Chapter 4

Sensors

 C.B. Pham 4-1

 Introduction

• A sensor (transducers or primary elements) is a device

that converts a measurand (signal to be measured) into a
signal in a different form (may be a force, displacement,
voltage, electrical resistance …).
• A signal conditioner is usually required to convert the
sensor output into an electrical (or pneumatic) signal
suitable for use by a controller or display device.
 C.B. Pham 4-2
 Introduction

 

 C.B. Pham 4-3

 1. Position and Displacement Measurement

• Potentiometer

Linear potentiometer:

Angular potentiometer:
 C.B. Pham 4-4
 Potentiometer

Example: A pot is supplied with 10 Vdc and is set at 82°.The

range of this single-turn pot is 350°. Calculate the output
voltage.

Solution:

 C.B. Pham 4-5

 1. Position and Displacement Measurement

• Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT)

LVDT is a high-resolution position sensor that outputs an
AC voltage with a magnitude proportional to linear position.
It consists of a single primary winding located between two
secondary windings on a hollow cylindrical form. A movable
magnetic core provides a variable coupling between the
windings.

 C.B. Pham 4-6

 LVDT

The output of the LVDT is an AC voltage with a magnitude

and phase angle.
• The magnitude represents the distance that the core is
off center, and
• The phase angle represents the direction of the core (left
or right.)
 C.B. Pham 4-7
 LVDT

 C.B. Pham 4-8

 1. Position and Displacement Measurement

• Optical encoder
An optical rotary encoder
produces angular position
data directly in digital form.

It consists of a slotted disk attached to a shaft. A light

source and photocell arrangement are mounted so that the
slots pass the light beam as the disk rotates.

There are two types of optical rotary encoders: the absolute

encoder and the incremental encoder.
 C.B. Pham 4-9
 Optical encoder

Absolute optical encoders use a glass disk marked off with

a pattern of concentric tracks. A separate light beam is sent
through each track to individual photo sensors. Each photo
sensor contributes 1 bit to the output digital word.

Resolution

Where N = number of
tracks = number of bits in
the number

 C.B. Pham 4-10

 Optical encoder

Example: An absolute encoder is to be used for

measurements that require a resolution of at least 1o.
Determine the number of bits required to meet the specified
resolution.

Solution: Resolution

Find the smallest power of 2 that is larger than 360.

 C.B. Pham 4-11

 Optical encoder

If the absolute optical encoder is not

properly aligned, it may occasionally
report completely erroneous data.

One solution is to use the Grey code on

the disk instead of the straight binary
code.

 C.B. Pham 4-12

 Optical encoder

Incremental Optical Encoders: has only one track of equally

spaced slots. Position is determined by counting the
number of slots that pass by a photo sensor. This system
requires an initial reference point, which may come from a
second sensor on an inner track or simply from a
mechanical stop or limit switch.

 C.B. Pham 4-13

 Optical encoder

Example: An incremental encoder has 360 slots. Starting

from the reference point, the photo sensor counts 100 slots
clockwise (CW), 30 slots counterclockwise (CCW), then 45
slots CW. What is the current position?
Solution: If the disk has 360 slots, then each slot
represents 1° of rotation. Starting at the reference point:
100o (CW) - 30o (CCW) + 45o (CW) = 115o (CW).
Example: An incremental encoder is used with
a tracking wheel to measure linear
displacement. The tracking wheel diameter is
5.91 cm, and the code disk has 180 holes in
the track. Determine the linear displacement
per pulse and the displacement measured by
 C.B.
700 pulse counts.
Pham 4-14
 Optical encoder

Solution: Displacement per pulse

Total displacement

A single photo sensor cannot convey which direction the

disk is rotating; however, a clever system using two
sensors can.

 C.B. Pham 4-15

 Optical encoder

 C.B. Pham 4-16

 1. Position and Displacement Measurement

Proximity sensor: are switches that sense the presence of

an object without actually touching the object.
• Inductive proximity: are used to sense the presence of
metal parts.
• Capacitive proximity: detect the presence of metal
objects or nonmetallic materials such as glass, wood,
paper. rubber, plastic, water, and milk.
• Photoelectric proximity: detect the presence of objects
that block or reflect the light beam.
• Hall-effect sensor

 C.B. Pham 4-17

 Inductive proximity sensor

An inductive proximity sensor consists of a coil with a ferrite

core, an oscillator/detector circuit, and a solid-state switch.

The oscillator creates a magnetic field in front of the sensor.

When a metal object enters the magnetic field, the
amplitude of the oscillation diminishes due to a loss of
energy to the target. The detector senses the change in
 C.B.
amplitude
Pham and actuates a solid-state switch. 4-18
 Inductive proximity sensor

Both the sensing range and the switching speed depend on

the size and material of the target. The ratings are based
on a square, mild steel plate 1 mm thick, with sides equal
to the diameter of the sensing face.
Sensing range Diameter Length Switching speed
(mm) (mm) (mm) (Hz)
1 8 40 5000
2 12 40 1000
5 18 40 400
10 30 50 200
20 47 60 40

The sensing range must be reduced for nonferrous, metal

targets:
 C.B. Pham aluminum, brass, copper, and stainless steel 4-19
 Capacitive proximity sensor

The sensor consists of four basic components: a capacitive

probe or plate, an oscillator, a signal level detector, and a
solid-state output switching device. When the target is
outside the electrostatic field, the oscillator is inactive. As
the target approaches, a capacitive coupling develops
between the target and the capacitive probe.

 C.B. Pham 4-20

 Capacitive proximity sensor

Any material that has a dielectric constant of 1.2 or greater

can be detected with a capacitive sensor.
• The larger the dielectric constant, the easier the material
is to detect.
• Materials with a high dielectric constant can be detected
at greater distances than those with a low dielectric
constant.
• Materials with a high dielectric constant can even be
detected through a container made of material with a
lower dielectric constant.
Material Wood (dry) Gasoline Sugar Water
Dielectric 26 2.2 3 80
constant
 C.B. Pham 4-21
 Photoelectric sensor

Photoelectric sensors use a light source and a photo

sensor that are mounted in such a way that the object to be
detected cuts the light path. A light source provides the
beam of light, and a phototransistor detects the presence
or absence of light from the source.

 C.B. Pham 4-22

 Photoelectric sensor

The light source using LED may be modulated to give the

beam a unique “signature” so that the detector can
distinguish between the beam and stray light.

 C.B. Pham 4-23

 Photoelectric sensor

Four types of photodetectors are in general use: photo

resistors, photodiodes, photo transistors, and photovoltaic
cells.

 C.B. Pham 4-24

 Photoelectric sensor

Opposed sensing mode

Retro-reflective sensing mode

Proximity sensing mode

 C.B. Pham 4-25

 Hall-effect sensor (1879, E.H. Hall)

A Hall effect sensor is a transducer that varies its output

voltage in response to a magnetic field. An external voltage
source is used to establish a current (I) in the
semiconductor crystal. The output voltage (UH) is sensed
across the sides of the crystal. When a magnetic field is
brought near, the negative charges are deflected to one
side producing a voltage.

where
K = constant (dependent on material)
B = magnetic flux density
D = thickness constant
 C.B. Pham 4-26
 Hall-effect sensor

 C.B. Pham 4-27

 1. Position and Displacement Measurement

 C.B. Pham 4-28

 2. Velocity Measurement

• DC tachometer
A tachometer is an electric generator used to measure
angular velocity.
The coil is mounted on a
metal cylinder called the
armature. The armature is
free to rotate in the
magnetic field produced by
the two permanent magnet
field poles. The two ends of
the coil are connected to
opposite halves of a
segmented connection ring
 C.B. Pham called the commutator. 4-29
 2. Velocity Measurement

• Optical tachometer
An incremental encoder connected to a rotating shaft
produces a sequence of pulses from which a digital velocity
signal can be easily obtained. The major signal
conditioning requirement is a timed counter.

 C.B. Pham 4-30

 2. Velocity Measurement

 C.B. Pham 4-31

 3. Force Measurement

- Force is a physical quantity that produces or tends to

produce a change in the velocity or shape of an object.
- All methods of force measurement use some means of
producing a measurable balancing force. Two general
methods are used to produce the balancing force:

Null balance method Displacement method

 C.B. Pham 4-32
 Strain Gauge Force Sensor

- Strain is the displacement per unit

length of an elastic member. A strain
gage is a means of converting a small
strain into a corresponding change in
electrical resistance. It is based on
the fact that the resistance of a fine
wire varies as the wire is stretched
(strained).
- Thebonded-wire strain gauge can be used to measure a
wide range of forces, from 10 kg to many tons.

 C.B. Pham 4-33

 Strain Gauge Force Sensor

• The resistance change in a strain gauge is small.

Measuring such small resistances usually requires a
bridge circuit.
• The bridge also cancel out variations due to
temperature, by connecting a compensating gauge
(known as the dummy) as one of the bridge resistors.

 C.B. Pham 4-34

 Pneumatic Force Transmitter

The unknown force F is balanced by the force of the air

pressure against the effective area of the diaphragm. The
ball and nozzle is arranged such that the balance of the two
forces is automatic.
Diaphragm chamber Ball-and-nozzle
displacement detector

15-psi Output signal

supply 3-15 psi

Restriction
Diaphragm
Zero spring

 C.B. Pham Force 4-35