Each year a committee appointed by the Unione Matematica Italiana, called “Pro-

getto Olimpiadi della Matematica”, organizes the selection process of the Italian
team for the International Mathematical Olympiad. The program is sponsored by
the Italian Ministry of Public Education (Ministero della Pubblica Istruzione) and
is actively supported by a large number of mathematics teachers throughout the
country. The selection process consists of four steps:
1. I giochi di Archimede: this is a popular competition (with about 300,000 par-
ticipants) held in November. The students take the test in their own schools.
It consists of 16 to 20 multiple choice questions, which are meant to be suit-
able for a large number of students and mainly require ingenuity rather than
technical ability. This competition has two levels: junior (ages 14-16) and
senior (ages 16-19).
2. Gara di secondo livello: this competition is held in February in about one hun-
dred locations in Italy. Only the best students from “I giochi di Archimede”
are admitted. The test contains three kinds of problems: multiple choice ques-
tions, problems that require a numerical answer, and problems that require a
mathematical proof.
3. Olimpiadi Italiane di Matematica: this competition is held at the beginning of
May in Cesenatico, a town on the Adriatic coast, among the 300 best students
of level 2. Students are invited for a three day event, but the competition
itself is held on just one day. The test contains 6 problems that require a
mathematical proof. At the end there is an award ceremony in the style of
the IMO.
4. Practice for the Team Selection: the best 25 students from the previous level
are invited to a week long practice, usually held at the end of May. The
practice ends with the Team Selection Test, a two day competition in the
style of the Olympiads.
This booklet collects all the problems given during the selection process for the 2016
I.M.O. in Hong Kong. For the problems in the first two sections we only include
the answers and some sketches of the required proofs. We provide full solutions for
all the problems from the “Olimpiadi Italiane di Matematica”.

Pavia, 16 June 2016 Ludovico Pernazza

chairman of the Committee
Progetto Olimpiadi della Matematica
I Giochi di Archimede
25 November 2015
Problems for junior students
1 Laura owns 200 custom-made dice: each die has four sides showing the number
2 and two sides showing the number 5. Laura is about to throw all 200 dice
together then find the sum of all 200 results. How many possible values of this
sum are there?
(A) 201 (B) 1000 (C) 601 (D) 600 (E) 1001
2 Giovanni wants to repaint all 4 walls and the ceiling of his room. He has red
paint, yellow paint, and blue paint (which he cannot mix), and wants to paint his
room so that adjacent walls (or ceiling) are never of the same color. In how many
ways can Giovanni paint his room?
(A) 18 (B) 4 (C) 12 (D) 9 (E) 6
3 Andrea, Beatrice, Chiara, Davide, Enea, and Federico are good friends. Their
average age is 14. If three more of Enea’s friends join them, the average age of the
group becomes 16. What is the average age of Enea’s three friends?
(A) 16 (B) 20 (C) 19 (D) 17 (E) 18
7
4 What is the last digit of 3(8 ) ?
(A) 1 (B) 7 (C) 3 (D) 9 (E) 5
5 Giulio knows that his sock drawer contains 20 black socks, 32 blue socks, 44
gray socks, and 24 brown socks, all of the same shape and all mixed together. He
is about to go on a trip and wants to take at least two pairs of matching socks of
two different colors (both socks in each pair must be of the same color, but the two
pairs must be of different colors). Since it is dark and he cannot tell the colors
apart, he randomly grabs a bunch of socks. How many socks will he need to pack,
at least, to be sure that he has two matching pairs of two different colors?
(A) 77 (B) 6 (C) 68 (D) 48 (E) 24
6 At a party every boy danced with 4 different girls, and every girl danced with 3
different boys. There were 9 boys at the party. How many girls were there?
(A) 6 (B) 10 (C) 12 (D) 8 (E) 16
7 The triangle ABC has area 832 cm2 . D is the midpoint of AB, E is the
midpoint of BC, and F is the midpoint of AE. What is the area of the triangle
DEF , in cm2 ?
(A) 78 (B) 156 (C) 104 (D) 124
(E) the data is insufficient to find the answer
8 What is the 2015th digit after the decimal point of the decimal representation
of 3/7?
(A) 7 (B) 1 (C) 5 (D) 2 (E) 4
9 Carlo has forgotten the lock code of his phone. He only remembers that it has
2

four digits and that the product of its digits is 18. How many different codes
satisfy these conditions?
(A) 32 (B) 36 (C) 40 (D) 60 (E) 24
10 40! is the number obtained by multiplying all integers from 1 to 40:
40! = 1 · 2 · 3 · 4 · ... · 38 · 39 · 40. Find the sum of the five smallest numbers that are
greater that 40 and divide 40!.
(A) 225 (B) 215 (C) 219 (D) 217 (E) 223
11 The package of a confectionery product lists the following ingredients: sugar,
palm oil, hazelnut 14%, cocoa powder, milk 6%. All ingredients are listed in
order, so that no ingredient is present in greater quantity than any ingredients
listed before it. What is the maximum possible percentage of palm oil that the
candy may contain?
(A) 21% (B) 14% (C) 80% (D) 40% (E) 37%
12 An island is populated exclusively by knights, who always tell the truth, and
knaves, who always lie. During a meeting, all persons present sit around a large
table and each one declares, “The person sitting to my right is a knave.” Knowing
that there are less than 100 knights at the meeting, which of the following answers
could be the number of people attending the meeting?
(A) 208 (B) 85 (C) 153 (D) 168 (E) 205

13 The squares of a grid are initially colored as shown in the

figure to the side. One move consists of choosing one row or
column and inverting the colors of all the squares in it. Which of
the following configurations cannot be obtained in 10 moves?
(A) (B) (C) (D) (E)

14 The pentagon ABCDE has right angles in A, C, E. We also know that

AB = 15 m, BC = 12 m, CD = 5 m, DE = 20 m. What is the area of the
pentagon, in m2 ?
(A) 180 (B) 210 (C) 240 (D) 200 (E) 270

15 Archeologists have found a fragment of an ancient

circular plate, shown in the figure. C is the midpoint of
the line segment AB, while D is the midpoint of the arc
AB. Knowing that AB measures 24 cm and CD measures
6 cm, find the radius in centimeters of the original plate.
(A) 16 (B) 12 (C) 18 (D) 20 (E) 15
 3

16 Gianni owns 60 marbles, numbered from 1 to 60. One day he realizes he has
lost marble number 1 and decides to paint the 59 remaining ones following this
rule: every number must have the same color as all its multiples. How many colors
can Gianni use, at most, to paint the 59 marbles?
(A) 2 (B) 10 (C) 8 (D) 17 (E)
12

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
A E B A D C C A B A E D B C E C
4

Problems for senior students

1 Giulio knows that his sock drawer contains 22 black socks, 30 blue socks, 40
gray socks, and 28 brown socks, all of the same shape and all mixed together. He
is about to go on a trip and wants to take at least two pairs of matching socks of
two different colors (both socks in each pair must be of the same color, but the two
pairs must be of different colors). Since it is dark and he cannot tell the colors
apart, he randomly grabs a bunch of socks. How many socks will he need to pack,
at least, to be sure that he has two matching pairs of two different colors?
(A) 33 (B) 68 (C) 71 (D) 6 (E) 44

2 Laura owns 150 custom-made dice: each die has four sides showing the number
1 and two sides showing the number 4. Laura is about to throw all 150 dice
together then find the sum of all 150 results. How many possible values of this
sum are there?
(A) 601 (B) 450 (C) 151 (D) 600 (E) 451

3 Andrea, Beatrice, Chiara, Davide, Enea, and Federico are good friends. Their
average age is 16. If three more of Enea’s friends join them, the average age of the
group becomes 18. What is the average age of Enea’s three friends?
(A) 18 (B) 19 (C) 22 (D) 21 (E) 20

4 What is the 2015th digit after the decimal point of the decimal representation
of 4/7?
(A) 7 (B) 1 (C) 5 (D) 2 (E) 4

5 An island is populated exclusively by knights, who always tell the truth, and
knaves, who always lie. During a meeting, all persons present sit around a large
table and each one declares, “The person sitting to my left is a knave.” Knowing
that there are less than 100 knights at the meeting, which of the following answers
could be the number of people attending the meeting?
(A) 209 (B) 94 (C) 135 (D) 167 (E) 206

6 Giovanni wants to repaint all 4 walls of his room. He has red paint, yellow
paint, and blue paint (which he cannot mix), and wants to paint his room so that
adjacent walls are never of the same color. In how many ways can Giovanni paint
his room?
(A) 18 (B) 24 (C) 12 (D) 36 (E) 30

9
7 What is the last digit of 7(8 ) ?
(A) 5 (B) 3 (C) 9 (D) 7 (E) 1
 5

8 Archeologists have found a fragment of an ancient

circular plate, shown in the figure. C is the midpoint of
the line segment AB, while D is the midpoint of the arc
AB. Knowing that AB measures 30 cm and CD measures
5 cm, find the radius in centimeters of the original plate.
(A) 18 (B) 21 (C) 20 (D) 25 (E) 27
9 40! is the number obtained by multiplying all integers from 1 to 40:
40! = 1 · 2 · 3 · 4 · ... · 38 · 39 · 40. Find the sum of the six smallest numbers that are
greater that 40 and divide 40!.
(A) 268 (B) 270 (C) 261 (D) 263 (E) 274
10 The package of a confectionery product lists the following ingredients: sugar,
cocoa powder, hazelnut 16%, palm oil, milk 4%. All ingredients are listed in
order, so that no ingredient is present in greater quantity than any ingredients
listed before it. What is the maximum possible percentage of cocoa powder that
the candy may contain?
(A) 22% (B) 21% (C) 40% (D) 38% (E) 80%
11 The pentagon ABCDE, has right angles in A, C, E. We also know that
AB = 16 m, BC = 12 m, CD = 5 m, DE = 21 m. What is the area of the
pentagon, in m2 ?
(A) 270 (B) 236 (C) 240 (D) 244 (E) 252
12 Carlo has forgotten the lock code of his phone. He only remembers that it has
four digits and that the product of its digits is 24. How many different codes
satisfy these conditions?
(A) 60 (B) 48 (C) 56 (D) 64 (E) 40

13 The squares of a grid are initially colored as shown in the

figure to the side. One move consists of choosing one row or
column and inverting the colors of all the squares in it. Which of
the following configurations can be obtained in 10 moves?
(A) (B) (C) (D) (E)

14 Gianni owns 100 marbles, numbered from 1 to 100. One day he realizes he has
lost marble number 1 and decides to paint the 99 remaining ones following this
rule: every number must have the same color as all its multiples. How many colors
can Gianni use, at most, to paint the 99 marbles?
(A) 25 (B) 15 (C) 8 (D) 11 (E) 2
6

15
√ A cylindrical screw is 3 cm long and its base has radius
30/π millimeters. A tiny insect crawls on the surface of the
screw, moving along the thread. Knowing that the thread wraps
around the screw exactly 30 times, how many centimeters will
the insect travel to move from one end of the screw to the other?
(A) 32 (B) 30 (C) 33 (D) 36 (E) 31
16 A cyclist and a runner travel along the same straight road that runs from
point A to point B. Each moves at constant speed and once they reach the end of
the road they immediately turn back, traveling at the same speed as before. The
two start at the same time, the cyclist from A and the runner from B; the former
moves three times as fast as the latter. They first meet at a point 12 km from B.
What will be their distance from A, in km, when they meet the second time?
(A) 24 (B) 18 (C) 36 (D) 27
(E) the data is insufficient to find the answer
17 A triangle has an angle bisector and a median that are perpendicular to each
other, of lengths 7 and 8 respectively. What is the area of the triangle?
(A) 36 (B) 35 (C) 42 (D) 48 (E) 28

18 Tommaso, to pass the time, entertains himself by filling a 3 × 3

square grid using all numbers from 1 to 9 so that the sum of the
numbers on each row and each column is always the same. In how
many ways can Tommaso fill the grid?
(A) 72 (B) 69 (C) 64 (D) 70 (E) 75
19 A square with side length 2 m is divided into four smaller squares with sides
half the length. An ant starts on a vertex of the larger square and walks along the
sides of the smaller squares. After having traveled along all the sides of the
squares at least once, the ant returns to its starting point. How many meters will
it have traveled, at the very least?
(A) 14 (B) 16 (C) 15 (D) 12 (E) 18
20 Seven friends dine around a table. Someone must go to prepare the dessert.
The group has a rule that no pair of people sitting next to each other can leave the
table simultaneously. In how many ways can they choose the group (of one or
more people) in charge of preparing the dessert?
(A) 29 (B) 27 (C) 21 (D) 28 (E) 24

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
E C C D B A E D E D E D C D C A C A B D
Gara di secondo livello
17 February 2016
1 Five friends, Aurelio, Ennio, Flaminia, Lucia, and Regolo, dine together at a
restaurant. The bill is 180 euros and is paid by Lucia, Ennio, and Regolo, who pay
90, 57, and 33 euros respectively. What is the minimum number of transactions of
the kind “X gives n euros to Y” needed in order to have each of the five friends
contribute the same amount towards the bill?
(A) 2 (B) 3 (C) 4 (D) 5 (E) 6
2 An ancient text claims that Methuselah lived for 150 years, where the symbol
 replaces the units digit, which is unreadable. Fortunately, we have three other
manuscripts regarding the life of Methuselah; the first claims that he lived for an
even number of years, the second that the number of years he lived is a multiple of
3, the third that it is a multiple of five. Knowing that exactly one of the three claims
is false, how many different one-digit numbers might be behind the symbol ?
(A) None (B) One (C) Two (D) Three (E) Four
3 Given a real number x, the symbol bxc denotes its integer part (i.e. the largest
integer not greater than x) and {x} its fractional part (i.e. x − bxc). Let x, y, z be
positive real numbers that satisfy the following system of equations:

3bxc − {y} + {z} = 20.3

3byc + 5bzc − {x} = 15.1

{y} + {z} = 0.9


What is x + y + z?
(A) 10.8 (B) 11.1 (C) 11.6 (D) 12.8 (E) 13
4 Consider the grey surface in the figure opposite. It is de-
limited by three half-circles, the biggest one of radius 2 and
the two smaller ones of radius 1. Find the volume of the
region of 3-dimensional space which the surface traverses
when a rotation by 180 around the dashed line is applied.
2 16π 35π
(A) 3π (B) 4π (C) 3 (D) 6 (E) 6π
5 Cecilia has a six-sided die (whose faces are numbered 1 to 6) and 4 permanent
markers of different colours. She wants to paint the the 6 faces using at least three
different markers, so that, for each pair of opposite faces, one is painted a different
colour than the other. How many different ways can she colour the die?
(A) 43 · 33 (B) 36 − 26 (C) 26 · 32 (D) 24 · 3 · 5 · 7 (E) None of above
6 Let k be a positive integer. Set a1 = 1 and, for each n ≥ 1, an+1 = k(a1 + · · · +
an ) + 1 (so that, for example, a2 = ka1 + 1 and a3 = k(a1 + a2 ) + 1). What is the
smallest k such that a2016 is a multiple of 34031 · 74027 ?
(A) 1271 (B) 1322 (C) 1331 (D) 1702 (E) 2048
8

7 A polygon is said to be convex if all of its angles have amplitudes strictly less
than 180◦ . How many angles of amplitude less than 150◦ can a 2016-sided polygon
have, at most?
(A) 11 (B) 12 (C) 13 (D) 17 (E) 2016
8 Given a triangle ABC whose sides have lengths AB = 13, BC = 14, and AC = 15,
let H be the foot of the altitude relative to the side BC, M be the midpoint of BC,
and N be √the midpoint of AM√. What is the length√ of HN
√?
(A) 2 + 2 3 (B) 6 (C) 37 (D) 4 + 7 (E) 42
9 The Fibonacci sequence F1 , F2 , . . . , Fn , . . . is such that F1 = F2 = 1 and that
the n-th term (with n ≥ 3) is the sum of the two preceding ones (so that the first
few terms in the sequence are F1 = 1, F2 = 1, F3 = 2 = 1 + 1, F4 = 3 = 2 + 1,
F5 = 5 = 3 + 2). How many Fibonacci numbers are there that have exactly 2016
digits (in base 10)?
(A) At least 2, no more than 3 (B) At least 4, no more than 5
(C) At least 6, no more than 7 (D) At least 8, no more than 9
(E) 10 or more
10 Let ABCDEF be a regular hexagon of area 1. Consider all triangles whose
vertices belong to the set {A, B, C, D, E, F }: what is the total sum of their areas?
(A) 3 (B) 4 (C) 5 (D) 6 (E) 7
11 Let p(x) be a polynomial with integer coefficients such that p(0) = 6. We know
that, among all integers m between 1 and 60, exactly 40 are such that p(m) is a
multiple of 3; we also know that, among all integers m between 1 and 60, exactly
30 are such that p(m) is a multiple of 4. For how many integers m between 1 and
60 is p(m) a multiple of 6?
(A) 10 (B) 20 (C) 25 (D) 30 (E) 40
12 Alberto and Barbara play table football. Before they start, they decide that the
game will end as soon as one of them has scored 3 more goals than the other. Given
that at any time the two have equal probability of scoring, what is the probability
that the game does not end before the 21st goal?
39 310 320 13 · 17 · 19 · 31 3 · 7 · 13 · 17 · 19
(A) 18 (B) 20 (C) 40 (D) (E)
2 2 2 218 218
13 Let n be the smallest positive integer with 4 digits such that
• n is at least 2016
• there is a positive integer S such that
s r
√
q
S= a+ b+ c+ d+S

where a, b, c, d are, in this order, the digits of n (in base 10) as read from left
to right.
 9

What is n?
14 Eugenia’s phone has a four-digit lock code, which she has forgotten; she only
remembers that the first digit is between 0 and 6, the second between 0 and 3, the
third between 0 and 4, the fourth between 0 and 2, and that the sum of the four
digits is at least 8 (so, for example, the code might be 3330). How many four-digit
codes are compatible with the information Eugenia remembers?
15 Let m, n be two integers greater than or equal to 2. We consider grids with m
lines and n columns with squares that contain either the number 1 or the number
−1, such that the total sum of the numbers contained all squares is 0 or more. A
path is a sequence of squares such that the first belongs to the first column, the
last belongs to the last column, consecutive squares are adjacent (either vertically
or horizontally), and no square appears more than once. The value of a path is the
sum of the numbers contained in its squares.
1. Show that for each m, n ≥ 2 there are grids with m lines and n columns
satisfying the above properties that possess no path of value 2 or more.
2. Show that on any given grid it is possible to find a path of value at least 1.

16 Let a1 , a2 , . . . , an , . . . be a sequence of positive integers such that ai+1 is the

number of (positive) divisors of ai , for all i ≥ 1. Suppose a2 6= 2. Show that there
is a positive integer m such that am is a perfect square.
17 Let ABCD be a rectangle such that AB > BC and let ω be its circumcircle. Let
E and F be the intersection points (that are distinct from A) of the angle bisector
of ∠BAD with CD and the circle ω respectively. Suppose the perpendicular to DF
through E intersects the segment DF in the point G and the arc DF not containing
C in the point H. Show that:
1. the segments DF and F B have the same length;
2. the triangles DEG and DHG are congruent;
3. the segments HF and F C have the same length.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
C B D C D B A C B D E A 2167 210

Sketch of proof of 15: (a) Consider a grid ak−1 must be odd prime. So ak−2 is a perfect
with alternating 1 and −1 on each row and each square.
collumn.
(b) If a row has sum greater than 0 that gives Sketch of proof of 17: (a) Triangle BDF
a path of sum at least 1. If all rows have sum is isosceles since ∠F BD = ∠F DB because
0, consider the top and leftmost entry. If it is 1, ∠F AD = ∠F DB by hypothesis.
the path from it along the second row has sum (b) Since ADHF is inscribed in a circle, ∠DHF
1; if it is −1, the path for the entry below it and and ∠DAF are supplementary as well as ∠DEA
filling the rest of the grid has sum 1. and ∠DEF . Also, ∠DEA = ∠EAB = ∠DAF .
So ∠DHF = ∠DEF . Since EH is perpendic-
Sketch of proof of 16: Note that ai+1 ≤ ai , ular to DF , the triangles DEF and DHF are
and a+1 6= 2 (otherwise a2 = 2). In case a1 > 2, congruent.
for the least k such that ak = 2, the number (c) Follows from the previous steps.
XXXI Olimpiadi Italiane della Matematica
Cesenatico, 6 May 2016
1 Let ABC be a triangle, and let D and E the orthogonal projections of A onto
the internal bisectors of the angles in B and C. Prove that DE is parallel to BC.
2 A mathematics competition consists of 3 problems, each of which gives a number
of points between 0 and 7 (inclusive). For any two contestants, there exists at most
one problem for which they have obtained the same score (for example, there are no
two contestants whose scores are 7,1,2 and 7,1,5 in order, but there might be two
contestants whose scores are 7,1,2 and 7,2,1 in order). Find the maximum number
of contestants.
3 Let Γ be the excircle of triangle ABC opposite to the vertex A (i.e. the circle
tangent to BC and to the extensions of the sides AB and AC). Let D be the center
of Γ, and let and E, F be the points of tangency of Γ and the extensions of AB and
AC, respectively. Let J be the intersection point of the line segments BD and EF .
Prove that ∠CJB is a right angle.
4 Find all pairs of positive integers (a, n) with a ≥ n ≥ 2 such that (a + 1)n + a − 1
is a power of 2.
5 Let x0 , x1 , x2 , . . . be a sequence of rational numbers defined recursively as follows:
x0 is any rational number and, for n ≥ 0,
(
 xn − 1 if the numerator of xn is even ,

xn+1 = 2
| x1n − 1| if the numerator of xn is odd ,
where by numerator of a rational number we mean the numerator of the fraction in
its lowest terms. Prove that for any value of x0 :
1. the sequence contains only finitely many distinct members;
2. the sequence contains exactly one of the numbers 0 and 2/3 (i.e. either there
exists an index k such that xk = 0, or there exists an index m such that
xm = 2/3, but not both).
6 A mysterious machine contains a secret combination of 2016 integers x1 , . . . , x2016 .
It is known that all the numbers in the combination are equal except for one.
One may ask questions to the machine by giving it a sequence of 2016 integers
y1 , . . . , y2016 , and the machine answers by calculating the value of the sum
x1 y1 + · · · + x2016 y2016 .
After answering the first question, the machine accepts a second question, and then
a third one, and so on.
How many questions are necessary to determine the combination:
1. knowing that the number which is different from the others is equal to zero ?
2. not knowing the value of the number which is different from the others ?
12

Solution to 1:

K L

E D

B F G C

Let F and G be the intersection points of the line BC with the lines AE and AD,
respectively. The line segment CE is an angle bisector and the altitude relative
to AF of triangle ACF , so it is also a median (and triangle ACF is isosceles with
base AF ): therefore AE = EF . Similarly, BD is an angle bisector and an altitude
(and therefore a median) of triangle ABG, and AD = DG. Applying the intercept
theorem to triangle AF G, we find that lines DE and BC are parallel.

Second solution: Let I be the incenter of the triangle ABC, let BL and CK
be the bisectors of the angles in B and C, and let α, β, γ be the internal angles
in A, B, C, respectively. Since AEI
[ and ADI [ are right angles, the quadrilateral
AEID can be inscribed in a circle: therefore IAE
[ = IDE. [ On the other hand,
◦ γ
\ = 180 − − α, and (supposing that E lies inside IK; the opposite case is
AKC 2
\ = 90◦ − AKC
analogous) KAE \ = γ + α − 90◦ . Therefore the angles IAE
[ and IDE [
2
◦
\ = α − γ − α + 90◦ = 180 −γ−α = β = LBC.
measure α2 − KAE [ The alternate
2 2 2 2
interior angles EDB
\ and DBC \ formed by the transversal DB of the lines ED and
BC are congruent, and therefore the lines ED and BC are parallel.

Third solution: Let D0 be the orthogonal projection of D onto BC, and let H
be the foot of the altitude from A. Then
β β β
DD0 = BD sin( ) = AB cos( ) sin( ) = AB sin β/2 = AH/2.
2 2 2
 13

Similarly for E. Therefore D and E lie on the line parallel to BC with distance
AH/2 on the same side as A.
Solution to 2: The answer is 64. Let p1 , p2 , p3 be the possible scores that each
contestant may receive for problems 1,2,3, respectively. First of all, note that the
number of contestants cannot be greater than 64. Considering the first two problems,
there are are 82 = 64 pairs of possible scores (p1 , p2 ), so for no two contestants to
have the same pair of scores the total number of contestants cannot exceed 64.
However, with 64 contestants it is possible to obtain the required result. Suppose
that all 64 contestants obtain all 64 possible pairs (p1 , p2 ) for the first two problems.
As scores range from 0 to 7, it is certainly possible for all contestants to receive a
total score (i.e. the sum of the scores p1 + p2 + p3 ) divisible by 8. In this case there
are no two contestants who receive the same score for two different problems. If two
contestants receive, for instance, equal scores for problem 1 and problem 3, then
they must have received the same score for problem 2 two as well, contradicting the
previous hypothesis. A similar reasoning can be applied to the case in which two
contestants receive the same score for problem 2 and problem 3.
Second solution: The first part of this proof is the same as in the previous proof.
In the second part, we show that 64 contestants can satisfy the required condition.
We already know that the 64 contestants must receive all 64 possible combinations
of scores for the first two problems. We can therefore write a 8 × 8 table whose rows
correspond to the scores for the first problem, and whose columns correspond to the
scores for the second. Each entry on the table corresponds to one of the contestants,
and that entry contains the score they receive for the third problem. We must now
fill the table in such a way that no row and no column contains the same number
twice. The following table, for example, satisfies this condition.
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0
2 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 1
3 3 4 5 6 7 0 1 2
4 4 5 6 7 0 1 2 3
5 5 6 7 0 1 2 3 4
6 6 7 0 1 2 3 4 5
7 7 0 1 2 3 4 5 6

Solution to 3: The lines BD and CD bisect the angles EBC \ and BCF \; let α, β, γ
be the internal angles of the triangle ABC (in A, B, C, respectively). We then know
◦ ◦
\ = 180 −γ and CBD
that BCD \ = 180 −β . It follows that BDC \ = β+γ .
2 2 2
◦
The triangle AEF is isosceles with base EF , therefore AEF [ = EF [ A = 1802 −α =
β+γ
2 = BDC,
\ and therefore the quadrilateral DJCF can be inscribed in a circle.
On the other hand, since DF\ A is a right angle (as AF is tangent to Γ) this implies
14

that CJD,
[ which supplements DF
\ C, is also a right angle. This obviously implies
that CJB
[ is a right angle.

E B A

Solution to 4: If we expand (a + 1)n + a − 1 according to the binomial theorem,

we find
n(n−1) 2 n(n−1) 2
an + · · · + 2 a + na + 1 + a − 1 = an + · · · + 2 a + (n + 1)a. (?)

Therefore, since all terms are are divisible by a and (a + 1)n + a − 1 is a power of 2,
then a is also a power of 2. Let a = 2b and (a + 1)n + a − 1 = 2c . Given that a ≥ 2,
we find that b ≥ 1. Furthermore, since n ≥ 2 we also find that 2c > a2 = 22b , and
therefore c > 2b.
Note that all terms of (?) except the last are divisible by a2 = 22b .
Since c > 2b, 2c is divisible by 22b , (n + 1)a is as well. Since a = 2b , it follows that
2b divides n + 1, which means that n + 1 = 2b · m = am for some positive integer
m. Given that a ≥ n ≥ 2, the only possible value of m is m = 1, and therefore
n = a − 1 = 2b − 1. In particular, b cannot be equal to 1, otherwise n = 1 and
therefore b > 1, from which it follows that a ≥ 4 and n = a − 1 ≥ 3. From the last
inequality follows that 2c > a3 , and therefore c > 3b.
We now rewrite (a + 1)n + a − 1 using what we have found:
n(n−1)(n−2) 3 n(n−1) 2
(a + 1)n + a − 1 = an + · · · + 6 a + 2 a + (n + 1)a =
b b b
nb (2 −1)(2 −2)(2 −3) 3b (2b −1)(2b −2) 2b
=2 + ··· + 6 2 + 2 2 + 22b .
 15

All terms except the last two are divisible by 23b ; furthermore, 2c is divisible by 23b ,
b b
and therefore so is (2 −1)(2
2
−2) 2b
2 + 22b = (2b − 1)(2b−1 − 1)22b + 22b .
b b−1
It follows that (2 − 1)(2 − 1) + 1 = 22b−1 − 2b − 2b−1 + 2 is divisible by 2b , but
this is only possible when b = 2: if b > 2, all terms except the last are divisible by
4, and therefore the sum is not divisible by 4 (and neither is it divisible by 2b ).
The last case is if b = 2, from which follows that a = 4 and n = 3, In this case, it is
elementary to show that (a + 1)n + a − 1 = 128 = 27 , which is a solution.
There is therefore a unique solution: a = 4, n = 3.
Solution to 5: (a) We can assume that all xn are positive, possibly excluding the
first. We can write each member of the sequence as a fraction in its lowest terms,
xn = pqnn . Consider a new sequence yn = max{pn , qn }: we want to prove that the
sequence yn is nondecreasing (i.e. yn+1 ≤ yn for every n ≥ 0). This implies (a),
since it follows that pn , qn ≤ yn ≤ y0 , and there are only finitely many distinct
members that belong to the sequence xn , as there are only finitely many rational
numbers with numerator and denominators limited by y0 . To prove that yn+1 ≤ yn
we examine two cases:
• if pn is even, then xn+1 = |pn /2−q
qn
n|
; note that the last fraction is in its lowest
terms because MCD(pn /2 − qn , qn ) = MCD(pn /2, qn ) = 1, since pn /qn is in its
lowest terms. Furthermore, note that if a, b are two positive numbers, |a−b| ≤
max{a, b}. It follows that yn+1 = max{|pn /2 − qn |, qn } ≤ max{pn /2, qn } ≤
max{pn , qn } = yn .
• if pn is odd, then xn+1 = |qnp−p
n
n|
. Similarly, the fraction is in its lowest terms,
and therefore yn+1 = max{|qn − pn |, pn } ≤ max{pn , qn } = yn .
(b) Note that, since the sequence xn has finitely many distinct terms, at some point
one will repeat, and the sequence will be periodic from that point on.
We will show that 0 and 2/3 cannot both be members. If 0 appears first, and xk = 0,
then xk+1 = 1, xk+2 = 0, and so on. Therefore 2/3 cannot appear. Similarly, if 2/3
appears first, and xm = 2/3, then xm+1 = 2/3, xm+2 = 2/3, and so on. Therefore
0 cannot appear.
We will now prove that either 0 or 2/3 must appear as members. Supposing that 0
does not appear, we will show that 2/3 will. Firstly, note that, if 0 does not appear,
then neither does 1 (if xn = 1 then xn+1 = 0).
As we are dealing with positive integers, yn+1 ≤ yn can only be a strict inequality
in a finite number of cases, as with infinite instances of strict inequalities yn would
eventually be less than zero. We examine the various cases:
(1) pn > qn and pn is even: then yn = pn and yn+1 = max{|pn /2 − qn |, qn } <
pn = yn ;
(2) pn < qn and pn is odd: then yn = qn and yn+1 = max{qn − pn , pn } < qn = yn ;
(3) pn > qn and pn is odd;
(4) pn < qn and pn is even.
16

Cases (1) and (2) can only appear a finite number of times, as they involve a strict
inequality. Therefore, after a certain point, only cases (3) and (4) will appear. For
a sufficiently large n, we may limit ourselves to cases (3) and (4).
Consider case (3). Then xn+1 = |qnp−p n
n|
= pnp−q
n
n
< 1, so case (3) cannot apply
again, and therefore xn+1 falls under case (4).
Consider now case (4). Then xn+1 = |pn /2−q
qn
n|
= qn −p
qn
n /2
< 1, therefore xn+1 again
falls under case (4).
In conclusion, after a certain point only case (4) will appear, and, as previously
shown, the sequence will be periodic. Let n0 be an integer such that, for every
n ≥ n0 , only case (4) appears and the sequence is periodic. In particular, there
exists a k > 0 such that xn0 +k = xn0 . From xn+1 = |pn /2−q qn
n|
= qn −pqn
n /2
It is
k k k
2 − (−1) (−1)
easy to show, for example by induction, that pn0 +k = q n0 + p n0 .
3 · 2k−1 2k
Finally, knowing that pno +k = pn0 , we find that

2k − (−1)k (−1)k pn0

qn 0 + = pn0 .
3 · 2k−1 2k
Hence
2k − (−1)k 2k − (−1)k
 
qn0 = pn0
3 · 2k−1 2k
pn0
thus qn0 = 23 .
Solution to 6: The answer in both cases is two questions. To prove this, we only
need to find a method to find the combination with two questions, as well as show
that, even knowing that different number is zero, one question is not sufficient. We
will also detail a simpler method specifically for question (a).
We will call u and d the number that appears 2015 times and the number that
appears only once, respectively, and t the index of d (i.e. xt = d and xi = u
for i 6= t). Given a question y1 , . . . , y2016 , the answer is è (Σ − yt )u + yt d, where Σ
denotes the sum of the numbers in the question y1 + · · · + y2016 .
Method for (a).
As the first question, we submit the numbers 1, . . . , 1. This way the machine will give
the answer 2015u, from which we can find the value of u. Now we only need to know
the index t. The second question is 1, 2, 3, . . . , 2016. We receive the answer (Σ − t)u,
with Σ = 1 + 2 + · · · + 2016. Noting that u cannot equal zero (because the two
numbers in the combination are different), it is trivial to find t.
One question is not sufficient.
We will show that for every possible question there exist two different combinations
that produce the same answer. Consider a question y1 , . . . , y2016 (with sum Σ). If
two of these numbers are equal, yi = yj , then the two combinations that contain
2015 instances of the number 1 and a single 0 with index i and j respectively produce
the same result. We can therefore assume that the numbers in the question are all
 17

distinct. Specifically, we can consider i 6= j such that yi e yj are distinct from Σ.

Assume that the combination is xi = 0 e xk = Σ − yj for k 6= i. The answer is then
(Σ − yi )(Σ − yj ). It is clear that the combination in which i and j switch places
(xj = 0 and xk = Σ − yi for k 6= j) would produce the same answer.
Method for (b).
The first question is 1, −1, 1, −1, . . . . We will call the answer R. Note that, if ∆ =
u − d, we have R = (−1)t ∆. Now we choose a second question y1 , . . . , y2016 such
that :
(1) R and Σ = y1 + · · · + y2016 are coprime (and Σ is nonzero) ;
(2) no two yi (−1)i are congruent modulo Σ .
For example, these conditions are satisfied if we choose y1 = 1 e yi = |R |i per i > 1
(note that ∆ 6= 0, therefore R 6= 0). The answer we receive is then

R0 = (Σ − yt )u + yt d = Σu − yt ∆ = Σu − yt (−1)t R .

From this we can deduce the class of yt (−1)t R modulo Σ. Since R and Σ are coprime,
the class of yt (−1)t modulo Σ is also uniquely determined. However, no two yi (−1)i
are congruent modulo Σ. Knowing the class of yt (−1)t , we can now deduce t.
Knowing t, it is trivial to find u from the equation above, then ∆ from R = (−1)t ∆,
and finally d.
Italian Team Selection Test
Pisa, 27-28 May 2016

Day 1
A1 Let ABCD be a quadrilateral. Suppose that there exists a point P inside the
quadrilateral such that ∠AP D = ∠BP C = 90◦ and P A · P D = P B · P C. Let O be
the circumcenter of CP D.
Show that the line OP passes through the midpoint of AB.
A2 One day, a shopping mall was visited by 2016 clients. Each of these clients
went in, spent some time inside the mall, and then left without returning.
A group of clients is “simultaneous” if its members were all simultaneously inside
the mall for at least one instant. A group of clients is “sequential” if no two of its
members were ever simultaneously inside the mall, not even for a moment.
Find the greatest integer k such that, regardless of the specific comings and goings
of the clients, there exists a simultaneous group of at least k clients or there exists
a sequential group of at least k clients.
A3 Show that there are no functions f : (0, +∞) → (0, +∞) such that

f (f (x) + y) = f (x) + 3x + yf (y)

for every pair of positive real numbers x and y.

Day 2
B1 Let a and b be positive integers such that (a! + b!) divides a! · b!.
Show that 3a ≥ 2b + 2.
B2 Let an be a sequence or positive real numbers such that
nan
an+1 ≥
a2n + (n − 1)
for every positive integer n.
Show that a1 + . . . + an ≥ n for every n ≥ 2.
B3 Let ABC be a triangle such that AB 6= AC. Let D, E, and F be the midpoints
of the sides BC, CA, and AB, respectively. Let ω be the circle passing through A
and tangent to the line BC in D. The circle ω also intersects the line AB in X, the
line AC in Y , the line DE in R, and the line DF in S.
Let X 0 be the reflection of X across F , and let Y 0 be the reflection of Y across E.
The line X 0 Y 0 intersects the line AD in Q and the line EF in M . Finally, let P be
the other intersection of ω and the line AM .
(a) Show that the points R and S lie on the line X 0 Y 0 .
20

(b) Show that Q lies on the radical axis of the circumcircles of the triangles DCR
and DBS.
(c) Show that AQ = QP .

Sources
Problem A1: Saudi Arabia Team Selection Test 2012 (test 2, problem 2)
Problem A2: short list Belarus Mathematical Olympiad 2016 (problem C2)
Problem A3: short list Belarus Mathematical Olympiad 2016 (problem A6)
Problem B1: short list International Mathematical Olympiad 2015 (problem N2)
Problem B2: short list International Mathematical Olympiad 2015 (problem A1)
Problem B3: short list International Mathematical Olympiad 2015 (problem G5,
revisited)