of the civil service. The Commission supported “two
separate channels of access to the Indian Civil Service itself, one in England
(open to all alike) and one in India (open to statutory natives of India only)”. It
sought to apply a method for inducting Indians to the higher offices through
reserving twenty-five per cent posts for them, i.e. 189 out of 755 posts were to
be filled through them. It proposed categorization of the services under the
Government of India into Class I and II. But no radical change in the structure
of the organization of the civil service was envisaged through the
Commission. Also it took almost four years for it to submit the report. As a
result, due to lapse of time, the proposed measures came to be regarded as
inadequate through the enlightened public opinion in India.

CIVIL SERVICES UNDER THE GOVERNMENT OF INDIA ACT,

1919 AND 1935

On 20th August 1917, E.S. Montague, the then Secretary of State in India,
issued the historic declaration in the House of Commons announcing the
British Government‟s new policy of “rising association of Indians in every
branch of the administration, development of self governing institutions with a
view to the progressive realization of responsible Government in India as an
integral part of British Empire”. A year later, i.e. in 1918, Montague and
Chelmsford (the then Viceroy), both in their joint report on Constitutional
changes, expressed supplementing the recruitment to civil services in England
through fixing a definite percentage of recruits from India. The percentage was
fixed at thirty-three per cent for superior posts with an annual augment of one
and a half per cent. They proposed an augment in percentage of recruitment to
other services in India. They were in favor of appointments to be open to all
branches of public services without racial discrimination and holding a
separate competitive examination in India.

The Government of India Act, 1919 on Constitutional reforms

recommended a threefold classification of services into All India, provincial
and subordinate. All the Imperial services then functioning in the provinces
whether in the reserved or transferred departments, were designated as the „All
India Services‟. Special safeguards were guaranteed to the members of All
India Services in regard to dismissal, salaries, pensions, and other rights. The
Act proposed as a safeguard against political influence the constitution of a
Public Service Commission entrusted with the task of recruitment to the
service.

In 1922, the first competitive examination was held under the supervision
of the Civil Service Commission. The Indian candidates selected on the basis
of its results were put on probation for two years at an English University.

The Lee Commission

In the midst of great, political power in India over the negative British
response towards Idealization of services and in view of the many complicated
troubles in relation to the public service matters, in 1923 a Royal Commission
on Superior Civil Services in India under the chairmanship of Lord Lee was
appointed. The Commission recommended the division of main services into
three classes: (a) All India (b) central and (c) provincial. The central services
were those which dealt with the Indian states and foreign affairs, with
administration of the state railways, posts and telegraphs, customs, audit and
accounts, scientific and technical departments. The Commission
recommended that the Secretary of State should retain the powers of
appointment and control of the All India Services (mainly Indian Civil
Service, Indian Police Service, Indian Medical Service, Indian Forest Service,
and Indian Service of Engineers) operating in the reserved fields of
administration. The mainly significant recommendation of the Lee
Commission was concerning services operating in the transferred fields (e.g.
Indian Educational Service, Indian Agricultural Service, Indian Veterinary
Services etc.), whose further recruitment and appointments were to be made
through the concerned local governments. Therefore those services were to be
provincials. The existing members of the All India Services were to retain all
rights of the officers of All India Services, but the provincial governments
were given powers of appointment only on occurrence of fresh vacancies.

In regard to the central services, the Commission limited the power of

appointment of Secretary of State to the Political Department, Imperial
Customs Department, and the Ecclesiastical Department. Appointments to all
the other central services were to be made through the Government of India.
The Commission recommended twenty per cent of superior posts to be filled
through promotion from provincial service. To maintain superior standards of
recruitment through regulating the exercise of patronage, the Commission
urged the establishment of the Statutory Public Service Commission (as
recommended through the Government of India Act, 1919). This Public
Service Commission was to perform the functions of recruitment of personnel
for the All India, central and provincial services, and also other quasi-judicial
functions linked with discipline, control, and protection of the services. It also
made detailed recommendations about the several circumstances of service
like pay, pension, leave, passage, housing etc. As regards Idealization, it
suggested that out of every hundred posts of Indian Civil Service, forty should
be filled through direct recruitment of Europeans, forty through the direct
recruitment of Indians and twenty through promotion from the provincial
service so that in fifteen years i.e. through 1939, half would be held through
Indians and half through Europeans.

The recommendations of the Lee Commission were accepted through the

British Government. With the discontinuance of the All India Services in the
transferred departments, the only All India Services which survived were the
Indian Civil Service, Indian Police, Indian Service of Engineers (Irrigation
Branch), Indian Medical Service (Civil Branch) and Indian Forest Service
(except in the provinces of Burma and Bombay). The Public Service
Commission in India was set up in 1926 and the examination for recruitment
to civil service in 1927 was supervised through it on behalf of the Civil
Service Commission in England.

The Government of India Act, 1935 (Idealization of Higher Civil Services

etc.)
As the Act of 1935 introduced provincial autonomy under responsible
Indian Ministers, the rights and privileges of the members of the civil services
were cautiously protected. The protection of the rights and privileges of the
civil service was a special responsibility of both the Governors and the
Governor General. It was provided that a civil servant was not to be dismissed
from service through an authority below the rank of the officers who had
appointed him. The salaries, pensions, emoluments were not subject to the
vote of the legislature. The Act also provided for the setting up of a Public
Service Commission for the federation and a Public Service Commission for
each of the provinces, though two or more provinces could agree to have a
Joint Public Service Commission. .

As a result of introduction of provincial autonomy under the Act, only

three services i.e. Indian Civil Service, the Indian Police Service, and Indian
Medical Service were to continue as All India Services. Recruitment to other
All India Services (Indian Agricultural Service, Veterinary Service,
Educational Service, Service of Engineers, and Forest) was provincials, their
recruitment, and control coming under the provincial government. The serving
members sustained on existing conditions and the circumstances of service
were fully protected.

CIVIL SERVICES IN THE POST-INDEPENDENCE ERA

After Independence the structure of the civil services underwent a change.

Three kinds of services viz., All India Services, central services, and state
services were created.

All India Services

The Constitution of India had recognized only two All India Services
namely the Indian Administrative Service and Indian Police Service. The
Indian Administrative Service replaced the former Indian Civil Service and
likewise in 1951 Indian Police Service was constituted in place of the Indian
Police. In 1966 another All-India Service i.e. the Indian Forest Service, was
created. The members of the All India Services, like the central services are
recruited and trained through the central government, but they are assigned to
dissimilar states. They serve the respective state government to which they are
allotted and their service circumstances are also governed through the states,
except that disciplinary action against them can be taken only through the
President of India in consultation with the Union Public Service Commission.
They also serve the central government on deputation and after a fixed tenure,
they are expected to return to their respective states.

In 1951, All India Services Act was passed. Through virtue of powers
conferred through sub-section (1) of Section (3) of this Act, the central
government framed new set of rules and regulations pertaining to the All-India
Services, as the old rules at sure places had become redundant.

Central Services
These services are under the control of the Union Government and are
responsible for the administration of central subjects. These contain, Indian
Foreign Service, Indian Audit & Accounts Service, and Indian Postal Service
etc.
State Services
These are services exclusively under the jurisdiction of the state
governments and primarily administer the state subjects. Though 33 per cent
of posts in the All-India Services are filled through promotion from the state
services. This three-fold classification of services reflects the Constitutional
pattern of division of subjects into Union, State, and Concurrent. Also this is a
unique characteristic of our federal system.

Recommendations of Administrative Reforms Commission on Civil Services

As a sequel to the forming of the Department of Administrative Reforms
in 1964, Administrative Reforms Commission (ARC) was set up in 1966. Its
objective was to focus on “the need for ensuring highest standards of
efficiency and integrity in the public services and for creation public
administration a fit instrument for carrying out the social economic goals of
development as also one which is responsive to the people”. The twenty
reports of the Commission containing in all 581 recommendations constituted
landmark efforts at
Adapting the administrative system or procedure to the demands of
developmental functions or tasks;
Improving efficiency, effecting economy and raising administrative
standards;
Maintaining a balance flanked by the demands of the present and needs
of the future, as well as flanked by innovative change and
administrative stability;
Promoting responsiveness of the administration to the people.

The Commission, aided and advised through three revise teams, made
fervent plea for professionalism and specialism in the civil services. It made
recommendations for systematic planning for cadre management in civil
services, new systems of performance appraisal and promotion. Civil Service
Tribunals, training etc. One of the significant recommendations, which was
expected to create a profound impact on the human resource management
system in the central government related to the setting up of a central
personnel agency in the form of a separate Department of Personnel
functioning directly under the Prime Minister. This structural reorganization
was expected to systematize and rationalize the management of human
possessions from a central point with a uniform directional focus.

BASES OF BUREAUCRACY
BASIS OF POSITION OF BUREAUCRACY

There are dissimilar personnel systems in dissimilar countries. Indeed, it is

hard to find uniformity in the matter of personnel practices, civil service laws,
bureaucratic structure, and other dimensions of bureaucracy. Every country
has its own societal tradition, environmental compulsions, economic and
institutional influences which shape the administrative and personnel system
of the government. Bureaucracy occupies an significant place in every system.
What is significant is to know the basis of position of bureaucracy from where
does it derive its authority, since all the administrative powers are vested in
bureaucracy. Concerning this there is neither a common practice or theory.
The French Constitution laid down that the fundamental principles governing
the civil service fall within the domain of law and authority of legislature. But
application fell within the sphere of regulation of authority of the executive i.e.
the parliamentary legislation and rules and regulations made through the
executive there under constitute the basis of bureaucracy. In the United
Kingdom, civil service had been regarded as „Sovereign‟s Service‟. The
Parliament being sovereign, it can create any law that it deems fit concerning
the organization and regulation of matters concerning bureaucracy. In USA,
part of the civil service is controlled through Statutes/Acts passed through the
Congress and the other part through the President through instructions and
orders within the framework of laws.
 In India, the bureaucracy derives authority from the Constitution,
parliamentary legislations, rules, regulations issued within the framework of
statutes. Parliament may make All India Services common to the Union and
the States and also regulate the recruitment and circumstances of service of
members of such services. The Indian Administrative Service (I.A.S.) and the
Indian Police Service (I.P.S.) which came into being prior to the
commencement of the Constitution were deemed to be services created
through Parliament under Article 312. Parliament has enacted the All-India
Services Act to regulate the recruitment and other circumstances of service of
the All-India Services in consultation with the states.

There are a large number of rules and regulations concerning the several
characteristics of service circumstances of the members of All-India Services,
framed in pursuance of the authority given under the State Acts. So far as the
Central Services are concerned, Parliament has not framed any act so far. The
circumstances of service including recruitment of the Central Service Officers
are regulated through a large number of rules as well as regulations made in
pursuance of the authority given under Article 309 of the Constitution.

In a parliamentary democratic system where ultimate power belongs to the

people and is exercisable through their representatives in the Parliament, pure
discretionary and arbitrary rules concerning bureaucracy are not possible and
also not encouraged. In such a system, unlike in monarchical and feudal
systems of administration, right from recruitment and selection to their
retirement, everything is governed through specified rules, executive
instructions, and orders etc., issued through the executive organs of the
government from time to time. The position of bureaucracy is not exposed to
vagaries of individual whims or personal predilections. Patronage, nepotism,
and other forms of corruptive influences and norm deviations are sought to be
reduced. In other words, where the Constitution is supreme and parliamentary
legislation is the authority and the rules and regulations exist as governing
guidelines for bureaucracy, there is a greater scope for not only positive fair
play but also equities opportunity is afforded to all members of the society to
join the bureaucracy through prescribed procedures. Obviously, the base of
bureaucracy becomes not only Constitutionally ordained and legally well-
defined, but also gets broad based and representative.

BUREAUCRACY—REPRESENTATIVE NATURE

Bureaucracies in mainly of the countries till about the middle of the

nineteenth century comprised men drawn from a numerically small upper
classes as it was felt they were more capable to occupy administrative
positions. But slowly the introduction of merit for appointment to civil
services and the growth of representative institutions, emphasized the need for
having a representative bureaucracy. This interest derived, in the first instance,
in the U.K. from sporadic charges made about the unrepresentative character
of the British Civil Service and its domination through the middle class. It was
against this background that Kingsley‟s work on representative bureaucracy
(the term representative bureaucracy was first used through Donald Kingsley
in 1944) and Kensal‟s detailed revise of the social composition of the British
administrative class (1955) were undertaken. The social base of bureaucracy,
particularly the Administrative Class in Britain, had earlier been highly
„elitist‟. The landed aristocracy, the feudal lords, those who studied in Oxford
and Cambridge Universities used to be attracted to and shaped the central core
of the civil service which had high prestige and status. But with passage of
time, there has been broadening of the base, as more and more people from
working classes, are now entering the higher civil service through open
competition, besides being promoted from subordinate grades. For instance, in
Britain in 1966, a important component of the total membership of the
administrative class to the extent of 40% was promoted from lower ranks.
With the introduction of „Method II‟ examination for recruitment to civil
services, people with adequate learning capabilities are entering bureaucracy
which is now becoming more representative than before.

In France, Bottomore‟s researches (1954) into the French higher Civil

Service were in part inspired through modern accusations against it as an
unprogressive, urban middle class monopoly. Likewise, the Warner Groups, in
America in their revise on „The American

Federal Executive‟ (1963) planned to find out whether the bureaucrats

were representative of the types of citizens ordinarily found in America. The
social base of the American Civil Service is broader as compared to India or
the UK. Paul P. Vanriper attributed the success of American democracy, in
part at least, to the representative character of the Federal Civil Service.

The objective of all these studies as discussed above was to find out how
representative a higher civil service of the scrupulous country is of the
respective regions, occupational groups, and classes. It is felt that the more
representative the bureaucracy is of the several sections of society, it will be
more responsive to their needs.

BROADENING BASE OF INDIAN BUREAUCRACY

The modem state is an administrative state. As discussed earlier, the

functions of the government representing the state have expanded so
extensively and comprehensively that even the minutest characteristics of
citizen‟s life have been brought under the regulatory control of the state tools.
The government has become the prime mover, initiator, and promoter in
several activities, supplementing and complementing the private endeavors.
With the expansion of governmental charter of responsibilities bureaucratic
intervention and even penetration has become pronounced. It makes a great
demand on the educational system of the country, which has to throw up the
requisite number, and type of „marketable‟ bureaucrats of dissimilar kinds and
skills. There was a time when, in the context of limited educational
opportunities accessible, the “elites” of the society used to fill the higher civil
services of the country. The elitist character of the Indian Civil Service is well
recognized. Now with the frontiers of education expanding phenomenally
even the groups traditionally thought to be outside the administrative
umbrella, have now been brought within the ambit of bureaucracy. Those
belonging to rural areas, scheduled castes, scheduled tribes, and backward
castes are entering the bureaucracy and the base has expanded.

Let us now discuss the findings of a few research studies undertaken in

India on socio-economic background of the bureaucracy. The focus of these
studies has been on higher civil services. The first such revise relating to
public bureaucracy was mannered through R.K. Trivedi and D.N. Rao in 1960
on “Regular recruits to the IAS”, and sought to look into the background of
the directly recruited IAS officers with a view to finding out whether

(a) any important patterns or trends have appeared over the last thirteen
years in regard to their social background as revealed through their fathers‟
occupations and their rural/urban affiliations etc., (b) there is any
concentration of the direct recruits belonging to any scrupulous economic
class and (c) any scrupulous kind of education (e.g. public school or foreign
universities) or studies in sure local universities in the country have given any
added advantage to the candidates in the open competitive examinations.

This revise brought out the fact that in so far as the occupations of the
fathers of the regular recruits are concerned, there is predominance of
government servants, followed through teachers, advocates, etc. 79 per cent of
the total number of recruits were from urban areas while 21 per cent of them
were from rural areas. Women accounted for 3.1 per cent of the regular
recruits to the I.A.S. Those belonging to the scheduled castes and tribes
constituted 2.1 and 1.5 per cent respectively of the total recruits. The revise
further brought out that about 1/3 of the total number of recruits came from
upper income-bracket families. Though the average representation of persons
belonging to the lower income group is only 8.9 per cent, their numbers and
percentage have been steadily rising since 1950 at the expense of those in the
middle income group category. About 10.2 per cent and 4.4 per cent of the
recruits were those who were educated in public schools and foreign
universities respectively. Though, since 1956 an upward trend has been
noticeable. The universities which contributed the largest number of
successful candidates to the I.A.S. were the universities of Madras, Delhi,
Allahabad and Punjab.

Another revise was mannered through C.P. Bhambri throughout 1966-67

on the Socio-Economic Background of Higher Civil Service in India. The
sample comprised about 309 probationers undergoing training at the National
Academy of Administration, Mussoorie. Their educational background
revealed that about 75% of them had Master‟s degree from Indian Universities
while 11% possessed qualifications considerably higher than Master‟s degree.
The socio-economic background of the recruits showed heterogeneity as there
were children of persons holding the highest posts at the union and state stages
in the fields of administration, judiciary, army, police as well as children of
school teachers, clerks, revenue officials etc. In our country where an
overwhelming majority of the population is engaged in agriculture this revise
revealed that almost 17% of the recruits into the higher civil services belonged
to fanning families. Out of these 17%, mainly of them with an agricultural
background belonged to middle income brackets in the rural society and a
small number were from rich landowning class.

The after that revise that was undertaken in 1971 was through
Subramaniam, entitled “Social Background of India‟s Administrators”. This
research revise revealed that almost 80 per cent of the entrants to the higher
civil services in India were drawn from the urban salaried and professional
middle class. Those belonging to the business classes were less represented
compared to the civil servants and professionals. Those drawn from a
commercial background were mostly the sons of small town merchants or the
employees of small business houses. The farmers and agricultural laborers
forming the bulk of the workforce were grossly under represented in all the
services even more than the artisans and the industrial workers.

Within this broad picture of middle class dominance, the social

composition has broadened. One obvious cause for this is the recruitment of a
quota of candidates from the scheduled castes and tribes. This broadening of
the social background, has also been accompanied through characteristics such
as a more even sharing of recruits from dissimilar states, dissimilar language-
groups, and dissimilar educational institutions. Although there has been a
simultaneous fall in proportion of first class graduates, still, greater proportion
of them come from public schools, better colleges, and enter services due to
their good performance in the examination and interview.

These few studies, have, unluckily, not been updated. There necessity has
been several changes in the socio-economic landscape of this country, which,
in their turn, might have created counterpart-impact on the bureaucracy in
India, through influencing its social composition, character and
representativeness. But on the basis of sure derived secondary information,
some impressionistic trends can be inferred.

Civil Service examination mannered through the U.P.S.C. for recruitment

of higher non technical civil servants throws up important and relevant data
about the educational background of the candidates, the spread of scheduled
castes and scheduled tribes members (which would provide an indication of
their social background), universities which contribute the successful
candidates (indicating the local representation of bureaucrats) etc. Let us
analyse, these characteristics on the basis of data of Civil Services (Main)
Examination, 1987 which is presented below. The number of candidates who
actually appeared in the examination was 9103, out of which 817 candidates
were finally recommended for appointment.

Table I, below designates the sharing of candidates according to (i)

degrees obtained through them i.e. Higher ((Hons.) /Post-Graduate/Doctoral)
degrees and pass degrees (ii) proportion of first class vis-à-vis others and (iii)
performance of those with first class vis-à-vis others with success ratio.

Table I

There are about 135 universities spread in dissimilar parts of the country,
from which the candidates appear for the higher civil services. The top ten
universities in relation to the number of candidates appearing in the
examination, together with the success ratio, is at Table II below:

These ten Universities provided 4337 (47.64%) candidates who appeared,

of which 422 (51.65%) qualified. It may be noted that the three universities
which accounted for more than 500 candidates (appeared) are Allahabad,
Delhi & Rajasthan. Of these three, Delhi‟s success ratio (1:7:07) is higher than
the overall success ratio (1:11:14). It is also noteworthy that the three
Presidency Universities i.e. Calcutta, Bombay and Madras do not find any
place in the top ten universities which furnish largest number of candidates
who appear, although the success ratios of these 3 universities (Calcutta—
1:9:92, Bombay—1:13:37 and Madras—1:9:47) are much better than several
of these ten universities. Interestingly, from the success-ratio. Tamil Nadu
Agricultural University, Coimbatore had the best record in 1987 examination
(1:3:30), followed through Indian School of Mines, Dhanbad (1:3:87), I.I.T.,
Delhi (1:4:60) and Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi (1:4:93) etc.,
though this through itself does not reveal much. But one thing is clear that
there is a wide diversity of candidates from all types of general and technical
disciplines, e.g., Humanities, Social Sciences, Linguistics, Pure Sciences,
Veterinary Science, Agriculture, Technology, Medicine, Mining etc. Indeed,
in 1987 Civil Services Examination, 9103 actually appeared in the Main
Examination with as several as 48 optional subjects in fields such as
Management, Public Administration, Economics, Political Science,
Psychology, Sociology, Statistics, Commerce & Accountancy, History, Law,
Anthropology, Zoology, Geology, Philosophy, Literature, Engineering (Civil
& Mechanical) etc. History claimed the highest number of successful
candidates (263 out of 3403), followed through Sociology (201 out of 2067),
Political Science & International Relations (141 out of 1409), Physics (92 out
of 865), Anthropology (85 out of 734), Psychology (80 out of 821),
Economics (80 out of 792), Public Administration (76 out of 754), in that
order.
The performance of candidates obtaining first division varied considerably
from university to university, but there were at least 55 universities/institutions
belonging to Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Assam, Himachal Pradesh, Uttar
Pradesh, West Bengal, Bihar, Kerala, Jammu & Kashmir, Maharashtra,
Karnataka, Rajasthan, Manipur, Orissa, Punjab & Gujarat from which no
candidate having first division succeeded in qualifying for appointment.
Interestingly, out of 10 candidates holding Doctoral Degrees who appeared,
none could qualify. Age sharing of the successful candidates also create
revealing revise. 49% of the general candidates belonged to the age-group of
21-24 years and 51% to 24-26 years. As against this 15% of the SC/ST
candidates belonged to 21-24 age bracket, 27% to 24-26 years, 23% to 26-28
years, and 35% to 28-33 years. Separately from the characteristics of age
composition and mix in the service cadres, and proportion of direct recruits to
promotees, it has important dimensions, in deciding about the number of
chances to be given as also the upper age limits to be allowed for the
examinations.

Representation of Scheduled Castes/Scheduled Tribes in Civil Services

Throughout 1984 to 1987, SC/ST candidates have been appointed against the
full quota of their reserved vacancies in i) Civil Services (Main) Examination,
ii) Indian Forest Service Examination, iii) Combined Medical Services
Examination, iv) Special Class Railway Apprentice Examination, & v) Asstt.
Grade Examination. The „short fall cadres‟ are:
Engineering Service Examination
Indian Statistical Service Examination
Geologists‟ Examination
Stenographers‟ Examination.

This would indicate low „backward class‟ representation in the several

techno-professional cadres of the public services, though things are improving,
of late. The tables below indicating the representational position of SC/ST
against their reservation would show that things have improved phenomenally
over the years.

Beside with the augmentin the representation of SC/ST in the federal civil
services, there has also been substantial representation of „other backward
classes‟ (OBCs) for whom there was no reservation. The figures (compiled in
1979) indicating the SC/ST and OBC proportions of the total employees (all
classes/groups together) in the Central Government (including Public Sector
Undertakings), as given in the table below, reveal hopeful trends:
 As against 18.72% for SC/ST who enjoyed constitutional safeguards in the
form of reservation and several other concessions and privileges the OBC
percentage stood at 12.55% which is quite high, when set against the
background of their socio-economic and educational backwardness and no
Guaranteed facilities at the ground as well as recruitment stages. Of course,
their percentage in total population is also higher (in fact more than double)
than that of SC/ST combined (52% against 22.5%), which limits to a great
extent, the representative character of the public bureaucracy. But sure
emerging trends which are noticeable in recent years in India, relating to
widening base of bureaucracy are:
More and more scheduled castes/tribes are entering in large numbers in
civil service cadres—not only against reserved quota but also on their
merit. Throughout the last several years there has been no SC/ST
shortfall in recruitment to higher civil services, except in sure
professional cases.
Other Backward Classes also are following suit in conditions of
numerical augment in their representation in the civil services—which
designates a good widening of the base of bureaucracy.
Due to the spread of educational facilities in the country side, the urban
hold is declining and more and more candidates with rural background
are being inducted in the civil services.
Civil Service is no longer the monopoly of „Oxbridge‟—kind of
convent and public school boys & girls. Since there is now a more
even spread of other educational institutions which are throwing up
greater number of successful candidates in competitive examinations.
Though „middle class‟ still dominates the civil service scenario, beside
with „upper‟, the „lower‟ middle class also is creation their attendance
more and more which is breaking the earlier „economic barrier‟ of the
higher civil services.
Children of civil servants, academicians, professionals, etc., still
preponderate in the civil services, though other classes belonging to
„lower-middle‟ and „lower‟ communities are also sending their wards
in rising number.

Bureaucracy in India especially the higher civil services, of late has no

longer been the preserve of the well-to-do class and the social composition of
the services is broadening. Efforts in the direction need to be made through
greater spread of education, evolving more scientific methods of recruitment,
so that without compromising the principle of merit, more can be drawn
within the fold of bureaucracy.

CIVIL SERVICE IN THE CONTEXT OF MODERN

BUREAUCRACY

MEANING OF BUREAUCRACY

Bureaucracy is a hard term to describe. It means dissimilar things to

dissimilar people. There are approximately as several definitions of
bureaucracy as there are writers on the subject who emphasize dissimilar
characteristics of bureaucracy. As such there is no terminological accuracy
about the concept of bureaucracy. Some equate bureaucracy with efficiency
and others with inefficiency. To some, it is a term synonymous with civil
service and for others it refers to a body of officials. But basically,
bureaucracy is a systematic organization of tasks and individuals into a pattern
which mainly effectively achieves the desirable ends of such communal effort.
It is a regulated administrative system organised as a series of interrelated

In a more traditional sense the term bureaucracy is derived from the Latin
word „bureau‟ which means „desk‟ and Greek word „cracy‟ which means rule.
Therefore it refers to desk rule or desk government. It was a Frenchman,
Vincent de Goumay, who first coined the term bureaucracy in 1765. The
normative model of bureaucracy emphasizes the structure of organization.
While the empirical model of bureaucracy, that is bureaucracy in the modem
context, emphasizes the behavioral and functional patterns in organization. If
we look into structural characteristics of bureaucracy like hierarchy, division
of labour, system of rules etc., bureaucracy is value-neutral. From behavioral
angle, since it displays sure features like objectivity, rationality, impersonality,
rule orientation etc., bureaucracy shows some functional i.e. positive as well
as some dysfunctional i.e. negative symptoms. From the achieve mental point
of view, it can be regarded as a pattern of organization that maximizes
efficiency of administration.

KINDS OF BUREAUCRACY

Bureaucracy is influenced through social, cultural, economic and political

factors. With the result, at dissimilar points of time in history, it has taken
dissimilar shapes and forms. Fritz Morstein Marx has categorized bureaucracy
into the following four kinds:
The Guardian bureaucracy
The Caste bureaucracy
The Patronage bureaucracy
The Merit bureaucracy

The Guardian bureaucracy was prevalent in China upto the advent of the
Sung period (960 A.D.) and in Russia throughout 1640 and 1740. The
bureaucracy comprised guardians who were selected on the basis of their
education and were then trained in right conduct. They were measured the
custodians of justice and welfare of the community. Marx defined this kind as
“a scholastic officialdom trained in right conduct according to the classics”.

The Caste bureaucracy has a class base. According to Marx, it “arises from
the class connection of those in the controlling positions”. In this kind,
recruitment is made from one class. Such kind is widely prevalent in
oligarchic political systems. Under such systems only persons belonging to
upper classes or higher castes can become public officials. Therefore, in
ancient India, only Brahmins and Kshatriyas could become high officials.
According to Marx, another way in which such a kind manifests itself is,
through “linking the qualifications for the higher posts With arrangements that
amount to class preference”. This is what Willoughby has described as the
aristocratic kind existing in England till recently where aristocratic classes
were preferred to the civil service positions.

Another name for the Patronage bureaucracy is the “spoils system”. Its
traditional home has been the U.S.A., though patronage had full sway even in
the U.K., till the middle of the 19th century where it helped the aristocracy to
gain entry into the civil service. This kind of civil service exists where public
jobs are given as a personal favor or political award. It is motivating to note
that this system worked differently in the U.K. and the U.S.A. In the U.K.,
patronage bureaucracy marched side through side with an aristocratic social
order and fulfilled its purpose. In the United States, on the contrary, the system
worked quite differently and jobs were distributed as spoils to the victorious
political party. This system of patronage bureaucracy was condemned as an
anachronism for its lack of technical competence, for its careless discipline, its
concealed greediness, its irregular ways, its partisanship and for its absence of
spirit of service.

The Merit bureaucracy has, as its basis, merit of the public official and it
aims at efficiency of the civil service. It aims at “career open to talent”. Here
an attempt is made to recruit the best person for the public service, the merit
being judged through objective standards. In modem times, this method is in
vogue in all the countries. Appointment to public service is now no longer
governed through class thoughts, and it is no more a gift or a favor. The public
servant is not a self-appointed guardian of the people. The civil servant in a
modem democracy is really an official in the service of the people, and is
recruited on the basis of prescribed qualifications tested objectively. Also
he/she owes the job to no one except to one‟s hard work and intelligence.

CHARACTERISTICS OF BUREAUCRACY

The concept of bureaucracy was fully developed through Max Weber. In

the Weberian analysis, bureaucracy refers to the sociological concept of
rationalization of communal activities. According to Weber, it is significant
for the constitution of modem complex society, irrespective of its political
complexion—capitalist or socialist. It describes a form or design of
organization which assures predictability of the behavior of employees. Sure
design strategies are built into the bureaucratic form of organization
All tasks necessary for the accomplishment of goals are divided into
highly specialized jobs. Therefore division of labour and specialization
are ensured in the organization.
Each task is performed according to a constant system of abstract rules.
This ensures uniformity and coordination.
Each member in the organization is accountable to a superior for his
and his subordinates‟ actions. The principle of hierarchy is therefore
emphasized.
Each official conducts the business of his office in an impersonal,
formalistic manner.
Employment is based on technical qualifications and is protected
against arbitrary dismissal. Promotions are based on seniority and
attainment.

Weber‟s model of bureaucracy, it has been stated, serves as a frame of

reference for social research into bureaucratic realities. This model is
measured to be an „ideal-kind‟ or „classical model‟. To the extent the stated
features are present to the maximum in an organization, that organization is
measured to have an ideal kind of bureaucracy. From the Weberian
formulation, one can deduce a set of structural characteristics and another set
of behavioral features. Structurally, a bureaucratic form of organization
exhibits the following features:
Division of Labour: The total task of the organization is broken down
into a number of specialized functions.
Hierarchy: The structure of bureaucracy is hierarchical. The extent of
authority is determined through the stages within the hierarchy.
System of Rules: e rights and duties of the employees and the modes of
 doing work are governed through clearly laid down rules. Observance
of rules is said to prevent arbitrariness and bring about efficiency.
Role Specificity: Every employee‟s role in the organization is clearly
earmarked with specific job account. The organization‟s expectations
of each employee are limited to his job account.

The set of behavioral features of bureaucracy can be described as follows:

Rationality: Bureaucracy represents a rational form of organization.
Decisions are taken on strict proof. Alternatives are measured
objectively to arrive at a decision.
Impersonality: A bureaucratic form of organization does not entertain
any irrational sentiments. Personal likes and dislikes are not expected
to come in the way of work performance. Official business is
mannered without regard for persons. It is a machine-like organization
and as such it is characterized through high degree of impersonality.
Rule Orientation: Depersonalization of the organization is achieved
through formulation of rules and procedures which lay down the way
of doing work. The employees are to strictly follow the rules in
discharge of their duties.
Neutrality: As, an characteristic of impersonality, this feature implies
unbiased thinking i.e. bureaucracy serves any type of political regime
without being aligned to it. It has commitment to work only and to no
other value.

As against these positive behavioral features of bureaucracy, there are sure

negative or dysfunctional features. These are (a) buck-passing (b) red-tapism
(c) reluctance to delegate authority (d) extreme objectiveness (e) strict
adherence to rules and regulations (f) rigidity (g) unresponsiveness to popular
demands and desires (h) self aggrandizement (i) conservatism (j) precedent-
addiction (k) diffusion of responsibility (1) ignoring human element in
administrative behavior (m) arrogance etc.

ROLE OF BUREAUCRACY

Bureaucracy has a very significant role in bringing and sustaining

development and growth in a country. It is approximately universally expected
that bureaucracy be so intended and shaped as to respond willingly and
effectively to policy leadership from outside its own ranks. Bureaucracies
under a wide diversity of political regimes display similarities and diversities
at the same time. As Ferrel Heady has said, “bureaucracy should be basically
instrumental in its operation that it should serve as an agent and not as
master”.
 But we cannot assert that bureaucracy can or should play strictly an
instrumental role, univolved in policy creation and unaffected through
exposure to political procedure. In fact the major cause for worry about
bureaucracy is the possibility of its moving absent from the instrumental role
to become a primary power wielder in the political system. La Palambora felt
that restricting the bureaucracy to an instrumental role is all the more hard in
developing nations “where the bureaucracy may be the mainly coherent power
centre and where, in addition, the major decisions concerning national
development are likely to involve authoritative rule-creation and rule-
application through governmental structure which results in the emergence of
„over-powering‟ bureaucracies”.

Bernard Brown and Milton Esman acknowledge the centrality of

administration in developing systems, while advocating that it be strengthened
rather than downgraded. Therefore, bureaucracy essentially is an
instrumentality of the government and is an aid, an essential equipment, for
operational purposes. Bureaucracy through its, recruitment, training, style and
culture is best suited for playing the role of adviser to politicians rather than
playing the politician‟s role. In any democratic set-up, where the party with
the mandate of majority of the people gets the controlling authority to govern,
it is the politicians who have to fulfil people‟s demands and aspirations; they
reflect nation‟s will. So, any one who does not represent the people cannot
speak for them. Bureaucrats therefore have no primacy, no supremacy, in
determining such macro-stage national policies. They can, at best, tender
professional advice and render assistance, as may be needed from time to time,
to the political policy makers in defining and refining the policies. They play,
mainly certainly, the important crucial role in implementing such policies and
taking decisions within the overall framework of such policies.

In normal circumstances, the bureaucrats, since they are professionally

trained in their art of “driving under direction”, have perfected the technique
of „decision-creation ‟. But otherwise, when it comes to “discontinuity” or
“uncertainty”, that is, at the time of emergency, the\ look for directives and
seek dictates. Rule application, rule interpretation and rule-adjudication are
some of the tasks better done through the bureaucrats. Politicians do not
remain in power permanently as they come and go through time-bound
electoral procedure. Political executives are temporary masters, but
bureaucrats are permanent employees of the state. They are recruited for their
superior merit, knowledge, professional competence, technical know-how,
experience and expertise. Their primary concern is goal realization. It is only
after the laws concerning the social, political and economic issues have been
made that the bureaucrats come in the picture. And whatever further is
required to implement these laws is taken over through the bureaucrats and
completed. Whether it is the creation of rules and regulations under the system
of „delegated legislation‟ or issuance of necessary directives and guidelines,
the bureaucracy performs its functions rather well.

Administrative efficiency through a series of decision-creation and

decision-implementing activities is the handiwork of bureaucracy. If
bureaucracy is often criticized for inefficiency in administration, its
deficiencies, slowness, conservatism, negativism, delays etc., it has also to be
appreciated for all its achievements in conditions of socio-economic
development and progress. There is no doubt that the traditional „legal-
rational‟ concept of bureaucracy has undergone a change. As discussed earlier,
the bureaucracy is not just instrumental any more, waiting for orders to
execute, unmoved, unconcerned through any changes. It functions with
emotional and psychological involvement in executing programmes. The old
time distinction and water-tight compartmentalization flanked by policy and
execution is fast disappearing. In the present developmental administration
landscape, the bureaucrat has to take the lead.

In expanding arena of science and technology, the bureaucrat is every

where, and has to administer and manage all developmental programmes. In
the present times, the bureaucrat cannot afford to be a passive onlooker, and in
several cases, he/she has to be pioneering, and display risk taking
entrepreneurial skills.

RISING IMPORTANCE OF BUREAUCRACY IN RECENT YEARS

Bureaucracy plays an instrumental role in converting the government

policies into programmes, programmes into projects and projects into tasks for
bringing about development. In a developing country like India, government
has to act as the “regulator, mediator, underwriter, provider of services,
promoter of national standards of decent living and economic and social
diagnostician and repairman”. State penetration in development procedure is
vital in a country committed towards achieving full employment, satisfactory
rate of growth, stable prices, healthy balance of payments, increased
production and equitable sharing; this automatically calls for bureaucratic
intervention.

In situations of development and change, bureaucracy gives the vast

majority of necessary professional, technical and entrepreneurial possessions.
Without bureaucracy, government cannot function and will not be able to
achieve whatever goals it has set for social and economic advancement.
Bureaucracy is the agency of such accomplishment. It is involved in all major
economic and social activities viz., education and literacy, health and family
welfare, rural development and renewal, industrialization and urbanization,
institutional restructuring, infrastructural modernization and diverse nation-
structure programmes. The importance of bureaucracy is fast rising. The larger
the doses of development the greater are going to be the crucial significance of
bureaucracy. Now let us understand some of the reasons responsible for rising
importance of bureaucracy in recent years.

Rising Population
If one takes a look at the national scenario, it is apparent that population is
rising. This is more so particularly in developing societies where the
population is rising in geometrical proportion, outpacing the resource-
generation and all other developmental endeavors. Population explosion
implies more mouths to be fed, which means more food requirement and this
necessitates higher production. This requires provision of all necessary
ingredients like irrigation, fertilizers, seeds, storage, marketing etc. Similar is
the situation in regard to industry. It is the administrative bureaucracy which is
described upon to take charge and manage these tasks. The bureaucracy
becomes the „go-flanked by‟ with the people on the one hand and government
oh the other. The importance of bureaucracy would naturally rise, with the
expanding role it is asked to play.

Industrial Development
Industrial development of the country, economic growth through trade and
commerce, setting up of steel plants, petrochemicals, fertilizer plants etc.,
inevitably lead to expansion of administration and reliance on bureaucracy. It
is required, not only in policy-programmes but also for ground stage
exceptional activities.

The Rising Need of Welfare of People

The „Welfare State‟ philosophy with the fundamental objective of
rendering service to the people necessitating, all round societal development
has made it imperative to usher in a „bureaucratic state‟. Where government is
the only important social sector willing to assume the responsibility for
„transformative welfare‟, bureaucracy has to mobilize the necessary
possessions.

Multifarious Activities of Modern State

The activities of the modem state have become so diverse and have
multiplied so much in scale that more and more public personnel, in their
manifold diversities and categories are to be recruited. The developmental,
regulatory and even traditional law and order or security functions of
governmental administration have grown and people‟s dependence on
administration for more and more things has magnified the importance of
bureaucracy.

Rising Expectations of People

The present times are witnessing a revolution in the rising expectations of
the people. Gone are the days when people were passive, dumb, non-
questioning and non assertive. Masses today are demanding, questioning and
asserting. They have become conscious of their rights and are demanding
better education, health, housing, decent standard of living and better quality
of life. All these constitute the modem charter of demands of the people which
would mean a long agenda of action for the government, leading, in turn, to
widening the rectangle of responsibilities and importance of public
bureaucracy.

MERITS AND DEMERITS OF BUREAUCRACY

The merits and demerits of bureaucracy flow basically from the structural
strength and behavioral weaknesses of bureaucracy respectively. The very fact
that bureaucracy is continuing till date despite many criticisms from
approximately all quarters, proves, beyond doubt, that there is some intrinsic
merit in bureaucracy, otherwise, it would have been wound up long back. As
has been stated, bureaucracy is organised on the principle of division of
labour, which leads to specialization which is a welcome characteristic of
organizational rationalization and economic development. Through division of
labour, bureaucracy promotes expertise and professionalism.

Likewise, bureaucracy‟s other structural characteristic of hierarchy leads

to sharing of authority and creates possible better and more effective
supervision of work. Hierarchy facilitates orderly arrangement of superior-
subordinate relationship and integrates the several roles of the dissimilar
functionaries. Separately from setting up vertical network, the horizontal work
relationships lead to better consultation, pooling of experience, exchange of
views and consensual decision-creation after taking into account multiple
points and counter points. If hierarchy sometimes induces delay, it also creates
possible sound policy creation.

Bureaucracy basically is an administrative system based on clear and well

understood rules and regulations which would eliminate personal prejudices,
nepotism and idiosyncrasies. Systematization of rules and regulations reduces
the sphere of individual discretion which contains the element of corruption.
Strict observance of rules in public organizations and government has, to a
large extent, reduced the scope of norm-deviation and has promoted the
development of ethical behavior in the bureaucrats.

As a structural-functional system bureaucracy represents a rational form of

organization. It reflects organizational orderliness, objectivity and stability.
Likewise, impersonality is also one of the merits of bureaucracy. Decisions are
based not, on communal or local thoughts, but usually keeping the interests of
the community as a whole and other social thoughts in view i.e. keeping
„public interest‟ in view. In fact one of the strong points of bureaucratic
functioning is that much of the decision-creation activity is done through files
and papers where statutory or well documented rules and regulations
predominate.

Another merit of the bureaucracy is its neutrality. Bureaucracy being the

instrument of the governmental organization is supposed to act in the best
interests of the state policy without too much of personal commitment or
sectarian bias. The traditional or classical bureaucracy, particularly of the
Weberian diversity, is based on the political neutrality principle under which
the bureaucrats necessity not display, either in their action or behavior, any
inclination towards any political ideology. They are supposed to perform the
instrumental role and discharge their allotted duties and perform the tasks
assigned to them in a professional manner, not swayed through personal likes
and dislikes.

Bureaucracy is a system where selection of officials is done through merit

and the officials are subject to discipline and control in their work
performance. Hence better results are likely to flow from a valuable
combination of best brains and rationalized structural functional arrangement.
Max Weber has stated: “the purest kind of exercise of legal authority is that
which employs a bureaucratic administrative staff‟. According to Herbert
Morison “bureaucracy is the price of parliamentary democracy”.

The contribution of bureaucracy to governmental administration is quite

important. It has made administration more efficient, stable, objective,
impartial and constant. In fact, it is approximately indispensable. Hence what
is needed, is to guard against those features and defects which distort its
functionality. It should be subject to a continuing review so that it can be kept
on its right orbit.

Demerits of Bureaucracy
The demerits of bureaucracy also flow from those very structural
characteristics and features which create for its merits. In fact, the positive
behavioral traits could themselves be converted into negative
dysfunctionalities if not handled with care. Several and varied criticisms have
been leveled against bureaucracy. One of its strongest critics was Ramsay
Muir, who in his book „How Britain is Governed‟, has stated that “under the
cloak of democracy, it has thriven and grown until, like Frankenstein‟s
Monster, it sometimes seems likely to devour its creator”. Lord Hevart
characterized the power and authority of bureaucracy as „Neo-Despotism‟.

Bureaucracy has been characterized as unresponsive to popular demands

and desires. It is often found that people who come to the several officials for
help or assistance are needlessly harassed—which gives the impression that
bureaucrats derive pleasure out of such harassment of people. Often
bureaucrats show utter lack of concern for public demands or popular
aspirations. They become so regulated through the system that they are
indifferent to public interest.

Bureaucracy has also given rise to diffusion of responsibility. No one in

the official hierarchy wishes to take positive responsibility. “Passing the buck”
and transferring the responsibility for either wrong action or inaction is one of
the very natural features of bureaucracy. Bureaucracy also suffers from the
vices of excessive red-tapist or excessive formalism. Red-tapist, which implies
„strict observance of regulations‟ has become one of the symbols of
bureaucracy. It is one of the peculiar phenomena of bureaucracy that it lays
too much emphasis on procedure through “proper-channel” and precedents
which become improper or costly from the point of view of attainment of
results and accomplishment of targets.

Lack of dynamism, rigid conventionality and non-conformism are other

maladies of bureaucracy. It is conservative. It wants to play safe and will not
like to go beyond the orbit of safety. Usually bureaucrats do not favor risk,
adventurism, forward looking vision. With the result, bureaucracy only plays
the game of the possible under the dictates of precedents or orders of
superiors. Empire-structure is one of the built in tendencies of bureaucracy.
The bureaucrats, particularly the ones at the higher stage, consider in
expanding the frontiers of power through creating and multiplying dissimilar
organizations under them and justifying their actions on grounds of usefulness
or essentiality.

In bureaucracy, there is less accountability but more pseudo-authority;

whereas authority and responsibility should go together as they are the two
sides of the same coin. Bureaucracy is obsessed with routine and trivial
matters rather than a concern for substance. It has also the reputation of being
needlessly rigid in outlook and indifferent to popular aspirations, which
sometimes promotes a perception that “bureaucracy is contra- democracy”.
Walter Bagehot comments, “It is an inevitable defect, that bureaucrats will
care more for routine than for results”. Likewise, Burke states that “they will
think the substance of business not to be more significant than the forms of it”.

REVIEW QUESTIONS
What do you understand through classification? Discuss the
importance of classification of services.
Explain any four advantages of the classification of services.
What are the kinds of the classification of services? Discuss their
characteristics.
Discuss the role of generalists in administration.
Who are the specialists? Comment on their role in administration
Discuss the formative stage of the civil service under the East India Company.
What changes were brought about through the Regulating Act of 1773?
Discuss the basis of position of bureaucracy in the UK and the USA.
Describe the sources through which bureaucracy derives authority in
India.
What do you understand through bureaucracy?
Discuss the characteristics of bureaucracy.

CHAPTER 3
PERSONNEL AGENCIES

STRUCTURE
Learning questions
Career planning and development
Administrative tribunals
Central and state training institutes
Personnel/ upsc/spsc/ssc
Review questions

LEARNING QUESTIONS
After learning this unit you should be able to:
Describe career planning and development.
Discuss the development of the administrative tribunals
 Discuss the dissimilar roles of training;
Describe the kinds of training imparted through the central training
institutes,
Highlight the need for central personnel agency, and
Explain the structure and functions of staff selection commission.

CAREER PLANNING AND DEVELOPMENT

CAREER PLANNING AND DEVELOPMENT-MEANING

Broadly, the term career is used to refer to an individual‟s whole work life.
It can be defined in a narrow sense, to be the succession of jobs and/or ranks
held through a person in a scrupulous organization. An individual‟s career
begins with placement in a job and ends with departure from the organization
which may be through retirement, resignation or death. In flanked by, the
career progression consists of changing tasks, tenure in several jobs,
temporary or permanent promotions, transfers etc. Now, let us first try to
understand the concept of career development or career planning. In this
context, three definitions are presented below:
Career planning and development are concepts which contain all those
events either happening to or initiated through individuals which affect
a person‟s progress or promotion, his/her widening and/or changing
employment possibilities and acquiring a dissimilar and normally
higher status, better circumstances of service or increased satisfaction
with the job. This definition, revolves round events or occurrences an
individual goes through throughout his/her working period, which take
him/her through the hierarchic ladder, expand his/her areas of duties
and responsibilities lead to pay-raise and elevate his/her status.
Career development is the procedure which enables an organization to
meet its current and projected manpower requirement, through
provision of career opportunities for its employees. It aims at
optimizing the effectiveness of human possessions of the organization,
through planned development and their knowledge, skills and
potentialities. This definition places greater emphasis on the
organization and the objectives which are accomplished through
developing the careers of individuals working in it.
Career planning refers to planned and systemized progression of events
and development in the field of work or vocation of individuals
throughout the employable periods of their life.

This definition seeks to balance the two dimensions i.e., the objective of
the organization and the individual ambitions of getting to the top. Career, it
cannot be forgotten, is intensely particularistic in its basics; it necessity relate
to an individual without whom it loses all relevance. Whatever may be the
characteristics and areas of emphasis, career development, essentially is an
integral part of a holistic human possessions management of the organization.
It necessity concern itself with the growth of both individuals and the
organization. For as individuals, the employees seek their total fulfillment
(personal, ego, social and economic needs etc.) in the organization, and
organization in turn fulfils itself, its charter of goals, only through its
employees. This mutuality, therefore, represents a commonality of concern in
the development of career. Individual and organizational careers are not
separate. It becomes their responsibility to assist employees in career planning,
so that both can satisfy their needs.

The vital character of career development is futuristic in the sense that its
policies and programmes are devoted to tomorrow. It envisions distant
horizons i.e. futures of the human components of organization in the context
of complementally development potentials. It is multidimensional in the sense
that broadly, all the functions of management and multi-tiered characteristics
of personnel policy and practices from entry in the organization to the point of
separation from it, including, for instance, recruitment, probation, training,
deployment, transfers, promotion, motivation etc. have a bearing on career
development. Career development is measured to be the „pivot‟ around which
the whole personnel management system revolves; it is the „hyphen‟ that joins
each stage, stage, event of individual‟s work life; it is the „buckle‟ that fastens
an employee to the organization. Career planning or development is primarily
„proactive‟ in the sense that it necessity anticipate and take steps to manipulate
future, rather than be overtaken through emerging situations. It does not
belong to the realm of „crisis management‟ nor is it related to mere
„maintenance‟ functions; it is the other name of „future management‟. The
procedure involves smooth succession, symbolizes systematized stability and
a planned progression with a ore-determined purpose.
IMPORTANCE OF CAREER PLANNING AND DEVELOPMENT

Since the mainly valuable asset of an organization is human possessions

which generate the needed manpower, it is essential to retain them and
develop them to their fullest potential. Career planning and development
benefits both the individual and the organization. Adequate succession
planning helps an organization through providing stability and generating
employee motivation. Also if the organization is to survive and prosper in an
ever changing environment, its human possessions necessity is in a constant
state of development. Career planning and development is required and hence
has to be intended to fulfil the following vital objectives:
To secure the right person at the right time, in the
right place. It assures the adequate availability of
qualified personnel in the organization for future
openings. This has two facets:
o Positively, to create succession-planning
timely and smooth;
o Negatively, to avoid a “square peg-in-a round-
hole” in the organization.
To ensure that the road to the top is open for all.
To facilitate effective development of accessible
talent.
To impart to the employee maximum satisfaction,
constant with their qualifications, experience,
competence, performance as well as individualistic
needs and expectations, leading to a harmonious
balance flanked by personal and organizational
 objectives. Individuals who see that their personal
development needs are met tend to be more
satisfied with their jobs and the organization.
To strengthen the organization’s manpower
retention programmes based on adequacy of
career compensation, motivation management. It
seeks to improve the organization’s skill to attract
and retain high talent personnel, since outstanding
employees always are scarce and they usually find
considerable degree of competition to secure their
services. Such people may provide preference to
employers who demonstrate a concern for their
employees’ future. Proper career planning and
development would insure against any possible
dislocation, discontinuity and turnover of
manpower.

To fulfil such a broad agenda of objectives, the organization necessity

analyse the strength and weaknesses of the existing infrastructure, its internal
support system, the typical career patterns that require to be molded according
to scrupulous needs, the elements that go into evolving and installing an
effective career development programme etc.

CLASSIFICATION OF CAREER

Career can be of three sub-kinds:

Monolithic career is recognized with pursuance of
 career in one institution or departmental
jurisdiction.
Cadre-career is one where a cluster or
conglomeration of posts are arranged vertically i.e.
hierarchically from lower to higher with dissimilar
stages of responsibilities. Here, any member
belonging to that cadre, can be deployed to any of
the posts, within the cadre-jurisdiction,
commensurate with the seniority, pay, experience,
qualification etc.
Inter governmental careers are recognized with
more than a single governmental jurisdiction. An
instance of this is All India Services, where
members belonging to this service move from
Centre to the States to occupy administrative
positions.

There can also be two other concepts of career, namely, closed career and
open career, depending on the limitations on entrance or the norm of
recruitment. This closed career system can be described as „Monasteric‟
system, which means that once, at an young age, usually predetermined, one
enters the „Monastery‟ or a specific cadre order, one has to spend an whole life
time in that jurisdiction with no chance of coming out of it. The open-kind
career system, permits entrance at any or all grade stages, though this multi-
stage induction would be governed through sure qualification necessities and
competitive eligibility circumstances prescribed for such grades or groups of
categories of posts. Those already in that service, on fulfillment of stipulated
eligibility circumstances, can apply for such recruitment. An significant
characteristic of the open career system is that there is positive encouragement
for inducting of new talent at middle and upper stages.
 There can be further classification of career system i.e. rank-in-job and
rank in corps. In the former, the focus is on the assignments, the job to be
performed and the fitting of an individual into the job. This job-oriented
concept originating in the USA and Canada emphasizes orderly classification
of positions on the basis of duties and responsibilities. It is the logical
corollary of systematic division of responsibilities and division of labour. In
the other kind i.e. rank in corps, the focus is on the person. This is prevalent in
the U.S.A. Here, assignment, training, utilization, recognition, rank etc., are
viewed in conditions of the individual and the corps to which a person belongs
rather than in conditions of a merely structured hierarchy of positions. This
system facilitates the matching of employee skills with job needs. Of these
several kinds of career, the cadre system enables a person recruited at the
lowest point to go higher up, through a gradation of assignments which are all
clustered or kept together in one cadre without a very precise and scientific
position-classification system. This system of position classification is a
feature characteristic of rank-in-job kind of career, which we have discussed
above.
STEPS FOR CAREER PLANNING AND DEVELOPMENT

The career planning and development procedure is a continuous

endeavour. If „career‟ means a continuous and long stretch of professional
work-life covering a series of jobs or positions of higher responsibility
commensurate with time and experience, then there should be some planning,
imparting management programmes for the incumbents whether they are
operated through „cadre‟ system or „position-classification‟. This begins with
the placement of person through recruitment and goes on to ensure their
growth potentiality through training, promotions, and version of proper
retention system.

Recruitment
Recruitment to positions in government is done from the open market to
fill in the jobs in the organization. It is undertaken, after doing a good
preparatory assessment of current needs and anticipated manpower necessities
on the basis of an analysis of estimated growth of the organization, its
diversification of functions and necessary skills required. This means there is
an attempt at perfect matching of people and job. An significant first step in
this procedure is to prepare, an inventory of positions giving information about
the duties, responsibilities and functions of each job, together with the
requisite academic qualifications, training and skills, and personality traits
essential for performing these duties and discharging the responsibilities. For
structure up this inventory, information has to be composed on the number of
jobs and positions broken down into occupational groups and sub-groups at
each stage of career fields, the number of vacancies likely to occur due to
normal turn-over, retirement etc. and the additional needs, or cadre expansions
on account of implementation of developmental or new programmes. On the
personnel side, for a proper development of career, it is simultaneously
necessary to take stock of currently accessible manpower possessions,
compilation of requisite bio-data of existing incumbents, covering the stages
of their knowledge, academic qualifications and training. This should also
indicate a chronological record of dissimilar assignments held, ability drills
gone through stages and types of exposure and quality of performance. Such
informative data-details, together with an estimate for future manpower
necessities (planned on the basis of accessible forecasting techniques) give a
sound base for planning, developing and managing the cadres of personnel in
the organization, including recruitment and selection of eligible and qualified
personnel at several stages of hierarchy, at dissimilar points of time.

If recruitment from open market is to be intended, any such policy should

be based on the organization‟s philosophy or ideological concern. The
organization, has to decide whether troubles of tomorrow can be solved
through existing people with some appropriate training or re-training, whether
there should be „lateral entry‟ in each grade, what should be the correct age
sharing of recruits etc., once the answers to these are determined, the
organization can proceed further. At the same time, it is apparent that
whatever option is exercised, the career development framework for all the
people in the organization is bound to be dissimilar. For obviously, career
graph for a young recruit with 35 years to go will be differently drawn from
the one for an older lateral recruit with only 10 years to go.

The policy of the management about an optimum mix of newcomers in the

organizations and the old employees who have earned their way up, will
determine what type of career opportunities are to be made accessible to these
two categories of personnel. In both the cases, the characteristics that need to
be kept in view in planning their careers are diversity of exposures that need to
be given to them in the corporate interest, time span, hierarchy of grades to be
built into the system, structure, policies of organization and last but not the
least the nature of management.

Promotions
There is no doubt that „promotion‟ basically necessity be related to the
„tomorrows‟ of the organization. It is significant to note that current
competence of individuals cannot alone be the basis for elevation but sure
relevant traits are required like growth-potentiality, capability to take on
higher responsibilities, risk-bearing dynamism, a vision and a perception for
total organizational progress. Indeed, if rewards are not commensurate with
demonstrated accomplishments, the organization is bound to suffer. Career
planning, necessity contain not only the very best and brilliant achievers in the
organization, but also those who are senior, averagely competent and adequate
and who have rendered long service through rising with the organization.

The whole system of promotion, owes its rationale to two significant

factors:
Personnel factors linked with the reward for
longevity, locality and good work; motivation for
better performance, urge for recognition; search for
job satisfaction and goal of self actualization or
fulfillment.
 Organizational factors linked with accomplishment
of its objectives through obtaining of right persons
at the right time within its own jurisdiction,
generation and availability of such requisite skills
and specialized knowledge specific to the relevant
tasks and programmes.
Career development therefore, will need to be balanced and dovetailed
with the appropriate criteria for promotional decisions. The organization
should pay proper attention to the handling of people of dissimilar nature like
for instance, those who are over confident, those who are impatient, insecure
etc. Programmes of re-training, redeployment etc. are to be suitably adopted as
per the situational compulsions and adapted to individual needs of each target
groups as dissimilar career kinds require to be planned and supervised
differently.

Retention
Separately from the promotion system, the employees‟ retention
programmes policy necessity covers all other compensation packages,
including salary, bonus, wages etc., which are financial in nature. Non-
financial compensation covers the satisfaction that a person receives through
performing meaningful job tasks or from the physical and psychological
environments in which the job is performed. Needless to say, all this builds up
an image of the organization and exert influences against migration of
employees from it. Developmental policy coupled with succession planning,
particularly at the middle and top stages, which are critical ingredients of
career development help in boosting the morale of personnel and strengthen
the organization organizational growth and progress. The motivation
management operating through fringe benefits, satisfies, motivators and so on,
is crucial in career planning and development. Creating a sound infrastructure
for satisfying the hierarchy of needs is equally an essential components.
Motivation and satisfaction should be built into the job, internalized in the
organization‟s culture system. We cannot expect people working in the
organization to put in their best unless they are contented, are sure that they
can look for a progressively better future through a just and fair deal in
conditions of compensations, rewards for good performance, futuristic job
enrichment programme and other measures aimed at their self-fulfillment, it
means, in short, a progressive and satisfying career. In other words, the
organization necessity has continual concern in the future of the employees,
their career, whose development management has to be within their agenda of
activities.

CAREER STAGES

Individuals have dissimilar career development needs at dissimilar stages

in their careers. When an organization recruits an employee in any of the
grades of its cadre for a fairly long tenure, the employer necessity not only
take interest in but also take constructive charge of the employee‟s career from
then on. On entry, the employee is in a type of „budding‟ stage which really is
the formative stage of his/her career. This stage is that of establishing identity.
The organization‟s responsibility at this stage is to ensure that the employee‟s
concerns are taken care of, he/she is helped to settle down and establish
himself/herself. Not only induction-training in the form of organizational work
familiarization programmes, but also technical or professional training or on-
the-job training at the institutions are imparted to the employees. But at times,
generalized foundational programmes are also developed, for instance, like for
civil servants so as to provide them an „input‟ (primarily academic) in
economics, history, culture, social policy, constitution, issues of public
administration etc. This sort of training also serves an significant purpose of
bringing together civil servants of dissimilar cadres for cross cauterization in
the middle of themselves who would be meeting as colleagues while working
in dissimilar areas in future.

The after that stage is the establishment and developmental stage (also
recognized as „blooming‟ stage). This involves rising and getting recognized
in a career. Throughout this early career period, the executive would be in the
junior administrative grade or selection grade. This is the period when the
organization necessity not only orients the employees in a manner that will
make maximum learning opportunities and favorable attitude towards the
organization. It should also be ensured that the assignments assigned to them
are optimally challenging through giving them a genuine test of their abilities
and skills. In this stage, it is necessary to develop strategies for motivating a
plateau employee so that he/she continues to be productive. Another way
could be to ensure an adequate transition from technical work to management
work with appropriate training and developmental opportunities, particularly
for those who have management talent and want to occupy a managerial
position. Some area-specialization input is also to be imparted so as to enable
them to update their specialist skills. In other words, the developmental
strategy is a blend of specialist-professional exposure combining sure
characteristics of theory and practice.
 The executives/managers from this point, reach the higher career stages
which would be stable or „mature‟ (also recognized as „full bloom‟ stage).
People here would be in the super time scale, occupying senior management
positions, involving high stage policy and programming assignments. The
organization necessity at this stage help people to flourish, to the maximum
extent possible through giving them wider range of responsibilities for
performance and broader opportunities for adjusting to their changing role as
their career shifts from the more specialized to generalized advisory role. In
this top stage of policy-planning-advisory area, the organization necessity see
to it that their career interests are catered for and self actualization facilities
are provided, which enables the employees to devote their full time, attention,
energy to the organization. Developmental strategies in this part of career,
necessity then are oriented towards policy creation, programme planning and
review and problem solving. The focus should be on advanced revise and
education for professionalized efficiency, total preparation for leadership, a
type of spiritual attitude reflected in a spirit of dedication to public service,
and an urge to work for a cause higher than oneself etc.

The table below, gives an thought of the dissimilar stages of an

individual‟s psycho-social and personality gradation and career elevation
patterns. This helps in installing the career development and management
programmes in an organization.

TYPICAL CAREER PATTERN

Let us now understand the typical career pattern of a person belonging to

the Indian Administrative Service. An IAS Officer in the junior scale on entry
to the service, takes up junior positions in sub-division, Magistracy in
cities/metropolitan areas, senior sub divisional charge or independent office
charge in Collect orate. While in charge of such positions, spanning about four
years, one prepares himself/herself for higher responsibility, before moving to
senior scales in fifth year or so. In that stage he/she heads developmental
departments, becomes Under Secretary or Deputy Secretary in the State
Government. After nine years of service, an IAS officer while on deputation to
Central Government, can be Deputy Secretary and Director, in the fourteenth
year before entering the Selection Grade. After seventeen years of service,
he/she can become Joint Secretary in the Centre, and in the State, become
Commissioner of a Division or equivalent positions including Secretary to the
State Government, in the super-time scale, Super-time Scale Officers i.e. Joint
Secretary and above, including Additional Secretary and Secretary to the
Government of India constitute Senior Management, who after periods of
exposure to hard challenges in the field, responsibilities in the Secretariat, and
wide ranging experience in the developmental departments and public
undertakings, take charge of the policy formulation, discharge planning,
evaluation functions etc.

ADMINISTRATIVE TRIBUNALS

ADMINISTRATIVE TRIBUNALS – DEVELOPMENT

The growth of Administrative Tribunals both in developed and developing

countries has been a important phenomenon of the twentieth century. In India
also, innumerable Tribunals have been set up from time to time both at the
centre and the states, covering several areas of activities like trade, industry,
banking, taxation etc. The question of establishment of Administrative
Tribunals to give speedy and inexpensive relief to the government employees
relating to grievances on recruitment and other circumstances of service had
been under the consideration of Government of India for a long time. Due to
their heavy preoccupation, long pending and backlog of cases, costs involved
and time factors, Judicial Courts could not offer the much needed remedy to
the government servants, in their disputes with the government. The
dissatisfaction in the middle of the employees, irrespective of the class,
category or group to which they belong, is the direct result of delay in their
long pending cases or cases not attended to properly. Hence, a need arose to
set up an institution, which would, help in dispensing prompt relief to harassed
employees who perceive a sense of injustice and lack of fair play in dealing
with their service grievances. This would motivate the employees better and
raise their morale which in turn would augment their productivity.

The Administrative Reforms Commission (1966-70) recommended the

setting up of Civil Service Tribunals to function as the final appellate
authority, in respect of government orders inflicting major penalties of
dismissal, removal from service and reduction in rank. As early as 1969, a
Committee under the chairmanship of J.C. Shah had recommended that having
regard to the very large number of pending writ petitions of the employees in
regard to the service matters, an independent Tribunal should be set up to
exclusively deal with the service matters.

The Supreme Court in 1980, while disposing of a batch of writ petitions

observed that the public servants ought not to be driven to or forced to
dissipate their time and energy in the court room battles. The Civil Service
Tribunals should be constituted which should be the final arbiter in resolving
the controversies relating to circumstances of service. The government also
suggested that public servants might approach fact-finding Administrative
Tribunals in the first instance in the interest of successful administration. The
matter came up for discussion in other forums also and a consensus appeared
that setting up of Civil Service Tribunals would be desirable and necessary, in
public interest, to adjudicate the complaints and grievances of the government
employees. The Constitution of India was amended to enable the setting up of
Civil Service Tribunals (through 42nd amendment Article 323-A).

This Act empowered the Parliament to give for adjudication or trial

through Administrative Tribunals of disputes and complaints with respect to
recruitment and circumstances of service of persons appointed to public
service and posts in connection with the affairs of the union or of any state or
local or other authority within the territory of India or under the control of the
government or of any corporation owned or controlled through the
government. In pursuance of the provisions of Article 323-A of the
Constitution, the Administrative Tribunals Bill was introduced in Lok Sabha
on 29th January, 1985 and received the assent of the President of India on 27th
February, 1985.

STRUCTURE OF THE TRIBUNALS

The Administrative Tribunals Act 1985 gives for the establishment of one
Central Administrative Tribunal and a State Administrative Tribunal for each
state like Haryana Administrative Tribunal etc; and a Joint Administrative
Tribunal for two or more states. The Central Administrative Tribunal with its
principal bench at Delhi and other benches at Allahabad, Bombay, Calcutta
and Madras was recognized on 1st November, 1985. The Act vested the
Central Administrative Tribunal with jurisdiction, powers and authority of the
adjudication of disputes and complaints with respect to recruitment and
service matters pertaining to the members of the all India Services and also
any other civil service of the Union or holding a civil post under the Union or
a post linked with defense or in the defense services being a post filled through
a civilian. Six more benches of the Tribunal were set up through June, 1986 at
Ahmadabad, Hyderabad, Jodhpur, Patna, Cuttack and Jabalpur. The fifteenth
bench was set up in 1988 at Emakulam.
 The Act gives for setting up of State Administrative Tribunals to decide
the service cases of state government employees. There is a provision for
setting up of Joint Administrative Tribunal for two or more states. On receipt
of specific requests from the Governments of Orissa, Himachal Pradesh,
Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh and Tamil Nadu, Administrative Tribunals have
been set up, to look into the service matters of concerned state government
employees. A Joint Tribunal is also to be set up for the state of Arunachal
Pradesh to function jointly with Guwahati bench of the Central Administrative
Tribunal.

COMPOSITION OF THE TRIBUNALS

Each Tribunal shall consist of a Chairman, such number of Vice-Chairmen

and judicial and administrative members as the appropriate Government
(either the Central Government or any scrupulous State Government singly or
jointly) may deem fit (vide Sec. 5.( 1) Act No. 13 of 1985). A bench shall
consist of one judicial member and one administrative member. The bench at
New Delhi was designated the Principal Bench of the Central Administrative
Tribunal and for the State Administrative Tribunals. The places where their
principal and other benches would sit is specified through the State
Governments through notification (vide Section 5(7) and 5(8) of the Act).

Qualification for Appointment

In order to be appointed as Chairman or Vice-Chairman, one has to be
qualified to be (is or has been) a judge of a High Court or has held the post of
a Secretary to the Government of India for at least two years or an equivalent
pay post either under the Central or State Government (vide Sec. 6(i) and (ii)
Act No. 13 of 1985). To be a judicial member, one has to be qualified to be (is
or has been) a judge of a High Court or has been a member of the Indian legal
service and has held a post in Grade I of that service for atleast three years. To
be qualified for appointment as an administrative member, one should have,
held at least for two years the post of Additional Secretary to the Government
of India or an equivalent pay post under Central or State Government or has
held for at least three years a post of Joint Secretary to the Govt, of India or
equivalent post under Central or State Government and necessity possess
adequate administrative experience.

Appointments
The Chairman, Vice-Chairman and every other member of Central
Administrative Tribunal shall be appointed through the President and, in the
case of State or Joint Administrative Tribunals) through the President after
consultation with the Governors) of the concerned State(s), (vide Section 6(4),
(5) and (6), Act No. 13 of 1985). But no appointment can be made of a
Chairman, Vice-Chairman or a judicial member except after consultation with
the Chief Justice of India. If there is a vacancy in the office of the
Chairman through cause of his resignation, death or otherwise, or when he is
unable to discharge his duties/functions owing to absence, illness or through
any other cause, the Vice-Chairman shall act and discharge the functions of
the Chairman, until the Chairman enters upon his office or resumes his duties.

Conditions of Office
The Chairman, Vice-Chairman or other member shall hold office for a
term of five years from the date on which he enters upon his office or until he
attains the age of
Sixty five, in the case of Chairman or Vice-Chairman,
Sixty two, in the case of any other member, whichever is earlier.

Resignation or Removal
The Chairman, Vice-Chairman or any other member of the Administrative
Tribunal may, through notice in writing under his hand addressed to the
President, resign, his office; but will continue to hold office until the expiry of
three months from the date of receipt of notice or expiry of his conditions of
office or the date of joining through his successor, whichever is the earliest.
They cannot be removed form office except through an order made through
the President on the ground of proven misbehavior or incapacity after an
inquiry has been made through a judge of the Supreme Court; and after giving
them a reasonable opportunity of being heard in respect of those charges (vide
Sec. 9(2), Act No. 13 of 1985).

Eligibility for Further Employment

The Chairman of the Central Administrative Tribunal shall be ineligible
for further employment under either Central or State government, but Vice-
Chairman of the Central Tribunal will be eligible to be the Chairman of that or
any other State Tribunal or Vice-Chairman of any State or Joint Tribunals).
The Chairman of a State or Joint Tribunals) will, though, be eligible for
appointment as Chairman or Vice-Chairman or any other member of the
Central Tribunal or Chairman of any other State or Joint Tribunals. The Vice-
Chairman of the State or Joint Tribunal can be the Chairman of the State
Tribunal or Chairman, Vice-Chairman of the Central Tribunal or any other
State or Joint Tribunal. A member of any Tribunal, shall be eligible for
appointment as the Chairman or Vice-Chairman of such Tribunal or
Chairman, Vice-Chairman or other member of any other Tribunal.

Other than the appointments mentioned above the Vice-Chairman or

member of a Central or State Tribunal, and also the Chairman of a State
Tribunal, cannot be made eligible for any other employment either under the
Government of India or under the Government of a State. The Chairman,
Vice-Chairman or other member shall not appear, act or plead before any
Tribunal of which he was the Chairman/Vice-Chairman/member (vide Section
11(f), Act No. 13 of 1985). The Chairman shall exercise (or delegate to Vice-
Chairman or any other officer of the Tribunal) such financial and
administrative powers over the benches, as are vested in him. Salaries and
allowances and other conditions and circumstances of service, including all
retirement benefits in respect of Chairman, Vice-Chairman and members of
the Tribunal will be such as prescribed through the Central Government and
cannot be varied to their disadvantage, after appointment.

JURISDICTION, POWERS AND AUTHORITY

Chapter III of the Administrative Tribunal Act deals with the jurisdiction,
powers and authority of the tribunals. Section 14(1) of the Act vests the
Central Administrative Tribunal to exercise all the jurisdiction, powers and
authority exercisable through all the courts except the Supreme Court of India
under Article 136 of the Constitution. This relates to matters of recruitment,
other service matters in respect of officers belonging to all India Services or of
members of Civil Services of the Union or those holding civil posts under the
Union or Defence Service. No court in the country, except the Supreme Court
is entitled to exercise any jurisdiction or authority in matters of service
disputes. The same authority has been vested in the State and Joint
Administrative Tribunal.

One of the main characteristics of the Indian Constitution is judicial

review. There is a hierarchy of courts for the enforcement of legal and
constitutional rights. One can appeal against the decision of one court to
another, like from District Court to the High Court and then finally to the
Supreme Court. But there is no such hierarchy of Administrative Tribunals
and concerning adjudication of service matters, one would have a remedy only
before one of the tribunals. This is in contrast to the French system of
administrative courts, where there is a hierarchy of administrative courts and
one can appeal from one administrative court to another. But in India, with
regard to decisions of the Tribunals, one cannot appeal to an Appeate
Tribunal. Though Supreme Court under Article 136, has jurisdiction over the
decisions of the Tribunals, as a matter of right, no person can appeal to the
Supreme Court. It is discretionary with the Supreme Court to grant or not to
grant special leave to appeal.

The Administrative Tribunals have the authority to issue writs. In

disposing of the cases, the Tribunal observes the canons, principles and norms
of „natural justice‟. The Act gives that “a Tribunal shall not be bound through
the procedure laid down in the Code of Civil Procedure 1908, but shall be
guided through the principles of natural justice.....the Tribunal shall have
power to regulate its own procedure including the fixing of the place and times
of its enquiry and deciding whether to sit in public or private”. A Tribunal has
the same jurisdiction, powers and authority, as those exercised through the
High Court, in respect of “Contempt of itself‟ that is, punish for contempt, and
for the purpose, the provisions of the contempt of Courts Act 1971 have been
made applicable. This helps the Tribunals in ensuring that they are taken
seriously and their orders are not ignored.

PROCEDURE FOR APPLICATION TO THE TRIBUNALS

Chapter IV of the Administrative Tribunals Act prescribes the procedure

for application to the Tribunal. A person aggrieved through any order
pertaining to any matter within the jurisdiction of the Tribunal may create an
application to it for redressal of grievance. Such applications should be in the
prescribed form and have to be accompanied through relevant documents and
proof and through such fee as may be prescribed through the Central
Government but not exceeding one hundred rupees for filing the application.
The Tribunal shall not ordinarily admit an application unless it is satisfied that
the applicant has availed of all the remedies accessible to him under the
relevant service rules. This comprises the creation of any administrative
appeal or representation. Since consideration of such appeals and
representations involve delay, the applicant can create an application before
the Tribunal, if a period of six months has expired after the representation was
made and no order has been made. But an application to the Tribunal has to be
made within one year from the date of final order of rejection of the
application or appeal or where no final order of rejection has been made,
within one year from the date of expiry of six months period. The Tribunal,
may, though admit any application even after one year, if the applicant can
satisfy the Tribunal that he/she had enough cause for not creation the
application within the normal stipulated time.

Every application is decided through the Tribunal on examination of

documents, written representation and at times depending on the case, on
hearing of oral arguments. The applicant may either appear in person or
through a legal practitioner who will present the case before the Tribunal. The
orders of the Tribunal are binding on both the parties and should be complied
within the time prescribed in the order or within six months of the receipt of
the order where no time-limit has been indicated in the order. The parties can
approach the Supreme Court against the orders of the Tribunal through way of
appeal under Article 136 of the Constitution. The Administrative Tribunals are
not bound through the procedure laid down in the code of Civil Procedure
1908. They are guided through the principles of natural justice. Since these
principles are flexible, adjustable according to the situation, they help the
Tribunals in molding their procedure keeping in view the circumstances of a
situation.

ADVANTAGES AND LIMITATIONS OF THE TRIBUNALS

Administrative Justice through Administrative Tribunals, serves more

adequately the varied and complex needs of modern society than any other
method. It has also proved useful and effective. There are sure definite
advantages of the Tribunals which are:
Appropriate and effective justice: The Administrative Tribunals are not
only the mainly appropriate means of administrative justice, but also
effective means of providing fair justice to individuals. Now the public
service employees feel assured that in cases of denial of justice and fair
play to them, the Tribunals restore to them the benefits that rightfully
belonged to them.
Flexibility: There is considerable amount of flexibility and adaptability
in the functioning of Tribunals. Principles of natural justice play an
significant role in the operation of Tribunals. They are not bound
through rigid rules of procedure or previous decisions or rule of law.
The rules of natural justice are adaptable to the situation. While court
justice tends to be highly technical, Tribunals are free from
technicalities of law.
Less Expensive: Justice through Administrative Tribunals is
inexpensive in conditions of costs involved. This is in contrast to the
long and cumbersome procedures involved in judicial courts and vast
costs incurred in engaging lawyers, court fees and other incidental
expenses. Hence, the Tribunals have now become popular judicial
forums which give easy accessibility to the government employees,
who are encouraged to move the Tribunal even in minor service
matters.
Relief to Courts: The Administrative Tribunals have provided great
relief to the judicial courts which are preoccupied with so several
petitions relating to Civil, Criminal and Constitutional matters.

Despite these advantages there are sure limitations in the functioning of

tribunals. These contain:
The Administrative Tribunals, do not rely on uniform precedents and
hence, this might lead to arbitrary and inconsistent decisions.
There is no hierarchy of Administrative Tribunals and this has totally
excluded the scope of judicial review on service matters.
The Tribunal consists of administrative members and technical heads
that may not possess any background of law or judicial work.
The Administrative Tribunals as discussed earlier have the power to
issue writs, which till now was exercised only through the Supreme
Court and High Courts under the Constitution.
There is no clear cut provision concerning the sharing of authority of
issuing of writs, flanked by the Courts and Tribunals.
One more inadequacy noticeable in the present Administrative
Tribunals is from structural-functional angle. This is the absence of an
appellate forum within the Tribunal which causes considerable
inconvenience. For instance, if a bench of the Tribunal gives a
judgment, it has got applicability all over the country as there is only
one Central Administrative Tribunal for whole of India and the several
benches located in dissimilar parts of the country are parts of the same
Tribunal. If there was such an appellate mechanism within the Tribunal
system, wherein appeals can be filed against any unsatisfactory
judgment, it would have been a desirable form of obtaining justice both
for the government employees as well as the government.
CENTRAL AND STATE TRAINING INSTITUTES

ROLES OF TRAINING

Training is the procedure of inculcating in the employees appropriate

habits of thought and action and development of necessary skills, knowledge
and attitudes. The ultimate objective of training is to enable employees to
become effective in their present and future tasks. Let us now discuss the
dissimilar roles of training.

Training as a Vital Input for Performance

It is not enough to merely recruit qualified persons in government service.
It is essential to train them towards the several goals and objectives of the
organization to which they belong and to give them technical, conceptual and
human skills for performance of dissimilar activities. If training is not
imparted, perhaps such skills would be acquired partially through trial and
error or through the application of the rule of thumb and in some cases after
committing, many mistakes which might prove to be detrimental to the
organization as well as the public interest.
Training as an Aid to Attitudinal Change
Training enables entrants in the government service to become familiar
with the specific objectives of their work in the organization. It also creates
them feel that they have a sure contribution to create towards the society
through their work. So training generates in them an awareness of the role and
importance of their work. Training also enables a person to develop the right
attitude towards time and cost and thereby a sense of urgency in the disposal
of work. It is again very helpful in developing the right work ethic and
concern for the citizens and enables a person to appreciate a systems approach
towards the work and thereby motivates him/her to cooperate with others in
the performance of work.

Training as an Aid to Increased Productivity

Training develops proficiency in the specifics of work, this builds up
confidence in the personnel and thereby increases their interest and capability
in performance of tasks. In other words, training develops the personality of
the employees and attunes to the necessities of work and therefore, increases
productivity, organizational effectiveness and efficiency.

Training as an Significant Tool in the Context of Implementation of

Development Plans
The need for training is all the more significant in the present context of
complex nature of work, larger in magnitude and multi-disciplinary in
character. The implementation of plans and programmes for socio-economic
development of the nation, alleviation of poverty in the rural and urban areas,
and generation of employment to meet the demands of rising population
requires considerable amount of involvement of personnel working in
government departments in conditions of time and attention and appropriate
skills. In meeting the goals of development administration, training has a very
significant role of not only providing knowledge for personnel development
and work skills, but also changing their attitudes and values. Training as a
learning procedure has to be continuous because the needs of development and
modernization cannot be met through the training of personnel at a single
point of time. Training to be effective, should not be treated as an ad hoc
exercise but as an on-going activity.
KINDS OF TRAINING

Foundational Training
The fresh recruits to the civil services, who after successfully competing in
the civil services examination join the services, need to be imparted some
similar and common training. The vital objective of this kind of training is
that, irrespective of the educational disciplines from which the civil servants
come, they should be exposed to the basics of administration, fundamentals of
the Country‟s socio-economic realities, political environment, government‟s
ideology, the overall system of inter-relationships, inter-dependencies flanked
by the dissimilar organs, agencies of the government, flanked by citizens and
administration, etc. The thought is also that they should develop „camaraderie‟
and civil service comradeship, which will prove helpful in their later careers
when they work together in the several departments of the Government of
India. This sort of training, is measured „on campus training‟ where it is
organised in one campus, under the same atmosphere, in the same
surroundings, ' to provide them an thought of common living, understanding
and functioning together. Keeping these objectives in view the foundational
training programme for civil servants was evolved in 1959. Under this
programme the recruits for IAS and other non technical services coming
through combined competitive/ civil services examination is sent to the Lal
Bahadur Shastri National Academy of Administration, Mussoorie.

This training now is extended to contain recruits of higher technical

services like Indian Railway Service of Engineers, Central Engineering
Service (Roads) etc. This sort of foundational training is also concerned with
professional characteristic of personnel development, it is concerned with the
generation of ability, promotion of specific competence and improvement of
scrupulous job-centered efficiency. This kind of training is mannered in
professional training institutes, staff colleges etc. and also imparted on the job,
or at the workplace through learning through objectives. This training is also
essentially of an „on-entry‟ kind, dissimilar from „in-service‟ or „refresher‟
training the objective of which is to update the old skills or to impart new
skills relevant to the functions performed. Foundational training relating to
professional tasks for the first inductees emphasizes, besides showing
improved ways of doing things and new technical know-how of work, the
socio-cultural dynamics of the scrupulous service.

On-Entry Training
This training, which can also be termed „post-entry training‟ may take
several forms, orientation, induction, on the job etc. This on-entry training is
to be distinguished from later career programmes or in-service training which
is given to the employees throughout their mid-career or „maturation stage‟ i.e.
at the higher/senior career stage. This in-service training about which, you will
revise later may take several forms like refresher training, retraining,
managerial training (management development programmes), executive
development programmes etc. On-entry training, at the entry point in service
becomes very significant, as it prepares fresh recruits to the new job. It is the
training which is imparted after recruitment and before assignment to a job.
The „on-entry‟ training can be divided into the following stages:

Orientation
It gives a general introduction to public employment usually throughout
the first few days or weeks of service. It is a sort of familiarization exercise,
which focuses on the work environment i.e. organizational set up, its aims and
objectives, rights and duties of employees etc.

Induction
Induction training which is also a sort of post-entry training goes beyond
orientation and involves instruction (at the outset of public employment)
concerning the performance of tasks related to scrupulous positions, of duties
of a sure grade in a cadre or service. Induction training has a specific job-
centered focus and comprises usually weeks or months of formal instruction
soon after the initial appointment. The primary object of this is to accelerate
the learning procedure of the individuals about the basics of work, its content,
procedures, rules and regulations etc.

Induction training is imparted to recruits of All-India Services, Central and

Technical Services in their own departments throughout the remaining period
of probation, before being given independent charge. For instance, the
Institute of Secretariat Management and Training at Delhi which is also a
Central Training Institute conducts induction training for Section Officers of
Central Secretariat Service and Indian Foreign Service (B) and orients them
towards government procedures, noting, drafting etc. Also, it holds induction
training programmes for directly recruited members of Indian Economic
Service and Indian Statistical Service towards organizational set up of Central
Secretariat and Parliament. Such courses are held regularly at several Central
Training Institutes.

On-the Job-Training
This kind of training is based on the premise that a person‟s best learning
takes place on the job. This relates to „learning while working‟ through “trail
and error” method or informal practical introduction to the job or under the
guidance of the first-line supervisor or other senior experienced persons in the
organization. This is purely job-centered i.e. training related to the nature of
work and the place of work. The rapid advance in the socio-economic,
technological, educational fields creates it imperative, on the part of personnel,
to update their knowledge and acquire specialization. Hence the initial training
and on-the-job training needs to be complemented through in-service training
which has to be imparted to the employee at the several stages of his/her
career. This enables one to update necessary skills and knowledge and face the
rising job responsibilities. Now we will discuss the significance of in-service
training and its several kinds.

In-service Training
In-service training is the training imparted to the employees in their mid-
career or at a later stage in their service. Hence it is also recognized as mid
(later) career training. Staff development is a continuous procedure and it is an
significant factor contributing to organizational effectiveness. The
fundamental assumption behind in-service training is that since the vital or
initial training imparted to the employees at the time of joining is not enough
for their whole career, there is a need for inducting in them new knowledge,
and skills, better attitudinal and behavioral patterns, which would enable them
to face the rapidly changing technological and administrative environment. It
stresses on the development of coherent thinking and problem solving skill,
which enhances their performance stages. A conference on issues in in-service
Training organised through the Training Division of the Department of
Personnel, Government of India in 1981 observed that in several
organizations, the in-service training is sought to achieve the following
objectives
To maintain the present standard of performance;
To improve the present standard of performance;
To provide to the employees new skills necessary to meet changing job
requirement;
To enable the employees to perform jobs at higher stages as they rise
in the hierarchy.

Refresher Courses
Often employees are imparted training time and again in their own
occupational jurisdictions or functional areas or professional specialties. The
vital objective of such courses is to enable them to refresh their knowledge
and skills which they had leant in their early careers, or to renew/sharpen their
skills or to know sure new things, with which the employees, being immersed
in the daily routine, have not been able to keep in touch. This is particularly so
in technical occupations like, medicine, agriculture, engineering, science or
other related professional fields. Refresher programmes are conceived as
„consolidation of knowledge, ability and experience‟.

In 1985, the Ministry of Personnel, Training Administrative Reforms,

Public Grievances, Pensions and Pensioners‟ Welfare made it mandatory for
all IAS officers of junior, middle and senior stages to attend the one week
refresher course. This sort of vertical participation from junior to senior stages
was necessary to facilitate interaction flanked by those who formulate policies
and those who implement them and give for sharing of experiences in policy
planning and programme implementation in the middle of participants.

Re-training
A somewhat dissimilar, though to an extent allied, concept of training is
accessible in „re-training‟, which would contain instruction in a new field of
specialization or at least an extensive training in the old field of specialization.
Ordinarily, re-training is imparted when an employee or a group of employees
is to be assigned new tasks or expanded duties of such magnitude as to
constitute approximately a new work-assignment. This is necessary to offer
the employee broader skills to tackle the job-challenges of a new area.

Management Training
Management Training is a relatively new and motivating development in
the area of personnel management in general, and in the field of training, in
scrupulous. Though, generically it may cover all training above the
supervisory stage, the specific typology of this training is found in Executive
Development Programmes (EDPs) and Management Development
Programmes (MDPs). These programmes are meant for Group A officers of
All India/Central Services. These are aimed at enhancing the awareness of
middle stage officers, towards the socio-economic environment, imparting
knowledge of modem concepts and practices of management, providing an
understanding of some of the modern management techniques and tools, and
structure up an appreciation of human factors in administration. The Executive
Development Programme is of 6 weeks duration and planned for officers with
6-10 years service in Group A, while the Management Development
Programme is of 4 weeks duration and is meant for All India/Central Services
Group A with 11-15 years of service.

An assumption which is widely prevalent in the senior circles of

bureaucracy is that the highest stage of management does not need any type of
training and that there is very little for them to learn. Such assumptions are not
only inaccurate, but also damaging to the public interest. It is true that their job
does not basically involve the practice of any scrupulous specialization, it
mainly involves policy-formulation, and rendering of advice, but to create
their outlook and approach integrative and global, they also need to be
exposed at times, towards specific studies of a set of policy troubles or a
detailed revise of the whole policy creation procedure in some area of
administrative activity. In addition, this training has to be imparted in
dissimilar ways of problem solving, leadership patterns, attitudinal changes,
motivational techniques etc. This could be done through sending senior
management to professional institutions for pursuing programmes of advanced
training.

CENTRAL TRAINING INSTITUTES

In India, training for public services has been a long recognized practice
with some training institutes, which had been in subsistence, throughout pre-
independence days, at the time of East India Company. Though there were
institutions like College at Fort Williams in Calcutta (1800-1806), East India
College (1809-1857) popularly recognized as Haileybury College, which were
providing some sort of post-entry training to their higher civil servants, it was
only after independence that training became a focal point of concern of the
government. The need for training was felt to improve the quality of civil
servants, and so it becomes an integral-part of the personal policies of the
government. Approximately all the reports on administrative reforms from
Gorwala report on Public Administration (1951) to reports of Administrative
Reforms Commission (ARC) (1966-72) and those in the post ARC period
have emphasized the need for a systematic and coherent training and career
development of public services.

The Administrative Reforms Commission was of the view that training is

an investment in human possessions, it is an significant means of improving
the human potential and rising the efficiency of personnel. Training, the
Commission felt was necessary immediately on induction to the service and
after some years of experience a person necessity receive training to suit the
specific needs of one‟s scrupulous field. It laid considerable stress on mid-
career management training and also recommended training for middle as well
as senior management.

As a result of these attempts a number of training institutions have been set

up at the Central and State stages to impart training in administration and
management techniques with a view to cater to the generalized and specific
needs of personnel of public services. With the explosion in the number of
trainees. Academy cannot cater to the total training needs of all, hence several
training programmes have now been assigned to dissimilar Institutes, where
not only IAS officers, but even others are sent. These are referred to as Central
Training Institutions and National Training Institutions. These contain
institutions set up through the government to cater to the training needs of All
India and Central Services like:
Sardar Patel National Police Academy, Hyderabad
Forest Research Institute, Dehradun
Academy of Direct Taxes, Nagpur
Railway Staff College, Vadodara
Postal Staff College, New Delhi
Indian Audit & Accounts Staff College, Shimla

In addition to these, the banking institutions and public sector undertakings

also have their own training centers. Training institutions in the area of rural
development have been set up too like for instance, the National Institute of
Rural Development at Hyderabad, the Institute of Rural Management, Anand.
These institutions are doing pioneering work in training for management of
rural development. A number of state governments have also recognized their
own State Training Institutes (STI‟s) which give post entry and in-service
training to members belonging to state civil services and other employees of
government departments, about which you will revise later. The training
institutions, besides conducting their, own technical and professional
programmes, organize short-duration, mid-career courses like Management
Development Programmes (MDP), Executive Development Programmes
(EDP), Management in Government Programmes (MIGP), depending on the
seniority groupings of the trainees. The content of the training programmes
cover areas like Personnel Management, Human Possessions Development,
Behavioral Sciences, Financial Administration, Rural Development,
Municipal Administration, Organization and Methods, Industrial Relations etc.
The training institutes manage these programmes partly through their own
faculty and partly through guest faculty invited from outside for their
specialization, expertise and experience in the specific areas of work.

STATE TRAINING INSTITUTES

The state civil services functioning at the intermediate stages constitute an

significant component to the civil services in India. In recent years, with the
important change in the nature and functions of the state government which
comprises maintenance of law and order, civic services, revenue collection,
development activities, there has been considerable augment in the number of
entrants to these services and other staff. The new tasks of government, calls
for rising degree of specialization, modem management skills and techniques
and also understanding and commitment on the part of personnel, to perform
the tasks.

Training effort, through and large, in mainly states, has for long been a
neglected characteristic. The need for imparting institutional and on the job
training to civil servants at several stages in the states has been emphasized
through dissimilar Administrative Reforms Committees. These contain
Maharashtra Administrative Reorganization Committee (1962-68), Andhra
Pradesh Administrative Reforms Committee (1964-65), Mysore Pay
Commission (1966-68). The need for formal and institutional training for civil
servants was also clearly recognized through the Administrative Reforms
Commission and its revise team on State Stage Administration (1967-69).
Both recommended that each state should have a training college/institution.
The revise team felt that “training is a continuous procedure and should be
imparted not only to new recruits but also to those who are already in service.
In a few states the institution of the officer‟s training school is not in vogue. It
is desirable that each state should have an officers Training School of its
own”. All these led to rising awareness of training -amongst the states and
paved the way for setting up of State Training Institutes (STIs) in their
respective states for providing post entry and in-service training to their
employees. There are about twenty one STIs. Some of the significant ones are:
Institute of Administration, Hyderabad.
Sardar Patel Institute of Public Administration,
Ahmadabad
Haryana Institute of Public Administration,
Chandigarh.
Himachal Pradesh Institute of Public
Administration, Shimla
Institute of Management in Government,
Trivandrum,
Punjab State Institute of Public Administration,
Chandigarh.
HCM Rajasthan State Institute of Public
Administration, Jaipur.
 Administrative Training Institute, Calcutta.
Administrative Training Institute, Nainital
State Planning Institute, Lucknow.

FUNCTIONS OF STATE TRAINING INSTITUTES

The STI normally performs the following specific functions;

Gives training to officers of the All India Services
allotted to the state with view to acquainting them
with the socio-economic, cultural and historical
background of the state and the administrative
system of the state government relevant to their
functions and to sensitize them to troubles peculiar
to the state.
Conducts courses for officers of the All India
Services and the state services which are
sponsored through the several concerned
ministries of the Government of India.
Organizes foundation courses for officers of the
state civil services with a view to foster a spirit of
camaraderie in them and to orient them to common
vital values of the administrative system of the
state.
Organizes induction courses for directly recruited
officers of the State Administrative Services and
 such other services which do not have induction
training facilities in their concerned departments.
Training is imparted, at times, in specific areas like
general management, financial management, office
management, computer application etc., in cases
where the departments concerned do not have
adequate infrastructure to impart training in the
above areas.
Conducts refresher and in-service training courses
for officers of the state government in specific
areas of interest.
Organizes programmes for training of trainers of
the departments and other training institutions in
the state.
Ensures that appropriate and adequate training is
imparted to officials of all the departments at all
stages and at appropriate intervals at departmental
and other lining institutions and coordinate all such
activities in the state.

As discussed earlier there are about twenty one State Training Institutes in
our country and it is necessary to bring about some degree of uniformity in
their structure and activities. This can be done, through identifying the STI as
the professional training institution for the State Administrative Service,
adopting the pattern of training as imparted through National Academy of
Administration (for IAS), for the State Administrative Service and also
creation the STI responsible for conducting a common foundational course for
direct entrants to class II civil services to be followed through an induct ional
training programme.

CREATION STATE TRAINING INSTITUTION A NODAL AGENCY

FOR TRAINING IN THE STATE

The State Trading Institution as the Apex or nodal state stage institution
has a very significant role to play in the training of personnel in the State. The
main role of this Institution is to not only organize induction, refresher, in-
service training programme for the main services of the state, but also to
assess the training needs of officers at dissimilar stages of all the
departments/organizations at the state, and give necessary training
programmes. It has to draw up master plans for training of all the civil
servants in the state. If the STI has to discharge its nodal role effectively, it has
to assume the responsibility of evaluating training activities from time to time
with a view to upgrading the standards of training.

The state training institute if it has to develop as a centre of excellence in

training has to develop and linkages with relevant national stage institutions in
the country, horizontal linkage vertical with other STI‟s functioning at the
same stage in other states so as to strengthen each other and give a Co
operation effect in the field of training. Also, the training activity should be
decentralized, with the setting up of recruited at the district stages. For
instance, the Himachal Pradesh Institute of Public Administration has ten
brandies at its districts. Likewise the Institute of Management in Government,
(Kerala) has two centers at Cochin and Calicut.

Another significant characteristic is the training of trainers of the Institute,

as the quality of trainers determines the impact of the training programmes.
The trainers need to be exposed to field research work where they are
confronted with real life troubles faced through the trainees encouraged to
develop case studies for discussion throughout training programmes. They are
also made aware of growths in training technologies on a continuous basis.
Replacing the lecture system through more sophisticated systems like
syndicates, role play, case revise methods etc. becomes an absolute necessity.
Also if the STI has to discharge its nodal role effectively, it has to assume the
responsibility evaluating the training activities from time to time with a view
to upgrading the standards of training. The general approach to training and
crucial role that the STI has to play in the overall context of training in the
state, should be unexceptionable with necessary modifications to take into
account the special circumstances and circumstances in a scrupulous state.
PERSONNEL/ UPSC/SPSC/SSC
NEED FOR CENTRAL PERSONNEL AGENCY

The State today is no longer performing only the peripheral and regulatory
functions, but in the perspective of the people‟s revolution of rising
expectations, has become a change agent, accelerator of economic
development, prime mover of social advancement and upgrade of individual
fulfillment and cultural enrichment. In the procedure, it permeates into several
facets of the citizen‟s life. With the change in the purpose and philosophy of
the state, the functions of the government have also correspondingly changed
in conditions of diversity, complexity and universality. Due to the expansion
of the governmental tasks, methodology of operation of the administration
would have to acquire a new direction and orientation. To meet the legitimate
urges and demands of the people, the government necessity necessarily
undertake massive modernization programmes and transform Tory tasks,
converting the old traditional administration to a development administration
defined through Weidner as an action-oriented, change-oriented and goal-
oriented administrative system concerned with the attainment of definite
programmatic objectives.

In such an administrative arrangement, “personnel” is the mainly

important of the three inputs, the other two being “machinery” and “methods”.
Organizational refinement and procedural sophistication cannot carry the
administrative “delivery system” beyond a point, unless the personnel working
on the machine and manipulating the methods can be made professional
masters of their work. Total administrative system vitally depends for its
effectiveness and ultimate success on its personnel sub-systems.

For grooming such personnel, professionally, motivationally and culturally

a sound organizational support system is necessary. Creation of such an
institutional structure can be found in what has come to be described Central
Personnel Agency (CPA). The CPA constitutes the nodal agency for authority
which is the clearing house for all important personnel activities, which could
provide unified central direction in formulating futuristic policies and also in
planning other developmental and promotional programmes. In other words,
this institution, the Central Personnel Agency or Department, has to play the
leadership role in respect of a dynamic and forward looking personnel policy-
creation and application of modern personnel practices. The value and validity
of such an institution lies in its professional approach, multidisciplinary
orientation and expert staffing, separately from bold experimentation in
structural patterns.
DEVELOPMENT OF DEPARTMENT OF PERSONNEL

In a large and complex organization like the Government of India, the

personnel functions of the Central Government used to be performed through
the Ministry of Home Affairs through its Services and Establishment Officer‟s
Wings. In the discharge of these responsibilities the Home Ministry worked in
secure liaison with the Establishment Division of the Ministry of Finance
which was approximately a joint-management exercise. The Union Public
Service Commission, a constitutional authority set up under Article 315 of the
Constitution of India, played a vital advisory role in this framework of Central
Personnel Administration, besides creation recruitment and selection through
examination and interviews for the higher civil services and posts under the
Union Government. There were also some other organizations and agencies,
consultation with which was required for a comprehensive and effective
management of personnel in government. This arrangement which sustained
till August 1970, made for division of responsibility and amounted to a lack of
unified central direction in the matter of personnel. This emphasized the
necessity of personnel functions being handled from a central direction,
through a Ministry or Department which should be a focal point of direction
and formulation, guidance and superintendence, evaluation and control. There
was a need for creation this Ministry or Department fully responsible for not
only the current day to day tasks but also prospective, developmental
programmes in the context of a changing environment of national goals and
democratic socialist ideologies of a welfare state.

It was the Estimates Committee of the Third Lok Sabha (1966) which for
the first time advocated the creation of a single agency under the Cabinet
Secretariat, responsible for regulation of the conditions and circumstances of
civil services. It observed that “the ever expanding role of the government in a
welfare state with its national concomitant of a large civil service, calls for
effective personnel control through a single agency. This unified agency
should be under the control of the Cabinet Secretariat and made responsible
for regulating the conditions and circumstances in respect of services as a
whole, replacing the earlier dual control of the Home Ministry and the Finance
Ministry”.

In Britain also, at about the same time, the “Committee on Civil Service”
under the chairmanship of Lord Fulton, after diagnosing the ills of multiple
control and management system in the civil services in Britain suggested two
major institutional changes:
The responsibility for recruitment and selection accepted out through
the Civil Service Commission should be brought together with other
functions of central management within a single organization.
The expanded and unified central management of the service should be
 made the responsibility of a new Civil Service Department created
specifically for that purpose.

These recommendations were accepted through the British Government

and accordingly the Civil Service Department was set up. Visualized
Personnel Functions of Central Personnel Agency (CPA). Some of the
principal functions of the Central Personnel Agency of the Government of
India, as visualized through the Revise Team, related to:
formulating overall personnel policies, in areas like recruitment,
promotion, morale, vigilance and discipline, career development,
training and maintaining liaison with the UPSC and other concerned
organizations;
providing guidance and leadership to the departmental personnel
agencies in personnel management, both usually and through advice on
individual cases;
hunting for talent and regulating appointment to key posts, keeping in
touch with the procedure of the Bureau of Public Enterprises;
undertaking and promoting research in personnel administration,
serving as a clearing house of information on modem characteristics of
personnel management, and manpower planning for government
necessities;
overseeing usually the implementation of policies and regulations
formulated through the department through a system of inspections and
reporting.

Structural Blueprint for Central Personnel Agency

To effectively undertake the above charter of tasks, the following
structural blue-print for the CPA had been suggested:
A policy wing consisting of
o a policy formulation division; and
o a policy implementation division.
A career systems wing consisting of
o an appointments division dealing with key appointments, talent
hunting, etc., and
o a cadre management division dealing with management
troubles of the IAS and centralised characteristics of Central
Secretariat Service.
A development division for formulating development and training
programmes.
An inspection and house-keeping wing consisting of
o an inspection division to oversee implementation, and
o a house-keeping division serving as the internal personnel
office of the department.
ARC’s Recommendations on Department of Personnel
The Administrative Reforms Commission (ARC) had usually agreed with the
recommendations of the Deshmukh Revise Team. The ARC‟s own
recommendations in so far as Department of Personnel was concerned were as
follows:
A separate Department of Personnel should be set up, with a full Secretary
in charge who should work under the general guidance of the Cabinet
Secretary.
This Department should have the following functions and responsibilities:
o formulation of personnel policies on all matters common to the
Central and All-India Services, and inspection and review of
their implementation;
o talent hunting, development of personnel for “senior
management” and processing of appointment to senior posts;
o manpower planning, training and career development;
o foreign assistance programme in personnel administration;
o research in personnel administration;
o discipline and welfare of staff and machinery for redress of
their grievances;
o liaison with the Union Public Service Commission, State
Governments, professional institutions, etc., and
o staffing of the middle-stage positions of the Centre (of Under-
Secretaries and Deputy Secretaries) with the assistance of and
on the advice of the Establishment Board.
The Department of Personnel should not itself administer any service
cadre. The administrative control of dissimilar service cadres should
vest with individual Ministries and Departments concerned.
The administration of the IAS, IPS and the centralised characteristics
of the Central Secretariat Service should be the responsibility of the
Ministry of Home Affairs.
The management of the Indian Economic Service and of the Indian
Statistical Service should be transferred to the Department of
Economic Affairs.
The Cabinet Secretary should through convention be regarded as
Secretary-General of the new Department of Personnel, without being
formally so designated. He should be actively involved in the
development of and selection for “senior management" but not in
appointments below that stage,
The new Department of Personnel should be placed directly under the
Prime Minister.
An Advisory Council on Personnel Administration may be set up to act
as a feeder line of new ideas and thinking on personnel administration
 It should be composed of official and non-official experts in dissimilar
characteristics of personnel management drawn from all over the
country.
The Establishment Board should be located in the new Department of
Personnel and the Secretary of this Department should be its
Chairman. The Board should deal with appointments only upto and
including Deputy Secretary.

On the acceptance of the recommendations of the ARC, the Department of

Personnel was set up in 1970. It was then located in Cabinet Secretariat and
functioned under Prime Minister of India, assisted through a Minister of State
in the Department of Personnel. The question of location of Department was
itself a thorny, somewhat politicized issue, debated differently in dissimilar
quarters. While the Revise Team of the ARC (headed through Deshmukh)
suggested its being placed under the Ministry of Home Affairs, the ARC
recommended its placement under the Prime Minister directly, to enable it to
function under the general guidance of the Cabinet Secretary who should be
regarded through convention as Secretary General of the Department of
Personnel.

The Government of India agreed with the ARC and lodged the Department
in the Cabinet Secretariat where it remained till 1977, when, with the change
of regime in the Central Government (from Congress Party to Janata Party) the
Department was merged with the Ministry of Home Affairs as one of its
Departments “within the Ministry”. It again changed — from “within” to
“under” the Ministry of Home Affairs as a separate Department in January,
1985. Finally, in March, 1985, the erstwhile Department of Personnel became
a full-fledged Ministry of Personnel, Training, Administrative Reforms, Public
Grievances, Pensions and Pensioners‟ Welfare under the overall charge of the
Prime Minister assisted through a Minister of State for Personnel.

STRUCTURE OF THE MINISTRY OF PERSONNEL, TRAINING,

ADMINISTRATIVE REFORMS, PUBLIC GRIEVANCES, PENSIONS
AND PENSIONERS’ WELFARE

The Ministry comprises three separate Departments viz.,

Department of Personnel & Training;
Department of Administrative Reforms and Public Grievances; and
Department of Pensions and Pensioners‟ Welfare

All the three departments are functioning under the charge of Secretary
(Personnel) who is assisted through three Additional Secretaries, six Joint
Secretaries and other supporting staff including Directors, Deputy Secretaries,
Under Secretaries, etc. The Department of Personnel and Training has six
wings which are mentioned below beside with a brief outline of their
functions:
Policy & Planning Wing: Research in Personnel Administration;
Liaison with expert institutions, Universities, Industries and Civil
Services Department of Foreign Governments; Advice on Personnel
Administration etc.
Training Wing: Formulation and Coordination of training policies for
All India and Central Services; all establishment and training matters
relating to the National Academy of Administration, Mussoorie,
including Refresher Courses for IAS and other officers; training
programmes sponsored at Indian Institute of Public Administration;
liaison with training institutions within the country and abroad;
National Training Policy; organization of research/evaluation of
training programmes, etc.
All India Services Wing: All matters relating to recruitment and post
recruitment circumstances of Service; framing and application of rules
and regulations for the All India Services etc.
 Establishment Wing: All Establishment matters; Union Public Service
Commission, Staff Selection Commission, State Public Service
Commission; Recruitment Rules; interpretation relating to Civil
Service Rules and Regulations; determination of circumstances of
service for Civil Services etc.
Vigilance Wing: Vigilance cases relating to officers of IAS, Indian
Forest Service and some other Group „A‟ services; disciplinary
proceedings; Central Vigilance Commission (CVC) and State
Vigilance Commission; establishment matters of Central Bureau of
Investigation (CBI) and CVC; complaints of corruption relating to
Central Ministries, State Governments, Union Territories, commercial
firms etc.
Executive Officer‟s (E.O.‟s) Wing: Processing of cases with the
Appointments Committee of the Cabinet; all appointments of the
Board of Management of the Public Sector Undertakings; Maintenance
of Executive Record forms of IAS and Central Secretariat Service
(CSS) officers; training of Central Secretariat Service Officers in
State/Central Field Organization; Training and Fellowship in Institutes
in India and abroad; requests from Foreign Governments and
International Organizations for Indian Personnel for service under
them; Maintenance and proper custody of confidential reports of IAS
and CSS (Gr.I and Selection Grade) Officers; Middle Management;
Senior Management; Career Management, etc.

ROLE AND FUNCTIONS OF THE MINISTRY OF PERSONNEL,

TRAINING, ADMINISTRATIVE REFORMS, PUBLIC GRIEVANCES,
PENSIONS AND PENSIONERS WELFARE

The Department of Personnel and Training within the Ministry of

Personnel, Training, Administrative Reforms, Public Grievances, Pensions
and Pensioners‟ Welfare is the central agency responsible for policy
formulation and coordination of all activities in the sphere of public personnel
management, including administrative vigilance, training, staff welfare,
machinery for joint consultation and compulsory arbitration, reservation of
scheduled castes and tribes and other categories in the civil services,
administrative reforms, public grievances, and pensions. The Department does
the rule-creation job for the several all-India and central services, which
contain final interpretation of regulations in cases of doubt and also the
overview of implementation and cadre management. It also concerns itself
with developmental characteristics of the civil servants through training
(inside and outside the country), career management through experience cum
productivity oriented deployment, deputation and assignments, applied and
futuristic research on personnel policy and planning besides performing
promotional functions through instituting objective rewards and punishment
systems, disagreement-management mechanisms and need-based employee-
welfare schemes. The Department of Personnel controls IAS and Central
Secretariat Services and looks after all administrative matters relating to
Central Vigilance Commission (CVC) Central Bureau of investigation (CBI),
Administrative Tribunal, Union Public Service Commission, Staff Selection
Commission and Indian Institute of Public Administration (IIPA). It also
oversees the functioning of Lal Bahadur Shastri National Academy of
Administration, Mussoorie and Institute of Secretariat Training and
Management, New Delhi.

The Ministry throughout its two decades of subsistence, has undertaken

some significant measures like:
Option of voluntary retirement to government employees after 20 years
of service with 5 years additional service benefit.
National Management Programme for Officers of Central/All India
Services, of Public and Private sector executives in cooperative
endeavour with four Indian Institutes of Management (Ahmedabad,
Bangalore, Calcutta & Lucknow) and Xavier Labour Relations
Institute, Jamshedpur which is a good effort to orient our
administrators towards concepts of Management.
Complete restructuring of the Pension scheme of Central Government
which enables payment of pension and other benefits/dues through the
date of retirement.
The experiments of holding Pension Adalats and Shikayat Adalats for
on-the-spot settlement of grievances of retired staff and others
aggrieved.
Special Recruitment drive for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes
so as to wipe out the backlog of vacancies reserved for them but not
filled through them.

The role of the Ministry, in the emerging context of modem day

necessities of a democratic state should not lie just in the maintenance of
status quo but in the structure of a planned system where the best in the
society gets attracted towards Civil Services. The field for a modem Ministry
of Personnel is vast impinging on every characteristic of bureaucrat‟s life like
career development, cadre management & review, staff welfare, public
grievances, research in personnel policies etc. It is also true that it is not
possible to bring about important changes in all these areas at once in the
system. Resource constraint, paucity of adequate and trained manpower,
structural support and several other factors tend to come in the way of reforms.
DEVELOPMENT OF PUBLIC SERVICE COMMISSION

It was the Government of India Act, 1919, which for the first time
recognized the need for the setting up of a Public Service Commission in
India. It was of the view that an expert body, free from political interference
should be set up, entrusted with the task of recruitment of civil servants and
regulation of their service matters. The objective of the Public Service
Commission as indicated in the Act (vide section 96c) was to “discharge in
regard to recruitment and control of the public services in India, such
functions as may be assigned thereto through rules made through the Secretary
of State in Council”.
In 1924, the Lee Commission again recommended that the Statutory
Public Service Commission contemplated through the Government of India
Act 1919, should be set up without delay with the following functions:
 Recruitment of personnel for the public services and the establishment
of proper standards of qualification for admission to these services.
quasi-judicial functions linked with the disciplinary control and
protection of the services.

It was not until 1926 that the Public Service Commission was set up for the
first time, consisting of four members in addition to the Chairman. The
functions of the Commission were advisory in nature. The Public Service
Commission (Function) Rules of 1926 provided that the Commission is
consulted on matters linked with
Recruitment to All-India and Central Services, Class-1 and Class-II
Determining qualifications for recruitment through selection and
syllabi for examination
Promotion and disciplinary matters of these services
Pay and allowances, pensions, provident or family pension funds, leave
rules and circumstances of service of these services. The Lee
Commission did not suggest for the establishment of similar
Commission in the provinces.

Later, the first Round Table Conference held in London in 1930, the
British Government in its Constitutional proposals of 1933 and the Joint
Committee on Indian Constitutional Reforms (1933-34) emphasized the
establishment of Public Service Commission in provinces in addition to the
Federal Public Service Commission. These suggestions found a concrete shape
in the Government of India Act 1935 which envisaged a Public Service
Commission for the Federation and a Provincial Public Service Commission
for each province or group of provinces. They were entrusted with the
functions of conducting examinations for appointment to the public services
and the government was under an obligation to consult the commission on
major matters concerning their circumstances of service.

With effect from 1st April, 1937, the then Public Service Commission at
the Centre became the Federal Public Service Commission (FPSC).With the
promulgation of the Constitution of India on January 26, 1950, the Federal
Public Service Commission came to be recognized as the Union Public
Service Commission (UPSC). The objectives of the UPSC, in broad conditions
are:
To conduct written examination and interview for the purpose of
appointment to a specified group of civil services and posts of the
Government of India
To advise the Government in matters of framing rules in regard to
methods of recruitment, principles of promotion, disciplinary
characteristics, sure circumstances of services such as disability
pension etc.
CONSTITUTION OF THE UNION AND STATE PUBLIC SERVICE
COMMISSIONS

In Part XIV- Chapter II of the Constitution of India, vide Article 315, it

has been provided that:
Subject to the provisions of this article, there shall be a Public Service
Commission for the Union and a Public Service Commission for each
State;
Parliament may through law give for the appointment of Joint Public
Service Commission if two or more states agree that there be one
Public Service Commission for that group of States, and if a resolution
to that effect is passed through the House or where there are two
Houses, through each House of the Legislature of each of those States.
The Union Public Service Commission, if requested to do so through
the Governor of a State, may with the approval of the Presidents, agree
to serve all or any of the needs of the State.

Membership
The Chairman and other members of the Public Service Commission are
appointed, in the case of Union Public Service Commission or a Joint
Commission through the President of India and in the case of State Public
Service Commission, through the Governor of the State. It has also been
provided that (as almost as may be) one-half of the members of every Public
Service Commission should be persons who have held office for at least ten
years either under the Government of India or under the Government of State.

Tenure
A member of a Public Service Commission holds office for a term of six
years from the date on which he enters upon his office or until he attains, in
the case of Union Public Service Commission, the age of 65 years and in the
case of a State Public Service Commission or a Joint Commission, the age of
60 years, whichever is earlier.

On the expiry of the term of office, a person who held office as a member
of the Public Service Commission is ineligible for re-appointment to that
office. The Chairman of the UPSC shall be ineligible for further employment
under the Government of India or Government of any State. Though, on
ceasing to hold office, the Chairman of a State Public Service Commission
would be eligible for appointment as Chairman or as any other member of the
Union Public Service Commission but not for any other employment.
Likewise, a member other than the Chairman of the UPSC shall be eligible for
appointment as the Chairman of the UPSC or the Chairman of a State Public
Service commission but not for any other employment.

The President, or the Governor as the case may be, may determine,
through regulations, the number of members of the Commission and their
circumstances of service, and also create provision as regards the number of
members or the staff of the Commission and their circumstances of services.
Circumstances of service of a member of the Public Service Commission
cannot be varied to his disadvantage after his appointment.

Removal
The Chairman or any other member of the Public Service Commission can
be removed from their office through the order of the President on ground of
proved misbehavior, after Supreme Court‟s enquiry and confirmation of guilt
in accordance with the procedure prescribed under Article 145. The President
in the case of UPSC or Joint Commission, and the Governor in the case of
State Commission, may suspend from office the Chairman or any other
member of the Commission in respect of whom a reference has been made to
the Supreme Court, until the President has passed appropriate orders on the
Supreme Court‟s report. The President, has the authority to remove through
order the Chairman or any other member of a Public Service Commission, if:
He is adjudged an insolvent, or
Engages himself in any paid employment outside the duties of his
office, or
He is unfit to continue in office through cause of infirmity of mind or
body.

FUNCTIONS OF THE PUBLIC SERVICE COMMISSION

As stipulated in Article 320, the functions of the Public Service

Commission are as follows:
It shall be the duty of the Union and the State Public Service
Commissions to conduct examination for appointments to the services
of the Union and the services of the State respectively.
It shall also be the duty of the Union Public Service Commissions, if
requested through any two more States to assist those States in framing
and operating schemes of recruitment for any services for which
candidates possessing special qualifications are required.
It shall be the duty of the Union Public Service Commission or the
State Public Service commission, as the case may be, to advise on the
following matters (on which a Public Service Commission shall have
to be consulted),—namely,
 o on all matters relating to methods of recruitment to civil
services and for civil posts;
o on the principles to be followed in creation appointment to civil
services and posts and in creation promotions and transfers
from one service to another and on the suitability of candidates
for such appointments, promotions or transfers;
o on all disciplinary matters affecting a person serving under the
Government of India or the Government of a State in a civil
capability, including memorials or petitions relating to such
matters;
o on any claim through or in respect of a person who is serving or
has served under the Government of India or the Government
of a State, in a civil capability, that any costs incurred through
him in defending legal proceedings instituted against him in
respect of acts done or purporting to be done in the execution of
his duty should be paid out of the Consolidated Fund of the
State;
o on any claim for the award of a pension in respect of injuries
sustained through a person while in service under the
Government of India or the Government of a State or under the
Crown in India or under the Government of an Indian State, in
a civil capability, and on any question as to the amount of any
such award.

A Public Service Commission shall also advise on any other matter which
the President, or as the case may be, the Governor of the State, may refer to
them. It has further been provided that the President, in respect of the all-India
services and also in respect to other services and posts in connection with the
affairs of the Union (and the Governor in respect to other services and posts in
connection with affairs of a State) may create regulations specifying the
matters in which it shall not be necessary for a Public Service Commission to
be consulted.

It is pertinent to note that a Public Service Commission need not be

consulted in respect of appointment or posts in the services in favor of any
backward class citizens or the manner in which claims of the members of the
scheduled castes or tribes will be taken into consideration for appointment
under Union or a State (in conditions of Art. 335). Through an Act of the
Parliament (or Legislature of a State), additional functions may also be
extended to a Public Service Commission.

The Public Service Commissions will be required to present annually to

the President (or Governor as the case may be) a report as to the work done
through the Commission and such a report shall be caused to be laid before
each House of Parliament (or the Legislature of the State), together with a
memorandum explaining the cases of non-acceptance through the Government
of the advice of the commission and the reasons therefore.

ADVISORY ROLE OF THE PUBLIC SERVICE COMMISSION

The Public Service Commissions are entrusted with significant

constitutional duties and obligations and yet are assigned only an advisory
role. The nature of the Federal Service Commission under the Government of
India Act, 1935, was also advisory. The Public Service Commission renders
advice to the government and the latter is under no legal obligation to act
according to its advice. The constitution makers planned to provide the
Commission only an advisory role as they did not want the Cabinet or the
Executive to be bound through the advice of any other agency.

But a question arises whether the. Commission with its advisory status can
effectively exercise its functions. Though the, government is not bound
through the advice of the Commission, necessary safeguards have been
provided in the Constitution against the possible disregard of the advice of the
Commission through the government. As said earlier, every year, beside with
the submission of the Commission‟s annual report before the House of
Parliament in case of UPSC and the State Legislature in case of State Public
Service Commission, a memorandum also needs to be presented, explaining
the cases of non-acceptance of the advice of the government beside with the
reasons. Further, any advice tendered through the Commission cannot be
rejected without the approval of the Appointments Committee of the Cabinet.
Due to these checks, the number of such cases had remained low.

The Public Service Commissions in their forty years of functioning has

considerably realized the Constitutional objectives of equality of opportunity
and non-discrimination amongst all citizens of India for public employment.
Indeed, the Commissions have ensured that not only no preferential treatment
is accorded to the “elites” of the society but also that candidates from
backward classes and other strata of society, with intrinsic merit are also
selected to the civil services to create it really “representative”. The
Commissions have also shown, in good measure, their firmness to stand up to
"executive” pressure and stick to their stand and advice, without fear or favor.

STAFF SELECTION COMMISSION-GENESIS

After a careful consideration of this recommendation, the Government of

India decided to constitute the Subordinate Selection Commission in 1975. It
was renamed as Staff Selection Commission which came into subsistence in
July 1976. The Commission is required to conduct examinations and create
recommendations for recruitment to Lower Division Clerk‟s Grade,
Stenographer‟s Grade and many other categories of Class III (Gr.C)
appointments under the several departments and subordinate offices of the
government.

ROLE AND FUNCTIONS OF STAFF SELECTION COMMISSION

The Staff Selection Commission in the first instance, took over all the
ongoing functions relating to the conduct of examination previously
performed through the Examination Wing of the Institute of Secretariat
Training and Management. Slowly, the Commission has taken over through
and large, all the middle and subordinate stage non technical recruitment of
the whole central government establishments in and outside Delhi, which
constitute numerically about 55% of the whole work force of the government.

The Commission is responsible for conduct of Clerks Grade examination,

examinations for recruitment of Auditors, Junior Accountants, Income Tax
and Central Excise Inspectors, Sub Inspectors of Delhi Police/CBI/Narcotics,
Junior Technical Assistants etc. It also holds limited departmental competitive
examinations for Upper Division Clerk Grade, Grade „C‟ Stenographers,
Grade „D‟ Stenographers.

The Commission follows three separate procedures of recruitment:

Recruitment through written examination where personality traits are
not measured significant at the time of initial entry (eg. Lower Division
Clerks, UDCs, Auditors, Stenographers etc.)
Recruitment through written examination and interviews where
personality traits are significant even at the initial entry stage (eg.
Inspectors of Income Tax and
Central Excise, Sub-Inspectors of Delhi Police, CBI etc.)
Selection through interviews where an All-India examination is not
warranted but a proficiency or trade test is administered if necessary.

STRUCTURE OF THE COMMISSION

The procedures and practices adopted through the Staff Selection

Commission as an examining and recruiting agency are largely based on the
system adopted over the decades through the UPSC. But it has also made
some innovations of its own to suit the necessities of mammoth recruitment at
the base stage of the government which contributes significantly to the
stability of the administrative hierarchy.

REVIEW QUESTIONS
Explain the meaning of career planning and development.
What are the objectives of career planning and development?
Explain the structure and composition of the Administrative Tribunals.
Comment upon the dissimilar roles of training.
Discuss the significance of foundational training.
What were the recommendations of the ARC on the Department of
Personnel?
Discuss the functions of Ministry of Personnel, Training,
Administrative Reforms, Public Grievances, Pensions and Pensioners'
Welfare.

CHAPTER 4
PERSONNEL MANAGEMENT
POLICIES AND PRACTICES

STRUCTURE
Learning objectives
Training
Performance appraisal
Promotion
Recruitment (reservation in services)
Personnel policy
Review questions

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After learning this unit, you should be able to:
Bring out the need, importance, meaning and objectives of training;
Explain the need and importance of performance appraisal;
 Describe the meaning, importance and need of promotion in personnel
administration;
Explain the meaning and importance of recruitment in the personnel
administration;
Look at the several normative personnel policies and practices that are
followed at the macro stage; and
Discuss the mechanism for evolving cohesive framework of
constructive personnel management system.

TRAINING

IMPORTANCE OF TRAINING

Before familiarizing ourselves with the meaning of training, we should try

to understand the importance of training in developing countries like India.
Training of civil servants has become an significant characteristic of modern
personnel management. It has been recognized through all the governments
that appropriate and effective training programme for their civil servants is
absolutely necessary for efficient and up-to-date administration. On the one
hand, the functions of the governments have increased and expanded rapidly
and on the other, administration has become more and more complex,
specialized and technical. The recruitment policies and programmes based on
„merit system‟ try to select the best qualified and competent persons in the
civil service. Mainly of the selected persons are well qualified and educated,
they are degree or diploma holders. But the University degree or diploma is
not enough to create them best administrators. It is necessary to have some
practical knowledge of the actual work of administration. This practical
knowledge is imparted through training. Training prepares an employee for
the new administrative tasks. Training improves his/her skills and efficiency.
Training prepares him for higher and higher responsibilities. In fact, the very
induction of an employee into an organization needs training. An employee
necessity knows about the goals and objects of his organization; the nature of
work he is expected to perform in the organization; and the techniques and
methods of doing his actual work. All this knowledge can be imparted only
through a systematic training programme. Likewise, with the passage of time,
the knowledge and skills acquired through an employee become out-dated. He
needs new and up-to-date knowledge and skills. This up-dating of knowledge
and skills is possible only through training which a continuous activity is.

Although the formal education of an employee is normally completed

before he enters the civil service, but the procedure of education, in the form
of training, continues even afterwards. Training is therefore, necessary before
entering the civil service and even afterwards. Like education, training is also
a life long procedure. But training has narrow and specific objectives as
compared to education. Education is much wider than training. Education
influences the whole procedure of the upbringing of an individual from the
childhood, the formation of the personality, character, habits, manners,
attitudes, mental and physical capabilities etc. Education, in general, aims at
broadening the mind. But training aims at improving the specific skills and
knowledge required for some scrupulous type of work or profession. Though,
both education and training are, closely related to each other and several times
they overlap each other. The importance of training has been recognized
through mainly countries, including India. They have devised appropriate
training programmes for their civil servants and recognized several training
institutions for implementing these programmes. Though, these arrangements
are inadequate and a greater need of training is felt in several countries.

TRAINING IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES

Training of civil servants is of vital importance in all countries but the

need and importance of training is more urgently felt in developing countries.
There are several factors responsible for this urgent need for training in
developing countries. They are:
There is usually a shortage of trained and qualified persons in mainly
developing countries;
Training facilities and training institutions are inadequate in these
countries;
Functions of the Government have increased rapidly. They are
described upon to perform several new functions, which require highly
skilled and technically trained personnel;
Administration is engaged with complex, technical and specialized
functions,
Socio-economic circumstances, in these countries are rapidly
changing. In order to meet the challenge of these rapid changes, there
is a need of innovation in administration; and
There is public pressure on the Governments to implement the
development programmes with extraordinary speed and efficiency.

Because of the above mentioned factors, the need for training of civil
servants is more urgently felt in developing countries. In fact, we can say that
in these countries, the whole success of the development policies depends
upon chalking out systematic/appropriate training programme and its timely
implementation through the appropriate training institutions.
MEANING OF TRAINING

The dictionary meaning of training is „'imparting instruction in a

scrupulous art profession or occupation”. In Public Administration, training
means conscious efforts Training made to improve the skills, powers,
and intelligence of an employee and to develop his attitudes and value system
in a desired direction. In broad and general conditions, training is a life long
phenomenon. Training, informally and unconsciously begins with our
childhood itself. But in the narrow and specialized sense, training of civil
servants, is a deliberate effort, directed to augment the specific skills and
vocational competence of the civil servants in their routine work. William
Torpey (Public Personnel Management, New York, 1953) defined training as
“the procedure of developing skills, habits, knowledge, and aptitudes in
employees for the purpose of rising the effectiveness of the employees in their
present government position as well as preparing the employees for future
government positions”. About the meaning of training, we can say that:
Training is a conscious, deliberate and planned effort;
Training is specific and limited;
It means imparting instructions about a scrupulous work or profession;
Its purpose is to improve the ability, knowledge and effectiveness of
the employees in their task; and
It also aims at preparing an employee for higher responsibilities.

OBJECTIVES OF TRAINING

Following are some of the major objectives of training of civil servants:

Firstly, the training improves the efficiency of the employees in
administration;
Secondly, training improves the occupational ability and knowledge of
the employees, so that they can do their work effectively;
Thirdly, training inducts a new employee into the organization and
imparts him knowledge of the goals and objectives of the organization,
his own role in the organization and techniques and methods of
carrying out his duties. Consequently, the employees can best
contribute to the attainment of organizational goals;
Fourthly, because there are constant changes in the goals and
techniques of the organizations, training adjusts the employees with the
new organizational changes;
Fifthly, training creates up for the deficiencies of the newly recruited
persons. Fresh University graduates are given necessary training to
shape and mould them in the desired direction and create them
appropriate for government work.
 Sixthly, training keeps the employees informed about the latest
growths in his field and therefore, keeps his knowledge up-to-date;
Seventhly, training improves the integrity and morale of the
employees. The very subsistence of the training procedure gives the
trainees an added sense of dignity and pride in their work and office;
Eighthly, training develops a sense of community service and
belongingness in the employees. They realize that their work is an
essential part of the organization and the community. So, they put
more efforts in their work. This gives the employees a sense of pride
and self-fulfillment in their work. It is, so, said that everybody in the
civil service necessity get an opportunity of training of one type or
other;
Ninthly training creates the employees, people oriented. It inculcates a
vital principle in them, that they are public servants and not masters.
This is necessary in a democratic administrative system;
Tenthly, training prepares the employees for higher positions and
greater responsibilities; and
Finally, training fosters homogeneity of outlook and broadens the
vision and outlook of the employees.

KINDS OF TRAINING

There are dissimilar kinds of training imparted in dissimilar countries.

Some of the major diversities of training are as follows:
Formal and Informal Training
Short-term and Long-term Training
Pre-entry and Post-entry Training
Centralised and Departmental Training
Skills Training and Background Training
Orientation Training.

Formal and Informal Training

Informal training is training through experience, which an employee
acquires throughout the course of his actual routine work in his organization.
No special efforts are necessary for informal training. This is a routine
organizational activity. It does not require planned training programme,
specialist trainers or some training institutes. This type of informal training
neither prescribes a specific time period, nor a group of trainees is especially
selected for it. This has been traditional method of training in Public
Administration and is preferred even now through practical administrators.
But this procedure is “very hard way of learning” and requires a lot of
persistence and patience on the part of the employees. It is slow, ineffective
and frustrating. Formal training is free from these defects. That is why
informal training is not popular amongst mainly of the countries.

Formal training, is that type of training which is cautiously planned,

arranged and mannered under the expert supervision and guidance. Specialist
trainers in a training institute or under the auspices of the departmental
training programme, impart formal training to a specially selected group of
trainees throughout a specific time period. It consists of a chalked out course
of revise with lectures, seminars, work shops, group discussions, conferences,
work projects and written reports, etc. It may lead to the award of a
professional degree or a certificate of satisfactory completion of training. It
may be imparted before the entry into the service or throughout the
probationary period of the career service. It may be full-time or part-time. It
may be orientation course or it may be a course of general nature. The formal
training has defined objectives, predetermined course of topics, planned
course of action and systematically chosen methods or techniques. It
inculcates necessary administrative skills through well defined courses
mannered at appropriate stages throughout the career service. As the need of
improving the administration efficiency is felt urgently everywhere, the
system of formal training is becoming more and more popular. In fact, the best
way is to supplement informal training through formal training programmes'.
Both necessity be combined to provide best results, but the several training
programmes adopted in dissimilar countries like pre-entry training, post-entry
training, orientation training, etc., normally focus more on formal techniques
of training only.

Short-term and Long-term Training

These two kinds of training depend upon the duration of the training
course. The duration of the training depends upon the subject-matter of
training course, the nature of the service and the needs of the government. If
the training course is completed in a few weeks or a month or two it may be
described short-term training compared to the long-term training programmes
mannered for a period from six months to one or two years. It is clear from the
names itself, that the training imparted before entering the civil service is pre-
entry training whereas that which is given after a person enters the service is
described as post-entry training. For pre-entry training, in recent times, several
training institutions have been set up to give training courses for
administrative and managerial positions in the government. Likewise, there
are several institutions and centers which give training to the candidates
appearing for competitive examinations. In some places, practice of internship
and apprenticeship is commonly employed for pre-entry training of the
probable potential recruits in the services. Practical administrative training is
also provided in some Universities and Colleges. Comprehensive pre-entry
training programmes are there in the USA and several Western countries.

Post-entry training is given after a person joins the service. Post-entry

training is very common in several countries. It is also described in-service
training. The in-service training may be a combination of formal or informal
methods and it is imparted at all stages in the service. It helps in improving the
efficiency and performance of the employees and creates them professionally
more competent and able. Sometimes post-entry training is not directly
concerned with the actual work of the employee but directly it is of much help
to improve his general skill and organizational performance.

Centralised and Departmental Training

When training programme is made within a department or office, its aims
are limited, it only aims to improve the specific knowledge and ability relating
to the department and it is only mannered for its own employees, this kind of
training is described departmental training. Such training is imparted through
experienced officers of the department itself. Police Training College is an
instance of this kind of training. But when training to the officers of several
departments is provided through a Central Training Agency, it is described
centralised training. The training programme of the Lal Bahadur Shastri
Academy of Administration is an instance of centralised training system in
India.

Skills Training and Background Training

Background training is of general nature. It gives knowledge of such
subjects which help the trainees to understand the social, economic, political,
administrative, and constitutional background and circumstances prevailing in
the country. The purpose is to broaden the mind and knowledge of the
employees and to create them aware of the society and their own role in the
society. But when it is planned to improve the skills of the employee in a
scrupulous type of work, it is described skills training. It aims at providing
employees with the knowledge of special skills, techniques, procedures,
methods, (craft) or complicated systems, etc., necessary to carry out his
specialized type of work. Craftsmanship training, income-tax officer‟s training
are examples of the skills training whereas the I. A.S. entrants training at LBS
National Academy of Administration at Mussoorie is an instance of
background training.
Orientation Training
A new entrant necessity know about his organization, his work and his
working situation and methods, He has to be introduced to his new
organization. This is done through orientation training. Orientation training is
planned effort to adjust an employee to his organization and his job. Vital
objective of orientation training is to introduce an employee to the vital
concept of his job, new work environment, aims and objectives of his
organization and his own place in the organization. Orientation training is also
necessary to keep the civil servant up-to-date and attend to new growths in his
field. Orientation training is becoming more and more significant in India.
Training of civil servants is of prime importance in all countries. In order to
create civil service more efficient and effective, everywhere, appropriate
training programmes are chalked out. Training is necessary not only for new
entrants but also for those who are already in the service. It may be of any
kind — formal or informal, short-term or long-term, pre-entry or post-entry.
Training programmes necessity is planned according to the necessities of
dissimilar services keeping in view the socio-political and administrative
circumstances prevailing in the country. Though, we can conclude that,
whatever may be its kind, training is a permanent need of Public
Administration.

METHODS AND TECHNIQUES OF TRAINING

There are several techniques and methods of training followed in

dissimilar countries. Some of the significant methods are as follows.

Training through Experience on the Job

A person is posted on one job and allowed to learn from the experience
gained through doing that job. Then he is posted to another section/department
to learn through experience about that new section. In this way an employee
may be transferred from branch to branch, section to section or department to
department and allowed to learn through doing a job. Senior and experienced
officers help the trainee in this procedure of learning through giving necessary
oral and written instructions and directions from time to time. In order to
provide him wide experience of administration, a trainee is sometimes sent to
work in an outside office or organization. Short visits to other related offices,
inter-departmental exchanges or revise tours etc., are also arranged. This is
like the method of internship or apprenticeship commonly used in industrial
management training. This method is cheap and simple. With the passage of
time a person learns the techniques of administration and improves his
performance as an administrator. But this method is slow and time consuming.
Several times it does not have clearly defined objectives and specific time
limit. Though, this method of training is extensively adopted in mainly of the
countries.

Training through Formal Instructions

In this method of training formal instructions are given through the senior
officers to the trainees through arranging some lectures, or classes. Lectures of
outside experts are also arranged. A specific course is planned and lectures,
classes, group discussions, seminars, addresses or workshop, etc., are arranged
for imparting the necessary training to the employees. Head of the
Office/department also addresses the employees and gives them necessary
instructions. This is arranged through an agency or institute of training. Now a
days in mainly of the countries, this technique of training through formal
instructions has been followed. Selected group of trainees are given formal
courses in specialized training institutes. At the time of the formal training,
necessary written instructions, information, documents, rules and regulations,
etc.. are also provided to the trainees. Films, Audio-visual aids and computers
are also used for this kind of formal training.

Conference Method of Training

This method of training has become very common now. A selected group
of trainees from dissimilar departments are brought together to discuss several
troubles in a meeting or a conference. The trainees are the active participants
in this method of training. Some specific cases are given for discussion in the
conference. All the participants express their views and opinions based on
their own experiences. This method, described as case-analysis method of
training, gives the opportunity to learn from the experiences of others. In
lecture method of training, the trainer has an active role whereas in conference
method the trainees have the active role. They learn from each other through
exchange of experiences and ideas. The chairperson of the conference plays
the role of a guide and instructor. His role is to put the discussion on the right
track. In the USA and several other countries the conference method has
become very popular. In India also this method is used for short term training
of higher civil servants like IAS, etc.

In conclusion we can say that all the governments have to create training
arrangements and establish appropriate training organizations for the civil
servants. While the broad objectives of training are decided through the
governments, it is the duty of the training organizations to plan the training
programmes and adopt appropriate methods of training. No one method is
best. Dissimilar methods may be combined to suit the necessities of the jobs of
the training programmes. Lectures and talks of the senior departmental
officers or experts may be arranged. Seminars, conferences, workshops, group
discussions and field visits may be organised. Refresher or orientation courses
may be mannered. Case analysis method can be adopted. All these methods
may be employed singly or in combination according to the needs and
facilities accessible.

HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE CONCEPT OF TRAINING

OF CIVIL SERVANTS

Although training of civil servants is comparatively a new phenomenon,

the training of military personnel has been a regular characteristic of military
administration for thousands of years. In ancient India, there was the
institution described the Guru-Shisya Parampara (Teacher-pupil relationship)
under which the student stayed absent from his home in the Gurukul/Ashram,
to learn the best of the knowledge, skills and arts from the Guru. Rulers,
artists, artisans and even administrators were perfectly trained under the
Gurukul system. But this arrangement was restricted to the upper strata of
society. Ordinary citizen‟s profession was decided through his birth and caste
and he used to get informal training of the family craft or profession from his
family and caste group. In middle ages in Europe the craftsmen were trained
through formal apprenticeship with experienced craftsmen. Conscious and
systematic training began only after the industrial revolution in the field of
private industry, business and management. Industrial expansion required
skilled and expert workers to operate the intricate machines. Naturally, the
need of industrial and technical training of workers was felt urgently. The
training of employees, therefore, became necessary for the success of the
industrial administration. But in the field of civil administration training was
not measured to be necessary because the functions of the governments were
limited and administration was a simple activity. Civil servants were expected
to learn through experience through a procedure of trial and error. This
method of “the hard way of learning” sustained for a long time.

In modern times the social and political circumstances have changed.

Modern State has become a Welfare State. Functions of government have
tremendously increased. All governments have to promote the welfare of the
people, plan for the socio-economic development and implement development
policies and programmes efficiently. Scientific and technological growths
have rapidly changed the lives of the people. After the Second World War,
several new states have come into subsistence, where the democratic
governments are being recognized. All these changes have made
administration a very complex activity. We need highly skilled personnel to
run modern administration. For this purpose, the need of planned and
purposeful training for the civil servants has been felt urgently everywhere in
the world. More and more attention is now being given to civil service training
in all the countries. In approximately every country a National Academy or
Institute has been recognized to give some type of training to its civil servants.
There are also specialized training institutions in every country.

INDIAN SYSTEM OF TRAINING

History of civil service training in India can be traced back to the days of
East India Company which recognized Hailey bury College in 1805 for the
training of the young recruits to the civil services. The Indian Civil Service
was manned through the products of the Haileybury College until 1855 when
the first competitive examination was held. The successful ICS candidates
were required to spend 1 to 2 years in British University and learn subjects
like Indian History, Indian Law and Indian language, etc. Throughout the
Second World War, a camp school was set up at Dehradun to impart training
to the new entrants in the ICS. After independence, the Indian Civil Service
was converted into Indian Administrative Service and the institutional training
was imparted to the new recruits at the IAS Training School, Metcalfe House,
Delhi. The Indian Administrative Service Staff College was set up at Shimla
to train senior officials and recruits other than direct recruits. Both these
training institutions were subsequently merged and the National Academy of
Administration was set up in September 1959 at Moussorie. The academy is
now named as Lal Bahadur Shastri National Academy of Administration,
which is the mainly significant central institution of training of the higher civil
services including the All-India services.

Throughout the British Raj it was whispered that the education received
before joining civil service was enough to qualify a person for the job. After
joining the service, he was usually left to learn through experience on the job.
Formal training was not measured to be essential for the civil servants. Only
the ICS and technical personnel were provided with institutional training.
Police, Telegraph, Raliways, Income-tax, Accounts and Audit were the
departments which required training arrangements for their technical
personnel. Though, in spite of all these arrangements, government relied more
on training through experience on the job till Independence.

The problem of civil service training has assumed special significance only
after Independence. With the changes in the social, political and constitutional
circumstances, the nature of government work has changed, the functions and
machinery of the government has expanded and several new services have
been constituted. As a result of all these rapid growths, it has become
imperative for the Central and state governments to plan and give appropriate
training to their civil servants. Accordingly, a number of National Training
Institutions have been set up through the Central Government. In
approximately all the States there are State stage Training Institutions like
Administrative Staff Colleges and Police Training Centres. Separately from
these institutions, several other academic bodies and Universities also give
training to the civil servants.

Indian system of the training of civil servants is largely conditioned on the

British pattern. At the higher stage the emphasis is on a University degree. The
principle of catch them young results in recruitment of persons who have no
education or training in Public Administration. They are usually brilliant
young men and women with a background of liberal University education.
Before giving them new administrative responsibilities, they need a systematic
training in the skills and techniques of administration in the total ethos of
modern democratic administration. So, new entrants to the All-India Services
and higher Central and State Services are provided with well planned
institutional training in India. But systematic arrangements for the training at
middle stages of Class II, Class III and subordinate services do not exist in the
country. They are largely expected to learn through experience on the job. A
few departments have their own staff colleges or training institutes e.g.
Railways, Central Excise, Post and Telegraph etc. The Institutions like Central
Secretariat Training School, Central Statistical Organization, Institute of
Economic Growth etc. give practical job-related training to the middle and
subordinate stage staff. Though for mainly of the services, at middle and lower
stages, there is on the job training under expert supervision.

There is emphasis on the training of higher civil services in India. The

initial post-entry training is imparted in two dissimilar ways:
Institutional training (for Administrative, Police, Audit and Accounts,
Income Tax service etc.
Departments Training under the guidance of senior and experienced
officers (for Defence Accounts, Customs, Posts and Telegraph
Services etc.).

Probationers of the All-India Services, like I. A.S., I.P.S., I.F.S. and

Central Services Class I are given the institutional training in two stages:
Foundational Course: is a combined course for the new entrants of All-
India Services, like, I.A.S., I.P.S., I.F.S. and Central Services Class I.
The foundational course is of five month‟s duration mannered through
the Lal Bahadur Shastri National Academy of Administration at
Mussoorie. In the foundational course emphasis is laid on the teaching
of the subjects like Public Administration, Economics, Planning, Law,
Political Theory, Indian Constitution, Cultural History of India, the
National Movement etc. For those entrants who cannot read and write
Hindi, special lessons are also given in Hindi. The thought behind the
foundational course is that the officers of the higher services in India
should live together for five months and develop a spirit of
belongingness to common public service; a feeling of comradeship and
a broad common outlook. At the same time the officers of higher
services acquire an understanding of the Constitutional, economic,
social, political and historical context within which the administrators
have to function. The foundational course removes the barriers flanked
by several services. It can be described a „National Course‟ of training
of higher services in India. At the end of the five months foundational
course an examination is held in which all the probationers have to
appear and all are expected to pass.
Professional Course: After the completion of the foundational course
of five months at the National Academy, the second stage of training in
professional course is given to the probationers. Those who belong to
the I. A.S. continue to stay at the National Academy and a further
professional training is given to them for a period of about two to three
months. Throughout this spell of professional training, they revise in
more details the troubles of Public Administration, district
administration, revenue administration, development administration,
Indian Penal Code, Criminal Procedure Code, Legal and Constitutional
system, economic theory and economic planning, etc. After completion
of the first spell of professional training, the I. A.S. probationers are
sent to the State to which he or she has been allotted, for practical on
the job training for one year. At the end of the year, the IAS
probationers again come to the Academy for the second spell of
problem-oriented professional training. Emphasis is placed on the
discussion of scrupulous administrative troubles. Case-analysis, and
conference method of training are adopted. At the end of the second
spell of training at the Academy, the I. A.S., probationers appear at an
examination mannered through the UPSC. For the training of the
probationers of other All-India Services (like IPS, IFS) and Central
Services, the specialized and professional training institutions have
been recognized. After the completion of the foundational course at the
National Academy, they are sent to several specialized training
institutions for further professional training. The IPS (Indian Police
Service) probationers go to National Police Academy at Hyderabad to
receive professional training in drill, handling of weapons, crime and
criminology, law, combating techniques, etc. The probationers of
Indian Audit and Accounts service receive professional training at
Central Audit and Accounts Training School, Shimla. The duration of
professional training ranges from one to two years.
Training Methods
Four kinds of methods are involved in the entry point training of the
foundational and professional courses at the several training institutions
mentioned above.
Lectures on the subject matter of the course
Assignments given to trainees
Case-analysis method
Apprenticeship i.e., on the job training.

Refresher Course
Separately from the foundational and professional courses mannered
through the several training institutions for the new entrants to the several
higher services, the refresher courses have also assumed great importance in
the country. These refresher courses are short-term training courses of the
duration ranging from one week to four weeks. The senior and experienced
civil servants are given the refresher courses two to three times in their career.
For the purpose of conducting these short-term training programmes, there
are several institutions in the country.

For the IAS officers separately from the rigorous entry point training of
two years as discussed earlier, there are two kinds of training programmes.
Four Week‟s Training programme — in general management and
administration arranged two to four times in the career of an employee.
One week compulsory refresher programme for every IAS officer
every year.

Separately from IAS officers, other officers of higher civil services like
IPS, IFS, Income Tax, Railways etc., are also given refresher training at
regular intervals in their career. These refresher courses are mannered through
the National Academy of Administration, or other institutions like (i) Indian
Institute of Public Administration, New Delhi, (ii) Administrative Staff
College, Hyderabad, (iii) National Police Training College, Mount Abu, (iv)
National Institute of Rural Development, Hyderabad (v) Indian Institute of
Management, Ahmedabad, etc. Several professional institutions in the field of
several services like Police, Income-tax, Audit and Accounts, Railways,
Telecommunication, Foreign Trade, Forests etc., also conduct the refresher
courses for the senior officers of their respective services. A majority of State
governments have also recognized state training institutions in their respective
states for providing post-entry and in-service training to their employees.
Besides, several University Departments of Public Administration and the
public enterprises etc., also give short-term training courses for the higher and
middle stage civil servants.
AGENCIES AND INSTITUTIONS OF TRAINING IN INDIA

Compared to mainly of the developing countries, India has a long tradition

of training in the Civil Services. Ever since the days of East India Company,
institutional training has been provided to the higher civil servants. After
independence, the social, economic and political changes resulted in
tremendous expansion the government machinery and its functions. In order to
meet the necessities of the rapid post-independence changes, the need for
systematic and up-to-date training of the civil servants was felt urgently.
Training needs were emphasized through all efforts of the administrative
reforms in the country. Today training of civil servants has become an integral
part of the personnel policy of the central as well as state governments. A
number of new training institutions have been set-up through the Central as
well as state governments. These institutions give both general and
professional training to the civil servants at the entry point and also throughout
their career. The number of the training institutions is very large. Some of the
mainly significant institutions of civil service training are briefly described
below.
Lal Bahadur Shastri National Academy of Administration, Mussoorie:
Recognized in 1959, the Academy is the mainly significant training
institution in the country. It gives the following:
o Combined foundational course for all the probationers of the
All-India Services like IAS, IFS, IPS and of the Central
Services Class I.
o Professional and problem-oriented training for the new-entrants
of the Indian
o Administrative Service.
o Refresher courses of four weeks for the senior IAS officers.
o One week training programme for the IAS Officers,
Central Police Training College, Mount abu: Upto 1975-76 it provided
entry point professional training for the new entrants to the Indian
Police Service. (It is now given at the National Police Academy at
Hyderabad.) Now this college gives refresher training and in-service
courses to the middle and higher stage senior police officers of both
IPS and of the State Police Service-
National Police Academy, Hyderabad: Recognized in 1976, it gives
professional training for the new entrants to the IAS. It also conducts
refresher course for the senior IPS Officers.
 Administrative Staff College, Hyderabad: It was recognized in 1957 on
the model of the Administrative Staff College of Henley (England). It
gives 4 months advance stage training for the highly placed senior
administrators and experienced executives drawn from the government
Public sector, and private business and industries. Exchange of
experiences and ideas in group discussions, syndicates and panels is
the method emphasized for the training.
National Institute of Rural Development, Hyderabad: Recognized in
1956 — organizes regular orientation courses for the higher and
middle stage civil servants engaged in the field of rural development
administration. It is also engaged in research in the area of rural
development.
Indian Institute of Public Administration. New Delhi: Recognized in
1953 —Separately from research in Public Administration, the IIPA
organizes short-term orientation and refresher courses for the senior
and middle stage servants of the Central and state governments. These
courses are regularly mannered for the benefit of senior and middle
rank officials. These specialized professional courses heavily rely upon
lectures through senior officers and experts in the subject. At the same
time exchange of ideas and experiences in the group discussions and
field visits are also arranged. The IIPA also organizes a nine month
educational programme for the senior and middle stage civil servants.
This is the only course of its type in the whole country.

Several of the Central Services also have set up their own training
institutions, where institutional training of professional nature is provided to
their respective civil servants. Some of the leading training institutions are
listed below:
Indian Institute of Management, Ahmedabad;
Income Tax Training School, Nagpur;
Railway Staff College, Baroda;
Institute of Secretariat Training and Management, New Delhi;
National Forest Research Institute, Dehradun;
Central Audit and Accounts Training School, Shimla; and
All-India Institute of Local Self-government, Bombay.

CRITICAL EVALUATION OF THE INDIAN SYSTEM OF TRAINING

Training of civil servants has assumed great importance after

Independence. It has become an integral part of the Government‟s personnel
policy. A number of new training institutions have been set up in the country
to give both general and specialized training programme. A large number of
employees are benefited through these training arrangements in the country. In
spite of this boon, the training system has not been able to fulfil the
expectations that have been there from it. There have been several weaknesses
in the Indian system of training.
Firstly, in the light of the vastness of the country and rapidly
expanding sphere of the Government functions the training
arrangements are not adequate to meet the training necessities. Only a
small number of civil servants (one out of five) benefit' from the
present training facilities.
Secondly, two much emphasis is laid on entry point and in-service
training of the higher civil service like, All-India Services and Central
and State Class I Services. The training needs of the middle and lower
stage personnel are neglected. Up-to-date in-service training and
Refresher Courses for the lower stage staff are not adequately planned.
As a result of this neglect, a vast majority of civil servants (80 to 90%)
have no opportunity of training.
Thirdly, there is a general lack of seriousness on the part of the
Government in the matter of civil service training in the country.
Several times wrong kind of training programme is planned and wrong
methods are adopted. Selection of the trainees is not done cautiously.
An unwanted and inefficient person is selected in place of a right and
appropriate person. In mainly of the organizations, bureaucratic
politics and patronage play an significant role in the selection of
trainees. If at all a right person gets, selected through chance, he may
be sent to a training course which has no direct relation with his job.
Serious thought is not given to utilize the training opportunity, after a
trainee returns hark to his organization
Fourthly, the contents of the training programmes are not always
relevant and meaningful for the trainees. There is no relationship
flanked by the training contents and actual placement of the trainees.
Several training agencies do not have co-ordination flanked by the
training programmes and needs of systematic career development.
Mainly training courses do not fulfil the necessities of democratic
polity and development administration.
Fifthly, in mainly cases the training institutes follow traditional lecture
method of training. Up-to-date and modern methods of training are not
easily adopted. Lecture method occupies approximately 80% of the
training in mainly institutions.
Finally, training system is not connected with the education and
research in the country and systematic evaluation of the training results
and follow-up of the effects of training on the efficiency in
administration is not attempted. Therefore there are several troubles in
training methods and techniques in India and there is a lot of scope to
improve the Indian training system in the years to come.
 PERFORMANCE APPRAISAL

NEED AND IMPORTANCE OF PERFORMANCE APPRAISAL

In every organization all employees work to achieve the common aims and
objectives of the organization. But all employees do not have same capacities
and qualities. The individuals‟ qualities differ from person to person. All are
not equally efficient and able. But all have to work together In order to keep
their morale high, it is necessary to inform them, from time to time, about their
own stage of performance in the organization. This can be done through
adopting a fair system of Performance Appraisal. Performance Appraisal helps
to improve the organizational health, viability and growth through optimal
utilization of the human possessions in the interest of the organization.
Individual employee gets feed back which enables him to develop himself to
meet the objectives of the organization. Performance Appraisal is, therefore, a
means and not an end through itself. Performance Appraisal system is
necessary not only for individual‟s work improvement but also for the overall
improvement of the organization. It is necessary for the adoption of a fair and
impartial promotion policy, which can only keep the employee‟s morale high.
Performance Appraisal is also necessary to assess the usefulness and
capabilities of a person in conditions of his contribution towards the
attainment of the goals of the organization. It is also needed to develop the
potentials of an employee to prepare him to accept more responsibilities of the
higher post, which he aspires through promotion. It helps not only in
improving the viability and health of the organization but also pinpoints the
shortcomings of an employee. Through informing the shortcomings to the
concerned persons, the superior officer can secure better utilization of services
either through correction or position-change. Performance Appraisal is,
therefore, a very significant activity of modern personnel management.
MEANING OF PERFORMANCE APPRAISAL

Performance appraisal system has been defined in several ways. The

simplest way to understand the meaning of performance appraisal is as
follows:
“A regular and continuous evaluation of the quality, quantity and style
of the performance beside with the assessment of the factors
influencing the performance and behavior of an individual is described
as performance appraisal.”

Performance appraisal also means an appraisal of the growth potential of

an employee, with a view to providing information to the organization leading
to positive action and enabling feed-back to the individual aimed at his
performance improvement, personal growth and job-satisfaction. In short, we
can say that performance appraisal is expected to result in an assessment of:
Growth potential of the employees;
Corresponding training needs for the employees;
Capabilities for their placement in higher posts,
Conduct and discipline of the employees; and
The need of the organization to evolve a control mechanism.

OBJECTIVES OF PERFORMANCE APPRAISAL

The main objective of the system of performance appraisal is to reward

those who are working efficiently and honestly in the organization. At the
same time, it also aims at eliminating those who are inefficient and unfit to
carry out their responsibilities. It has to be done approximately continuously,
so that no injustice is done to a deserving individual. It is, so, necessary to
clearly describe the organizational objectives, targets and priorities. It is
further necessary to describe clearly the role and responsibilities of the persons
involved in the functioning of the organization.

Performance appraisal also aims at helping the management in carrying

out their tasks more effectively. A sound system of performance appraisal
results in framing:
A sound selection policy;
An effective promotion and placement policy;
An improved system of career and manpower planning;
A realistic training programme;
A good reward and punishment system; and
An effective system of control and discipline in the organization.
 These elements are essential for any modern personnel management
system. No country can neglect them for long, We can therefore say that the
main objectives of performance appraisal are as follows:
To carry out a fair and impartial assessment of the quality, quantity and
style of the work performance of the individuals working in the
organization.
To assess the extent of the several factors which influence the
performance of the individuals?
To reward the capable and efficient employees.
To give opportunity for improvement of their potentialities to those
who are less capable and efficient.
To create optimum utilization of the accessible human possessions for
the fulfillment of the organizational goals.
To help management in evolving and framing sound policies and
programmes relating to selection, placement, promotion, training,
discipline, control and man power planning, etc.

METHODS OF PERFORMANCE APPRAISAL

Dissimilar methods of performance appraisal are adopted in dissimilar

countries. Usually, it is used as a control mechanism and an instrument for
giving incentives or punishment. Promotions are usually based on
performance appraisal system. Since 1956 the Government of India has been
following a system of “grading” the performance in the following „five‟
grades:
Outstanding,
Very Good,
Good,
Fair, and
Poor.

The work of „grading‟ is done through a departmental promotion

committee. Those who are placed in the „outstanding‟ grade are given enbloc
promotions, followed through „very good‟ and „good‟ grades.

Annual Confidential Report

Individual performance of the employee is usually assessed on the basis of
an Annual Confidential Report given through the superior about the
subordinate based on a form. This form contains all those entries which can
determine the adequacy and quality of work done as well as the general
personality and integrity of the person reported upon. The reporting officer
also can comment about his fitness for promotion or otherwise. In order to
avoid ambiguity and subjectivity in this system a common grading of
„outstanding‟, „above average‟, „fair‟ and „below average‟ is prescribed to
judge each item in the form. The A.C.R. written through a superior reporting
officer is evaluated through a „reviewing officer‟ and finally endorsed or
countersigned through the after that higher officer.

The above mentioned „service-record rating‟ system based on „Annual

Confidential Report‟ which accounts for the individual‟s experience, previous
contribution, personal history, personality traits, etc., has been accepted in
approximately all countries for performance appraisal. In recent years, there
are further improvements in this system. If there is an „adverse‟ remark in
A.C.R. about a person, he is informed about it. The intention is that he should
correct himself. He is also given an opportunity to represent to the higher
authority about the „adverse‟ remark. Such representation is measured through
a higher reporting and reviewing authority and finally a decision about it is
taken.

Service Rating Method or Efficiency Rating

For performance appraisal it is necessary to determine the efficiency with
which an employee performs his many duties in the day-to-day working. This
is done through service-rating or efficiency rating methods. There are many
service rating/efficiency rating systems in vogue in advanced countries like,
the USA and UK. Those commonly used in the USA are man to man
comparison, linear scale rating, graphic scale rating, graded answer, and work
report,' etc. The computers are being used for the purpose of service rating in
the USA. The two kinds of service rating systems which are mainly commonly
used in the USA and several other countries are:
Trait Rating system, and
PROBST/Graphic System of „Personality Inventory‟.

Trait Rating System

In trait rating system a person‟s qualities like knowledge of work, aptitude,

attitude towards others, job performance, etc. are rated like
satisfactory/unsatisfactory, below job necessities, normal or above job
necessities, etc. The final performance appraisal is based on the result of the
trait rating system.
PROBST/Graphic Rating System

In the PROBST service rating system the personality factors are given
more importance. Following items, for instance, are taken into consideration
in this system of service rating.
Number of days of absence Reasons for remaining absent Punctuality
Promptness
Quickness, Smartness, Lazyness
Talkativeness
Gentle/Blunt/outspoken
Accepts/shirks from taking responsibilities
Obedience/disobedience
Reliable/unreliable
Personal appearance; and
Fitness for higher position, etc.

Service rating is done in dissimilar ways. In advanced countries, like the

USA, this is done in very systematic manner through computers. In India
sometimes rating is done through awarding marks in dissimilar columns
specified for dissimilar qualities. Dissimilar gradation systems have also been
followed for this purpose. It is therefore apparent that dissimilar methods are
followed for the purpose of performance appraisal in dissimilar countries.

FACTORS AFFECTING PERFORMANCE APPRAISAL

There are several factors which, directly or indirectly, influence the system
of performance appraisal. There are some factors which introduce subjectivity
whereas, some other factors hinder objective assessment. Both kinds of factors
are discussed below.

Superior Officer’s Value System

Usually the superior officers are entrusted with the work of assessment and
write reports of the subordinates. They are expected to do this objectively.
What usually happens is that the superior officer judges the performance of the
subordinates on the basis of his own value system. Dissimilar persons consider
in dissimilar value systems based on their own sociocultural circumstances.
Often it is found that the reports are influenced through the superior officer‟s
value system. This subjective element has great impact on the Appraisal
Report which is based on superior‟s final judgment.
Dominant Work Orientation
Sometimes the Performance Appraisal Report of a subordinate written
through his superior is found to be influenced through the dominant work
orientation of the superior officer. There is over-emphasis on sure
characteristic of the work through the superior. This dominant work
orientation introduces subjectivity in the system of performance appraisal. A
superior judges the performance of the subordinate on the basis of the
following dominant elements:
Preference for work of dynamic nature;
Preference for strict maintenance of routine work;
Emphasis on status and inter-personal relations;
Emphasis on qualities which do not have much functional utility; and
Emphasis on conventionality to some ideology.

Above elements introduce subjectivity in the procedure of assessment,

influence the judgment of the superior and make distortions in the
performance appraisal of the subordinates.

Inter-Personal Relations
Several times the psychological create up of the subordinate and the
superior influences their personal relationship, separately from other
situational influences. The subordinates very often take those actions which
are liked through their superiors. Subordinate judges his own actions on the
basis of the approval and appreciation of the superior. Such action of the
subordinates satisfies the superior psychologically. The adaptability or
otherwise of the subordinate plays significant role in the system of
performance appraisal. The inter-personal relations introduce considerable
amount of subjectivity in the system of appraisal.

Loyalty
On several occasions and particularly in the Indian context „loyalty‟ factor
has considerable influence on the performance assessment. Loyalty may be
due to common values, objectives, emotional needs, interests, caste, religion,
language or region. Loyalty factor usually brings the superior and the loyal
subordinate closer and closer to each other. It also increases the aloofness and
distrust flanked by the superior and other less loyal subordinates. This brings
subjectivity in the performance appraisal system as every superior judges the
subordinates on the basis of the extent of loyalty to himself.
Stage of Attainment
Superior officer‟s own stage of attainment affects the appraisal of the
subordinate. If the actual variation flanked by the stages of attainment of the
superior and subordinate is quite wide, it can make troubles of adjustment and
objective evaluation of performance.

Factors Hindering Objective Assessment

There are many factors which hinder the objective appraisal of the
performance of the subordinates. These factors create it approximately
impossible for the superior to create objective assessment of the performance
of the subordinates. These are as listed below:
Superiority complex of the superior/reporting officer;
Instead of assessment of overall performance, insistence of the superior
to assess only specific characteristic of the work;
Past-record of the subordinate;
Overall personality of the subordinate;
Extent of work-get in touch with flanked by the subordinate and the
reporting superior;
Social status of the subordinate; and
Capability of the subordinate to exercise influence at higher stage.

PERFORMANCE APPRAISAL IN GOVERNMENT

The existing system of performance appraisal in India consists of an

annual report given through the superior about the subordinate concerning his
work, achievements, skill, integrity and personality. A printed form carries
dissimilar kinds of questions, which is filled through the superior. Dissimilar
grading like “outstanding”, “above average”, “fair”, “below average” is
prescribed to judge each question in the form. There are two to three officers
who write the report, review the report and finally counter sign the report.
Usually if there is any adverse remark, the concerned official is informed
about the same, to which he can reply, if he so desires. Such reply is measured
in consultation with the reporting and reviewing officer and a final decision is
taken to expunge, modify or retain the adverse remarks in his report. The
communication of adverse remarks to the person concerned is based on the
principle of natural justice. That is, none should be punished without being
heard. There are several drawbacks in the present system of performance
appraisal. The subjective elements in writing the report have been already
discussed earlier. Firstly, yardsticks of value system are not commonly
accepted through all the officers. Dissimilar yardsticks are applied through
dissimilar officers. Secondly, several countersigning officers do not have any
direct or intimate knowledge about the work of the person about whom the
report is to be made. Thirdly, there is no uniformity or consistency in the
method of appraisal. The reporting officer may command the clear thinking of
one person and the drive of another one. Fourthly, it has been found on several
occasions that the adverse remarks are not communicated to the concerned
reported officer.

RECOMMENDATIONS OF THE ADMINISTRATIVE REFORMS

COMMISSION

The Administrative Reforms Commission measured the issue of

performance appraisal. It made the following main recommendations:
The official should submit a brief resume of his own work done and
any special achievements made through him. The reporting officer
should take into consideration this document before creation his own
comments. Reviewing officer after recording both the comments
should provide his own comments, if any, and also do the grading.
The Commission recommended that five point grading should be
discontinued and instead of that three point grading should be made.
The grading proposed through the Revise Team was:
o Fit for promotion out of tune;
o fit for promotion;
o not yet fit for promotion;
Good work done throughout the year should receive prompt
appreciation either on a file, or in a tour or inspection note. The
concerned official should be allowed to quote these in his resume;
Administrative Reforms Commission also recommended that in view
of our new approach to the annual reports as a document spot-lighting
the performance of an official throughout the course of the year, we
recommend that this report should be described “performance report”
instead of “confidential report”; and
Whenever the merit of the candidates is equal, seniority should be
measured for promotion.

PROMOTION

IMPORTANCE OF PROMOTION

For a government servant promotion is a reward for his/her faithful and

hard work. If there are no chances of promotion for a servant, he will not work
hard. He will search for a better job outside and leave the place where he is
employed as early as possible. For several servants the government service is a
life long service. They enter this service when they are very young and
continue to work till retirement. They are retained in the services through
creation provisions for promotion. Civil service cannot be described as a
career service without promotions. Without promotions we cannot attract the
best talents to join the government service; we cannot retain the mainly
talented and potential persons in the service; and we cannot get the best from
them for the service and for the nation. It is clear that without promotions, we
cannot have efficient, competent and satisfied civil servants in the country.
Promotion satisfies a natural human urge to create progress and advancement
in life.
MEANING OF PROMOTION

Meaning of promotion can be understood from two angles. For the

Government, promotion is a system of indirect recruitment i.e., filling up the
higher posts through selecting able and competent persons from those, who are
already in the service. For the government servant, promotion is an
advancement from a lower post, class or service to a higher post, class or
service involving higher duties, responsibilities and authority. It also means
elevation in the status and augment in the salary for the employee. Mere
augment in salary is not promotion. Going up or advancement in rank, status,
duties, power, responsibilities and also augment in salary is referred as
promotion in the civil service.

Promotion changes the rank, status, designation and salary of an employee.

When a Junior Assistant becomes a Senior Assistant, a Deputy Secretary
becomes a Secretary, a Class II servant becomes a Class I servant than it is
described as promotion. Promotion may mean change in the grade, i.e., from a
lower grade to a higher grade in the same class. Promotion may be from lower
class to higher class i.e., from Class II to Class I. Promotion may also be from
one service to another higher service i.e., from State Services to All India
Services. It is therefore clear that promotion may be from lower class to higher
class, lower service to higher service. It should be remembered that transfer
from one post to another post of the same status or responsibility is not
promotion. Likewise annual increment i.e. annual augment in the same salary
scale is also not promotion. Promotion means change of status as well as pay-
scale.

NEED OF PROMOTION IN CIVIL SERVICES

Civil Service is a career service. A person who joins the civil service
spends his life time in it. He creates progress and advances up in the service
with the passage of time. From his recruitment as a young person till his
retirement as an old person, it is the chances of promotion which keeps him in
the service. Promotion is therefore, an integral part of the career service. A
proper scheme of promotions can only create the civil service as an attractive
career and attract the best talents to join it. Promotions can also serve as
rewards for the servants. Opportunity of promotion is a possible reward for
hard work, efficiency and faithful service. Government servants will work
hard to get possible promotions. This means that promotion chances augment
the efficiency and contentment of the civil services.
 Recruitment (Reservation in
Services)
Recruitment of best persons is the first and foremost significant step in the
personnel administration. But to retain the talented persons in the services is
also equally significant. Through the device of promotion, it is possible to
retain the best, talented and efficient persons in the civil services. Human
being is a rising creature. Everybody wants to create progress and
advancement in life and seeks recognition from others. These vital human
urges of advancement and recognition should be satisfied through the
organization, where he is working. Otherwise he will not be satisfied with his
work and would like to change his job. This may cause troubles for the civil
services. These two vital human urges of recognition and advancement can be
satisfied through the device of promotion. A sound promotion system fosters
the feeling of belongingness in the servants. It also contributes to maintaining
a stability in the policies and programmes of the organization. Promotion
system builds up sound traditions and conventions in the civil service and adds
to the goodwill of the government.

If there are adequate chances of promotion to higher stages in the

government service, then competent persons would be ready to join the
services at lower stages also. This will augment the efficiency of
administration. With the passage of time in the government service, persons
acquire up-to-date practical experience of work. Their stability in the service
creates them competent to shoulder higher responsibilities. This experience
and competence acquired through the civil servants can be utilized through
giving them chances of promotions to higher and more responsible positions.
The best use of manpower is possible only through a sound system of
promotion. As the servants grow older in age, their family responsibilities
keep on rising. They need more money. Promotions provide them opportunity
to satisfy their rising material needs and provide their best to the services. This
also reduces the chances of the occurrence of malpractices and corruption in
the services. The servants will not nurse grievances against the Government.
They would render more efficient, honest and faithful service to the
government. There would be greater discipline and higher morale in the
middle of the civil servants.

KINDS OF PROMOTION

There are three kinds or categories of promotion:

Promotion from a lower grade to a higher grade in the same class, (i.e.
from a Junior Assistant to a Senior Assistant or from a Junior Typist to
a Senior Typist or Assistant Superintendent to Superintendent).
Promotion from a lower class to a higher class (i.e. from Class I to
Class II, from clerical class to executive class).
 Recruitment (Reservation in
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Promotion from a lower service to a higher service (i.e. from State

Service to All India Services, etc.).

PRINCIPLES OF PROMOTION

The principles of promotion need to be recognized because, in any

government service, the opportunities for promotions are limited. Only a
limited number of higher posts fall vacant; sometimes or other and that too not
at regular and frequent intervals. A large number of servants working at the
lower stages wait for these few vacancies. Everyone of them aspires to get
promotion. But it is practically impossible to provide promotions to all
ambitious persons. In fact, only few of them are promoted to the higher
positions and a large number, of servants are denied the promotions. This is
bad but unavoidable. Because the structure of administration is like a pyramid,
the number of posts at the lower stages is large (stage F in the Figure I). As we
go up higher and higher, the number of posts are lesser and lesser (EDCB) and
ultimately the pyramid ends at a single point (i.e. the Chief Executive or head
of the

Due to the above mentioned pyramid like structure of administration there

is always an unavoidable disagreement at the time of promotion. Those who
are unsuccessful in getting promotion feel disappointed and lose interest in
work. If the promotion is made arbitrarily then this adds to their indifference,
inefficiency and insult. It is, so, necessary that promotions should be based on
some well-defined and recognized principles. Following are the principles of
promotion, which are followed as alternatives or in combination.
Principle of Seniority .
Merit Principle
Seniority cum Merit Principle

Seniority Principle
Seniority means length of service in a scrupulous post or scale or grade. It
is a very simple principle. The length of service or seniority is the sole basis in
creation promotions. According to it, one who has longer length of service
necessity gets the promotion. The senior mainly person is eligible for
promotion first. A seniority list can be prepared and order of precedence can
be decided according to experience and age. The principle of seniority is very
simple to apply. It is mainly objective. It leaves no scope for favoritism or
nepotism. It gives respect to age and experience. It is in accordance with the
recognized practices in society. A younger person does not become a boss of
the older and more experienced persons. It is more democratic because it gives
a chance of promotion to everybody irrespective of merit. Everybody cannot
 Recruitment (Reservation in
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become meritorious but everybody is bound to become senior with the passage
of time. It is safe for every employee and, so, seniority principle is readily
accepted through the staff as against the merit principle.

But principle of seniority has several drawbacks. Those who are senior are
not necessarily fit for promotion. Mere length of service is not a criterion of
fitness. Experience is gained through a person in the first few years of service,
but afterwards his experience does not augment indefinitely with the length of
service. It is said that ten years experience is nothing but one year‟s experience
repeated ten times. Seniority and experience are, so, not a rational criteria. All
persons in a grade are not fit for promotion. Promotions are few and, so-, all
persons cannot get promotions. Seniority does not necessarily coincide with
age. A younger person who joined the service at an early age may be senior to
a person who joined the service late in his life. Seniority principle does not
ensure that only fittest person will be posted at higher posts. On the contrary
inefficient and conservative persons may get promoted to higher post
adversely affecting the over-all performance of the government services.
Seniority principle is not rational and just. Hard work, efficiency and initiative
of the energetic young persons are not rewarded. On the other hand, physically
weak, aged and less energetic persons are promoted to higher positions where
hard work, alertness and energy are required.

Principle of Merit
Principle of merit is contrary to the principle of seniority. This principle
implies that the mainly meritorious, best qualified and mainly competent
person necessity be selected for promotion to the higher post. In the civil
service higher position means more powers and responsibilities and it requires
more competent and hard working persons. So, those who have merit and
qualifications necessity be promoted to higher positions. Merit, so, necessity is
the sole criterion for promotion. The principle of merit is accepted because
able and competent persons only deserve promotions and incompetent persons
should be left behind. At higher required. The merit principle selects the
mainly appropriate person for promotion. Energy, initiative and hard work are
rewarded through merit principle. This increases efficiency and competitive
spirit in the administration. It motivates the employees at the lower stages to
work hard and take interest in their work.

But merit principle of promotion is hard to implement objectively. Merit is

a complex concept. It comprises intellectual attainment beside with
personality, capability for leadership, strength of character, etc. It is not easy
to measure the merit objectively. Merit principle of promotion excludes senior
and experienced persons from the competitive chance of improvement.
Experience, seniority and age are set aside through the merit principle. Older
 Recruitment (Reservation in
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persons cannot compete in the written examination or interviews etc. against
the younger persons. The administrative experience and skills attained through
a person in the service with the passage of time, is totally neglected through
the merit principle.

Practical Combination of Seniority and Merit Principles: We have seen

that both the principles of seniority and of merit have some advantages as well
as drawbacks. In practice, so, a third method is adopted where the seniority
and merit principles are combined for creation promotions. For instance, a
minimum length/years of service (seniority) is fixed and then the fittest and
meritorious person amongst those who possess that minimum experience, is
selected for promotion. This means the „fittest amongst the seniors‟ is selected
for promotions. Another way of combining these two principles is that the
minimum qualification and competence is tested and then all other things
being equal the senior mainly of them is preferred for promotion. This means
the “senior most amongst the meritorious” persons is selected. It is observed
that in mainly of the countries including India, the general pattern of
promotion is based on the following lines:
Promotions to the higher posts are made on the basis of merit principle
only.
Promotions' to middle stage posts are made on the basis of seniority
cum merit principle.
Promotions to lower stage posts, are made on the basis of seniority
principle (but here also exceptional merit is rewarded).

METHODS OF TESTING MERIT FOR PROMOTION

We have seen that „merit‟ is measured to be a more significant element

compared to „experience‟ in creation promotions in the government service.
Now the question is how to test the merit essential for promotion to higher
posts? Those methods are not applicable for testing the merit for promotions.
It should be noted that here we have to test the merit of those persons, who are
already in the service. They possess minimum educational qualifications
required for recruitment in the service. They have already passed in the written
and oral tests at the time of their recruitment. Now their merit is to be tested
for promoting them to higher posts. This is more hard and delicate.

Several employees, old and young, experienced and inexperienced, senior

and junior working together for several years in the same grade and in the
same organization aspire to get promotion to the higher grade. The vacancies
at the higher stage are very few. Each of them thinks that he is mainly
competent and fit for the higher post: In such a situation it is very hard and
delicate to test their merit for promotion to higher positions. Normally the
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following three methods are employed for testing the merit for promotion:
Written and Oral Examination
Efficiency Rating
Personal Judgment of the Head of the Organization.

Written and Oral Examination

In several countries written examination is taken for promotion. It is an
objective the authorities from the troublesome work of creation judgment
about individual employees. It keeps the employees up-to-date about the
growths. It gives equal chance to everybody to aspire and compete for higher
positions. It is good when the number of aspiring persons is very large or
when the higher job requires specified knowledge. In several countries
departmental examinations are taken. Everybody who wants a promotion, is
required to pass the qualifying departmental examination. (It is common in the
Banking Services in India.) Brilliant and hard-working employees get quick
promotions through passing these examinations. The system of written
examination for promotion has some drawbacks also. The employees neglect
their routine administrative work because they are preoccupied with
examinations. Faithful and devoted employees feel neglected. Older and
experienced employees cannot revise and memories things for examinations.
Less experienced younger employees who are fresh from their college,
normally get more marks in written examinations compared to their
experienced colleagues. So, written examinations are not very popular for
promotion in the middle of the experienced employees. Although these
promotional examinations are competitive, but closed i.e. confined to those
who are already in the service, they result in a lot of jealousy and heart-
burning amongst the competent competitors.

In order to avoid the drawbacks of the system of written examination, in

several countries, oral test or interviews are taken after the candidates pass the
written examination. Candidate‟s overall personality, attitudes and manners
etc. are judged through the interviews. His past experience and record is also
assessed at the time of interview. Whether a person is fit to be appointed to a
higher position and whether his personality is appropriate for the higher post is
also judged at the time of oral examination.

Efficiency Rating
It is an old and universal practice in the Civil Service to maintain the
service records of each person. These service records are recognized through
several names like confidential report, service book, personal record or
personal file etc. In the past, these records were mostly used to locate a person
with bad records and to keep him absent from promotion. But now these
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service records are used to evaluate the relative merits of the employee for the
purpose of promotion. This is comparatively a new method which was first
adopted in the USA for rating comparative skill and merit of the employees
for the purpose of promotion.

Maintenance of service record itself is not efficiency rating. The service

record gives the necessary data on the basis of which evaluation or rating can
be done. In large organizations, there are several branches, divisions and
sections having large number of employees. In each section, branch or
department every year a confidential report relating to the overall service-
record of each and every employee is prepared and maintained through the
concerned head or superintendent or superior officer. These records are used
for rating the efficiency and suitability of an employee at the time of
promotion. This efficiency rating system is now widely followed for testing
merit for promotions.

The efficiency rating system is mainly useful for finding the mainly able
and efficient person for promotion. It is a fair and reliable system of rewarding
the mainly efficient person and eliminating those who are comparatively less
competent. It not only rewards merit but also the careful and faithful service. It
keeps the employees alert and up-to-date. It guarantees the promotion to the
best out of the accessible staff. These are some of the positive points of the
efficiency rating system. But there are several negative characteristics of this
system. It is not objective. It depends upon the subjective judgment of those
superior officers, who prepare the service record, and also of the rating
officers. It is hard to prepare a good „rating form‟ which will contain all
qualities, traits or criteria necessary for effective rating. More sensitive
employees become nervous and self-conscious because of this system and
their morale is depressed. The rating system leaves room for negligence, low
integrity and subjective judgment of the rating officer. What qualities or traits
necessity be taken for comparative rating and how to integrate the several
judgments relating to dissimilar qualities or traits into one final decision?
These questions pose several difficulties before the promotions are finalized.
So, this efficiency rating system does not gives an automatic basis of
promotion.

In this method, efficiency is rated on the basis of service records. Records

are maintained in respect of all employees. Assessment is done on the basis of
some qualities, traits, performance, output records, evidences, or check lists,
etc. Qualities or traits like knowledge of work‟ personality, judgment,
initiative, accuracy, willingness to take responsibility, neatness, punctuality,
organizing skill, etc. or output of the employee is rated as below.
Above average
Average
Below Average
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O it may be rated as (in Britain & India)

Outstanding
Very Good
Satisfactory
Indifferent
Poor

Personal Judgment of the Head of the Organization

In this system merit is determined through the head of the organization.
The head or the boss knows everybody. He has personal understanding about
the overall performance of each and every employee working under him. He
so, at the time of promotion, relies upon his own personal judgment and
creates promotion of the persons of his own choice. This system is based on
nepotism and favoritism. It is like the spoils system. It gives scope for
dictatorial tendency. It encourages politics and sycophantism (flattery) in
administration. Sycophants surround the head of the office all the time. As a
result there is lot of inefficiency, insecurity and uncertainty in the middle of
the workers. Consequently their morale is depressed. Only „Yes men‟ and
„sychophants‟ have good chances of promotion in this system.

This system of promotion, left to the judgment of the head of the office, is
mostly followed in business and industry but is not very common in the civil
service. Though, some very top stage executive promotions are made in this
system. Only in small organizations personal knowledge of the several
employees is possible. Correct use of discretion and judgment depends upon
the integrity and impartiality of the concerned head of the department. In
practice, the actual judgment of the promotion authority is influenced through
the service record, past performance and efficiency rating of the employee
concerned. Though, in the final selection of an employee, the personal
judgment of head of the organization plays its part. We have discussed the
several methods of testing merit for promotion in the preceding text. In fact,
all these methods are suitably combined to fill up posts through promotion.
The combinations are dissimilar in dissimilar countries.

ESSENTIALS OF A GOOD PROMOTION POLICY

Civil service is a career service. It offers life time job to the capable
persons. It gives opportunities for them for growth and advancement. Only
good promotion system can create this possible. At the same time only a fair
promotion policy ensures supply of capable and competent persons for filling
up higher positions without any breakdown. A good promotion policy is
 Recruitment (Reservation in
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absolutely necessary for the success of civil service. Following are the
essentials of a good promotion policy.
Promotion policy necessity is well planned in advance.
There necessity is a clear and sound classification of the civil services.
Posts or grades in each service or class necessity are arranged in a
hierarchical manner.
Line of promotion and rules of promotion necessity be clearly laid
down in advance.
Instead of a single person a board or committee should be responsible
for creation promotions.
A systematically accepted method of promotion necessity is followed
strictly.
Employee necessity knows that the vacancy for promotion is an
opportunity and not a right and he necessity earn the promotion in
competition with others.
Seniority should not be given excessive weight. Principles of seniority,
merit and efficiency necessity are combined. Candidate‟s past
performance, service record, and capability to assume higher
responsibilities necessity be decisive elements. Several appropriate
devices like efficiency rating, examination, interviews, etc. necessity
are adopted to test the merit for promotion.

PROMOTION SYSTEM IN INDIA

The question of promotion was first discussed throughout the British Raj
in India in the year 1669, when the principle of seniority was accepted for
promotion through the East India Company. The Charter Act of 1793 clearly
accepted the principle of „seniority‟ for promotions in the civil service. This
principle remained in force till the enactment of the Indian Civil Service Act
1861. Although the seniority principle was sustained, allowance was also
made for merit, integrity, competence and skill in creation promotion. Formula
of seniority cum merit was followed till 1947.

In Independent India, the matter of promotion received attention in 1947

itself. The First Pay Commission (1947) recommended that direct recruitment
and promotion system necessity be combined for filling up the positions in the
civil service. According to it, principle of seniority necessity be adopted for
those posts where more familiarity with office work is a necessary
requirement, top positions necessity be filled up on the basis of merit and
middle stage positions on the basis of seniority cum merit basis.

The Second Pay Commission (1959) also recommended the principle of

merit for filling higher stage posts and the principle of seniority cum fitness
 Recruitment (Reservation in
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for middle and lower stages in administration. Administrative Reforms
Commission (1969) also recommended the principle of seniority cum merit for
promotions. The governing principle of promotion in India, throughout the last
forty years is that of „seniority cum merit‟. The relative weight age of the two
factors of „seniority‟ and „merit‟ varies from service to service. Promotions in
India are made through the Union or State Government on the
recommendation of the Head of the Department, sometimes with the approval
of the Union or State Public Service Commissions. In some cases approval of
the Finance Department is necessary while in the cases of some top stage
promotions, the approval of the Prime Minister or Chief Minister is also
required. For the purpose of promotions, in several departments, we have
Departmental on the basis of confidential reports. Principle of seniority cum
efficiency is adopted invariably for promotions at lower and middle stage
posts like Assistants, Senior Assistants, Section Officers, Superintendents, etc.
In addition to this practice, in some cases, government employees are allowed
to appear in competitive examinations held for promotions. At higher stages of
promotion a Departmental Promotion Committee creates promotions out of a
list prepared on the basis of „merit and suitability in all respects with due
regard to seniority‟. The system of promotion varies from service to service
and class to class in India. After critical evaluation of the present Indian
system of promotion, we find that there are some shortcomings in it. They are:
Heads of the departments deliberately exclude some persons from the
list of potential competitors;
Personal records of the employees are not maintained satisfactorily and
impartially;
Employees are not informed about the vacancies to be filled up
through promotions;
Seniority is given too much importance instead of merit;
Absence of systematic promotion machinery creates promotions
unjust, arbitrary and haphazard; and
There is no effective system of appeals in cases of injustices in
promotions.

In order to overcome these shortcomings it is suggested that a appropriate

and systematic promotion policy necessity be adopted. Service-records
necessity is kept objectively and impartially. An effective machinery for
evaluation and for appeals necessity is recognized. Promotion boards or
committees necessity be recognized in all government services at all stages.
Qualifying examinations and interviews may be started for creation promotion
at middle stage positions. Instead of seniority the merit system necessity is
adopted.

RECRUITMENT (RESERVATION IN SERVICES)

 Recruitment (Reservation in
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IMPORTANCE OF RECRUITMENT

Recruitment is the mainly significant procedure in the administrative

system. The tone and caliber of the civil servants is decided through the
procedure of recruitment. The usefulness and relevance of the government and
administration to the society depends upon a sound system of recruitment. If
the recruitment policy is faulty and wrong, the dull, incompetent and
inefficient persons will get into the civil services which will create
administration permanently weak and inefficient. Even best policies of
training and promotion cannot improve the capability and efficiency of faultily
recruited persons and create them bright and efficient. It is, so, necessary that
the recruitment policy should be sound and it should be implemented
impartially and efficiently.

Recruitment is the entry point of the persons in the civil services. It is the
key to a strong public service. According to Stahl, recruitment is “the comer
stone of the whole public personnel structure”. In the modern times, due to
technological progress,‟ administration has become more and more
complicated and complex. It requires the best, the talented and the mainly
efficient persons to run the administration. Moreover civil service has become
the mainly significant career service in the present times. No element of the
career service is more significant than the recruitment policy. Need of sound
recruitment policy was realized in ancient India and China, where principles of
merit system and competitive examinations were adopted. In modem times
approximately all the countries have adopted the merit system for the
recruitment of public servants.

MEANING OF RECRUITMENT

The term „recruitment‟ does not have a precise meaning. According to

some writers like L.D. White, meaning of the term „recruitment‟ is limited to
attract the appropriate and proper candidate for the post to be filled up. Some
other writers think that recruitment is the whole procedure of filling up the
vacant posts, beginning from advertisement to the appointment and placement
of a selected persons in the vacant post. In the words of J.D. Kingsley, “Public
recruitment may be defined as that procedure through which appropriate
candidates are induced to compete for appointments to the public service”

We can, therefore, say that recruitment is an integral part of the wider

procedure of „selection‟, which comprises the procedure of examinations,
interviews and certification etc. The whole procedure of filling up the
vacancies in the government services seems to be wider than recruitment.
Recruitment is, though, commonly understood as the procedure through which
 Recruitment (Reservation in
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persons are taken in the services to fill up the vacant posts. Recruitment is a
common activity both in the private and public administration. Though, we
should keep in mind that in public administration, recruitment policy is
determined through the constitutional necessities and political outlook. No
such limitations are there in the case of private administration.

PROCEDURE OF RECRUITMENT

The procedure of recruitment, normally, consists of a number of steps

which may be briefly stated as:
Requisitioning of the jobs/posts,
Determining the circumstances and qualifications and other
characteristics of recruitment policy,
Designing of the application forms,
Advertisement of the posts/examinations etc.,
Scrutiny of applications,
Holding of examinations, interviews, other tests etc.,
Certification,
Selection,
Appointment, and
Placement.
Requisitioning of the Jobs/Posts
The procedure of recruitment in the government begins with asking the
several government departments and agencies about their necessities of
personnel. How several persons are required? How several posts are to be
filled up through direct appointment? How several posts are to be filled up
through promotions? All this information is composed through the recruiting
authority before the beginning of the procedure of recruitment. Dissimilar
vacant posts are classified and total final necessities are estimated. At the same
time, necessities of the dissimilar vacant posts are also measured for
determining the qualifications, experience etc., required for the posts.

Determining Qualifications, Circumstances and Necessities

The second step after the requisition of jobs is to determine the required
qualifications, and other circumstances for announcement in the newspapers,
bulletins and other methods. The decision concerning the minimum
educational qualifications, previous experience, age limit, residence,
nationality, physical fitness etc. are taken at this stage. The constitutional
provisions and government‟s policies relating to recruitment are measured
before finalizing these matters.

Designing the Application Form

At this stage, it is necessary to design a appropriate application form,
which will be given to the applicants for dissimilar posts or vacancies. The
application form should contain the columns which will provide all the
relevant information about the applicant‟s age, educational qualifications,
residence, nationality, experience, physical and family background, religion,
caste etc. Dissimilar application forms are intended for dissimilar posts or
examinations or for dissimilar services.

Advertisement
After determining the qualifications, other circumstances and necessities
etc. the after that stage is to announce the post/examinations in the newspapers
and bulletins or in radio and television etc. All the information necessary to
attract and induce the maximum number of competent applicants to apply for
the competitive examination is given in the advertisement. Application forms
are supplied, within a specified date, to all those who want to apply.
Sometimes the preformed‟ of the application form itself is printed in the
newspapers and the candidates are asked to apply on their own. In order to
attract more and more appropriate candidates, several times the
„advertisement‟ is repeatedly printed, broadcasted or telecasted. The recruiting
agency may publish their own periodicals for the benefit of the prospective
candidates e.g. the Government of India publishes „Employment News‟ every
week. Sometimes a specific day of every week is reserved for this kind of
advertisement through the Government‟s recruiting agencies e.g. UPSC.
Advertisements are published in all newspapers on every Saturday of the
week. Advertisement is therefore an significant step in the procedure of
recruitment.

Scrutiny of the Applications

The applications, in the prescribed proforma are received within an
announced date, time and the applications are scrutinized. All those who do
not fulfil the minimum prescribed necessities/qualifications or circumstances
of application, are rejected at this stage and informed accordingly, whenever
possible. Those candidates, who possess the minimum qualifications required
for being eligible to take the competition, are given information about their
selection, interview or examination schedule. If necessary, „call letters‟ for
interviews or „hall tickets‟ for the examination giving necessary details, about
the date, time, place of examination/ interview etc. are sent to the eligible
candidates. At this stage several of the incompetent and unqualified applicants
are eliminated from the procedure of recruitment. Though, it should be noted
here that scrutiny of the application forms should be done very cautiously
through the competent authorities, so that no injustice is done to a qualified
candidate.

Holding of Examination/Interview/Tests etc.

In order to select the mainly appropriate and competent candidates it is
necessary to test their skill or „merit‟. This can be done through conducting
examination or interview or other kind of tests. Examination is the formal
procedure of testing the merit of a person. The scheme of examination is
decided according to the job necessities and government‟s policy. The pattern
of examination so, depends on dissimilar kinds of examinations like qualifying
and main examination, general studies or technical examination, objective
kind or essay kind examination etc. A list of successful candidates is prepared
at the end of the examinations. Similar procedure is also followed in case of
interviews or other kind of tests. Then a final list of successful or qualified
candidates is prepared.
Certification
After conducting the examination, interviews or other kind of tests etc., the
names or roll number of the successful candidates are declared in the
newspapers or on the notice board. A list of successful and hence, eligible
candidates, is prepared and it is certified through the personnel agency like the
Public Service Commission. This list of certified candidates is sent to the
Government with the recommendation that the candidates may be selected and
appointed from this final list of certified candidates only. This is the final work
of personnel agency like the Public Service Commission. Normally the
Government creates the selection and appointment of the qualified candidates
from this certified list only. But in exceptional cases, only because of some
very concrete reasons, a candidate may be rejected from this list through the
Government. But in such a case it has to provide an explanation in the
Parliament.

Selection
Selection is an activity of choosing from in the middle of those candidates
who are eligible, qualified and accessible. Although the eligibility of a
candidate is tested through examinations/interviews and eligible candidates are
certified through the personnel agency like the Public Service Commission,
the final act of selection is the responsibility of the government. Even if a list
of eligible and certified candidates is sent through the personnel agency, it is
ultimately the government which has the power to select or reject a candidate.
The normal practice is to select the candidates from this list only. But if the
government finds that a scrupulous candidate has an objectionable past record,
or had been involved in violent, anti-national or criminal type of activities then
it has the power to reject appointment to such a candidate. For this purpose
police records are verified and secret enquiry about the candidate and his
character is mannered in several countries. If the government is satisfied then
only the candidates are selected for appointment.

In democratic countries like India, the government normally creates

appointments out of the certified list of candidates recommended through the
Public Service Commission. Though, due to some reasons, if a candidate is
rejected, the government has to provide a reasonable and satisfactory cause for
it, in the Parliament. Because in democracy the Government has to be
ultimately responsible and responsive to the people.

Appointment
After selecting the appropriate and qualified candidates, the formal
appointment is done through the government. It should be noted that in all the
countries appointments are done through a „competent executive authority‟
and not through the personnel agency like the Public Service Commission.
The constitutional and legal system of a country determines as to who should
have the powers to create appointments. The formal appointment letters are
issued through or in the name of the legally recognized „appointing authority‟
only. For instance in India, all appointments in the Central Government are
done in the name of the President of India, whereas all appointments in the
State Governments are done in the name of the Governors of the States.

Appointment letter issued through the Government are of dissimilar kinds

like:
Permanent Appointment
Temporary Appointment
Provisional Appointment
Appointment on Probation
Appointment for indefinite term.

Initially no candidate is given permanent appointment letter. Normally a

selected candidate is appointed on „probation‟. The probation period may
range from 6 months to 1 year or upto 2 years. Throughout the probationary
period a person is measured to be in „Temporary service‟. Throughout the
probationary period a candidate is posted in dissimilar positions and his/her
performance is evaluated through the immediate superior authorities and the
relevant reports are submitted to the „appointing authority‟. After the
successful completion of the probationary period a candidate is given
„conformation‟ in the service and then this appointment is measured to be
permanent. After this he is posted on a permanent government post.

Placement or Posting
After the successful completion of the „probationary period‟, service of a
candidate is „conformed‟ and he is placed or posted in a right place. This is
described as placement or posting. He is given charge of some specific nature
of work associated with that post. He is given a chance to work on that post
for a few years, so that he can learn from his experience. In some cases, before
a person is posted, some type of pre-entry or orientation training concerning
the scrupulous work assigned to him, is given. But in several other cases he is
posted and allowed to learn while doing his work.

KINDS/METHODS OF RECRUITMENT

There are dissimilar types or methods of recruitment followed in dissimilar

countries of the world. They are:
Direct Recruitment or indirect Recruitment
Positive or Negative Recruitment
Mass Recruitment or Individual Recruitment
Let us understand these dissimilar types of recruitment one through
one.

Direct and Indirect Recruitment

There are two methods of Recruitment — Recruitment from within i.e.
through promotion and recruitment from without means from the outside
accessible sources of supply. When the vacant posts in the government are
filled up through the appropriate and qualified candidates accessible in the
open market then it is described as Direct Recruitment. But when the vacant
posts are filled up through the appropriate and experienced candidates who are
already in the service of the Government then it is described as Indirect
Recruitment through promotion. Both the methods of recruitment have some
advantages and disadvantages. But in all the countries of the world both direct
and indirect methods are adopted for the recruitment of the Civil Servants.
Posts at the lower stages are normally filled up through direct recruitment and
posts at the higher stage are filled up through promotion i.e. through indirect
recruitment. A judicious and practical combination of both kinds of
recruitment is adopted in dissimilar countries according to their political and
administrative policies.
Positive and Negative Recruitment
When the recruiting agency actively searches the best qualified and mainly
competent candidates for appointment in the government service it is
described as positive method of recruitment. On the contrary negative method
of recruitment aims at keeping the unqualified and unfit candidates out
without adopting any active role in attracting the best candidates. At present in
mainly of the countries, the positive methods like newspaper advertisements,
propaganda, literature,, cinema slides etc. are adopted to attract the best men
and women to come forward. At the same time when the number of applicants
is much more than the accessible vacancies, then negative method of
eliminating the unqualified and less competent persons are adopted.

Mass or Individual Recruitment

When a large number of non-technical unspecialized posts of general
nature are to be filled up, then mass recruitment techniques are adopted.
Advertisement in mass media of communication, a large number of
applications, cumbersome procedure of examination and interviews etc. have
to be adopted to fill up large number of vacant posts in the government. But
when scrupulous posts requiring specialized knowledge, ability or technical
know-how and experience, are to be filled up then individual recruitment
method is possible and desirable. In such cases the number of posts to be filled
up is very small. Both these methods are used through the Public Service
Commissions in India.

MERIT SYSTEM

All the democratic countries of the world have now adopted the Merit
System of recruitment. The vacant posts in the government services are filled
up through selecting the mainly appropriate and qualified persons on the basis
of the principle of merit tested through open competition. The aim of open
competition is to judge the merit, qualifications and competence of the
candidates. This is mostly done through written examinations, oral tests,
interviews, performance tests, verification of past records and experience etc.
Although it is whispered that in ancient China and India, selection of the
officials was made through merit principle the modem merit system, though, is
of comparatively recent origin. It was first introduced in India in the year 1854
and in Britain in the year Recruitment (Reservation in 1855. In the
USA the merit system was for the first time introduced through the Pendleton
Services) Act of 1883 when a disappointed job-seeker assassinated President
Garfield.

Before the merit system was adopted the following three main systems
were existing in dissimilar countries of the world.
Sale of Offices
Patronage System
Spoils System

In the pre-revolutionary France, the vacant posts were sold through public
auction to the highest bidder. This brought revenue to the state, enabled the
rich people to acquire the government posts and freed the government from
patronage, favoritism and political interference. Patronage system was
followed in Britain and several other countries. Under it the appointments in
the government were made through the appointing authority through selecting
or choosing the candidates whom it wanted to favor on personal or political
grounds. Family and kinship, relations, personal-loyalty, political links and all
types of favoritism and nepotism were involved in the patronage system of
recruitment. This system sustained in Europe and India approximately until
the second half of the nineteenth century.

Spoils system was followed in the USA, where appointments in the

government were measured as the spoils for the party winning the elections.
When a new party came to power it used to dismiss all the government
servants appointed through the earlier government. Then it filled up all the
vacancies, right from a secretary to a postman, with its own supporters. The
permanent civil service was, so, not existing in America. Political supporters
having sympathy and loyalty to the ruling party or those having personal
loyalty to the newly elected President, were appointed as government servants.
This system sustained for more than a century till the Pendleton Act 1883 was
passed and merit system was introduced in the USA. Because of the growth of
democratic sentiments and rising complexity of the administration the above
mentioned methods of recruitment became outdated and the system of
recruitment on the basis of skill and merit has now been accepted through
approximately all the democratic countries of the world. The patronage or
spoils system is nowhere followed now. On the contrary merit system has
become universally accepted method of recruitment in the present times.

METHODS OF TESTING MERIT

We have seen that in mainly countries the appointments of the civil

servants are made on the basis of merit and skill. The questions, so, arise as to
who should test the merit and what methods of testing and determining merit
should be adopted? It is accepted in all the countries that the administration of
recruitment through merit principle should be entrusted to a central, impartial,
non-political and independent Personnel Agency, like the Public Service
Commission or Civil Service Commission. The merit and skill of the
candidates is tested through such Central personnel agencies appointed
through the government.

The merit of the candidates is normally tested through adopting any one or
the combination of the following methods:
Written examination
Oral test/interview
Performance Test
Evaluation of qualifications, experience and past record of work
Physical test
Psychological test.

WRITTEN EXAMINATION

Written examination is the mainly common method adopted for testing

intelligence, memory, knowledge, imagination and capability for logical
presentation of information. Written tests are of two kinds:
Free answer or essay kind
Short answer or objective kind.

Essay kind examinations are common in India. The question paper

contains a few questions and the candidates have to write fairly long essay
kind answers in two to three hours. In this method the candidate is tested in
regard to his/her general intellectual capability, factual information, his power
of expression, his memory, his caliber of logical analysis and his clarity of
thought. But there is one difficulty about essay kind examination system. Its
assessment is hard and subjective depending upon the caliber of the examiner.
It is not objective. The other kind of examination is short answer or objective
kind. The question paper contains a large number of questions requiring short
answers to be given within a prescribed time. Candidate is asked to indicate
whether a given statement is true or false, to point out „correct‟ answer out of
the given series of answers, to fill up the blanks with correct words, to match
the dissimilar statements correctly. The candidate is not required to write long
answers, but to tick mark on the question-sheet itself. This kind of objective
written examination is useful in testing the candidate‟s factual information and
correct knowledge and at the same time his capability of quick judgment and
memory also. Creation and assessment of such kind of objective tests are
objective and leaves no room for the examiner‟s subjective judgment. It is
cheap, reliable and fair method of testing the skill and capability of a large
number of candidates.
 Both these kinds of written examinations are followed in dissimilar
countries. At higher stages where knowledge, expression and logical thinking
are necessary essay kind of examinations are preferred. At lower stages where
the number of candidates is very large, objective kind examinations are
preferred. Sometimes written examinations are intended to test the general
knowledge, skill and intellectual caliber of the candidates. In India and Britain,
written examinations are held in some compulsory general papers like General
knowledge, and General English etc. At the same time candidates are also
examined in some optional academic papers of their choice, mostly drawn
from the curricula of the colleges or University system. The philosophy behind
this kind of written examination is that intellectual capability is more
significant than specialized knowledge, in administration. It is whispered that
an intelligent, and sharp person is useful for all types of administrative
functions. This philosophy is not accepted in countries like the USA and
France. There written examinations are intended to test the candidate‟s
knowledge of the specific subjects related to scrupulous needs of dissimilar
services or posts. For instance for appointment in Police Department his
knowledge of law, criminology and geography and for recruitment in Finance
Department, his knowledge of finance, accountancy, economics etc. are tested
through written examination. So, in these countries, the common combined
competitive examinations (like India) are not possible. Separate examinations
have to be held for dissimilar services.

Oral Test/Interview
Written examinations cannot reveal the personality and personal qualities
of the candidates. In order to be a successful administrator, a person requires
sure qualities like patience, initiative, attendance of mind, alertness, power of
decision-creation, drive, clarity and leadership qualities. These qualities
cannot be tested through written examination. So, oral test is necessary to
correct the weaknesses and shortcomings of written examination. Oral tests or
interviews are of dissimilar kinds. For instance oral test taken in the
Universities is just a conversation flanked by the candidate and his examiner
this is described as viva voce test. The interviews taken for recruitment in the
administrative service are planned to assess the total personality of the
candidate and supplement the results of the written examination. Such
interviews are described as personality tests. Sometimes interviews are taken
to eliminate the unfit candidates. Such interviews are taken before the written
examination. For specialized posts candidates are interviewed through experts
in that field and his expertise, ability and knowledge is. tested. Simultaneously
the experience and past records of his work is also verified.

All the above mentioned interviews are held to assess the personality,
personal qualities and suitability of the individual candidates for the job. This
is basically impossible through the system of written examinations. In recent
times group tests are also becoming common. In several countries group
discussions,-group meetings and group behavior tests are organised to test
candidates‟ personality and personal qualities like behavior, quickness,
adaptability, leadership qualities, confidence, initiative, etc.

Performance Test
There are some jobs which require skilled and trained persons in
scrupulous trade, craft or work. For instance mechanics, drivers,
stenographers, typists, electricians etc. In the selection of candidates for these
posts performance tests are taken. The candidate‟s arc asked to perform on the
actual work to show how well they can do it. The performance test may be
complemented through written test to assess their knowledge of technical
conditions, tools and methods etc.

Evaluation of Past Record

There are several posts for which written examinations and/or interviews
are not appropriate. Specialist and technical posts in legal, medical,
engineering, scientific and similar other services are filled up through
assessing the qualification, experience and past record of the work of the
candidates. The applicants, who fulfil the minimum required qualifications,
are asked to produce their relevant documents concerning their qualifications,
past experience and service record etc. A board of experts assesses these
evidences produced through the candidates and creates selection after
personally meeting and interviewing the candidates. This method is followed
for the appointment of high stage scientific, technical and specialized posts in
the government service. University teachers are also recruited through this
method.

Physical Test
It is necessary that the government servant‟s necessity have good health. If
they are not physically fit, they cannot provide their best to the service. It is,
so, approximately compulsory that every person has to undergo a medical
examination before joining the government service. Only after obtaining a
certificate of physical fitness, a person is finally selected. Separately from this
the physical tests are compulsory for recruitment in the police, armed forces,
manual and field services etc.
Psychological Test
In recent times psychological test has been introduced in several countries.
It is measured to be necessary to test intelligence, mental caliber and mental
maturity of the candidates to be recruited in higher positions. Likewise,
aptitude of the candidate is also tested through adopting modern psychological
tests. Psychological test is only to supplement other kinds of tests. It is not a
full-fledged and independent method of selection. We can conclude that merit
system of recruitment is common in all the countries. We have studied
dissimilar methods of testing merit like written examination, interviews,
performance test, evaluation of past record of work, physical and
psychological test etc. All these methods are made use for recruitment of
appropriate and able candidates in the Government Service. The ultimate
purpose of all this is to get the best persons recruited to the service.

ESSENTIALS OF A GOOD RECRUITMENT SYSTEM

So far we have studied several methods of recruitment followed in

dissimilar countries. We know that recruitment is the mainly significant step in
personnel administration. If recruitment policy is not good then incompetent
and unqualified persons will enter the civil services and they will spoil the
administration of the country. It is, so, essential that the recruitment policy
should be well planned and sound. It is also necessary to understand as to what
are the essentials of a good recruitment policy. What creates a recruitment
system good and sound?
Recruitment policy necessity is positive. It necessity be planned to
attract the best, mainly competent and qualified persons in the
government service.
Recruitment policy necessity is democratic. It necessity be planned to
give opportunities to the maximum number of qualified and competent
persons. All sources of supply should be given information about the
vacancies in the government.
Recruitment policy necessity is attractive. It necessity permanently
make a good employment market for the government service.
Attractive literature and publicity techniques necessity be used to
attract the best talented persons to join the government service. This
flow should continue.
Recruitment policy necessity is impartial and non-political. First of all
recruitment necessity be done through an independent, impartial and
non-political recruiting agency like the Public Service Commission.
There should be no interference from the government or politicians in
recruitment of civil servants. Government should normally recruit only
those candidates who are selected and recommended through the
 Public Service Commission.
Recruitment necessity is based on merit principle. Only able, capable
and meritorious candidate‟s necessity is recruited after testing the merit
and abilities of the candidates.
Recruitment agency necessity adopts scientific and modern methods of
testing merit. It is necessary that scientific and up-to-date methods
written and oral tests necessity be used to test the skill and caliber of
the candidates. From time to time this method necessity be reviewed
and new up-date methods necessity is adopted.
Recruitment Policy necessity have a good combination of direct and
indirect systems — able and capable candidates who are already in the
service necessity be given promotions and recruited to higher posts. At
the same time, fresh, new, talented young person‟s necessity is
recruited directly. Both systems have to be combined to create a good
recruitment policy and achieve best results.
Placement of right person to the right job. After the selection procedure
is over, the candidates necessity be given placement in such a way that
right person is appointed to the right job, that is the job which is
appropriate to him and takes into consideration his qualifications and
capabilities.

RECRUITMENT SYSTEM IN INDIA

There are the following services in India

All-India Services (like I.A.S., I.P.S., I.F.S.)
Central Services
State Services

Our recruitment system is based on British model. It is based on testing the

general skill and intelligence of the candidates through the merit system
employing open competition method. In the Indian Constitution the work of
recruitment to the All-India Services and Central Services is entrusted to the
Union Public Service Commission. The final recruiting authority has been
given to the President. In case of State Services, the work of recruitment is
entrusted to the State Public Service Commission and the final recruiting
authority is given to the Governor of the respective state.

For the All-India Services and higher Central Services, the UPSC conducts
combined competitive examinations. A systematic combination of written
examination and oral test is employed for recruitment. For higher stages only
graduates are allowed to appear for competitive examinations. Presently, the
UPSC takes combined civil service examinations common for the All-India
Services (I.A.S., I.P.S., I.F.S., etc.) and higher Central Services. Following
stages are followed in this scheme of UPSC examinations:

Qualifying Preliminary Examination (Objective)

This preliminary examination consists of two papers — one paper is
General Studies and one paper is optional subject chosen through the
candidate. Both papers are objective kind. Only those who qualify in the
preliminary examination are allowed to appear in the main examination:
General Studies —150 marks
Optional Paper - 300 marks

Main Examination — (Written and Oral)

The main examination consists of two parts — The written examination
and the interview. Written examination consists of eight papers. Each paper
carries 300 marks and all the papers are essay kind.

Question papers are set in English and Hindi and the answer can be written
in any one of the languages. Those who qualify in the written examination are
described for an interview (of 250 marks) mannered through the UPSC. The
marks obtained in the written and oral tests are added and merit list is prepared
on that basis. The list is sent to the Ministry of Home Affairs for allocation,
appointment and final placement.

Selection for the Central Services Class III and Class IV is entrusted to a
dissimilar agency described as Staff Selection Commission. This Commission
conducts competitive examinations for selection of persons for clerical,
secretarial and typing positions in the Central Government. State Public
Service Commissions are there in all the states and they follow the similar
methods in recruitment of Higher State Civil Services. For Class III and IV
categories of State Services several states have also appointed State Staff
Selection Boards or Local Selection Boards. Railways, Audit and Accounts
Department, Industrial establishments and Public Sector Undertakings have
their own recruitment arrangements in India. They are kept out of the above
mentioned centralised recruitment scheme under the UPSC.
NEED FOR RESERVATIONS

In India, sure communities, like, the scheduled castes, scheduled tribes,

low ranking castes and sub-castes were subjected to constant deprivation. The
centuries of exclusion, humiliation, poverty, persecution, oppression, and all
sorts of use have left a scar on the history of India and a terrible mark on those
communities and castes. The history has pushed them to permanent
disadvantage and left them to those people was felt justified on the premise of
past discrimination and future advancement. Such preferential treatment is
expected to overcome the frozen inequalities and effects of the past injustice.
It is viewed that preferential treatment is nothing but egalitarianism and social
justice.

CONSTITUTIONAL SAFEGUARDS

The Constitution of India guarantees equality of opportunity for all the

matters of public employment. At the same time Article 16, Clause 4, of the
Constitution allows that the State can reserve seats or posts for any backward
class of citizens which, in the opinion of the State deserves it. Article 335 of
the Constitution empowers the State to provide special consideration to the
depressed and backward sections of the society. It should be made clear that
the term „backward‟ was not defined in the Constitution. There is no fixation
of percentage of jobs in the Constitution, for these backward communities.
Beginning with reservation of posts in public services, ameliorative measures
contain reservation of seats in legislative and other representative bodies,
preferential treatment in admission to educational institutions and incentives
for their economic advancement. Therefore we have the phenomenon of
reservation in three spheres, reservation in legislature, reservation in
educational institutions and reservation in government services.

The first reservation has been provided in the Constitution itself, while the
second in creation of the Parliament and the third has emanated purely from an
executive body concerned with the representation of scheduled castes and
scheduled tribes in services. These reservations or special privileges were
initially granted for a period of ten years only. They were extended
subsequently from 1960 to 1970, 1970-1980, 1980-1990 and 1990 to 2000.

RESERVATION OF POSTS IN PUBLIC SERVICES

Reservation of jobs in government on caste and community basis is not

new in India. A number of representations and agitations were made through a
number of people particularly the non-Brahmin communities and castes for the
adequate representation for all castes of people in the government
employment. The Montague-Chelmsford Reforms in 1919 provided sure
special representation for non-Brahmin classes.

The Reforms encouraged the organization of the less privileged classes to

demand the removal of unequal representation in the Public Services. The
Government of India in 1925, initiated action to reserve sure percentage of
posts in government to the minority communities. In 1934, an order was
issued to reserve 25% of all vacancies to be filled through direct recruitment to
Muslims, and 8.75 per cent to other minority communities. In 1943, the
Government also reserved 8.5 per cent of vacancies for the scheduled castes
and raised it to 12.5 per cent in 1946 to correspond to the proportion of their
population to the total population of the country. Therefore, the importance of
representative bureaucracy in Public Services was realized in view of socio
and economic inequalities in India. Though, the tribal‟s are not provided with
any reservation through the British Government. The claims of tribal‟s for
reservation of posts was only recognized through the Independent India.

The Government of India, after Independence reviewed the whole

reservation policy and has withdrawn the reservations to the competitive posts
for communities other than scheduled castes. In 1951 the Constitution was
amended to empower (Article 15 (4)) the State to create a special provision for
the development of socially and educationally backward class of citizens
which in the opinion of State is not adequately represented in the services
under the State. Though, the Constitution has not prescribed the extent of
reservation. The reservations in the services are made for the scheduled castes
and scheduled tribes through the Government of India and also through the
State Governments. Rules and regulations are framed for implementation of
the reservation policy. Originally 12 1/4% was reserved for the SCs. and STs.
It was raised to 15% in 1970. At present government has reserved 15 per cent
of the jobs for the scheduled castes and 7.5 per

PERSONNEL POLICY

POLICY CREATION: MEANING

„Policy creation ‟ is one of the common terminologies used in the

discipline of Public Administration and management, though more popular
one is the „decision-creation ‟, the differences flanked by the two being those
of depth and sweep, and not of quality of procedure. Decisions are taken
through everybody, every moment, on every thing — whether they are of great
significance or on comparatively inconsequential matters. Though, from a
normative angle, decisions ought to refer to planned and calculated exercise in
rationality, in actual practice they are often subjective, probabilistic and
arbitrary, as more often they are arrived at individually and not collectively.

Policy creation is also a diversity of decision-creation, differentiated

through the fact that policies are “usually taken to belong to the jurisdiction of
more substantive or heavier significance, valid for a longer time range and
operative as a guiding framework for more sweeping action‟‟. Therefore,
policy creation has been defined as “that dynamic procedure for a normative
event, arrived at through assessment of relevant facts and evaluation of
judgement, providing major guidelines for further action directed at the future
with the object of achieving a given objective through the best possible
means.” The stages that are resorted to in this procedural exercise are —

(i) isolation of issues,'(ii) identification of troubles, (iii) analyzing the

troubles and looking for ideas, (iv) incubation (re-analysis of troubles and
development of ideas), (v) systemization, (vi) evaluation, (vii) adoption of
programme, (viii) implementation and (ix) follow-up.

Though, though every decision and every policy are expected to be made
on any subject after taking into account all accessible, relevant facts and
evaluating requisite dimensions and alternatives involved, all the stages
mentioned above are usually not relied upon in the actual practice. Under
imperfect circumstances of Public Administration, often the required data are
not either accessible or made accessible to the policy-makers who,
consequently, depend on their own particularistic experience, individualistic
knowledge and professionalized expertise, combined with intuition, to come to
what could be described as „optimal‟ decision cum policy creation. It is not as
if such decisions are necessarily „bad decisions or policies‟ arrived at on such
thoughts are „irrational policies‟. The real issue in decision/policy-creation in
Public Administration is not that it is not formulated in accordance with a
proper procedure but it is often formulated in an ad hoc manner, as a reactive
response to sure emerging situations rather than in a pro-active manner based
on futuristic planning, fore-thought or far sight. This is also true of Indian
Public Administration and policy-creation in the country.

Indian Public/Personnel Scenario

Public Administration in India inevitably suffers from the same vices or
inadequacies in forms of well-integrated, well co-ordinate and comprehensive
policy framework. The public personnel administration is also characterized
through similar ad holism, confusion, chaos and haphazardness.

It is a common knowledge that Public Administration in this country has

traveled a long way off, from the law and order and regulatory days of 1947
and before. Administration was then far removed from the people, having very
little to do with the national development, economic regeneration, social
progress and people‟s well-being; its temper was authoritarian and its style
was deeply formalistic. Its aim being preservation of status-quo,
administration was not developmental and promotional. 1947 was the
important watershed, providing the final parting of the ways with the past not
merely in the administrative ideology but also in its operational ways.

These new changes were reflected in atleast the following three

dimensions
The purpose of the State has changed with the adoption of a new vision
and mission of people‟s welfare;
The functions of the State have registered fundamental growth and
phenomenal explosion in conditions of diversity, complexity and scale,
together with the large size of machinery and structure;
The methodology of the State-operation has also undergone radical,
transformation in conditions of innovative practice, dynamic
procedure, data-handling technology and leadership styles;
The personnel in the system have also numerically expanded, in
conditions of categories, groups, specialties, etc.

But the old feature though, continues in that there has been no important
and radical change in the thinking and back-up action for forming the system
in the new functional context. There has been no new, novel and dynamic
policy thrust in public management system in general and personnel system in
scrupulous. The reality is that the days of negative, „night-watchman‟ role
performed earlier through the government are gone. The government, now has
to play a more positive and pervasive part in shaping the citizen-life in all its
multi-faceted characteristics, more as an all round change-agent, accelerator of
economic and social advancement, animator, if not the prime mover, of total
national development. Any modem government necessity harmonies the goals
of the communal, communitarian welfare with the ideals Of individual
progress and enrichment of the quality of every life. General landscape of the
new government is that it has to cater to the needs, demands and challenges of
“the revolution of rising expectations” of the people who now, refuse to live
under the shadow of poverty, hunger, illness, ignorance and squalor.

The Constitutional Policy

The personnel, in the context of the New Public Administration, as in
India, have to be fine-tuned to the new ideology of the State and technology of
dynamic, yet people oriented governance. They have to be enthused with the
vibrant commitment towards the developmental objectives as enshrined in the
vital charter of the State, that is, the Constitution of the country. The Indian
Constitution promulgated w.e.f. 26th January, 1950, creates eloquent
pronouncement of the lofty ideals in its Preamble which assures justice,
liberty, equality and fraternity to all its citizens; its section on Fundamental
Rights creates provision for the individual safeguards against State
authoritarianism and ensures fundamental freedom for all citizens. The
Directive Principles of State Policy enjoin upon the State the fundamental duty
to make a promotive environment so that the citizens can lead a life of
happiness, richness and fullness. This Constitutional culture has developed on
the government a much wider rectangle of responsibility to shape the whole
fabric of social and individual life in a more positive and constructive fashion.

PUBLIC PERSONNEL IN INDIA

Against this changed ideological background of the State, as a carrier of

new values, the traditional „folk-lore‟ administration in India has become
development administration “action- oriented, goal-oriented administrative
system” concerned with the attainment of definite programmatic goals, in
which the mainly significant component is the personnel. Public Personnel
Administration likewise constitutes the central focus of Indian administrative
system. If this vital sector is neglected, deficiencies would develop in the other
sectors as well. As in human organism so in administrative organization,
vitality is a function of internal health and not derived from external cosmetics
or superficial create-up. People in the administration necessity are efficient,
effective, professionalized and well-motivated to accomplish the goals set for
them. This requires adoption of strategic policy for the induction, retention
and optimal utilization of personnel in the administrative system. The policy
necessity covers all the characteristics in the life of the human beings or
personnel in government right from their birth in the bureaucracy to their
separation from it.

Modern Personnel Functions

Some of the modern personnel functions of some significance may be
noted, which would describe in the ultimate analysis, the policy frame for
personnel management:
Survey of the contingent needs of the public services in the context of
total development goals of the administration.
Manpower planning
Cadre management
Job evaluation and position classification system
Recruitment
Positive recruitment
 Talent-hunting
Selection techniques
Psychological tests
Training and development programmes
Career systems planning
Compensation and remuneration administration
Motivation and productivity, participative management principles
Welfare programmes
Conduct, discipline and public service ethics
Terminal benefits systems (Retirement benefits etc.)
Developing personnel organization and capability

The Government of India has also undertaken to perform several of these

functions as its new charter of activities. The awareness to look at the
personnel from new angles, as input needing constant renewal has not come
overnight. Initially, there was no planned policy-guide for handling personnel
in the public organizations. There was on the contrary, vast army of persons at
the lower echelons, particularly at the messenger (Group „D‟ or Class IV) and
clerical (Group „C‟ or Class III) stages who, mostly were denied opportunities
of growth and were engaged in non-productive and optimistic functions. They
were psychologically demodulated and highly discontented as promotions in
the civil service were beyond their easy reach; they were not suitably trained,
and were left to fend for themselves; they constituted a type of drainage on the
efficiency of the government. The middle stages consisting of Group „B‟ (or
Class II) and some segments of Group A (or Class I) were also not
comfortably, certainly not ideally, placed in conditions of decision-creation,
delegation of power and exercise of constructive authority. The general
management at the Group „B‟ stage was devoid of any sense of positive
responsibility and felt cut off from the mainstream of functional bureaucracy.

Post-Independence Studies for Formulation of Personnel Policy

The circumstances in pre-Independence period were attributable to a lack
of well-thought-out policy, and programming for the proper utilization and
motivation of public personnel. There was no plan for their career
development; there was no uniform policy for objective performance appraisal
and management of bureaucracy for result-oriented attainment. This paucity of
policy has not only hindered transaction of developmental goals but also
almost crippled the personnel administration.

After Independence there had been many investigations undertaken into

the personnel system, together with structural and methodological
characteristics of Public Administration in India. Upto mid-60s there have
been atleast twelve such investigations mannered through dissimilar
Committees and Commissions as also through some eminent experts. They
may be mentioned as follows:
The Secretariat Reorganization Committee 1947
The Central (First) Pay Commission 1946-47
Report on Reorganization of the Machinery of the Govt., 1949
Report on Public Administration, 1951
Report on the Machinery of Govt. — Improvement of Efficiency, 1952
Public Administration in India — Report of a Survey, (Paul Appleby)
1953
The States Reorganization Commission, 1955
The Report on the Public Services (Qualification for Recruitment)
1956
The Commission of Enquiry on Emoluments and Circumstances of
Service of Central Government Employees (2nd Pay Commission)
1957
V.T. Krishnamachari‟s Report on Indian State Administrative Services
etc. 1962
The Report of Committee on Prevention of Corruption, 1964
(Santhanam Committee)
Five Year Plans

All these reports have made their contribution towards creation the
personnel system more effective, and to align with the challenges of new
environment. Their recommendations have made impact on policy formulation
with an eye to dynamise public personnel management. But obviously, all
these were not enough. The system still needed a lot of changes.

ORGANIZATION FOR PERSONNEL POLICY

Separately from a lack of policy, there was also organizational deficiency

to tackle the troubles of personnel. There was no cohesive, centralised
organization in the Government of India from which the unified direction
concerning personnel policies and programmes could flow. In the field of
Central Government, with regard to personnel, the Ministries of Home Affairs
(Services and Establishment Wings) and Finance (Establishment Division) all
beside had joint management responsibilities, with Union Public Service
Commission playing ah significant advisory role. The Establishment Officer to
the Government of India, functioning under the Cabinet Secretary, was
another official agent for performing some high stage personnel-placement
tasks. All this made for division of responsibility and resulted in negation of
unified central direction. There was more of crisis-oriented personnel
management and less of a centrally planned, positive or forward looking thrust
in personnel programming. It had led inevitably to attending to mere
„maintenance‟ functions at the minimum stage, leaving out the more important
„growth‟ functions at the optimum stage. The casualty was again the
personnel.

Estimate Committee’s Report (1966) on Personnel Agency

To plug this organizational loophole, the Estimates Committee (of the
Third Lok Sabha) in its 93rd Report (April, 1966) observed that “the ever
expanding role of the government, in a welfare state with its natural
concomitant of a large civil service, calls for effective personnel control
through a single agency.” This unified agency should be under the control of
the Cabinet Secretary and made responsible for regulating the conditions and
circumstances in respect of services as a whole, replacing the earlier dual
control of the Home Ministry and the Finance Ministry.

Administrative Reforms Commission on Personnel Organization

To attend to the emerging troubles in the field of administration, the
systematic deficiencies of the public governance and to look at the several
issues in Public Administration from a holistic angle, the Government of India
constituted an Administrative Reforms Commission in 1966. The conditions
of reference were elaborate and comprehensive. The sectors of administration
which it was asked to look into were also quite exhaustive. The Administrative
Reforms Commission assisted through 20 Revise Teams submitted 20 reports
of which 5 reports dealt with the public personnel administration, namely:
Report on the Machinery of the Government of India and its
procedures of work
Report on Public Sector Undertakings
Report on Personnel Administration
Report Centre-State Relationships
Report on State Administration ARC‟s Report on Personnel
Administration
„Personnel‟ was also the exclusive subject matter of one report, namely,
Report on Personnel Administration aided and advised through as several as 3
revise teams, namely:
Patil Revise Team on Personnel Administration;
Thorat Revise Team on Recruitment, Selection, UPSC/State PSCs, and
Training;
Nagarkatti Revise Team on Promotion Policies, Conduct Rules,
Discipline and Morale.
 The Commission formulated its own recommendations on the several
facets of personnel administration in India. This Report formulated significant
policies and programmes on the country‟s future personnel management
system.

Functionalism, Specialism and Staffing

A functional field necessity be carved out for the IAS, consisting of land
revenue administration, exercise of magisterial functions and regulatory work
in the states and in the fields other than those looked after through other
services.
All posts in a functional area whether in the field or at headquarters or in
the Secretariat should be staffed through members of the corresponding
functional services or through functional officers not encashed in a service.
The posts at the stage of Deputy Secretary or equivalent at the Central
headquarters, which do not fall within a scrupulous functional area, should be
demarcated into eight areas of specialisms as follows:
Economic Administration
Industrial Administration
Agricultural and Rural Development Administration
Social and Educational Administration
Personnel Administration
Financial Administration
Defence Administration and Internal Security
Planning

Senior management posts in functional areas should be filled through

members of the respective functional services. Senior management posts
outside the functional areas should be filled through officers who have had
experience as members of the policy and management pool in one of the eight
specialisms. They should have completed not less than seventeen years of
service.

Unified Grading Structure

The posts in the civil service should be grouped into grades so that all
those which call for similar qualifications and similar difficulties and
responsibilities are grouped in the same grade. The number of such grades
may be flanked by 20 and 25.
All the Class I posts may be evaluated and assigned to, say 9 common pay
scales. These nine grades or pay scales- may be divided into three stages,
namely junior, middle and senior. The progress of an officer of an recognized
Class I service beside with the grades within each stage should be on the basis
of proved performance. Promotions from the junior to the middle stage and
from the middle to the senior stage should be through selection.

Cadre Management Planning

For all the services, advance projections should be made of the
requirement of personnel for five years at a time. Mid-term appraisal also
should be made if circumstances warrant it and necessary correctives made on
the basis of the appraisal. Such projections should be made through cadre
management committees which should be constituted.

Recruitment
For the Indian Administrative Service/Indian Foreign Service and other
non technical Class I Services, recruitment should be made only through a
single competitive examination, it being left to the candidates to express their
order of preference for the dissimilar services.
A Committee should be set up to go into the questions of devising speedier
methods of recruitment, in general, of bringing down the proportion of
candidates to posts, of reducing the expenditure on publicity, and of revising
the syllabus of the examinations for the higher services.
The upper age limit for entrance to the competitive examination may be
raised to in order to give greater opportunities for the advancement of talented
personnel who are not already in Class I
The quota of vacancies in Class I to be filled through promotion may be
increased upto a maximum of 40 where the existing quota falls short of that
percentage;
Every one who has completed 6 years of service in Government and is less
than 35 year of age may be given one and only one chance to sit for the open
competitive examination for Class I non technical services, irrespective of the
chances already taken, provided that he/she fulfils circumstances relating to
educational qualifications.

Training
Government should, with the assistance of experienced administrators and
experts in training techniques, formulate a clear-cut and far sighted national
policy on civil service training, setting out objectives and priorities and
guidelines for preparation of training plans. Training for middle stage
management in the Secretariat (for Deputy Secretaries and other officers with
equivalent status) should have the following three broad elements:
training in headquarters work;
special courses in each of the eight broad specialisms; and
sub-area specialism training.
Training in policy and planning should be provided as a part of training for all
specialisms.

Performance Appraisal
At the end of each year, the official reported upon should submit a brief
resume, not exceeding three hundred words, of the work done through him,
bringing out any special attainment of his. The resume should be submitted to
the reporting officer and should form a part of the confidential record. In
giving his own assessment, the reporting officer should duly take note of the
resume and after creation his own comments and assessment, submit the
whole record to the after that higher officer, namely, the reviewing officer.
The reviewing officer should add his own comments, if any, and also do the
grading.

Promotion
Half of the vacancies accessible for promotion of Class II officers to Class
I, including All-India Services, may be filled up through the existing method
and the other half on the basis of an examination. Class II officers may be
allowed to sit for this examination, provided that they have put in a prescribed
minimum number of years of service, say, five, and have not been graded as
„not yet fit for promotion‟.

Discipline
Provisions should be made in the rules for summary disposal of
disciplinary cases in respect of any misdeed or other irregular acts arising from
insubordination, contempt, and unbecoming conduct including intimidation or
threat of violence.

Tribunals
Civil Service Tribunals should be set up to function as final appellate
authorities in respect of orders inflicting major punishments of dismissal,
removal from service and reduction in rank.
Voluntary Retirement
A civil servant may be allowed to retire voluntarily after he has completed
fifteen years of service and given proportionate pension and gratuity.

Incentives
Incentives for timely completion of a specific project may be provided
through appropriate awards such as rolling cup or a shield. In individual cases,
commendatory certificates may be issued. These and other recommendations
of the Report on Personnel Administration have far-reaching significance in
conditions of restructuring the new personnel policy and affecting
approximately all public services.

DEPARTMENT OF PERSONNEL

The Administrative Reforms Commission (ARC)‟s recommendations

envisaged careful handling of the new dynamic and forward-looking functions
in the field of personnel. It required new policies in several areas and
characteristics. The old organization for handling personnel matters was
obviously inadequate to tackle the new personnel troubles based on the
recommendations of the Administrative Reforms Commission on the Central
Personnel Agency. The Government set up in August, 1970, a new
Department of Personnel. One of the Revise Teams of the ARC, namely,
Deshmukh Revise Team on machinery of the Government of India and its
Procedures of Work, had first made the suggestion that “the fashioning of an
effective Central Personnel Agency and the allocation to it of all functions of
an overall character in the field of personnel administration is one of the
mainly significant reforms required in the machinery of the Government of
India.” It was envisaged that progressive leads could flow out from the
Department of Personnel if only the new departments were to induct into it
persons from a diversity of services, including the technical and professional,
so that the leadership of the agency in the matter of personnel rested on a solid
foundation.

The organizational structure of the Department of Personnel was as

follows:
Policy and Planning Wing
Training Wing
All India Services Wing
Establishment Wing
Vigilance Wing
E.O. s Wing
 It may be noted barring the Policy and Planning Wing, all the other Wings
together with their functions existed in the Ministry of Home Affairs from
which the Department of Personnel was carved out in August, 1970. The
Policy and Planning Wing had been entrusted with the task of formulating and
giving shape to the policy and planning activities in the field of personnel
administration in the Government of India. This Wing also shaped a base for a
type of „perspective plans‟ — approach to personnel management and for all
foundational cum applied research on overall characteristics of public
personnel administration. This charter of responsibilities could have been met
only through staffing the Policy and Planning Wing with experts and
professionals in personnel management. Also, it would have been better if sure
amount of „prioritization ‟ was done at the beginning itself, as there was a
potent risk of the „routine‟ taking over the germinal and important activities in
the government. This was exactly what happened. Policy Planning Wing
(PPW) was entrusted with the normal responsibility of handling the
Administrative Reforms Commission‟s recommendations contained in the
report on Personnel Administration as also the day-to-day routine activities
like Cadre Reviews through all the usual hierarchies of the government. No
proper methodology for handling research studies was in fact evolved. Later
many other items of routine work were also added to the PPW which took
absent research-thrust from its activities. The PPW degenerated into another
normal Wing of the government, doing mostly regular routine functions and
not, as originally envisaged, futuristic personnel studies on major policy
issues.

Training Division, no doubt, did quite a bit. of leadership role in the area
of training, and functioned as a clearing house for all training ideas and
programmes. But it also had to attend to so several routine jobs that its main
functions as an apex policy-maker on training lost their focus and
consequently suffered considerably. The other Wings/Divisions had nothing
very new to offer; they sustained to do in the new Department of Personnel
what they were doing in the old Ministry of Home Affairs. In the matter of
staffing, the same old policy of relying on the conventional sources like IAS
and other Central Services was followed, with no change at all. Structurally,
the same old hierarchy and procedurally, the same old work-ways and styles
were sustained. No worthwhile professional infiltration was in sight, even
though administration was assumingly getting technical and science and
technology were creation deep dent into governmental programmes. The tragic
gap surfaced, because of the total lack of concern for new personnel policy,
interlinking all the new ventures

Department of Personnel, as a Central Personnel Agency was a new

structure-functional innovation in India on the lines of Britain‟s Fulton
Committee recommendation on establishment of Civil Service Department to
which the personnel functions of the Treasury (counterpart of India's Ministry
of Finance) as also those of Civil Service Commission (counterpart of India‟s
UPSC) were transferred, in order to create it an integrated organization for
personnel administration. While British experiment was hailed through several
as satisfactory, India‟s, though, was not measured to be very satisfactory and
successful, as the later experience has proved. After the initial euphoria, it was
seen that the Department was reutilized, like any other Department of the
government. None of the recommended measures relating to functional charter
in the new areas, the dynamic thrust in procedural characteristics of work, bold
agenda of research, unconventional staffing patterns, cutting stranglehold of
age-old bureaucratic hierarchy etc., were taken to create the new Department
really effective. The leadership role of the Department was neglected and
advantages of its direct working link with the Prime Minister through Cabinet
Secretary were soon lost!

Even so, some, though not several new policies in the field of personnel
were evolved at the initial stages of its subsistence, mainly on the basis of
ARC‟s recommendations.

Advisory Council on Personnel Administration

An Advisory Council on Personnel Administration, consisting of good mix
of inside and outside experts, recognized professionals in the field,
experienced Directors of Institutes of Management and Public
Administration/National Academy etc. was set up, which was to function as a
feeder line of new ideas, developing research-base for radical policies and
suggesting novel programmes. (After a two year tenure, though, the Council
was disbanded!)

Premature Voluntary Retirement

The new scheme for Premature Voluntary Retirement with five years
additional service benefit was adopted as a policy to weed out the dead woods
or the inefficient personnel and those who are not comfortable in the
government from functional and adjust mental points of view.

Administrative Tribunal
The Administrative Tribunal was another milestone in new policy
experiments in the personnel. The civil servants all over the country have
largely benefited from these Administrative Courts in conditions of time, cost,
harassment in alternative systems of grievance-handling.
Joint Consultative Machinery
Another significant schematic innovation was Joint Consultative
Machinery and Compulsory Arbitration (based on 2nd Pay Commission‟s
recommendations) for disagreement management with the employees. The
Staff Relations Policy had its fruition in this JCM experiment which has
largely been successful in averting agitation methods to settle employer-
employee disputes. But these few new policy schemes separately, the history
of the public personnel administration here is a story not to be very eloquent
about!

THE NEW POLICY PERSPECTIVE

Personnel policy is an integrated function which encompasses several

characteristics of the personnel management. In fact, there are inseparable
inter-linkages as amongst the diverse personnel activities. Personnel
management starts even before the actual employment or recruitment in the
organization. In fact, recruitment itself has to be molded through the overall
employment policy of the organization. Whether there has to be a greater
proportion of direct recruitment i.e. emphasis on „catch them young‟ as a
principle or there should be more reliance on age, experience and longevity
through promoting the people already in the organization to higher positions
are matters of policy which management has to decide before-hand. The long-
term planning of cadre (if there is a „cadre system‟ in the services) or
determining individual positions (if there is a „position classification system‟)
have to be done in the beginning and also as a part of a policy of having the
right person on the right job in the right time at the right cost. Even this
salutary personnel principle is not followed in mainly of the organizations,
though all pay up service to this dictum. The methodological issues of
recruitment and selection processes — whether there should be positive
recruitment, „campus‟- recruitment or other forms of aggressive lateral
recruitment, also constitute matter of overall recruitment programmes. The
employment policy necessity have to be connected up with training and
development policy repetition policy, promotion policy, compensation policy,
motivation policy, career management policy etc. Beside;., there have to be
well thought-out and positively articulated staff welfare policies and
disagreement management policy (i.e. Employer-Employee Relationship
Policy). It is obvious that all these are vital structure blocks of a
comprehensive personnel policy. Unluckily, they are not framed in any
systematic manner nor are they followed in any effective fashion. There is too
much of casualness and adhocism in this regard.

No serious attempt has been made to focus attention on the positive

characteristics of personnel growth and development of potentials. Looking
into the „human side, of tomorrow‟ seems nobody‟s business. Talent hunting
has been conspicuous through its absence. Careers for mainly are not
supervised through the senior management of the administration, on any
scientific and objective basis with an eye on the future but they appear to
manage themselves! Both rewards and punishment in the government and in
other public organizations are tardily handled, no one can, under the rules, be
sumptuously rewarded even if there is a high stage of performance nor can any
person through punished heavily for failure to achieve or even to perform.
There is too much of safety, security and safeguard mechanisms in the
government so-much so that there can be only „hiring‟ but no „firing‟, once
one is in. Public organizations in India do not seem to have any commitment
toward staff motivation nor do they work for the development of their own
people, with the result that there is no semblance of „succession policy‟
anywhere in the public administrative system. The mainly common experience
is the pervasive subsistence of a pernicious phenomenon described
„toplessness‟ in a large number of establishments. Vacancies, and
consequential vacuum, often exist and persist for months at a stretch with
concomitant adverse effect on efficiency. Targets are fixed but never seem to
be achieved and there is no disgrace attached to target-slippage because goal-
consciousness and result-orientation are not taken to be vital to our personnel
policy framework.

REVIEW QUESTIONS
Explain the importance of training in modern times and create a
distinction flanked by training and education.
What are the aims and objectives of training?
Discuss the need and importance of performance appraisal in
Personnel administration.
What are the main objectives of performance appraisal?
Explain the significance and meaning of promotion.
Why is promotion necessary in the civil services?
What is the importance of recruitment in Personnel Administration?
What are the significant steps in the procedure of recruitment?
What do you mean through policy creation ?

CHAPTER 5
WORKING CONDITIONS, CONDITIONS OF SERVICE
 STRUCTURE
Learning objectives
Salary administration (including incentives and other benefits)
Administrative ethics and integrity in civil services
Conduct and discipline
Review questions

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit you should be able to:
Describe the methods of pay fixation & job evaluation;
Discuss the principles of pay fixation;
Discuss the essentials to ensure the practice of administrative ethics;
Describe the causes for decline of integrity in civil services;
Discuss the role of conduct and discipline in personnel administration; and
Describe the steps involved in disciplinary proceedings.

SALARY ADMINISTRATION (INCLUDING INCENTIVES AND

OTHER BENEFITS)

METHODS OF PAY FIXATION

There are several methods of fixing up salaries of the public servants, each
country follows a dissimilar method of pay fixation. It is determined through
her past traditions, administrative patterns, nature of her constitution and
character of the people. Some Salaries are fixed through statute of the
legislature. This system prevails in countries having immature personnel
systems, such as Middle Eastern countries, and in local bodies and small
cantons.
The legislature lays down the plan in broad schematic outlines but
leaves the details to be determined through the Executive. Such is the
case in India and in the federal Governments.
Salaries are fixed up through communal bargaining. Such is the case
with all private enterprises and also with mainly of the public
enterprises.
Salaries are fixed through local or area wage boards, determination of
salary is based upon periodic revise of prevailing rates. This method is
usually adopted in public corporations and other public utility
enterprises.
Lastly, there is the unplanned, haphazard system of wage
determination, which is a relic of the past and is a sign of immature
personnel system, but is not altogether extinct in the modem world.
When a government undertakes a new activity, it usually follows no
planned system of wage determination in the beginning but leaves it to
time to evolve a proper system to suit that service.
 There is always a need to determine salary on the basis of inputs like
education, training and working environment. We necessity develop a pay
structure which would ensure equilibrium flanked by the inputs and the salary
structure pertaining to self and in relation to others. This requires job
evaluation which is the procedure of enquiring into the inputs required of
employees for. minimum job performance and equating the relative worth of
the several jobs within the organization so that differential pay may be paid to
jobs of dissimilar worth. In mainly of the newly created organizations, the
salary structures are adopted from other organizations as job evaluation is
always expensive to administer and to keep up-to-date. Several top executives
feel that job evaluation should be avoided as long as troubles are not too
serious. Though, job evaluation is a scientific method to determine pay
structure.

METHODS OF JOB EVALUATION

There are two methods of job evaluation that are normally used through
the organizations:
Non-analytical: Non-analytical methods establish grade hierarchy but
are non-quantitative while analytical methods are quantitative and can
be expressed in some numerical form. Small organizations prefer non-
analytical methods as compared to analytical which are used through
large organizations.
Job Ranking Method: Ranking is a direct method of comparing jobs
together so that they are ranked in their order of importance. This
technique basically lists the relative worth of the several jobs under
consideration; jobs are not divided up factor-wise but are measured as
a whole. Because of the difficulties in ranking, a large number of jobs
at one time, the „paired comparison‟ technique of ranking is sometimes
used. Besides, we can use the technique of selecting top and bottom
jobs as bench-marks for the remainder of the ranking procedure and
ranking based on organizational charts. Ranking system is easy and
quick to administer. The chief disadvantage of the method is that it is
subjective as there are no „yardsticks‟ for the jobs and obviously the
underlying assumption of those doing the ranking cannot be examined.
Job Classification Method: In this method, we select one or two jobs
from each stage of the grading structure and prepare standard
descriptions of the duties, responsibilities and necessities of these jobs.
PRINCIPLES OF PAY FIXATION

In short, salary scales in the public services should be both just and
adequate. Inadequate salaries in the public service are an expense and not an
economy. There should also be enough flexibility in the compensation plan to
allow administrators to provide some employees double or triple increment
and to permit the appointment of recruits within a salary range rather than
necessarily at the bottom step. The cost of living varies from region to region
in the same country. So local and local variations should be kept in mind in
compensating the employees. The stage of consumer prices is in the middle of
the factors relevant to the determination of rates of remuneration of
government servants.

State as the Model Employer

The „model employer‟ principle is not appropriate for determination of
remuneration, but it should be taken into account. The minimum wage of
salary should not be determined only on economic thoughts, but should also
satisfy social tests. Even above the minimum stage, government should
remunerate their employees fairly. In the present circumstances, the principle
of the fixation of salaries should also take into account the remuneration in
outside employment. Once the demands of efficiency of the public service are
satisfied, social thoughts require limitation of disparities flanked by the
highest and the lowest salaries, and their reduction as far as possible. With the
minimum and maximum salaries having been determined on a combination of
social and economic thoughts, sound and equitable internal relatives constitute
the mainly significant single principle to be followed in the determination of
the intermediate salaries and wages of government servants.

Equal Pay for Equal Work

Equal pay for equal work is an significant factor in the determination of
pay scales. There should not be individual variations in the pay scales on the
basis of favoritism. “There should be compensation of the position and not the
individual.”

Prevailing Market Rate

Four steps are involved in identifying and analyzing the effects of the
prevailing market rate in salary administration. First of all, in the primitive era
when human being's needs were relatively few, the Government servant was
paid in type, mainly in the form of food granules and the employer determined
the type of salary that had to be paid to the government servant. The second
stage brought forth the traditional labour market supply when the autonomous
forces of demand and supply of labour in the market place determined what
salary employer was going to pay to the government servants. The
circumstances of labour market as well as the competitive forces in the market
determined the stage of salaries. In the third stage, we come crossways the
institutional labour market supply, where labour organized itself in the form of
trade unions with a view to protecting the economic interests of the
government servants. In the fourth stage; we perceive a tripartite system of
salary administration coming into vogue.

The Policy of the Government

This is one of the main principles in the fixation of salaries. Through and
large, the political complexion of the Government; the ideologies professed
and practiced through it and the stage of opposition faced through it,
determine the policy of the Government in fixing the several scales of pay.
The diversity, magnitude and number of pay scales depend upon the
challenges encountered through it from the private manufacturers and
industrialists. The motive force behind salary administration through the
Government is to attract, promote and retain efficient staff.

HISTORY OF SALARY ADMINISTRATION IN BRITISH RULE

Rising prices and the consequent fall in the real pay of the Civil Servant
was yet another factor in the decline of his/ her status. While creation general
recommendations concerning the pay and pensions of the employees of Indian
Civil Service, a Government of India circular letter of 23 January 1919 held
out a promise to do something to restore the real pay of the Services to a stage
which had proved attractive twenty years ago. But it did not commit itself and
merely sought the view of local Governments. The rise in prices was of course
an significant factor in the new situation. While justifying its proposal to have
salaries increased through at least 30 per cent, the Government of Bihar and
Orissa, for instance, pointed out that flanked by 1890-1912, the general stage
of prices had risen through as much as 30 to 40 per cent and that the average
augment since 1900 might fairly be taken at 50 per cent. The U.P. Government
even went so far as to say that as a result of the loss of real pay several officers
were in debt, few officers had been able to put aside any savings, the new
demands on the public services would be more exacting than in the past; the
importance of securing good men/women would be greater than ever, while
the attractions of service in India were likely to create a less effective appeal.
It so recommended a 50 per cent augments of salary as justifiable and 33 per
cent as essential. Other local Governments also expressed themselves usually
in favor of pay increases, as the Service, even before the War, had lost its
attractions; its initial conditions and pay compared unfavorably with those
obtained through Junior Assistants in the commercial houses of Calcutta. The
Home Civil Service had therefore started drawing absent candidates at the top
of the competitive list. The political changes in India and the increased
opportunities created in England for promising young person after the War
served as an additional inducement for top candidates at the combined
examination to opt for the home Civil Service.

Though, a more significant source of dissatisfaction was the existing

graded system which blocked promotion. Under this system officers were
required to discharge, for a number of years, the duties of minor importance
and then promoted to charges of major responsibility, such as Collectorships
or District Judgeships. Separate scales of pay were accordingly fixed for
officers employed on each of these classes of duties.
Therefore, when promotion was retarded, an officer received no
increments for an indefinite period, and even when he was promoted to the
higher scale, he had to start at the minimum of that scale. This penalty
sustained for the rest of his career, for until he reached the maximum, he was
always drawing less than he could legitimately expect. On the other hand, if
promotion was accelerated, an officer could get the higher scale sooner and
attain the maximum sooner than usual.

A circular letter of 23 January 1919 so suggested the introduction of a time

scale incremental system under which the lower grade was subject to
maximum increments with a minimum being fixed for the superior grade. An
officer holding an inferior appointment under this system, kept on drawing his
pay according to the inferior scale, subject to an efficiency bar, which might,
as indicated through the Islington Commission, is Rs.900 per month. The
holder of a superior appointment was to draw pay according to the superior
scale upto the point at which selection outweighed seniority. In discussions at
dissimilar stages opinions differed as to the minimum and maximum that
should be fixed for each of the scales of salary. While the minimum suggested
for an inferior appointment ranged flanked by Rs. 450/- and Rs.600/- that for a
superior post varied flanked by Rs.950/- and Rs. 1,100/-. Likewise, the
maximum limit suggested for a superior charge ranged flanked by Rs. 2,400/-
and Rs. 3,000/- while that for the inferior was to stop at Rs 1,500/- or Rs.
1,600/- the efficiency bar being placed at the twelfth year. The whole question
was studied in all characteristics through Sir Malcolm Hailey who, in a
Finance Department Note of 5 July, 1919, made his recommendations on the
subject. The Government of India and Secretary of State accepted these with a
few modifications which specially incorporated the overseas allowance as an
integral part of the whole pay structure. The picture that finally appeared on
the revision of pay scales was embodied in a Resolution of the Government
issued on 13 February 1920. It came into force with effect from 1 December
1919.

PRINCIPLES ADOPTED FOR SALARY ADMINISTRATION

THROUGHOUT THE POST- INDEPENDENT ERA

A wage and salary administration programme necessity follow sure vital

principles, otherwise they are not sound. Often there is more emphasis placed
on the techniques and processes than on the objectives and principles of salary
administration. The following are the principles of salary administration:
Job evaluation (or rating) plan and compensation plan necessity be
separate and separate and so understood through all.
Both the job evaluation and compensation plans should be sufficiently
flexible to accommodate peculiarities of local labour circumstances.
Evaluation (or rating) necessity is scientifically sound and easily
comprehensible.
Individual responsible for the administration of the wage
administration plan should, wherever possible, report directly to the
same administrative stage as director of personnel.
Extreme caution should be exercised in selection of wage and job
analysts and others who are to be concerned with the execution of the
programme.
The plan offers satisfaction to the just or reasonable interests of the
employer or, in the case of a corporate enterprise, the stockholders.
Wage administration plan necessity at all times is constant with
management policies or programmes.
The job rating and compensation plans should be understood through
and acceptable to the employees affected, in order that they may
appreciate the objectivity and impartiality of the procedure.
There should be employee representation in the administration of the
plan, in the conduct of locality wage surveys and in the original rating
of new positions.
The wage administration plan itself necessity be acceptable to and in
the interest of that portion of the public which is affected, directly or
indirectly, through the
The wage administration plan necessity is flexible and responsive to
changing circumstances rising out of locality circumstances.
The wage administration plan necessity is constant with nature and
objectives of the organization.
The plan, so, necessity be geared to the kind of circumstances which
prevail in the scrupulous organization, with due regard for the
consequences of size, frequency of job changes and reorganizations.
 The wage administration plan necessity simplifies and expedites, rather
than impede the other administrative processes.
The wage administrator necessity occupies a responsible niche in the
organization, and his/her responsibility necessity is to coordinate with,
and in reciprocal relationship to, that of the other stages of
administration.

The vital thoughts or principles necessity guide the development,

implementation and modification of salary administration system. From time
to time, pay commissions have been set up to look into the matters of salary
administration. They are as follows:

Salary Fixation through the First Pay Commission

The Indian system of classification, though not strictly based on the salary
rates or the character of the work done, reflected these elements also. The First
Pay Commission appointed under the Chairmanship of Sri Srinivasa
Vardachariar, an Ex-Judge of the then Federal Court of India observed in its
Report, submitted in 1949, that this classification was also connected up with
differences in privileges in respect of disciplinary actions and right of appeal.
The Pay Commission took exception to the account of the services as
„subordinate‟ and „inferior‟, on the ground of its being derogatory and
recommended its substitution through Class III and Class IV services. It
rejected a plea for the Constitution of a Central Scientific Service, and instead,
suggested the integration of the scientific and technical posts into the existing
classification of Class I, II, III and IV. Since July 1974, the classification of
Government officials under Classes 1, II, III and IV was changed into
„Groups‟ „A‟, „B‟, „C‟ and „D‟. The official circles view this change as the
spread of democracy into the structure of services.

Recommendations of the Second Pay Commission

As per the recommendations of the Second Pay Commission in its Report
submitted in 1959, a single standard scale for Class II was accepted. Pay
scales and/ or grades in Class III were even more numerous. For the clerical
staff there were four supervisory grades plus three more as U.D.C., L.D.C. and
Stenographers. In the Central Secretariat, the whole hierarchy was broken
down into nine grades consisting of Secretary, Additional Secretary, Joint
Secretary, Deputy Secretary, Under Secretary, Section Officer, Assistant,
U.D.C. and L.D.C. According to V.A. Pai Panandikar, the present four-fold
classification was not organized on any systematic basis. A conceptual
framework was essentially lacking and the vital categories arose entirely
through a historical accident. The numerical calling superimposed on the
several services was merely a matter of convenience. In other words, the
present classification system was never intended nor planned either for orderly
grouping of services or as a tool for managing the personnel. The absence of a
clear-cut principle of classification has certainly taken a tool of effective
personnel administration. The Second Pay Commission estimated in 1959 that
there were 517 dissimilar scales of pay, out of which only 177 had more than
100 employees each. For administering these differing provisions of pay and
other benefits of service, the Government of India had to maintain a large staff
to check and calculate these benefits. Because of Second Pay Commission‟s
recommendation, the number of pay scales was reduced through almost 200.

Recommendations of the Third Pay Commission

The Third Pay Commission, set up through the Government of India on 23
April, 1970, submitted its report in two volumes in 1973, under the
Chairmanship of Shri Raghubar Dayal, an ex-judge of the Supreme Court. The
Commission was to provide consideration to the principles which should
govern the structure of emoluments and circumstances of service of Central
Government employees and to formulate measures which should be taken to
change the structure of emoluments and service circumstances. It had also to
take into consideration the structure of death cum retirement benefits to the
members of the armed forces and the all-India services, the main effort of the
commission was to rationalize the pay scales numbering over 500 and reduce
them to just 80 and, in the procedure, provide better pay scales to dissimilar
categories of employees. To reduce the disparity in pay scales, the commission
raised the minimum salary to Rs. 185/- per month, as a result of which, the
disparity ratio flanked by the minimum and maximum salary was reduced
from 15.4 on January 1, 1970 to 11.8. It did not recommend any change in the
existing maximum salary. The Commission also made recommendations
pertaining to working hours, holidays, overtime allowance and other welfare
measures as well as classification of posts based on an assumed equivalence of
work content of dissimilar stages of several occupational groups of employees.
As regards reduction in the number of grades, the commission opined that it
will result in curtailment of promotion opportunities in sure spheres. It felt that
employees were now unlikely to accept a permanent reduction in their
emoluments, though, small it may be.

Any simplification of the pay structure can be expected to result more in

the prevalent scales drawing stage with the highest in a group rather than in
any general lowering of these scales. The commission, so, did not think it
appropriate to adopt the schemes of a unified grading structure. Though, the
commission did suggest the adoption of job evaluation on a continuing basis.
In devising its pay structure, the Third Pay Commission kept in view the text
of „inclusiveness‟, „comprehensibility‟ and „adequacy‟. It commented that an
uncritical use of comparison flanked by Government salaries and the salaries
of organized trade and industry, without considering the work content and the
totality of prevailing circumstances, is not justified. The Government had to
take note of its dual role,, both as employer, and as the supreme authority
responsible for the governance and development of the country.

The commission recommended that a common wage policy should be

evolved for public sector undertakings and an effective coordinating
machinery should be recognized to ensure that the pay scale of any public
sector undertaking do not go seriously out of line with those in other public
sector undertakings and under the Government. The commission fixed the pay
scales of several posts under the Government with reference to their duties and
responsibilities, difficulty and complexity of the task, and qualifications. It
recommended that there should be a more effective application of efficiency
bars in the several scales and the crossing of efficiency bar should not be a
routine matter.

Recommendations of the Fourth Pay Commission

The Fourth Pay Commission, set up through the Government of India in
July 1983, under the chairmanship of Justice P.N. Singhal, came into being on
September 1, 1983. The conditions of reference of the commission
incorporated the examining of the then existing structure of emoluments and
circumstances of service as well as other benefits accessible to all Central
Government employees, personnel belonging to all-India Services, employees
of Union territories and armed forces personnel and suggesting changes that
may be desirable and feasible. The recommendations of the Commission
sheltered about 52 lakhs Government employees including those of the armed
forces. The Commission reduced the number of pay scales of civil employees
from 153 to 36.

The minimum and maximum scales of pay, recommended through the

Commission were Rs. 750-940 and Rs. 9,000 respectively. Its other
recommendations incorporated, inter alia, enhanced allowances, upgradation
of posts in the central police in the union territories, free rationing for armed
personnel, leave encashment up to 240 days at the time of retirement,
educational assistance for all employees, enhanced reimbursement of tuition
fee of children and medical allowance, age relaxation up to 35 years for
widows, divorcees and legally separated women, introduction of modem
techniques for efficient administration, regular training for officials at all
stages, rationalised and improved allowances and facilities for the armed
forces, earned and accumulated half pay leave as privilege leave, elimination
of communal holidays and a slight increase
INCENTIVES—MEANING

The term incentive is used to describe material and non-material benefits

to employees in addition to their normal salaries for creation their best efforts
to promote productivity and efficiency. It may take the form of wage
payments related to employees‟ performance in addition to the normal salaries
given for the standard work assigned to them. Such incentive plans necessity
has a „base line‟ standard so that performance over and above this standard
can be rewarded. These incentive plans are connected directly or indirectly to
standards of productivity or the profitability of the organization or to both the
criteria. According to Wendell French, the purpose of incentive plans is to
augment the morale and motivation of employees to contribute to the goals of
the organization through offering financial inducements above and beyond
vital wages and salaries. Muggings defines incentive wages as the extra
compensation, paid to an individual, for all production over a specified
magnitude which stems from his/her exercise of more than normal ability,
effort or concentration when accomplished in a predetermined way involving
standard tools, facilities and materials.

One of the major challenges to modem organizations is how to ensure

productivity/' efficiency. Mainly of the individuals become slow and lazy as
they realize that their performance has no relevance to them. They are
convinced that their extra interest or labour would not create any variation to
them. Paul Pigors has rightly posed this challenge when he stated “A
continuing challenge for management is how to share the gains from higher
productivity in ways that will stimulate the interest of employees in improving
their performance of the job and the productivity of the organization as a
whole.” Incentive systems can impel an employee to earn more through
working hard. Non-material incentives may take the form of recognition of the
work of the employees through appreciation letters, merit certificates, medals
etc. Such awards benefit the employees indirectly i.e. promotion or
nomination to higher posts.

It has been recognized that economic gain is not the only incentive. In this
connection, Allport observes, “Employees in an organization are „not
economic men‟ so much as they are „ego-men‟. What they want, above all
else, is credit for work done, motivating tasks, appreciation, approval and
congenial relations with their employers and fellow workers. These
satisfactions they want even more than high wages or job security.” R.K.
Misra favors the judicious use of both monetary and non monetary incentives
to achieve productivity. He says: While budgetary restrictions and temporary
improvements in performance place a limit on the potency as a motivator,
non-financial incentives involve only human ingenuity as investment and also
ensure a relatively stable acceleration in output. Monetary incentives imply
external motivation; non monetary incentives involve internal motivation.
Both are significant. It is a judicious mix-up of the two that tends to cement
incentives with motivation. There are several kinds of incentives which are
discussed below:

Materials Incentive Plans (Individual Incentives, Group Incentives, Profit

Sharing Plans)
It is the plan to award individuals or a group of individuals extra payment
for the extra work done through them. According to Loudon the purpose of
individual incentive plan “...Is to offer a financial incentive for a worker or
group of workers to produce work of an acceptable quality over and above a
specified quantity.” According to Wolf, “Their primary purpose is to aid in
obtaining minimum unit costs thereby contributing to enterprise profits.”
These individual incentive plans can be categorized into piece rate plans and
production-bonus plans. There are a large number of troubles to institute
individual incentive plans. The mainly serious problem is the criteria to fix
standards. Besides, the scheme may generate friction in the middle of workers
and also reduce quality. Employees in an organization can be encouraged to
create suggestions through a suggestion box to promote productivity and
reduce costs. This would also encourage employee‟s participation in the
policy-creation and decision-creation of the organization. Supervisory and
professional employees are excluded from these plans as this is a part and
parcel of their job contents. Several companies use this system. Mainly
Government organizations are spending vast amounts for research and
development (R&D) which can be shared through employees. The suggestions
given through employees would be quite effective as they understand the
functioning of the organizations. Though, care may be taken that such
suggestion plans may not result in friction and lay offs etc.
 ADMINISTRATIVE ETHICS AND INTEGRITY IN CIVIL
SERVICES

ESSENTIALS TO ENSURE THE PRACTICE OF ADMINISTRATIVE

ETHICS

Faith, determination towards pursuit of excellence of service in their

professional activities
The mainly significant factor for the success of any organization is its
leadership— political and administrative. Public services necessity develops
ethical standards which help them in their best performance. Standards are
contagious. They spread throughout an organization, a group, or a society. If
an organization or group cherishes high standards, the behavior of the
individual who enters it is inevitably influenced. They should not develop an
excessive sense of self-importance or arrogance. Senator Paul Douglas‟s
remarks quoted below should be imbedded through the public services:

“It is fortunate that there are in government large number of men and
women who lead devoted lives of public service. They work very hard for far
less pay than they could get in private industry. They never sell out the public
interest but instead defend it with great difficulties. They do all this, moreover,
without getting appreciable praise. They are usually either little know or
actually ignored through the public. Sometimes, they, are bitterly attacked
through interests which are seeking to obtain unfair privileges or which are
swayed through unfounded prejudices. These men and women are indeed
unsung heroes, who deserve far more recognition than they receive.”

The future of the public services is in the hands of its members who
necessity strives for creativity, academic excellence, and the pursuit of
excellence of service in their professional activities. In this way, it would be
possible to make a climate of creativity and optimum performance. Such a
situation would have a chain effect. An attitude of dedication to the set goals
of an organizations should be an indispensable trait of the top leaders. This is
their primary source of self-confidence to operate and function effectively and
efficiently and in turn transfer the same to the public. It is not just performing
development-connected administrative duties; it is taking action and
encouraging people to take action required to bring about structural changes
and growth in the economy. This needs to be complemented through their
belief in the organizational goals. In the words of Jawaharlal Nehru:
 “No administrator can really does first class work without a sense of
function. Without some measures of a crusading spirit. I am doing this,
I have to achieve this as a part of a great movement in a big cause.
That gives a sense of function, not the sense of the individual, narrow
approach of doing a job in an office for a salary as wage, something
linked with your life‟s out look or anything, perhaps being interested,
as people inevitable are, on one‟s personal preferment in the
scrupulous work.”

Infusion of Ethics into Politics

Infusion of ethics into politics so that the political elite can demonstrate
integrity and in still faith in the middle of subordinates about their fairness and
impartiality;
Mainly of the troubles in public administration emanate from political
corruption and interference.

The credibility gap flanked by the political and administrative leadership is

on the increase. Mainly of the commissions, committees and the daily press
have been emphasizing the gravity of the situation. No organization can
progress until and unless its political leaders are above board. One of the
founding fathers of the Indian Constitution, Mr. H.V. Kamath, regretted that
the total devaluation of moral values and ethical ideals in public life and
administration today has given rise to the present ‟ day rat race for position,
power and pelf through any means more through crook than through hook.
The political elite necessity demonstrates integrity and instills faith in the
middle of their subordinates about their fairness and impartiality. Faith is a
contagious disease and once it is developed, it would bend the several stages
of the administration into a cohesive structure. All the decisions in such an
organization are affected through the whims of political elite rather than the
needs of the organization. Therefore, there is a need to train the political elite
to encourage them to pursue ethical ways so that they fulfil the pledges made
to the people to lead a good, clean life. Words, written or spoken, are of no use
unless put into action. The emphasis should be more on performance than on
paper planning. The future of this budding developing democracy depends
upon the attitude of its political and administrative elite.

Relations flanked by Citizens and Personnel to Make Favourable Opinion

towards Public Services
Several well-intentioned and technically sound programmes aimed at
solving troubles have been frustrated through lack of popular acceptance and
community participation. Public relations are the establishment of a climate of
understanding. It means interpreting the programme of an organization to the
public and vice versa. The purpose of public relations is not only to supply
information, but also to encourage an understanding and co-operation flanked
by the citizens and the public servants. It is the duty of every member of the
organization to maintain public relations. There is a great deal of alienation
flanked by the people and the organization. This has undermined the
legitimacy, effectiveness and credibility of the public administration in our
country. We need to promote harmony and mutual trust in the middle of the
people and public administration. The objectives of public relations should be
to augment prestige and good-will and protect the life of the organization
through safeguarding it against unwarranted attacks as well as to remove the
genuine complaints and grievances of the people. To improve understanding
flanked by the citizens and the personnel, public relations need to be
developed in an effective manner to make favorable community opinion
towards public services. This would make confidence in the minds of the
people towards the competence, fairness, honesty, impartiality and sincerity of
the public services.

Need for Character Structure

Administrative morality is a part and parcel of the general morality of the
community. Finer said, “The ethics of every profession will be found, on
secure analysis, to be not much higher and not much lower than the general
decency of the nation as a, whole. Their nature, at the best, is powerfully
molded through the stage of the nearby and prevailing civilization.‟ he success
of any government depends upon the effective collaboration of its citizens. All
the books of civics would emphasize civic consciousness for the progress of
the country. This is possible only if our educational system and mass media
are reoriented to character-structure in the middle of the people. People's
character is the ultimate source which can supply kinetic energy for
modernization and development.

There is a great need to infuse civic consciousness, patriotism and

discipline in the middle of the citizens through education, adult education and
functional literacy. The members of all the Communities would then cooperate
with the personnel in the public services. And the personnel in the public
services would work hard to bring about all round development of the people.
The former President Sanjiva Reddy while inaugurating the Silver Jubilee
Celebration of Kurukshetra University on January 11, 1980, rightly said the
“India is in need of a new educational system which will look upon the child
as a bud that opens up petal through petal and which needs the sunlight of the
ideals of truth, beauty and goodness. Only such citizens would be able to
contribute to national prosperity in whatever field they may be engaged. ”
Impartiality
The prestige and reputation of the civil service depends to a great extent
upon the ethos, attitudes and perception of its member. In this context, the
foremost features required in the middle of the civil servants are impartiality
and consistency in the transaction of public business. Civil servants are
required to be totally impartial to avoid corruption and favoritism; civil
servants necessity maintains the dignity and authority of the public office.
They necessity meticulously implement the policies and programmes as laid
down in laws, regulations and rules. An allied requirement of promoting
impartiality is the necessity of developing and maintaining a national outlook.
It involves on the part of the civil service, willingness to understand and be
tolerant of dissimilar points of view, dissimilar cultural patterns, and dissimilar
work habits. It also means willingness to work without prejudice or bias with
persons of all regions, religions and cultures. It involves conduct of the highest
kind and exercise of judgement and restraint in all expressions of view
whether public or private. Any expression which could be construed as biased
or intolerant, particularly in respect of local interests or political issues with
which the organization is confronted, necessity is avoided.

Political Neutrality
Political neutrality is an essential ingredient of civil service in a
democratic setup for the integrity the efficiency of administration. It means
that the civil service should provide free and frank advice to the government
impartially and without any political consideration. It also means the
implementation of the decisions of the government through the civil service
faithfully whether such decisions were in consonance with their advice or not;
P.C. Sethi in his article, “New Challenges in Administration” in the Indian
Journal of Public Administration (April-June, 1975) has rightly said that the
concept of neutrality should be emphasized to generate:
Public confidence in the administrators against political influences;
Trust in the middle of the ministers that their orders would be faithfully
accepted out irrespective of their ideology; and
Keeping of an atmosphere of appraisals and promotions in the civil
service which would be free from political influence.

To maintain the discipline, integrity and political neutrality of the services,

the Civil Services Conduct Rules framed through the Government of India lay
down the code of conduct to be observed through the government servants.
The service rules for ensuring neutrality of the service in politics give that:
No member of the service shall be a member of, or be otherwise
associated with any political party or any organization, which takes
 part in politics nor shall he/she take part in, subscribe in aid of, or
assist in any other manner, any. It shall be the duty of every member of
the service to endeavour to prevent any member of the family from
taking part in, subscribing in aid of, or assisting in any other manner,
any movement or activity which is, or tends directly to be, subversive
of the government as through law recognized and where a member of
the service fails to prevent a member of his/her family from indulging
in any of the aforesaid actions, he/she shall create a report to this effect
to the government.
No member of the service shall canvass or otherwise interfere or use
his/her influence in connection with or take any part in, any election to
any legislature or local authority.
A member of the service qualified to vote in elections may exercise
his/her right to vote but where he/she does so, he/she shall provide no
indication of the manner in which he/she proposes to vote or has voted.
No member of the service shall, in any radio broadcast or in any
document published anonymously or in his/her own name, or in the
name of any other person, or in any communication to the press or in
any public utterance create any statement of fact or opinion, (i) which
has the effect of any adverse criticism of any current or recent policy
or action of the Central Government or a State Government or, (ii)
which is capable of embarrassing the relations flanked by the Central
Government and the Government of any State or, (iii) which is capable
of embarrassing the relations flanked by the Central Government of
any foreign state.

A survey of these rules indicates that these are too strict. We necessity not
forget that the civil service in India constitutes one of the major well-informed
groups of our population on public affairs. The government should liberalize
its policy on political rights of civil servants and allow the civil services as
advised through the Central Pay Commission to breathe in an atmosphere of
freedom and self-confidence. The Committee on Petitions (Rajya Sabha)
measured the political rights of civil servants in its fifty-first report presented
to the Rajya Sabha in June 1977. Rajya Sabha did not favor the granting of
political rights of civil servants as this would have an adverse effect on the
objective and non-partisan approach expected of a government servant. The
problem is how to create the civil servant sensitive to national programmes
and keep him/her absent from partisan political activity. N. Rajagopalan in his
article, “Political Mentality of the Public Service: A Perspective Revise" in the
Indian Journal of Public Administration (January-March, 1977) has rightly
concluded that
“As a human being no public servant can be psychologically neutral on
issues and troubles which confront him. No public servant can perhaps
take a neutral position flanked by welfare and stagnation, flanked by
 service and apathy, and flanked by action and inaction. A commitment
to the goals and objectives of the state is inescapable, neutrality cannot
be allowed to degenerate into unconcern, political sterilization, ought
not become political desensitization. There is a crying need, more than
ever before, for developing sense of responsiveness and positive
concern in the public administration to the goals and programmes of
the state in democratic governments, if public administrative is to
deliver the goods and take its rightful place in the national polity.”

INTEGRITY-MEANING

The dictionary defines integrity as “soundness of moral principles; the

character of uncorrupted virtues; uprightness; honesty; sincerity. Integrity is,
indeed, the mainly essential attribute of a welfare state. The first five year plan
rightly emphasized; “Integrity in public affairs and administration is essential
and there must, so, be an insistence on it in every branch through public
activity. The influence of corruption is insidious. It undermines the structure
of administration and the confidence of the public in the administration. There
must, so, be a continuous war against every species of corruption within the
administration.”

Vitally significant though integrity of personnel is, it is, today, a largely

forsaken virtue, and faces a serious threat of being driven out of subsistence
from the public administration, indeed, from mainly sectors of life of this
country. Instances of individuals lacking integrity are legion. Or, as Nirad C.
Chaudhuri writes, “There is hardly any one from a petty clerk to a minister
who is not manageable with a proportionate amount of gratification” This
statement may almost certainly hold good for all walks of life in India of
today.

CORRUPTION IN CIVIL SERVICES

Deviation from normal standards of lack of integrity takes several shapes

in the form of corruption, patronage (based on communalism, sectarianism,
nepotism and favouritism) and undue influence. Bribery, nepotism, misuses of
power or influence, black marketing profiteering and similar other practices
are not all that is meant through corruption. In fact, anyone wasting public
money, lacks integrity. In general conditions, corruption may be defined as the
deliberate and intentional/use of one's position, status or possessions directly
or indirectly, for personal aggrandizement whether it be in conditions of
material gain or enhancement of power, prestige or influence beyond what is
legitimate or sanctioned through commonly accepted norms to the detriment
of the interests of other persons or the community as a whole. Section 161 of
the Indian Penal Code defines „corruption‟ in legal conditions, as under:
“Whoever being or expecting to be public servant accepts, or obtains, or
agrees to accept, or attempts to obtain from any person for himself/ herself or
for any other person any gratification whatever other than legal remuneration
as a motive or reward for doing or forbearing to do any official act, or for
showing, or to show, in the exercise for his/her official function, favor or
disfavor to any person, or for rendering or attempting to render any service or
disservice to any person, with the Central or any State Government or
Parliament or Legislature of any State or with any public servant as such, shall
be punished with imprisonment of either account for a term which may extend
to three years, or with fine, or with both.”

Another species of corruption not usually recognized as corruption is

extravagant expenditure of public money. Extravagant expenditure of public
money amounts to inflicting an undue charge on the general public through
spending public funds on purposes that are not essential or spending more than
necessary on essential purposes.

CAUSES FOR DECLINE OF INTEGRITY IN CIVIL SERVICES

There are several causes of corruption which result in lack of integrity.

These can be discussed under the following headings.

Historical Causes
In India, corruption has its roots in the colonial rule of the past. British
administration was not interested in the overall development of the country.
All handsomely. Lower posts were offered to Indians. Salaries to these posts
were very low. So they indulged in corrupt practices. After World War II,
scarcities led to several kinds of controls. It gave added opportunities to these
low paid employees to resort to corrupt practices. Then it became habitual. It
was throughout World War II that corruption reached the highest mark in
India. The climate for integrity which had been rendered unhealthy through
wartime controls and scarcities was further aggravated through the post-war
flush of money and the consequent inflation.

Environmental Causes
The second significant cause of corruption in public service is fast
urbanization and industrialization where material possessions, position anti
economic power determine the status and prestige of a person in the society.
Since salaries are low and inflation is unabated, poor civil servants fall easy
prey to corrupt practices in order to maintain status in the society.

Economic Causes
Inadequate remuneration of salary scales and rising cost of living is almost
certainly one of the significant causes of corruption. In recent years, the fast
rising cost of living has brought down the real income of several sections of
the community, particularly the salaried classes. The urge to appear
prestigious through material possessions has encouraged those who had the
opportunities to succumb to temptations.

Lack of Strong Public Opinion Against the Evil of Corruption

People do not report to government against corrupt officials. Instead they
offer bribes to get their illegitimate claims accepted. People necessity fight
against corruption and build a strong public opinion against corruption.

Complicated and Cumbersome Procedures and Working of Government

Offices
It is alleged that the working of sure government departments, e.g., the
Customs and Central Excise, Imports and Exports, Railways, Supplies and
Disposals, Police, Income Tax, etc, is complicated, cumbersome and dilatory.
This has encouraged the growth of dishonest practices like the system of
„speedy money‟.

Inadequate Laws to Deal with Corruption

Indian Penal Code and other laws which deal with corruption cases are
outmoded and give insufficient penalties. It takes too much time to get a
corrupt officials punished under the laws. Summary trials and stricter
punishments should be awarded to end corruption. So the laws will have to be
changed accordingly.

Undue Protection Given to the Public Services in India

Article 311 of the Indian Constitution which gives protection to civil
servants, as interpreted through our courts, made it hard to deal effectively
with corrupt public servants. Reluctance of higher officials to take disciplinary
action against corrupt officials due to their collusion with them has further
aggravated the situation.

Individual Interests
Big businessmen, dishonest merchants, suppliers and contractors, bribe the
civil servants in order to get undue favors from them. Sometimes they share a
portion of their learned profit with the government servants.

Pressure Groups
Pressure Groups like Indian Chamber of Commerce, Trade Associations,
State Chambers of Commerce, are said to help in breeding corruption through
their activities of getting favors for their communities. They influence ruling
elite through dinners, parties, luncheons, etc.

SUGGESTIONS FOR IMPROVEMENT OF INTEGRITY IN CIVIL

SERVICES

Some suggestions may be given to improve integrity in the civil services.

Creation Circumstances of Service Attractive

Government officials, particularly at lower stage, are forced through
poverty to regard office holding as a source of income which they would seek
to maximize. Public services are rendered in exchange for extra money,
services, which tend to be bad and slow if no bribe is given. Raising of pay,
consequently, is a vital means to wipe out the widespread bribery in the civil
services. It is good that Government has set up the Fourth National Pay
Commission to look into the salary structure of federal employees.

Simplification of working of Government Machinery

The root cause to proliferation of corruption seems to be the complicated
procedures of Government offices. These procedures need to be evaluated and
simplified. Delays necessity be prevented and officials made fully responsive
to the needs of all the people.

Creation of a Healthy Public Opinion Against the Effects of Corruption

Corruption will flourish till the general mass of people resist it with
determination and strength. Mainly of all, the elimination of corruption
requires a widespread and steadfast opposition to it, coupled with the courage
to act against it. There can be no doubt that/the people of India can get rid of
corruption.

Ensuring High Standards of Conduct in the middle of the, Top Personnel

High Officials having considerable discretionary powers necessity be
thoroughly disciplined to refuse gifts, invitations and other favors. In this
context, it is pertinent to note the efforts made through the government to
carry the quest for integrity at the divisional and district stages. At the
divisional stage, there is a Divisional Vigilance Board which consists of the
Divisional Committees, Deputy Inspector General of Police and a Divisional
Vigilance Commissioner. At the district stage, there is a District Vigilance
Officer who is appointed through the District Collector, Deputy Commissioner
from in the middle of his/ her gazetted assistants in consultation with the
Divisional Vigilance Board. There has, therefore, appeared a web of vigilance
agencies in the country. To streamline this quest for integrity, the Vigilance
Commissioners of all States hold an annual conference which is presided over
through the Chief Vigilance Commissioner. This annual gathering serves
useful purpose, it gives a forum for the discussion of mutual troubles and
exchange of experiences, and gives publicity to vigilance efforts of the
Government at both the Central and State stages, therefore inspiring people's
confidence in the Government‟s sincerity of purposes. Though, this does not
imply that corruption in public administration has been eliminated or is under
control. Far from it, corruption has entered every nook and cranny of India‟s
public life, and the country‟s public administration is ridden with it. This has
happened largely because there is no political will to remove it.

CONDUCT AND DISCIPLINE

ROLE OF CONDUCT AND DISCIPLINE IN PERSONNEL

ADMINISTRATION

The Reader‟s Digest Great Encyclopedia Dictionary defines conduct as

“Manner of conducting any business or oneself” (behavior) and discipline as
“mental and moral training" or “order maintained in the middle of persons
under control or command. Hence, conduct and discipline imply the behavior
of the personnel and bringing them under control and to train them to
obedience and order. Hence, conduct and discipline are essential measures to
be taken to build up sound personnel system. All the staff members cannot be
expected to conduct themselves with equal zeal in an unimpeachable manner.
Hence, a provision for disciplinary action is made inevitable in every
organization. In order to correct the erroneous behavior or poor performance
of the employees the role and need of conduct and discipline is to be stressed.

MATTERS SHELTERED UNDER CONDUCT RULES

Dissimilar categories of Government servants are governed through

separate but considerably similar sets of conduct rules. Dissimilar matters such
as—restrictions on political activities, relationship with press, radio and
outsiders, criticism of the Government, restrictions on public demonstrations,
present restrictions on matters of property, private business and investments
etc. fall under the purview of conduct rules. Some sets of conduct rules in
India are (1) All India Services (Conduct) Rules, 1954; (2) Central Services
(Conduct) Rules, 1955; and (3) Railway Services (Conduct) Rules; 1956. The
following are the matters sheltered under the conduct rules.

Restrictions on Political Activities

Through virtue of the official position, a civil servant, has some peculiar
powers as well as responsibilities. But besides being an employee, he/she is
also a citizen and should have minimum political rights. But at the same time,
he/she cannot be a simple citizen and the public interest demands the
maintenance of political impartiality in the civil services and the confidence in
that impartiality is an essential part of the structure of the Government.

Political Neutrality
Political neutrality of civil servants has been regarded as one of the
essential circumstances for the success of a democratic form of Government. It
means that civil servants should not participate in political activities. To
ensure political neutrality of the public services in several countries, the civil
servants are denied direct participation in political life of the country. The
political rights of the public servants may be broadly categorized into (1)
rights concerning the exercise of vote and general political activity and (2)
rights in respect of candidature for. legislative or municipal bodies. Some
limitations on the enjoyment of political rights through civil servants are
placed in approximately all the countries. The thought of the restraints on the
political freedom of Government servants has been justified on dissimilar
grounds. In the U.S.A., the belief is that civil servants should not be allowed to
participate in politics on the ground that politics should be kept aloof from
administration. In the U.K. the prevalent thought is that since public servants
are devoted to the fulfillment of public purposes, they should remain neutral.
In some other countries like France, the common thought is that the civil
servants should be allowed to enjoy the political rights common to all citizens,
except for such restraints as can be justified as specific cases.

Position in India
Public employees in India have the right to vote and form associations; but
they are prohibited from participating in other political activities. Civil
servants can neither become members of any political party nor subscribe to
its funds. A circular issued through Home Ministry in 1960 says,
“Government servants are, of course, expected not to take part in any political
activities in any manner. Government of India, though, welcomes all classes of
their employees organizing themselves in healthy associations for promoting
their legitimate interest in matters concerning their work and welfare”. Some
of the significant rules of conduct prescribed for civil servants are as follows:
No Government servant shall be a member of or be otherwise
associated with any political party or any organization which takes part
in politics nor shall take part in, subscribe in aid of or assist in any
other manner any political movement or activity. Rule 4 of Central
Services (Conduct) Rules lay down that a Government servant should
not canvass or otherwise interfere or use his influence in connection
with or take part in any election to a legislative body.
Seditious propaganda or expression of disloyal sentiments through a
government servant is regarded as enough ground for dispensing with
his service.
Strikes: The formation of public employee organizations and the
question of strike are closely interwoven. The question of strike is the
mainly controversial of all other matters relation to organization of
public servants. In the U.S.A., public opinion is never in favor of strike
through public employees. In the U.K., there is no prohibition against
the right to strike through the public employees. In India too, there is
no ban on the strike of public employees. But when the Central
Government employees went on a general strike in July 1960, it was
declared illegal under the provisions of the Essential Services
Maintenance Ordinance., 1960. This ordinance authorized the Union
Government to ban strikes, in any essential service such as Posts,
Telegraphs, Communication media and means of Transportation etc.

Restrictions on Relationship with Press, Radio and Outsiders and Criticism

of the Government

Moreover, the government servants are also subject to sure special

obligations. Sections of the Official Secrets Act, 1923, prohibit the
 communication of any official document or information to anyone
whom they are not authorized to communicate.
Rule 8 of the Central Services (Conduct) Rules has similar provisions.
In the interest of the integrity and discipline of the service, they are
also prohibited to create public criticism of any policy pursued or taken
through the Government.
To ensure the security of the State, clause 2 of Rule 5 of the Central
Services (Conduct) Rules requires the government servants to
endeavour to prevent any member of the family from participating or
assisting in any manner of activity, which tends directly or indirectly to
be subversive of the Government as recognized through law.
And the talks differ from newspaper articles in that the Government of
India has undertaken that the Indian State Broadcasting Service shall
not be used for the purpose of political propaganda.

Restrictions on Public Demonstrations, Presents etc.

Rule 5 of the Central Services (Conduct) Rules,1964 debars government
servants from taking part in politics. They cannot be members of any political
party nor can they subscribe in aid of or assist in any other manner, any
political movement or activity. Rule 4(A) of Central Civil Service (Conduct)
Rules,1955, prohibited the participation of government servants in any
demonstrations of any form of strike in connection with any matters pertaining
to the circumstances of service. According to Rule 4(B), government servants
should not join any unrecognized service association or an association which
was not recognized through the Government within six months.

The Indian Penal Code defining corruption says “whoever being or

expecting to be public servant accepts or agrees to accept or attempts to obtain
from any person for himself or for any other person any gratification other
than what is legal remuneration as a motive or reward for doing or forbearing
to do any official act...” The Rules of Conduct of All India Services says,
“member of the service shall, except with the previous sanction of the
Government, accept or permit his wife or any member of his family to accept
from any person any gift, of more than riffling value.

Restrictions in Matters of Property, Private Business and Investments etc.

The Rules of Conduct for All India Services say:

No government servant shall except with the previous sanction of the
Government, engage directly or indirectly, in any trade or business or
undertake any employment.
 No member of the service shall speculate any investment.
No member of service shall, except with the previous sanction of the
Government, permit his son, daughter or dependent to accept
employment with private firms with which he has official dealings
with the Government.

Moreover, government servants are also subject to sure special obligations:

Sections of the Official Secrets Act, 1923, prohibit the communication
of any official documents or information to any one whom they are not
authorized to communicate.
In the interest of the integrity and discipline of the service, they are
also prohibited to create public criticism of any policy pursued or taken
through the Government.
To ensure the security of the State, Clause 2 of Rules 5 of Central Civil
Services (Conduct) Rules requires the Government servants to
endeavour to prevent any member of the family from participating or
assisting in any manner or activity which tends directly or indirectly to
be subversive of the Government as recognized through law. But, any
how, the country should have the confidence that whatever party is in
power, the services should serve the Government of the day with
loyalty and devotion.

DISCIPLINARY ACTION-MEANING

Since all the staff members cannot be expected to conduct themselves with
equal zeal in an unimpeachable manner, a provision for disciplinary action is
made in every organization. Stahl points out “No organization is so perfect, no
executive so ingenious, no personnel system so infallible that any of them can
continuously avoid some measures of punishment for wrongful behavior or
poor performance of employees”. According to Dr. Spriegel,
“Discipline is the force that prompts an individual or a group to
observe the rules, regulations and procedures which are deemed to be
necessary to the attainment of an objective, it is force or fear of force
which restrains an individual or a group from doing things which are
deemed to be destructive of group objectives. It is also the exercise of
restraint or the enforcement of penalties for the violation of group
regulations."

Disciplinary action means the administrative steps taken to correct the

misbehavior of the employee in relation to the performance of his/her job.
Corrective action is initiated to prevent the deterioration of individual
inefficiency and to ensure that it does not spread to other employees. A
distinction needs to be drawn flanked by disciplinary action of civil or
criminal procedure. The following matters are sheltered in the Conduct Rules.
More strictness is observed in those services where more discretion is
involved:
Maintenance of correct behavior towards official superiors,
Loyalty to the State,
Regulation of political activities to ensure neutrality of the personnel,
Enforcement of a sure code of ethics in the official, private and
domestic life,
Protection of the integrity of the officials through placing restrictions
on investments, borrowings, engaged in trade or business, acquisition
or disposal of movable and immovable valuable property, acceptance
of gifts and presents, and
Restriction on more than one marriage.

CAUSES OF DISCIPLINARY PROCEEDINGS

The following are the several causes of disciplinary proceedings.

Acts Amounting to Crimes
o Embezzlement
o Falsification of accounts not amounting to misappropriation of
money
o Fraudulent claims (e.g. T.A.)
o Forgery of documents
o Theft of Government Property
o Defrauding Government
o Bribery
o Corruption
o Possession of disproportionate assets
o Offences against other laws applicable to Government
Servants.
Conduct Amounting to Misdemeanour
o Disobedience of orders
o Insubordination
o Misbehavior
 with superior officers
 with colleagues
 with subordinates
 with members of public
Misconduct
o violation of conduct rules
o violation of standing orders
o intrigues and conspiracy
 o insolvency

KINDS OF DISCIPLINARY ACTION

Disciplinary action may be informal or formal. Informal disciplinary

action may mean assignment to a less desirable work, closer supervision, loss
or withholding of privileges, failure of consultations in relevant matters,
rejection of proposals or Working Circumstances, recommendation. It may
comprises curtailing of his/her authority and diminishing Circumstances of
Servicehis/her responsibility. The cause for taking informal disciplinary action
may be that offences are too slight, or too subtle, or too hard to prove, to
warrant direct and formal action. Formal disciplinary action follows where the
offence is serious and can be legally recognized. In such cases the penalties
which are imposed on a member of the service are:
Minor Penalties
o Censure
o withholding of promotions recovery from pay of the whole or
part any pecuniary loss caused to Government or to a company,
association or body of individuals... and with holding of
increments of pay.
Major Penalties: Reduction to a lower stage in the time scale of pay for
a specified period... reduction to a lower time scale of pay. grade or
post, and compulsory retirement.

In very serious cases of offence, even judicial proceedings against the

offender may also be launched.

MODE OF TAKING DISCIPLINARY ACTION

Like the power to promote, the power to take disciplinary action also
should be vested in the Head of the Department because he/she is the person
who is responsible for the discipline and efficiency of the department. Some
people advocate that the power of disciplinary action should be vested in an
independent outside agency like the Public Service Commission. As, for
instance, in Australia, any employee, against whom an action has been taken
through the departmental head, may create an appeal to the Commonwealth
Conciliation and Arbitration Tribunal. In the State of Chicago, dismissal can
be ordered through a trial board consisting of some members of the Civil
Service Commission. This is advocated in the interest of impartiality and
fairness to the employee, the argument being that since the departmental
authorities are accusers, they should not also be the judges.
 But in the opinion of experienced administrators, an outside agency should
not be brought into sit in judgement on the action taken through the
disciplinary authorities. This is because first, it undermines the authority of the
Head of the Department and secondly, outside authorities are often swayed
through thoughts of abstract justice rather than due appreciation of the logic of
administration and management. In India, the Central Pay Commission took
the same view. “We do not think”, it said “that it will be desirable or
practicable in public interest to insist on the invention of an outside body in
disciplinary matters."

All this, though, does not mean that consideration of fairness and justice
should be lost sight of in taking a disciplinary action against an employee. On
the contrary, appropriate machinery and procedure should be provided so as to
eliminate every possibility of personal prejudices. Usually following
provisions are made either in the Constitution or in the statute to check the
misuse of power to take disciplinary actions:
No employee shall be demoted or dismissed through an officer below
in rank to one who had appointed him/her.
No employee shall be punished except for a cause, specified in some
statute or departmental regulation.
No employee shall be punished unless he/she has been given
reasonable opportunity to defend his/her case.
The employee shall be informed of the charges laid against him/her.
Where a Board of Inquiry is appointed, it shall consist of not less than
two senior officers, provided that at least one member of such Board
shall be an officer of the service to which the employee belongs.
After the inquiry against an employee has been completed and after the
punishing authority has arrived at any provisional conclusion in regard
to the penalty to be imposed, if the penalty proposed is dismissal,
removal, reduction in rank or compulsory retirement, the employee
charged shall be supplied with a copy of the report of inquiry and be
given a further opportunity to show cause why the proposed penalty
should not be imposed on him/her.

DISCIPLINARY PROCEEDINGS AGAINST THE CIVIL SERVANTS

THROUGHOUT THE BRITISH PERIOD

The British Government in India relied primarily on its civil servants for
its survival and strength. The then All India Services were consequently
loaded with all types of favors, concessions and privileges. These services
were not even under the control of the Governor General; they were directly
under the Secretary of State for India and his council.
Provisions of Government of India Act, 1919 with regard to Disciplinary
Proceedings

No All India officer could be dismissed from his service through any other
authority than the Secretary of State in Council. He had a right of appeal to
that body if he was adversely dealt with in significant disciplinary matters.
The Government of a province was required to look at the complaint of any
such officer who thought himself wronged through an official superior and to
redress the grievances if he thought it equitable to do so. No order effecting
his emoluments adversely and no order of censure on him could be passed
without the personal-concurrence of the Governor and orders for his posting to
appointments also required the personal concurrence of the Governor. His
salary, pensions, etc. were not subject to the vote through the legislature.
Those services, entrenched in the privileged positions and irresponsible to
public opinion, found it hard to adjust to the reform era introducing very
limited responsible government under the Government of India Act of 1919.
Criticism of individual members of the services through questions in the
provincial and central legislatures, the „ignominy‟ of working under Indian
ministers in the provinces, the non-cooperation movement of 1920-22 putting
the officers and their families in personal discomfort, the insufficiency of
salaries due to the high stage of prices prevailing in the wake of the First
World War—all these embarrassed and discouraged the European members of
these services and several of them were forced to opt for retirement. This trend
facilitated more and more Idealization of services because of the
recommendation of the Lee Commission in 1924.

Provisions of Government of India Act,1935 in Respect of Disciplinary

Proceedings
Because of the desire of some European Officers to retire rather than serve
under Indian ministers, the British Government in India took more interest in
providing special safeguard to the public service for the protection of its
privileged position. The Government of India Act of 1935, so, incorporated
the protection of the interests of the public services in the list of the special
responsibilities of the Governor General and the Governors (Secs. 247-249).
Therefore, if any officer of the Secretary of State‟s services was affected
adversely through an order relating to his circumstances of service, he had a
right of complaint to the Governor (as the case may he) and the latter was to
deal with the matter exercising individual judgement, that is, acting without
consulting his minister.
CONSTITUTION OF INDIA—DEALING WITH DISCIPLINARY
MATTERS

Article 309 gives that the Acts of the appropriate legislature may regulate
the recruitment and circumstances of service of the persons appointed to
public services and posts in connection with the affairs of the Union or of any
State. It shall be competent for the President or Governor as the case may be,
to create rules regulating the recruitment and circumstances of service of
public service until provisions are made through an Act of the appropriate
legislature. According to Article 310, every person who is a member of a
defense service or the civil service of the Union or an All India Service or
holds any post linked with defense or any civil post under the Union holds
office throughout the pleasure of the President, and every person who is a
member of a civil service of a state or holds a civil post under a state holds
office throughout the pleasure of the Governor of the State. Notwithstanding
that a person holding a civil post under the Union or a State holds office
throughout the pleasure of the President or the Governor of the State, any
contract under which a person, (not being a member of a defense service or of
an All India Service or of a civil service of the Union or a State) is appointed
under the Constitution to hold such a post may, if the President or the
Governor deems it necessary in order to secure the services of a persons
having special qualifications, give for the payment to him of compensations, if
before the expiration of an agreed period that post is abolished or he is
required to vacate that post.

Article 311 as amended through Forty-second Amendment gives that no

person who is a member of a civil service of the Union or an All-India Service
or a Civil Service of a State or holds a Civil post under the Union or a State,
shall be dismissed or removed through an authority subordinate to that through
which he/ she was appointed. No such person as aforesaid shall be dismissed
or removed or reduced in rank except after an enquiry in which he/she has
been informed of the charges against him/her and given a reasonable
opportunity of being heard in respect of those charges. Where it is proposed
after such enquiry to impose upon him/ her any such penalty, such penalty
may be imposed on the basis of the proof provided throughout such inquiry
and it shall not be necessary to provide such person any opportunity of
creation representation on the penalty proposed. This clause shall not apply
where a person is dismissed or removed or reduced in rank on the ground of
conduct which has led to his/her conviction on a criminal charge or where the
authority empowered to dismiss or remove a person or to reduce him/ her in
rank is satisfied that for some cause to hold such enquiry. Or where the
President or the Governor, as the case may be, is satisfied that in the interests
of the security of the State, it is not expedient to hold such enquiry. If in
respect of any such person as aforesaid, a question arises, whether it is
reasonably practicable to hold the enquiry mentioned above, the decision
thereon of the authority empowered to dismiss or remove such person or
reduce him/her in rank shall be final.

SUCCESSIVE STEPS INVOLVED IN DISCIPLINARY

PROCEEDINGS

The successive steps of the procedure of disciplinary action are:

Calling for an explanation from the employee to be subjected to
disciplinary action;
If the explanation is not forthcoming or is unsatisfactory, framing of
charges;
Suspension of the employee if his/her remaining in the service is likely
to prejudice the proof against him/her;
Hearing of the charges, and giving opportunity to the employee to
defend himself/herself;
Findings and report;
Giving another opportunity to the employee to defend himself/herself
against the proposed punishment;
Punishment order, or exoneration; and appeal, if any.

As regards the power to hear appeal, an employee appointed through the

President has no right to appeal from an order passed through the President
himself. A member of the All India Service may appeal from the order of a
State Government to the President. A member appointed through the President
may appeal to the Governor from an order passed through the State
Government. All employees of lower grade services may appeal to the
authority which made the rule to which the order under appeal relates. Appeals
can be preferred only if:
It is permissible under rules,
It is not defective in form and preferred through proper channel.
It is preferred within six months after the date of the communication of
the order appealed against;
It is not a repetition of a previous appeal to the same authority;
It is addressed to an authority to which appeal lies under the rules.

No appeal lies against the withholding of an appeal through a competent

authority. Therefore in connection with appeals in India, no outside authority
intervenes at any state. The Constitution no doubt gives for consultation with
the Union or the State Public Service Commission as the case may be “On all
disciplinary matters affecting a person serving the Government of India or of a
State in civil capability”, but such consultation is limited only to those cases
where disciplinary order is passed through the President or the Governor. The
staff made complaints before the Central Pay Commission "that the right of
appeal is not of much value because higher officers to whom appeals are
made, are of the same mentality and tools of the same machinery and usually
support the decision of the subordinates. They suggested the association of an
outside authority with the hearing of appeals. The Commission, though,
rejected the proposal.

A second complaint was against the provision which authorizes officers to

withhold appeals in cases where no appeal lies. It was said that an officer who
has awarded the punishment would never like his/her decision to be upset and
would, so, withhold appeals in mainly cases. While recognizing that there
necessity be a limit to appeals somewhere, the Commission recommended that
persons dismissed from service should, where their appeal has been withheld,
be permitted to petition to the higher authorities for a review of their case. In
the end, it may be mentioned that an employee can be deprived of the right to
create appeal in the following cases:
Where a person has been removed or reduced in rank on the ground of
conduct which has led to his/her conviction on a criminal charge, e.g.
For embezzlement;
Where an authority empowered to remove him/her or reduce him/her
in rank is satisfied that for some cause, to be recorded as through that
authority in writing, it is not reasonably practicable to provide that
person an opportunity of showing causes; and
Where the President or the Governor, as the case may be, is satisfied
that in the interest of the security of the State, it is not
expedient to provide that person such an opportunity.

ISSUES AND TROUBLES

There are several troubles concerning the disciplinary proceedings. They

are as follows.

Lack of Knowledge of the Disciplinary Procedure

It has been seen several a time that the appointing authorities as well as
employees are unaware of the details of the disciplinary procedures resulting
in several troubles. Since employees are expected to conform to rules and
regulations and behave in a responsible manner, it is essential that these rules
and regulations are properly and cautiously formulated and communicated to
them. The purposes and techniques of the removal procedure should be
explained to all so that complex and unnecessary appellate action can be
avoided.

Delays
The time taken to take disciplinary action is very long. When an employee
knows of the impending action, he/ she become more and more irresponsible
and problematic. Delays cause hardship to the employees.

Lack of Fair Play

There is a tendency that the appellate authority usually supports the
decision of his/her subordinates. This defeats the purpose of appeal.

Withholding of Appeal
Mainly of the officers do not like appeals against their decisions. There is a
tendency to withhold appeals.

Too Several Rules

It is a sound policy to have as few rules as possible for the proliferation of
rules leads to contempt and undermines the concept of discipline. The rules
necessity is simple and clear.

Lack of Proper Understanding

It is wrong to conceive of discipline as something restrictive which is
imposed through force or threats of punishment. It can only be maintained
through self-respecting employees who follow the seniors in whom they have
confidence. Optimum performance in any organization depends on the
willingness with which employees carry out the instructions and the way they
conform to the rules of conduct recognized to aid the successful attainment of
the organization‟s objectives. If unreasonable rules are imposed, great damage
may be done to morale.

Lack of Tolerance
In any case, breach of disciplinary rules may be tolerated to some extent in
practice. Though, it should not exceed the point where the status and prestige
of the supervisors is jeopardized.
Lack of Concern for The People
T.N Chattered mentions that the questions of ethical conduct have three
implications. First, all the people necessity be served equally and impartially.
The sense of impartiality, fairness and justice are embedded in our ethical
heritage. Acts that smack of favouritism only, undermine the faith of people in
administration. Secondly, the public servants necessity try to work in harmony
and co-operation with representative institutions and voluntary organizations
so that there is greater rapport with the people and there is no breakdown of
communication flanked by the working of the system and the necessities or
aspirations of the citizens. Thirdly, the internal -working and administrations
of government agencies and offices necessity be constant with these modes of
behavior, that is, a sense of fair play and involvement within and organization
will ensure a satisfactory style of functionary in relation to the public outside
in general.

Lack of Standards Expected from Employees

At present, the rules and regulations which the employees are expected to
achieve are vague resulting in confusion. There is a need to clarify what is
expected of an employee in the way of behavior. It would produce good
results if all the employees are apprised of what is expected of them through
written circulars or manual or indoctrination.

Attitude of the Supervisor

The success or failure of the disciplinary action depends upon the attitude
of the supervisor. Mainly of them are biased and work under pressure from
dissimilar quarters. Supervisors should be objective in collecting facts so that
justice can be ensured.

Inconsistency
Disciplinary action should be constant under the same offence. Otherwise
it leads to favouritism, nepotism and corruption.

Absence of Constructive Element

The authorities should not only impose penalties but also suggest steps to
stop the future recurrence. The ultimate use of conduct and discipline should
be made to promote self-discipline, penalties being applied only after the
preventive measures have failed. Paul Pigors and Charles A. Myers have said
that true discipline:
Starts with an effort to foster mutual understanding and an organization
centered view is fair
Is demonstrably constant with sound principles of human relations
(including due procedure: and the rights of appeal)
Is in accord with a policy statement on discipline which is clear and
well recognized to all
Implements ideas that have been worked out through conferring with
representatives of those who are subject to discipline
Takes account of any extenuating characteristics in each situation
where some one feels that discipline is described for.
Absence of A Specialized Tribunal to Deal with The Litigation Cases
Viewed against the mounting arrears of litigation cases in Indian courts,
the government‟s decision to appoint an Administrative Tribunal to deal with
service matters concerning central government employees is a step in the right
direction. Article 323 (A) of the Constitution gives for the formation of such
tribunal to ensure inexpensive and speedier justice to the staff in case of
disputes and complaints with respect to recruitment and circumstances of
service of persons appointed to public services and posts under the control of
the Government of India or of any corporation owned or controlled through
the Government.

REVIEW QUESTIONS
What are the methods of job evaluation?
Discuss the principles of pay-fixation.
What are the essentials to ensure the practice of administrative ethics?
What are the causes for decline of integrity in civil services?
What are the matters sheltered under the conduct rules?
What are the causes of disciplinary proceedings?

CHAPTER 6
EMPLOYER –EMPLOYEE RELATIONS

STRUCTURE
Learning objectives
Motivation and morale
Employee unions
Rights of public servants
Joint consultative machinery
Review questions

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After learning this unit you should be able to:
 Understand the importance of human factor in an organization, which
will have a important impact upon over all organizational out-put
Realize that motivation and morale are caused through management
policies and practices;
Explain the objectives of civil service unionism in general;
Understand the origin and growth of employee unions in pre- and post-
independent India;
Explain the fundamental and other rights guaranteed to the citizens and
the public servants; and
Understand the significance of the joint consultation in civil service
staff relations.

MOTIVATION AND MORALE

MEANING OF MOTIVATION

The term motivation is derived from the Latin word „emovere‟ which
means „to move‟. Motivation is the complex of psychological forces.
Motivation is something that moves a person into action and inspires him to
continue in the course of action already initiated. There are dissimilar
definitions of motivation. Stanley Vanace opines that „motivation implies any
motion or desire which so conditioned one‟s will that the individual is
propelled into action‟. Dale and Beach felt motivation as „a willingness to
expend energy to achieve a goal or reward‟. Shartte understood motivation as
„a reported urge or tension to move in a given direction or to achieve sure
goals‟.

According to the above definitions motivation is measured as the art of

stimulating people to take desired course of action. It involves arousing needs
and desires through impelling individuals towards purposive behaviour. A
motive is a need or desire which directs the behaviour. It reflects an urge to
move in an expected manner to achieve a specified goal. It results when the
needs of an employee are satisfied through proper incentives and rewards.
Human behaviour is the result of their desires, needs and wants and motivation
involves creation of a will to work for accomplishment of institutional goals.
Without needs there can be no motivation and one of the major troubles in
motivating the employees is that one does not have the same needs. Moreover
motivation is influenced through a number of factors both inside and outside
the organization. Motivation requires the identification of personal goals with
institutional goals.
OBJECTIVES OF MOTIVATION

The objectives of motivation put forth through psychologists and

sociologists are the means of answering two vital questions concerning human
behaviour i.e., why an individual is impelled to act and what determines the
direction of his actions. Let us discuss the views of some eminent
Psychologists and Sociologists, who attempted to evaluate the
According to Skinner motivation objectively exists to create an
individual being learn what may regarded as positive behaviour i.e.
desirable behaviour.
Abraham Maslow observes that the objective of motivation is always
to make a need for an individual. It is just like the procedure of lower
needs being satisfied and the higher needs slowly emerging (Hierarchy
or Needs).
Frederick Herzberg felt that the significant objective of motivation is to
give opportunities to become a better expert on one‟s job, to handle
more demanding assignments, to control one‟s own work rather than
be supervised.
Mclelland opined that the objective of motivation is to make a strong
desire in an individual, where he derives a special type of joy in
successfully attaining an objective in accomplishing a task, in facing
up to a challenge rather than monetary or other rewards.
Victor Wroom thinks that motivation should work as a means of
communication for rising positive values in the employees. Obviously
the objectives of motivation are to augment efficiency through good
performance.

Motives are abundant and divergent. There is no single strategy that will
motivate the employees forever and every where. The motives for individuals
to work are numerous.

KINDS OF MOTIVATION

There are basically two kinds of motivation:

Negative motivation, and
Positive motivation.

Negative Motivation
The traditional form of motivation emphasizes more on authority. This
approach consists of forcing people to work through threatening to fire them if
they do not. It believes that man is inherently lazy, pleasure seeking, despises
work. To prevent him from doing so, there necessity is secure supervision.
This approach further assumes that employees‟ performance would be
increased through fear, which causes the people to act in a sure way. Because
they are afraid of the consequences like, lay-off, demotions, and dismissals.
This approach paid off fairly well in the early days of the industrial revolution
when workers and their families were so secure to starvation. Imposition of
punishment regularly results in frustration in the middle of those punished,
leading to the development of maladaptive behaviour. The negative motivation
also makes a hostile state of mind and unfavorable attitude to the job. The
approach of negative motivation had proved to be ineffective as the employees
were responding to them perversely. In recent years, though, people have
begun to expect more from their jobs than sheer punishment.

Positive Motivation
The behavioral approach is much sophisticated than traditional approach
which recognizes the importance of positive characteristics of motivation.
Positive motivation involves the possibility of increased motive satisfaction.
Positive motivation is a procedure of attempting to influence others to do their
best, and thereby adopting good human relations. It seeks to make an
environment which will create the individual talent flourish and encourages
informal communications positively. Positive motivation is usually based on
rewards. The positive motivation may be extrinsic or intrinsic. The extrinsic
motivators can be enjoyed after completion of work. The intrinsic factors are
those which occur at the time of performance of work. Since positive
motivation appears to be more workable, now let us discuss the role of some
positive motivators, which promote efficiency.

MOTIVATORS WHICH PROMOTE EFFICIENCY

The exact nature and extent of motivators would depend upon the internal
and external factors prevailing in a given organization. Some of the significant
motivators which can promote efficiency are:
Job enrichment
Delegation of authority
Job security
Status and pride
Participation
Congenial work environment
Job Enlargement and Job Enrichment
If the additional responsibilities to enhance diversity are of a horizontal
nature, it is termed job enlargement while if the additional responsibilities are
of vertical nature involving delegation and decentralization the procedure is
termed job enrichment. Job enrichment can be ensured provided the work is
meaningful, a worker has knowledge of the work and the worker is entrusted
with the responsibility through proper delegation. According to Flippo, job
autonomy can be secured if the following are given: (1) setting one‟s own
work schedule and work breaks; (2) varying work place; (3) changing duties
with others; (4) creation crisis decisions in problem situations rather than
relaying on the boss; and (5) creation one‟s own quality checks, etc. It is
obvious that the mainly significant condition for achieving better work
performance from employees is to provide them motivating worthwhile,
challenging, and responsible job, to ensure that the employees are not
frustrated through meaningless, disinteresting and purposeless tasks,
fundamental rethinking of both the procedure and purpose of management is
necessary.

Koontz and O‟Donnell have suggested the following to ensure job

enrichment:
Giving workers more latitude in deciding about such things as work
methods, sequence, and pace or through letting them create decisions
about accepting or rejecting materials;
Encouraging participation of subordinates and interaction flanked by
workers;
Giving workers a feeling of personal responsibility for their tasks;
Taking steps to create sure that people can see how their tasks
contribute to a finished product and the welfare of the enterprise;
Giving people feedback on their job performance preferably before
their supervisors get it; and
Involving workers in analysis and change of physical characteristics of
work environment such as layout of office or plan, temperature,
lighting and cleanliness.

Delegation of Authority
A very common technique being advocated for motivating employees is
delegation of authority. Delegation of the rights and obligations to execute a
given task very often proves to be a strong motivating force.
Job Security
Job security is one of the good promoters of organizational efficiency and
economy. The employees feel responsible and committed to the work as long
as their job security is ensured. They would be more attached with the
organization and its day-to-day activities.

Status and Pride

Status and pride are connected with the organizational set-up. Age of the
organization and its reputation in the society will also motivate the employee.
Employees working in the well reputed organization will be motivated better
than the employees of other institutions. They feel proud of their employment
in the organization.

Participation
Participation is an individual‟s mental and emotional involvement in a
group situation that encourages him to contribute to group goals and to share
responsibility for them. Employees‟ participation yields their personal
commitment and involvement in accomplishing organizational goals. It also
produces flow of communication for informal work force. Self-guidance and
monitoring in the employees may be expected. Produce high degree of mutual
respect and trust in the middle of organizational members. A high degree of
confidence is shown in subordinates who facilitate interpersonal procedure.

Congenial Work Environment

Motivation is some form of exchange flanked by the individual and his
work environment. The congenial work environment gives to the individual
sets of preference or values which constitute the goals towards which the
instinctual drives are expressed. Further, the work environment is the source
of norms of behaviour which draws the lines flanked by good and bad, right
and wrong, legitimate and illegitimate.

MEANING OF MORALE

Though the organization‟s focus is always on performance, based on cost

benefit approach, it was felt imperative to consider the issue of morale in a
wider perspective. From the institutional point of view, the problem of
employee‟s morale is that of stimulating a feeling of togetherness, a sense of
identification with the job. It is more conducive to the attainment of
institutional goals. It is significant because performance and efficiency of
operation depends upon employee‟s morale. To attain these high standards of
morale it is essential to enlist the feelings of employees and their abilities in
the work.

„Morale‟ is an attitude of satisfaction with desire to continue in and

willingness to strive for the goals of a scrupulous organization. There are two
significant elements. Firstly, that the individual shares the purpose which gives
him enthusiasm, energy and self-discipline. Secondly, the responsibility of the
authorities to infuse the feeling of togetherness, a sense of identification and
his consideration for other members of the institution. Further, morale is
viewed as „the capability of a group to pull together persistently and uniformly
in pursuit of common purpose‟. This capability is subjective and differs from
person to person depending upon the people‟s interest in a scrupulous work.
This capability is inherent in every individual and is seen in their attitudes
towards scrupulous work.

KINDS OF MORALE

There appear to be two groups of morale i.e.,

Individual and
Group morale

Individual Morale
The components of morale are still rather elusive, despite rising agreement
upon many generalizations. One of these generalizations is that the group
climate necessity provides opportunity for individual self-expression or self-
accommodation through the members of the group. Another is that the
occupational context necessity furnishes outlets for the individuals pride in his
own workmanship. Still another and more significant is that members of the
group necessity find it easy to accept the purposes and values of the group as
their own so that they have a sense of belonging to the group or identity with
it. All these may be described as individualistic bases of morale.

Group Morale
Hawthorne studies pointed out, pride in group is an significant component
of morale. Employees like to belong to be part of and be accepted through the
group even where and employee dislikes the actual work itself. He may have
high morale, stemming from his pleasure of group with his group work. Where
there is a well integrated group, there would be high group morale, as well as
individual morale. Since good supervision correlated with good group morale,
special attention should be paid to the training programme of supervisory staff.
Whether it is group or individual morale, it necessity be evaluated from time
to time in the interest of the organization.

FACTORS EFFECTING MORALE

There are four factors which effect the morale of the employees in an
organization. They are as follows:
The organization itself
Nature of work of employee
Supervisory techniques
Fellow employees

The Organization
As a practical matter morale is based upon the understanding that an
employee‟s future depends upon the success of the organization, and that the
efficient service leads to high pay, job security, and promotions. Employee‟s
morale cannot be exploited through authoritarian attitude of the organization.
Employees morale necessity be won through- sound personnel policies.
Through benevolent paternalism, employees can be made happy, loyal and
grateful. To maintain employee‟s morale every organization is required to
ensure the following:
A proper human relations programme
Survey of employees attitude should be undertaken to initiate
corrective action
The findings of attitude surveys should be communicated to employees
to gain their faith in the organization
Free flow of information to and from the employees and in the middle
of employees.
A reward system for good work.

Nature of Work
Employees want jobs that match their needs, values and personalities.
Studies have shown that employees who undertake a job that requires the use
of skills derive a sense of competence from mastering. Employees will be
happy when they consider themselves to be competent in performing
meaningful work. Since mainly employees strive to master significant
activities of their lives, it is not surprising that mastery of skills performed on
the job involved a sure amount of pride. Work, for mainly people, is the
mainly significant activity which influences their self-esteem. Tedious, boring
and routine work will not contribute morale structure. An significant step in
the morale-structure programme is to instill in supervisors the need for
applying human relations in supervision. Supervision necessity helps the
employees to enjoy the anticipation of future satisfactions of their drives rather
than the whim of the movement. The major failure of poor supervision is the
failure of supervisor to understand emotions. To boost up the morale
supervisor should be democratic and allow participation of employees in
running the departmental affairs. Supervisor should be fair and impartial in
dealing with his assistants. He should also build up the pride of the employee
in his work through explaining its importance and giving recognition for good
work. He should learn to apply positive discipline, which corrects through
showing right way and does not restrict the individual employee who is being
brought into line.

Fellow-employees Interaction
In the socialization procedure of the institution, co-employees interaction
influences employees‟ morale a lot. Formal training, institutional rules and
regulations may not be enough for the new entrants in understanding their role
expected through the institution. Co-employees‟ informal assistance,
fraternity, cooperation will help the new comers in performing their work
assigned through the institution.

EVALUATION OF MORALE

Whether of an individual or a group, the stage of morale necessity be

observed and expressed largely in conditions of complex reactions. Mainly
employers who are concerned with employee morale recognize the necessity
for careful analysis of all expressions of employee reactions. There are many
methods of survey of morale. Some of the methods are as under:

Attitude Survey
These surveys depend upon questionnaires, which are administered orally
or in writing from any employees. Through answering these questionnaires,
employees indicate their attitude towards a wide range of circumstances
related to their work. Analysis of their replies gives a guide to general stages
of morale as well as more specific indications of their likes and dislikes in the
prevailing employment situation.

Morale Interviews
Through frequent and periodic interviews with employees their morale can
be assessed. In these visits, the interviewer encourages the employee to speak
freely and frankly in respect of his job, his supervisors, his fellow employees,
and any other circumstances affecting his employment without any fear or
hazard to his status in the organization.

Spies and Informers

In earlier times the employers are used to hire spies and placed them in
several departments for the specific purpose of finding out what employees
thought of their jobs and of working circumstances in the organization. After
formation of employees unions and associations this practice was
approximately given up and it became outdated. Morale survey methods are
varied from one organization to another. Though, it all depends upon the
nature of the work of employee, organization, authorities‟ outlook, and size of
the organization etc.

Indices of Morale
Morale, as it is an attendant condition of an activity rather than an activity
itself, can be measured only indirectly. The following are some of the indices
of employee‟s morale.
Absenteeism: Where there is high morale, employees create efforts to
be on time and avoid absence. A high rate of absenteeism designates
poor morale.
Turnover: Sometimes greater turnover of labour may be incorporated
in the indices of poor morale. It may not be true in all cases. Young
employees in unskilled jobs have higher turnover rate than older
employees in higher positions.
Grievances: Some grievances may arise out of poor morale.
Output Stage: High stage of output may indicate high stage of morale
but the output may be increased even through fear. The employees
with higher stage of morale may produce low output due to
substandard tools or deliberate plan to restrict output. These may not
be the proper measuring rods of morale. But the stage of output will
also exhibit the stage of morale.
MEASURES TO IMPROVE MORALE

Morale is not static. It is subject to daily, or even to monetary fluctuations.

It is also subject to long-term secular trends. It is useful to think of long-term
morale trends as responses to pressures and supports. Usually policy on
morale seeks to develop and maintain high stages of morale in the middle of
employees through appropriate means. The following measures are suggested
for morale structure.
Job Satisfaction: The personnel policy should create jobs as motivating
and satisfying as possible; it tends to encourage a favorable and
enthusiastic group action.
Job Training: Job training, orientation, education, apprentice training
and a broad diversity of general educational efforts will help in
structure up employees‟ morale.
Recognition of Aspirations: Recognition of individual aspirations and
goals, and definite provision of means through which such goals can be
achieved will go a long way in boosting morale.
Unrest: A careful revise necessity is made on several indices of
employee‟s unrest, with the ultimate objective of constructive guidance
and action.
Counseling Interviews: Counseling Interviews help to discover the
feelings of employees.
Opportunities: Promising opportunities like good promotional avenues,
good working circumstances, satisfactory remuneration and other
benefits for personal development.
Relations: The supervisory staff should ensure, human relations,
informal relations, fact finding and adopt participative and employee
orientated attitude.
Facilities: Separately from the above measures, the facilities like,
transport, housing, health, family welfare, children‟s education, and
other recreational facilities would also help in structure up employee‟s
morale.

EMPLOYEE UNIONS

NEED FOR EMPLOYEES ASSOCIATION

A vital question as to why Civil servants form and join association is of

more importance in Civil Service than the working and its com position.
Associations are the creations of Civil servants and their groups where
objectives are several and varied. Pigors and Myers write: “Unionism springs
from the vital aspirations of those employees who become convinced that they
can gain more through membership in a union than through going at it beside.”
Membership in a trade union is encouraged through the government on the
ground that representative associations not only promote good staff relations
but also are essential to effective negotiations on circumstances of service. An
association often develops as a result of government‟s limited point of view
and of restricted communication within the structure. Today associations are,
in another sense, faithful representatives of the society from which they
emerge. Associations are therefore, on the one hand, essential instruments for
improving the welfare of their employee and on the other, they have pressed
the government to become liberal in dealing with them.

Since Civil servants have been denied the right to strike and participate in
the political activities through the Civil Service rules and regulations, they
have demanded the provision of a machinery whereby the employees‟
grievances may be redressed. In order to get their grievances and complaints
heard through any government machinery, they feel the necessity of forming
staff associations. Through associations the employees feel better security,
liberty and courage rather than remaining alone. Staff associations create it
possible for civil servants to express their day-to-day difficulties and
grievances to the administrative authorities in a formal way through
submitting applications and petitions or through holding informal talks with
the management. Civil servants seek membership of these associations
because the peculiar and diverse needs of the Civil Service cannot be achieved
without communal representation and bargaining. They become members with
the hope that it may help lessen their anxiety and distress and will further the
scope of leading a happy life. The original reasons for unionization were the
effects of continual internal reorganization and reform. Then followed security
of employment and better circumstances of service Humphreys writes: “As the
changing functions and structure of the Civil Service have dictated the form
and the objectives of the unions which have developed in the middle of state
employees, so has the nature of the civil service determined the degree of
success which has accrued to these unions.” The foregoing thoughts advance
the acceptance of unionism as continuing characteristic of our politico-
administrative system.

OBJECTIVES OF EMPLOYEES UNIONS

The Employees Unions regarded themselves as part of administration.

They are yearning for opportunities for full participation in the development of
the country. The employees unions are positive assets to sound and
progressive administration. The following may be said to be the objectives
behind the establishment of organisations:
To acquaint the government with the point of view of the employees.
 There might be several troubles where the management and the
employees might be having differing points of views. If the two are
aware of the point of view of each other, harmonious relations flanked
by the two could develop.
The organization gives an opportunity to the government to know the
opinion of the employees on any given issue. No government could
perhaps get in touch with all its employees individually. They could be
easily contacted through the medium of the organization. The opinion
of the organization is the communal opinion of the employees.
The organization belongs to the employees. It stands with them
through thick and thin. There is a feeling of oneness flanked by the
employees and the organization.
The associations meet the social expectations of the members. It
satisfies the ego of the office bearer. They feel that they are doing
something useful and beneficial to their members.

The unions create it possible for employees to express their point of view
to the government as a whole, while developing a feeling of oneness flanked
by the employees and the administration. Therefore, they help in developing
harmonious relations flanked by government and employees. The employees
unions give a feeling of identification with the securing of sure personal
objectives. They want to do something for themselves. They give an outlet for
natural social aspirations of employees. The unions want to promote
efficiency, protect merit systems and improve the quality of administration.

GROWTH OF EMPLOYEE UNIONS

Pre-Independence
Throughout the early British rule, there was little or no consciousness of
common needs and interests in the middle of civil servants because of the
greater inheritance and partnership in the administration through the English
rulers. Indians who were largely employed at the pleasure of the Bruisers, had
little or no interest in the formation of an association and whatever urge there
was, got submerged in the movement of the people for realization of the goal
of India‟s independence. Of course, before World War I there were
associations of government employees such as the Amalgamated Society of
Railway Servants of India and Burma (1897), the Indian Civil Service
Association (1918) etc. but they were mostly manned through Bruisers and the
Anglo-Indians. Hence their subsistence accepted not much significance in the
development of unions except as a matter of historical interest.

Throughout the British rule of centralised administration, the general mass

of lower and middle stage civil servants did not find an opportunity to get
organised. Through the beginning of the 20th century, though, modern
association had secured for itself a place in the economic and political life of
the country. Employees organised themselves to press their demands but,
through and large, it was only in those cases where they could evoke public
sympathy that they succeeded, and such sympathy was hard to come through.
After World War I, political and economic circumstances in the country
caused, partly through the freedom thrash about led through Mahatma Gandhi
and his followers and partly through the drain theory advocated through
Dadabhai Naoroji as the cause of poverty of India, roused new aspirations in
the minds of civil servants to form associations. Further the establishment of
the International Labour Organization (1919) had its impact on the growth of
trade unions and staff associations in the country. Lower grade employees
working in the Railways and the Post and Telegraph Department began to
organize themselves into unions. While some unions chose to operate
independently others felt the need for coordination of their activities at the
national stage.

The formation in 1920 of the All India Trade Union Congress (AITUC)
was a manifestation of these urges. Further the enactment of the Trade Union
Act, 1926, facilitated the formation and growth of trade/staff unions in India.
The setting up of the popular governments in the provinces in the late thirties
under the Government of India Act, 1935, quickened the pace of the growth of
unions and staff associations in the provinces. The Act vested in the governors
the responsibility to “safeguard the interests and rights of civil servants.
Throughout World War II (1939-45) the relations flanked by the government
and its employees further deteriorated. Economic circumstances began to
worsen and the cost of living rose very high and this made the life of
employees, especially the low paid, hard. As a result of an intense agitation
resorted to through the unions of the Railways and the Postal employees for
the amelioration of their condition of service, the government appointed a
“Pay Commission” to go into the whole question of scale of wages, pensions
and other circumstances of service and also the question of setting up some
machinery for negotiations flanked by the government and the United
Kingdom. The Commission was pained to find that there was “an absolute
distrust on the part of several grades of public servants as to their ever getting
a fair response from the government to their representations”. It strongly
recommended that the administration should encourage and foster the growth
of unions of civil servants. This recommendation gave a further impetus to the
development and organization of civil service associations.

Post-Independence
After the attainment of Independence, employees in the civil service felt
pride in the formation of association. Slowly and slowly, all classes of civil
servants began to organize themselves into associations. The Government of
India felt the importance of associations and consequently an article to this
end, was incorporated in the draft constitution now the Indian Constitution in
force from 26 January, 1950. Gives for The right to “form associations and
unions” subject to “public order or morality”. Civil servants enjoy this
fundamental right as much as any other group of citizens, and their right to
form unions or associations is no dissimilar from workers outside the
government. This article is a milestone in the development of staff
associations and unions in India as a whole.

The civil servants outside the Railways and the P&T largely remained
unorganized. There were loose organisations in the middle of the Income Tax,
Audit and Accounts, Customs, Civil Aviations and Public Works
Departments. The All-India Federation of Income Tax Employees, though
shaped in 1949, was not recognized through the government as its President
Asoka Mehta was not an employee of the Income Tax Department. It was only
recognized in 1954 after its re-birth in 1953. It is now one of the strong
federations the about 40 affiliated associations/unions.

All-India Non-Gazetted Audit and Accounts Association were only

recognized in 1956, though the employees started organizing since 1923. It
was de-recognized in 1959 and it took long time to get re-recognition. The
All-India Ordinance Employees Federation was set up in 1947 with
heterogeneous Defence workers organisations. In May 1953, they united and
shaped All-India Defence Employees Federation (AIDEF). In 1959, forty
unions affiliated to the AIDEF left it and shaped the Indian National Defence
Workers Federation (INDWF) with the support of Indian National Trade
Union Congress (INTUC). Both the Federations have been recognized through
the government. The employees unions in the Defence Ministry are large in
number and strong in their representative capabilities.

In 1947, there were 27 unions in P&T recognized through the government.

The government initiated a Realignment scheme, proposing all the unions to
come under one Federation. Accordingly, all the Non-Gazetted employees of
P&T were realign into nine All-India Trade Unions and National Federation of
P&T Employees (NFPTE) came into subsistence in 1954. Since then till 1968,
the NFPTE enjoyed exclusive recognition. In 1969, the P&T Department
recognized rival unions and the Federation of National P&T Organization
(FNPTO). In spite of rivalry, the employees unions in P&T are very strong.
The All-India Railway men's Federation (AIRF) was shaped in 1924. It has
been one of the powerful trade unions in India under the eminent leadership of
V.V. Giri, Jaya Prakash Narayan, N.M. Joshi, Peter Alvares and George
Fernandes. Till 1948 AIRF had the privilege of the exclusive recognition of
the government. In 1949, the government also recognized a new organization,
namely, the Indian National Railway Workers‟ Federation (INRWF). In 1953,
a merger of the AIRF and INRWF took place and a new Federation in the
name of National Federation of Indian Railway men (NFIR) came into
subsistence. Though, despite the unity efforts in 1957, the AIRF was revived.
The Former INRWF retained the name of NFIR. In 1974, a third Federation
viz., the Indian Railway Workers Federation was shaped with the support of
AITUC. There are also category-wise All India Associations, for Station
Masters, Locomen Running Staff, Guards, Signals and Telecommunication
Staff, Commercial Clerks, Ministerial Staff. The recognition of category-wise
unions also became strong;

RIGHT TO FORM UNIONS AND ASSOCIATIONS

The organization of employees was confronted with a number of troubles

throughout their growth and stabilization. The mainly crucial problem was the
thrash about to achieve the right to form Unions/Associations. The Right of
Association is central to the concept of constitutional democracy. It is hard for
any body to function without freedom to associate with others. People find
much of their identity in some form of group activity in economic, social,
political and professional conditions. It necessity be the obligation of the
government to protect the right of Association from invasion and to refrain
from creation inroads into the right through its own activities. The
Constitution of India under Article 19(l)(c) guarantees the right to form
associations and unions to its citizens. It is natural that government employees
also resort to take up association kind of activity for protecting their service
circumstances.

SIGNIFICANT FUNCTIONS OF EMPLOYEES UNION

Protecting the rights of employees including ventilation of grievances

and negotiation with the government.
Undertaking measures for social, economic, and cultural advancement
of the employees.
Promoting academic matters including publication of journals and
other literature.
Settlement of disputes through joint consultation/communal
bargaining.
Achieving free trade union rights including full citizenship with right
to contest elections.
 To ensure the framing of labour legislation to guarantee the growth of
free trade unionism without discrimination flanked by government and
non-government labour.

RESTRICTIONS ON RIGHT TO JOIN EMPLOYEE UNIONS

The government‟s policy is to encourage the development of healthy trade

union movement. The Indian Trade Union Act, 1926, and the Constitution of
India, 1950, permitted the employees to form Unions/Associations. But the
government through the Civil Service (Conduct) Rules, 1955, based on the
Conduct Rules of 1937 and subsequent amendments in 1957 and 1964
restricted the right to join Unions/ Associations. According to the Conduct
Rules, no government servant shall join or continue to be a member of any
service association of government servants, (a) which has not within a period
of six months from its formation, obtained the recognition of the government
under the rules prescribed in that behalf, (b) recognition in respect of which it
has been refused or withdrawn through the government under the said rules.
Though, these rules are not applicable to the Railway employees. The said
Rules deprived them of trade union rights including the right to association
and demonstrate. As such the utility of the Right to Association is connected
with the Right to Recognition. So, the employees protested against the
Conduct Rules and the Recognition Rules.

RULES OF RECOGNITION

It is pertinent to note that the grant and continuance of recognition gives a

legal status to the Union/Association to represent the grievances of employees,
negotiate and bargain with the employer. Recognition encourages legitimate
union activity. The Indian Trade Union Act, 1926 did not extend its provisions
to the civil servants. The Trade Union Law has made no provision for
compulsory recognition of unions through the employers. In spite of the
limitations and restrictions the employees organisations focused their
grievances from time to time since the 1920s. To curb the mounting unrest and
the threat of direct action, the government issued the Central Civil Services
(Conduct) Rules, 1955 and they were amended in 1964. In 1959, a new set of
Rules recognized as the Central Civil Service (Recognition of Service
Associations) Rules, 1959 were made under Article 309 and clause 5 of
Article 148 of the Constitution of India. The provisions of the Rules laid sure
circumstances for purposes of recognition:
No person, who is not a government servant, is linked with the affairs
of the Association.
 The executive of the Association is elected from amongst the members
only.
The Association shall not respond to support the cause of individual
government servants.
It shall not maintain any political fund or lend itself to the propagation
of the views of any political party or politician.

The Ministry of Labour issued separate rules for recognition of unions of

workers who are industrial employees. According to these Rules:
The membership of union necessity is confined to workmen employed
in the same industry or industries closely allied or linked with each
other.
The union necessity is a representative of all workmen employed in
that industry. No class of workmen necessity is excluded from
membership.
The union necessity is registered under the Trade Union Law.
The union necessity creates a appropriate provision in their
constitution concerning the procedure for declaring strikes.

The Railway Ministry also issued another set of rules for the recognition of
associations of Non-Gazetted Railway servants. Though, they are not very
dissimilar from the Rules of the Labour Ministry. The grant and continuance
of recognition under the Labour and Railway Ministry‟s Rules rests with the
discretion of the government and the Rules of Ministry of Home Affairs
(Rules of Recognition, 1959) also give recognition only when specified
circumstances fulfilled. Except in the case of civil servants who are governed
through the Recognition Rules of 1959, both Labour Ministry‟s rules and the
Railway Ministry‟s rules permit the association of outsiders as the executive
of the unions. Though, the former employees and Retired Employees are
allowed in civil service associations. The Recognition Rules of 1959 restricted
the free movement of trade unions. According to the rules every association
which seeks recognition has to submit a list of members and office bearers and
necessity have at least 15 per cent of a separate category of government
servants as members. The rules were stringent and demanded liberal
application of the rules. For a long the government had not followed any clear
policy in regard to recognition. The unions had to fight and thrash about to get
the recognition as dissimilar ministries had followed dissimilar recognition
rules.
RIGHTS OF PUBLIC SERVANTS
FUNDAMENTAL RIGHTS GUARANTEED TO THE CITIZENS

The citizens are guaranteed sure fundamental rights through the

Constitution. The rights may be classified as under:
Right to Equality
Right to Freedom
Right to Freedom of Religion
Cultural and Educational Rights
Right to Constitutional Remedies

Some of these rights may not be accessible to persons serving in the armed
services. Moreover fundamental rights except protection against conviction
and protection of life and personal liberty may be suspended. Freedoms
guaranteed automatically get suspended throughout emergency. Restrictions
are imposed or reservations are made on sure rights with regard to public
employment and public services.

CLASSIFICATION OF FUNDAMENTAL AND OTHER RIGHTS

The rights guaranteed to the citizen through the Constitution may be

classified into following:
Personal Rights
Civil Rights
Political Rights
Trade Union Rights
Service Rights

PERSONAL RIGHTS

Some of the personal rights are:

Right to life and liberty: The private life of an individual is measured a
matter of his conscience, freedom of which is guaranteed through all
the states. The Constitution of India (Article 21) gives protection of life
and liberty to all persons. It comprises also the freedom of movement.
Equality before law and equal protection of law (Article 14): It means
that the state cannot discriminate the citizens on grounds of religion,
race, caste, sex, or place of birth. Though, Article 15 gives protective
discrimination and reservations for women, children, backward castes,
scheduled castes and scheduled tribes as “Socially and Educationally
Backward Classes of Citizens” in the matters of education and
employment.
 Right to freedom of Religion (Articles 25-28): Under this right, all
persons have the freedom of conscience and the right to profess,
practice and propagate religion under sure regulations.
Right to private property: Under this right all the persons may acquire,
hold and dispose property.
Right to practice any profession or to carry out any occupation, trade
or business.

The Constitution guarantees all these rights to the citizens, but in regard to
the public servants, the state regulates their personal conduct and private
relationships which tend to affect their integrity, reputation, confidence and
the dignity of the public office. So, the governments through Civil Servants
Conduct Rules and Codes prescribed and regulated the required behaviour
from the public employees. The relationship flanked by the government and
the civil servants rests on contractual basis. Any breach of the code, conduct
rules and the contract leads to dissimilar kinds of punishment, dismissal from
service. Though, the imposition of these restrictions is not an abrogation of
their fundamental rights or an invasion of fundamental rights.

CIVIL RIGHTS

Right to Private Trade and Employment

With regard to civil servants, civil life, the state regulates their conduct and
private relationship in so far as they tend to affect their integrity and
reputation. In view of this, sure restrictions are placed on an official‟s right to
take part in private business. In mainly cases, it is positively forbidden for an
official to have any business dealings in the fields with which he/she comes
into get in touch with in the ordinary course of his/her duties. The temptations
which might arise could place an unreasonable strain on one‟s integrity,
particularly if his official duties require him to control sure branches of
business. So, sure restrictions, limitations are imposed through the Civil
Service Regulations. Except with the previous permission of the government,
no civil servant can engage in trade or business or in support of the business
owned or supervised through any members of the family.

American government restricts the personal right of civil servants in the

sense that they cannot coach anybody either individually or in group in order
to prepare him/her for taking the competitive examinations for entry into
government service. It is improper for any government servant to be
associated with any such programme either through way of tuition or in any
other manner. The government servants cannot accept the membership of such
societies, institutions or clubs which oblige their members to go on strike in
pursuance of their objectives. But with the framework of the rules the federal
employees have the right to petition to the Congress either individually or
collectively.

In France the civil servants enjoy civic rights more than any other country.
They may join any political party. They have the right to strike. These rights
have wide and far-reaching consequences. The government servants in India,
U.K. and U.S.A. do not have such rights.

Right to Contract
Freedom of contract is a fundamental right of the citizens. In view of the
integrity and impartiality, for the civil service this right to contract is
restricted. Such as they are not allowed to:
Engage in any speculative investment,
Permit trade through any member of their family,
Lend money to any person living in the locality of their authority,
Borrow money from, any other person with whom they are likely to
have official dealings.

Further, they are required to take prior permission of the government for
purchase and disposal of their properties exceeding sure limits.

Right to Vindication of his Acts or Character

In parliamentary democracy where the civil servants are expected to be in
the background and where they are supposed to be neutral, the minister holds
responsibility for the commissions and omissions of the civil servants. As
such, in India, the civil servants are precluded from taking recourse to a law
court or to the press for the vindication of any of their official acts which has
been subject matter of adverse criticism or attach of defamatory character.
Though, in France, the civil servants have the right to file suits in the courts
against such administrative decisions which have an adverse impact on the
communal interests of the civil service and in the event of violation of rules
and norms of personnel administration. The government employees are also
required to so manage their personal affairs as to avoid habitual indebtedness
of insolvency as it affects their own reputation as well as the government.

Subscriptions and Gifts

Civil servants are not allowed to ask for or accept any contributions or
associating themselves with the raising of any fund in pursuance of any object.
It was declared that in the interest of maintaining the efficiency and integrity
of government employees, it is essential to prevent them from soliciting or
getting funds for any purpose unconnected with his office. Public employees
also cannot accept any gifts. Even their family members are also not permitted
to accept any such gifts. They have to report to the government when they
accept any gifts and seek permission of the government to accept them.

FREEDOM OF SPEECH AND EXPRESSION

In the Commonwealth countries of Australia, Canada, England and India,

the Civil servants have to seek prior permission of the competent authorities
for publishing a book or article or for speaking to general audiences. Though,
Australia takes a somewhat more lenient attitude towards the violation of these
norms through its civil servants than Canada, India or England. In the United
States of America the Hatch Act of 1939 allowed its federal employees to
express their views on political subjects, rather than only to express them
privately. Though, at the same time, it proclaimed that the Act was planned to
prohibit the same activities that the Civil Service Commission measured
legitimate under 1907 Regulations, which allowed only private expression.
The second Hatch Act of 1940 extended these regulations to positions in state
employment and allowed public employees to express their opinion on
„candidates‟ as well as on political subjects.

A French official outside his office can criticize the government and
express views contrary to the general policy of government. But he cannot
express personal criticism directed towards the work of the scrupulous service
to which he belongs. Likewise in Germany, outside the service a public
servant can express his personal opinions on political questions also. He
cannot adopt a standpoint which is in opposition to the government. But he
necessity has a sure regard for his position. The law of 1953 obliges him to
exercise that moderation and discretion with regard to political activities
which incumbent upon him in his position as servant of the community. In
India, the Civil Servants cannot express against any policy or action of the
government. They cannot also express on any matter pertaining to politics of
parties and matters of public controversy.

Criticism of Government Policy

According to the Civil Service (Conduct) Rules in India, government
servants are not permitted to communicate anything to the press, create any
public utterance, create any statement of fact or opinion which has the effect
of an adverse criticism of any policy of the government or which leads to
embarrassing relations flanked by the internal governmental agencies and the
governments of foreign states. The employees are also forbidden from giving
any proof without prior permission to any inquiry which is not duly
authorized. The purpose of this restriction is to maintain the political neutrality
of the civil services and to keep them absent from public controversies and to
enable the civil servants to serve the government of the day with all the
loyalty.

In Britain, the civil servants have freedom to express their opinions on

non-political matters of public importance provided they do not direct their
activities towards any party politics. In U. S. A. the government may restrict
the exercise through its employees of their right to criticize government
policy. The employees may be disciplined: a) if their criticism is false and is
made with actual malice, b) if criticism involves disclosure of information
which is confidential, c) if the criticism is made outside the channels
prescribed through, or is in violation of a statute, Executive order or
regulation, and d) if the criticism adversely affects job performances,
discipline, work relationships or the goals of the organization.

Speech and Expression on Political Matters

In India the civil servants are prohibited from participating in any political
activity and movement. They cannot create any public expression of their
views other than those of purely literary, scientific or artistic nature. They are
restricted from participating in any way in the editing, managing any
publication. Therefore, they are totally deprived of the freedom of press. In
Britain, the civil servants those who involve in the formulation and execution
of public policy (executive group) have no freedom of expression on political
matters. Though, the Minor and Manipulative Groups, whose duties are of
only routine character have freedom to political expression as well as activity.
Unauthorized Communication of Official Information
In U.S.A. under the Hatch Act 1939, no employee of the government can
use his official authority or influence for the political purposes. Any person
violating the provisions of this Act shall be removed from the position held
through him. In India, as per the Conduct Rules, no government servant shall
communicate directly or indirectly any official document or information,
except in the form prescribed, to any government or person to whom he is not
authorized to communicate. The official Secrets Act 1923 also lays down
service restrictions on unauthorized communication of official information.
The restrictions and severe punishments are necessitated to prevent the
employees from communicating such information to the enemy countries or to
unsocial elements or to use such information to serve the personal ends of the
employees. So, the civil servants are put under special obligation to use and
protect official information with the utmost care.

POLITICAL RIGHTS

Right to Political Activity

The right of political activities of the public servants in a democratic
government is determined through the constitutional theory of government.
Political neutrality of civil servants has been regarded as one of the cardinal
circumstances for the success of a democratic government. The parliamentary
form of government demands from civil service not only neutrality and
unimpeachable but also integrity and impartiality to conduct. The question of
rights to engage in political activities in U.K. was referred through the
government to Master man Committee in 1948. As per the recommendations
of the committee and in consultation with the employees a set of regulations
were issued in 1953. While the concept of political neutrality has been kept
intact, particularly of the higher civil service, a distinction has been drawn
flanked by national and local political activities. The civil servants have been
classified into (a) the politically free group (b) the politically restricted group
and (c) those who are allowed to participate in national political activity,
subject to permission.

In regard to local political activities, barring those civil servants who are
required to obtain permission for participation, all others allowed to take part
in those activities. A civil servant in the politically free group who is
contesting for parliament is obliged to submit his resignation before
nomination. He is entitled to be reinstated in the post whether he is elected to
parliament or not. All staff in the intermediate and restricted groups who have
not been given permission to engage in any of the political activities is
expected at all times to maintain a reserve in political matters and not to put
themselves forward prominently on one side or the other. In U.S.A.
regulations are laid down on the political activities of public employees. They
prohibited the following activities:
Serving as a candidate or alternate to a political party convention,
Solicitation or handling political contributions,
Engaging in electioneering,
Being a candidate for elective political office,
Leading or speaking to partisan political meetings or rallies.

In India, the government servants, under the Conduct Rules are not free to
indicate the manner in which they propose to vote or have voted. They are
forbidden to canvass or use their influence in an election to any legislature or
local authority. The government servants are not expected to attend election
meetings organised through any political party except in the official capability.
They cannot stand for election to the parliament or to state legislature. They
are required to resign in order to contest elections. Therefore, in India, the civil
servants are debarred from taking part in politics. They cannot be members of
any political party nor even subscribe or assist any political movement or
activity. In several democratic countries with sure exceptions, right to political
activities of the civil servants are restricted in one way or the other. They can
exercise only the right to vote. The restrictions imposed on the rights of
political activities will only show the nature of the democratic government and
the expected role of the public employees in the government. It is a part of the
evolutionary procedure of the government.

Right to Contest Elections

France has the mainly liberal electoral laws. Irrespective of the stages all
French Civil Servants are allowed to run for any representative office in the
country. Throughout their tenure in the representative assembly they continue
to be on the public service rolls and enjoy their seniority and pension rights.
Germany and Australia have a great deal of liberalism in this respect. In
Germany and Australia public servants have to resign their positions in public
service after their election. Though, if they lose in the election or else intend to
return to public service after the expiry of their term in the legislature they
enjoy the privilege of re-instatement to a position equivalent to their previous
positions in the public service.

England follows dissimilar methods as per the recommendations of

Masterman Committee. The whole public service has been divided into three
categories. Of the total employees in the state service, 62 per cent including
Industrial Staff and mainly of the Non-Industrial Staff have no restrictions on
their political activities; clerical staff, typists and some minor technical staff
representing 22 per cent may with the approval of their departmental
authorities, take part in all political activities, except contesting for election to
parliament. The executive and higher staff representing 16 per cent is debarred
from any political activity, but may be granted permission to engage in local
political activity.

The electoral rights of civil servants in Canada are relatively more liberal
than U.K. The federal public servant in Canada may apply to the Public
Service Commission for a leave of absence without pay for seeking political
nomination of federal, provincial or territorial legislature. If a civil servant
elected, he ceases to be a public employee. In the United States of America the
Hatch Act of 1939 and 1940 regulates the political activities of the federal and
to a limited extent those of provincial and local civil servants. Though, they
are allowed to run in the local elections so long as their participation in local
politics does not affect their efficiency. In Italy and Spain, the public servant if
elected to Parliament is granted indefinite leave of absence and if he ceases to
be a member of Parliament, he is entitled either to return to his post or if he is
too old he can retire from service. In Denmark, Sweden and Austria the civil
servants can remain in office and also can sit in parliament. In these countries
precaution is taken that no civil servant contests in the area of where he had
worked last.

TRADE UNION RIGHTS

Right to Association
The public servants in Australia and France enjoy the right to association
with trade unions. In Canada, India, Germany and England sure restrictions
are imposed upon public servants‟ right to association. In Germany its Civil
Servants may join or form only those associations whose objectives are in
keeping the objectives of existing constitutional order only. In Canada and
England the public servants are not allowed to associate with outside unions.
In India the right to association has been guaranteed to every citizen. Public
Servants, so, are free to form associations or join associations already in
subsistence, but the government would consult or negotiate with only those
associations which have been recognized through it. In United States the
public employees are legally free to form associations and unions and to
associate themselves with outside associations or organisations.
Right to Strike
Whether the civil servant‟s right to strike is granted or not, this right is
exercised widely in India, France, Canada, Australia, America and in England.
In England the public servants are not denied the right to strike under the law.
In France they have the right to strike. In Germany, though, public servants
right to strike does not exist under the law. The penalties for violating the law
contain loss of one‟s job. In India all non-industrial public servants are denied
the right to strike the law. The public employees in America do not have right
to strike, under the provisions of the Act of 1947 strikes through the
Government Servants had been declared illegal. In all the countries, wherever
the employees go on illegal strikes, penalties or punishments are awarded as
per the disciplinary or Conduct Rules.

SERVICE RIGHTS

Civil Service has a special relationship with its government when

compared to the relationship flanked by employer and employee in private
employment. The civil service enjoys good prospects of public employment
like the security of tenure, career, service facilities, super annuity benefits. On
the other it maintains relations with the public in whom the state sovereignty
lies. As such the civil service occupies a key position in the government. So,
the state gives sure service rights to the employees to enable them to discharge
their rightful job in the right manner.

Appointment
Today, the public employer in democratic countries guarantees equal
protection of the laws to all citizens seeking public employment. Though,
under the constitutional provisions or executive orders sure „reservations‟ are
made to the minorities and backward communities and socially weak. The
judiciary has viewed such representative public services as desirable. Though,
the principle of equality of opportunity cannot be denied through the
procedure of selection. But, discriminatory law in respect of residential
qualifications, age, language, etc., may be enacted through the state.
Therefore, in India, reservations are provided in public employment of SCs
and STs. The state is empowered to require every able-bodied person within
its jurisdiction to work for a reasonable period for “public purposes” such as
Defence services, Home guards, social services etc. Public employees are
expected to serve anywhere under any circumstances prescribed through the
government.
Life Tenure
Public employment is more attractive due to its life tenure and prestige
attached to it. Though, the sovereign employer enjoys the pleasure to
terminate, dismiss the services of any employee, without assigning any
reasons for such type of action. The principle of „throughout the pleasure of
the government‟ has now been converted in practice into „throughout the good
behaviour‟. So, only in cases of „misconduct‟, gross negligence or
incompetence this provision in exorcised. Otherwise the civil service in
general, remains in service, irrespective of change of the governments.
Therefore, the stability of service under the dissimilar rules of the government
is ensured. The civil servants are also entitled to sure privileges, facilities,
allowances, advancements and promotions under the rules prescribed from
time to time. The government cannot alter the circumstances of their service to
the disadvantage of the employees except through changing the existing Laws
and Rules.

Although the service tenure of all government employees is at the pleasure

of the government, normally, they hold office throughout the good behaviour
and their conditions of service are regulated through Executive Rules and
Administrative orders. Such of the Rules and Orders are issued subject to the
provisions of the constitution. Sometimes the government is required to
consult the public service commission for their opinion. So, the governments
cannot create rules and change rules without constitutional authority. The
government is further required to place these rules and regulations on the
Table of the Legislature for their approval. Therefore, the civil servants enjoy
privileges and rights guaranteed through the constitution. The civil servants
are not at the mercy of the executive government without changing the
existing rules.

Procedural safeguards in the event of removal or dismissal

The constitution and the rules framed under the provisions of the
constitution gives sure significant procedural safeguards to prevent any
injustice. Any punishment can be imported on the civil servant only according
to prescribed procedure, which is laid down in India under Classification,
Control and Appeal Rules (CCA Rules). As per the Rules no civil servant can
be removed or dismissed through an authority subordinate to the one who
appointed him. No one can be removed or dismissed until the civil servant has
been given a reasonable opportunity of showing cause against the action
proposed to be taken. Compulsory retirement before the age of superannuation
is not measured removal or dismissal as there is no substantial loss of accrued
service benefits like pension etc.
JOINT CONSULTATIVE MACHINERY
DEVELOPMENT OF JOINT CONSULTATIVE MACHINERY

It was the introduction of „ Whitley‟s‟ in 1919 in the British Civil Service

Staff relations hailed through many countries as the novel method in the area
of human relations. The Whitley system which involves formal as well as
informal consultations and negotiations leading to agreement or arbitration has
been an instance followed in a large number of countries of the British
Commonwealth with sure modifications. The staff relations in the British Civil
Service are maintained through Whitley council‟s method. The Civil Service
National Whitley Council is responsible for joint consultation on
circumstances of service affecting civil servants in general irrespective of the
department to which they belong. The Departmental Whitley Councils are
responsible for staff matters within their departments. Local Whitley
Committees discuss matters affecting the local working circumstances and
day-to-day troubles.

The Government of India and the organisations of employees struggled

almost for three decades to have staff relations on the pattern of Whitley
Councils in the U. K. The issue was first raised in 1928 and again in 1942. The
Royal Commission on Labour in 1931 recommended the establishment of a
joint standing machinery for Railways. Though, the Home Department did not
accept the proposals, in spite of the favorable attitude of the Labour
Department. The government referred the matter to the Central (First) Pay
Commission in 1946 to enquire on “The machinery for negotiating and setting
the questions relating to circumstances of service which may arise out of
differences flanked by government and its employees”. The Commission
recommended (1947) the establishment of Joint Councils for employees,
excluding those in Class I, on the lines of Whitely machinery. The
Commission also recommended arbitration in regard to Class II and Class III
Services resort to ad hoc tribunals on the lines of Civil Services Arbitration
Board in United Kingdom. Though, the Railways and the P&T were not
incorporated in this Scheme as they were sheltered through the Industrial
Disputes Act, 1947.

Though the government decided to establish a Whitely scheme in 1952, it

was only in 1954 that all the Ministries of the Government of India were asked
to set up Staff Committees/Staff Councils. Though, the scheme was not
extended to the Railways, P&T and the Ministry of Defence. The employees
of these departments were measured as industrial employees. In these
departments, staff relations were evolved independent of others. Permanent
Negotiating Machinery (PNM) was recognized in Railways in 1952, Monthly
Meetings were introduced in P&T in 1949 and Joint Negotiating Machinery
was set up in Defence in 1954.
Staff Committees/Councils
As per the directions of the government each Ministry was required to
establish two separate Staff Committees one for staff other than Class IV and
another for Class IV employees to secure the greatest measure of cooperation
flanked by the government and its employees. The Staff Committees were
advisory bodies. The Staff Committee in respect of other than Class IV
employees consists of:
A Chairman, who was Secretary or Joint Secretary of the Ministry,
nominated through the Ministry.
Government representative were nominated through the Ministry from
its officers not below the rank of Under Secretary.
The staff was represented through one member each for every 20
members employed in the Ministry in the grade of Section Officer,
Assistant, Stenographer and Clerk, elected from amongst the members
of that grade for a period of one year.
The Chairman in consultation with the representatives of the staff,
nominated one of them as Secretary of the Committee.

With regard to the Staff Committee of Class IV employees.

A Deputy Secretary of the Ministry was nominated to act as the
Chairman of the Committee.
The Ministry nominates its representatives on the Committee not
below the rank of an Assistant.
The members of the staff were represented through one representative
each for every 20 members from the groups consisting of Record
Sorters, Jacamars, Peons, Farrashers, Chowkidars and Sweepers. They
were elected for a period of one year from amongst the members of
grades in each group employed in the Ministry.
The Secretary was nominated through the Chairman from amongst the
Staff representatives for a period of one year.

Both the Committees were to meet at least once in three months. The
quorum for a meeting was one-third of the representatives of the members of
the staff. Discussions were held in the meetings on agenda circulated in
advance. The decisions were recorded and sent to the concerned Ministry for
necessary action.

Objectives and Functions

The objectives of the Staff Committees were:
To consider suggestions for providing the standards of work,
 To give a machinery to the staff for creation their points of view
recognized to the Government on matters affecting their circumstances
of service, and
To give means on personal contacts flanked by officers and staff in
order to develop cordial relations flanked by them and to encourage
them to take keen interest in their work.

The functions of the Committees were to discuss matters relating to the

circumstances under which the staff was required to work, general principles
regulating circumstances of service, the welfare of the staff and improvement
of efficiency and standards of work. Discussions on individual cases were not
permitted. The working of the Staff Committees proved to be unsatisfactory.
The troubles faced through several Ministries were that in the majority of the
cases, decisions could not be arrived within the Ministries and the
recommendations of the Committees very often had to be referred to the
Ministries of Home Affairs, Finance, Works, Housing and Supply for their
clarification and clearance. In 1957, the Cabinet appointed a Sub-committee to
review the functioning of Staff Committees. On the recommendations of the
Sub-committee, some instructions were given to all the Ministries to:
Re-name the Staff Committees as Staff Councils.
Dispose quickly the references emanating from the Staff Councils
through the House Keeping Ministries.
Refer unresolved matters to a Coordinating Committee consisting of
representatives of Ministries of Home Affairs, Finance, Works,
Housing and Supply.
Explore the possibilities of delegating more powers to the
administrative Ministries to avoid delay in creation references to
house-keeping agencies.
Appoint a Chief Welfare Officer in the Home Ministry and a Welfare
Officer in each Ministry.

As per the decisions of the Cabinet Sub-committee the Staff Committees

were renamed as Staff Councils without any change in their constitution,
objects and the rules of procedure. A Coordinating Committee consisting of
representatives of the Ministry of Home Affairs, Finance, Works, Housing and
Supply and the concerned ministry was constituted to decide matters which
remained unresolved in the Staff Councils. The Ministry administratively
concerned with Staff Councils decide what matters should be brought before
the Coordinating Committee. The Staff Councils throughout their subsistence
(1954-59) made several recommendations. Mainly of them were accepted and
implemented through dissimilar Ministries. But they were unimportant items
like water coolers, transport facilities, grant of leave, office uniforms, canteen
facilities, dispensaries and first aid boxes etc. Neither the machinery of
administration was improved nor the significant grievances of the employees
were redressed. The Second Pay Commission report observed “due to lack of
will on the part of the Government to accept the principles of joint
consultation failed as an effective instrument for prevention of the disputes.”

So, the Second Pay Commission proposed that “the situation required the
establishment of machinery which fully in spirit and largely in form followed
the Whitley Machinery in the United Kingdom”. Therefore, the Staff
Committees and Councils had “little in common with the Whitley Machinery”
and failed to square up with the real Whitley spirit. In India, the government
civil employees have not shown any extra ordinary preference for a joint
consultative machinery. On the other, the government did not consult the
organisations of the employees when it introduced the Staff Committees and
Councils. It was a unilateral attempt for a bilateral purpose. The Whitley cause
also could not be served in the absence of arbitration machinery for resolving
the disputed matters. Further, due to their advisory nature the scope of the
Staff Committees/Councils and their activities were much restricted and the
way in which they were handled through the officers further limited their
utility. There was no Central Joint Staff Council like the National Whitley
Council to consider issues of common and general application to all the
employees of the Ministries. As the Civil Service Unions/Associations were
not involved, the organised sections of employees declared no faith, rejected
the Councils and measured them as “merely eye-wash”. The officials at the
top stage were responsible for the ineffective functioning of Staff Councils for
want of Whitley thinking. The staff representatives on the
Committees/Councils lacked the necessary leadership to represent their views
effectively. In actual practice, they merely acted as forums for the staff to
ventilate their grievances and put forward them to the nominees of the
government in the Staff Councils.

EMERGENCE OF JOINT CONSULTATIVE MACHINERY (J.C.M.)

AND COMPULSORY ARBITRATION SCHEME

As already stated, the Second Pay Commission recommended (1957), a

Whitley kind machinery for the whole body of Central Government
employees, both industrial and non-industrial to negotiate disputes. A special
Committee of the Central Joint Council dealt with matters peculiar to the
industrial employees. The Commission also recommended, compulsory
arbitration, as a necessary compliment to the joint machinery for negotiation in
matters of pay and allowances, weekly hours of work and leave. In 1960, the
Central Government employees went on strike for five days from July 11-16.
One of their demands was the establishment of joint consultative machinery
(J.C.M.). Immediately, the Government decided to set up the J.C.M. and
proposed a scheme. Accordingly, three-tier machinery with joint consultation
at the Central, the Departmental and local/local stages as supplementary to
existing arrangements was proposed. The scheme sheltered all the civil
employees of the Central Government including the P&T Department, Civil
Aviation Department and the Ministry of Defence.

The Scheme proposed an arbitration tribunal with a limited compulsory

arbitration provision. The government throughout 1960-61 proposed to bring
two bills before the Parliament to provide statutory effect to the proposed
J.C.M. and ban strikes through government employees. The employees‟
organisations protected against the proposals of the government and refused to
provide up right to strike and disassociate outsiders from their organisations.
After discussions flanked by the government and the employees organisations
the Government of India decided in 1963 to introduce a scheme for joint
consultative machinery and compulsory arbitration. On several characteristics
of the scheme the employee‟s organisations expressed doubts and opposed
sure proposals of the government. The government wanted to bring all the
employees (including industrial employees) under one umbrella. So, there
were discussions on several occasions at all stages for three years and all the
doubts were clarified and there was a general consensus that a fair trial be
given to the scheme. Therefore, the Joint Consultative Machinery and
Compulsory Arbitration Scheme for Central Government Employees were
inaugurated on October 28,1966. The inauguration of the Scheme of J.C.M.
was measured “opening of a new chapter” and hoped that the relationship of
Governments with its employees would enter a new era of more fruitful
cooperation.

THE SALIENT CHARACTERISTICS OF J.C.M. SCHEME

The Scheme was intended “with the object of promoting harmonious

relations and securing the greatest measure of cooperation flanked by the
government and its employees in matters of common concern, and with the
further object of rising the efficiency of the public service combined with the
well-being of those employed” The Scheme is a voluntary one. The
government and the employees unions and associations who participate in the
scheme are required to subscribe to a Declaration of Joint Intent. Accordingly,
both the sides (the government and the staff associations and unions) agreed to
a full and frank discussions on all matters in the Joint Councils to reach
agreements.

The unique characteristic of the Scheme is its coverage of both industrial

and non-industrial of the government. In this regard it differs from the Whitley
System which is concerned with only non-industrial civil service. Another
variation is that the J.C.M. Scheme does not cover “the class I, class II
services, employees of industrial establishment and the union territories and
police personnel” Yet another variation is that the fundamental objective of
Whitley System viz., to give machinery for dealing with grievances and to
bring together experience and points of view of representatives of dissimilar
classes and grades of civil service is not stated in the J.C.M. Scheme.

The J.C.M. gives for a three-tier structure and Joint Councils at the
National, Departmental, Local/Office stages. The J.C.M. Scheme is a bi-
partite body consisting of the representatives of the government (official side)
and the representations of the recognized employee‟s organisations (staff
side). The official side is nominated through the government and the staff side
seats allocated to dissimilar associations/unions/federations recognized
through the government. The Scheme broadly covers about 3 million regular
class III and IV civil employees of the Central Government including
industrial employees working in the departmentally run undertakings like the
Railways and workshops and production units of several ministries. Though
the Indian J.C.M. Scheme was modeled after the Whitley System in U.K., the
Indian Scheme could not inculcate in its scheme, the spirit and the long
experience of the Whitley system. It is more a joint consultative machinery
than a bi-partite participative agency.

THE FUNCTIONS OF COUNCILS

The Joint Councils deal with all matters concerning the circumstances of
work, standards of work, efficiency and staff welfare. Though, in matters of
recruitment, promotion and discipline, consultation is limited only to matters
of general principles and individual cases are not measured. The Councils may
appoint Committees to revise and report on any matter falling within their
scope. All the agreements reached flanked by the official and staff sides of a
council will become operative subject to the final authority of the Cabinet. If
the matter is arbitral and a final disagreement was to be recorded it may be
referred to arbitration, if either side desires so. Though, compulsory arbitration
is not accessible at local/office council stage.

National Council
The National Council is the apex body. It is one of the largest joint
councils consisting of 85 members. The official side with a maximum
membership of 25 is nominated through the government. The staff side is
nominated through the recognized federations/unions/associations of the
employees. The seats are distributed flanked by the
federations/unions/associations through the Chairman of the council. The
sharing of seats is based on the numerical strength of staff employed in each
Ministry/Department. The Cabinet Secretary is the Chairman of the Council.
He is the leader of the official side and is connecting link flanked by the
government and the employees.

The staff side elects one of its members as a leader through simple
majority for a term of one year. The official and staff sides appoint Secretaries
from amongst their representatives. There is a permanent secretariat of the
council, which functions under the control of the Chairman. The National
Council deals with matters usually affecting Central Government Employees,
such as minimum remuneration, dearness allowance, and pay of sure common
categories like the office clerks, peons, and the lower grade of workshops and
matters relating to categories of staff common to two or more departments but
not grouped into one departmental council. The National Council would not
deal with matters pertaining to a single department.

The National Council ordinarily may meet as often as necessary but not
less than once in four months. A special meeting may be convened through the
Chairman on his own or at the request of either official or staff side. The
quorum for a meeting is one-third of the individual strength of the official and
staff side. The National Council may constitute two Standing Committees one
for the industrial employees and the other for the non-industrial staff to deal
with their respective matters. The Council may delegate any of its powers to
the Standing Committees for the quick disposal of its business. The Council
and the Committees may also appoint Sub-committees from amongst their
members to revise and report on any matters falling within its jurisdiction.

A matter once disposed of through the council cannot be brought to the

agenda throughout the following 12 months, unless the Chairman permits it
for any special cause. All matters should be decided through the council
without reserving them for a later decision through the government. The
success or failure of the J.C.M. Schemes mainly depends upon the success or
failure of the functioning of the National Council. For, the National Council is
expected to function as a machinery to redress grievances at the national stage
dealing with matters affecting all the employees of the Central Government.
Since its inception in 1966 it had held 25 meetings till the end of 1988. Over a
period of 22 years of its subsistence if could withstand all the troubles though
it had some failures. In the initial years, the council could not reach sure
agreements and the employees went on a day‟s token strike in September 1968
protesting against unhelpful attitude of the government. Due to the strike
several of the employee‟s organisations were derecognized for a couple of
years. So, the National Council could not meet with full strength. Though, the
council and its Committees were very active throughout 1974-76 to consider
the recommendations of the Third Pay Commission.
 Though the National Council could not succeed in achieving all its
objectives, it acted effectively as a machinery for dealing with the grievances
of the employees and reduces the amount of disagreement with the
government. Though, the National Council has come to stay and has taken
roots to give a system of joint consultation and cooperation.

Departmental Councils
Under the J.C.M. Scheme there is one Departmental Council for each
Department The scope and functions of these councils contain all matters
relating to the circumstances of service and work, welfare of the employees,
improvement of efficiency and standard of work. Councils deal with the
troubles of employees working in a Ministry/Department and the subordinate
and attached offices of the department. According to the J.C.M. Scheme 21
Departmental Councils are to be constituted in several departments. Till 1974,
only 14 Departmental Councils were constituted. In the initial period it
became hard to constitute the Departmental Councils for want of recognized
unions/associations.

The Secretary of the Ministry represents the official side and is the
Chairman of the Departmental Council. The official side is nominated through
the government or the Head of the Department. The strength of the official
side is Ten. The Chairman may invite temporary members and experts to the
meetings for their advice. The Associations/Unions recognized through the
Department nominate their representatives for a term of three years on the
staff side. The staff side elects one of its members as its leader for a period of
one year. There is a permanent secretariat of the council under the control of
the Chairman. The membership of the staff side varies from Twenty to Thirty
depending on the total strength of the employees and the number of grades and
services in the department. The Departmental Councils ordinarily meet as
often as necessary and not less than once in three or four months. The quorum
is one-third of each of the strength of the official and staff sides. The Councils
may appoint Committees on ad hoc basis.

Local/Office Councils
The J.C.M. Scheme permits the departments for the setting up of
Local/Office Councils, where it is possible. The Councils deal with only local
or local matters. The strength of a local/office council is determined through
the size of the staff in a region or office. The Head of the region or office is
the Chairman of the Council. The J.C.M. Scheme is silent about the
constitution and the number of councils. Much progress is not recorded in the
establishment of the councils, as there are some doubts in the minds of the
Departmental authorities. The matters to be discussed are limited to subjects
within the competence of Joint Secretary (Administration) of a
Ministry/Department such as revision of duty hours, sharing of work,
accommodation, amenities, holiday duties, etc. The Office Council consists of
not more than five members on the official side and eight members on the staff
side. The Joint Secretary (Administration) is the Chairman of the Council and
the Under-Secretary (Welfare) is the Secretary of the official side. The staff
side is nominated through the recognized associations of the staff. The staff
side elects its leader for a period of one year and appoints a Secretary from
amongst its members. The office council meets at least once in two months.
The quorum is 1/3 of the members of each side. It may appoint committees to
revise and report. If the council cannot arrive at an agreement on any issue it
may be brought before the Departmental Council concerned. Arbitration is not
accessible at office council stage in case of disagreement flanked by two sides.
To realize the full objectives of J.C.M. Scheme, setting up of local/office
councils is very significant. For, they are the training fields to the
representatives of the staff and official sides and give grassroots to the J.C.M.
Scheme. Though, much progress is not achieved in establishing these councils
for want of organization of employees and positive attitude of officials at the
local stages.

BOARD OF ARBITRATION

Compulsory arbitration is a part of the scheme for Joint Consultation

Machinery and Compulsory Arbitration for Central Government Employees.
The government is required to appoint a Board of Arbitration under clause 19
of the scheme. The Board consists of three members, one is drawn from a
panel of five names submitted through the official side, second from a similar
panel submitted through the staff side of the National Council, and the third a
Chairman, who is an independent. The Chairman and the members are
selected through the Ministry of Labour. The first Board of Arbitration was
recognized in July 1968. The jurisdiction of the arbitration matters is limited
to: a) pay and allowance b) weekly hours of work and c) leave of „a class or
grade of employees‟. Individual cases are not subject to compulsory
arbitration. Guidelines are laid down for the Board of Arbitration to arrive at
decisions and its jurisdiction in sure matters is barred. Further, matters
determined through the government in accordance with the recommendations
of a commission are not arbitral for a period of five years from the date of the
recommendations and orders issued through the Government in pursuance of
the recommendations of the Board of Arbitration remain in operation for three
years. The recommendations of the Board of Arbitration are binding on both
the sides but the Parliament may modify or reject them on grounds of national
economy or social justice.
 In the very first and second meetings of the National Council the
government rejected to refer to the compulsory arbitration the major demands
of the staff side like the „need‟ based minimum wage, and merger of D. A.
with vital pay. On this issue the employees went on a day‟s token strike on
16th September 1968 much against the Declaration of Joint Intent. Throughout
1968-88, a total number of about 200 references were made to the Board of
Arbitration and it gave 175 awards. In more than 150 cases the staff side either
fully or partially benefited. The number of employees benefited due to the
awards of the Board of Arbitration runs into millions. Mainly of the cases
referred were pertained to pay scales and allowances. The arbitration awards
clearly favored the claims of the staff side. In a way, compulsory, arbitration
in India contributed to development of harmonious staff relations in the
Government of India.

REVIEW QUESTIONS
What are the several meanings of Motivation?
What are the objectives of Motivation?
Analyse the objectives of employees unions.
Discuss the growth of employee unions in post-Independence period.
discuss the restrictions imposed through the government in exercise of
the rights through Public Servants.
Explain the need for harmonious staff relations.
Explain the development of Joint Consultative Machinery in
Government of India.
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