Geography, Experience, and Imagination Towards A Geographical Epistemology

Geography, Experience, and Imagination: Towards a Geographical Epistemology
Author(s): David Lowenthal

Source: Annals of the Association of American Geographers, Vol. 51, No. 3 (Sep., 1961), pp.
241-260
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ANNALS of the
Association of American Geographers
Volume 51 September 1961 Number 3
GEOGRAPHY, EXPERIENCE, AND IMAGINATION:

TOWARDS A GEOGRAPHICAL EPISTEMOLOGY'
DAVID LOWENTHAL
American Geographical Society, New York
TlHE most fascinating terrae incognitae of THE GENERAL AND THE GEOGRAPHICAL
all are those that lie within the minds WORLD VIEW
and hearts of men." With these words, John K.

Neither the world nor our pictures of it are
Wright concluded his 1946 presidential address
identical with geography. Some aspects of geog-
before the Association of American Geogra-
raphy are recondite, others abstruse, occult, or
phers. This paper considers the nature of these
esoteric; conversely, there are many familiar
terrae incognitae, and the relation between thefeatures of things that geography scarcely con-
world outside and the pictures in our heads.2
siders. Beyond that of any other discipline,
however, the subject matter of geography ap-
1 This is an expanded version of a paper read at the
proximates the world of general discourse; the
XIXth International Geographical Congress, Stockholm,
August, 1960. For encouragement, advice, and criti- palpable present, the everyday life of man on
cism, I am grateful to George A. Cooper, Richard Hart- earth, is seldom far from our professional con-
shorne, William C. Lewis, William D. Pattison, Michael cerns. "There is no science whatever," wrote a
G. Smith, Philip L. Wagner, William Warntz, J. W. N.
future president of Harvard, a century and a
Watson, and John K. Wright. Richard F. Kuhns, Jr.,
has kindly read and commented on several drafts of the half ago, "which comes so often into use in com-
manuscript, and I am indebted to him for numerous mon life."3 This view of geography remains a
suggestions and references. commonplace of contemporary thought. More
2John K. Wright, "Terrae Incognitae: the Place of
than physics or physiology, psychology or poli-
the Imagination in Geography," Annals, Association of
American Geographers, Vol. 37 (1947), pp. 1-15, on p.
tics, geography observes and analyzes aspects
15. The phrase "The World Outside and the Pictures of the milieu on the scale and in the categories
in Our Heads" is the name of the first chapter in Walter that they are usually apprehended in everyday
Lippmann, Public Opinion (New York: Macmillan, life. Whatever methodologists think geography
1922). As my subtitle suggests, this is not a study of the
meaning or methods of geography, but rather an essay
ought to be, the temperament of its practition-
in the theory of geographical knowledge. Hartshorne's
methodological treatises analyze and develop logical manner of people not only geographers, but farmers
principles of procedure for geography as a professional and fishermen, business executives and poets, novelists
science, "a form of 'knowing,'" as he writes, "that is and painters, Bedouins and Hottentots" ("Terrae Incog-
different from the ways in which we 'know' by instinct, nitae," p. 12). Because geographers are "nowhere ...
intuition, a priori deduction or revelation" (Richard more likely to be influenced by the subjective than in
Hartshorne, Perspective on the Nature of Geography their discussions of what scientific geography ought to
[Chicago: Rand McNally, for Association of American be" (ibid.), epistemology helps to explain why and
Geographers, 1959], p. 170). My epistemological how methodologies change.
inquiry, on the other hand, is concerned with all geo- 3Jared Sparks, MS. in Sparks Collection (132, Misc.
graphical thought, scientific and other: how it is Papers, Vol. I, 1808-14), Harvard College Library;
acquired, transmitted, altered, and integrated into con- quoted in Ralph H. Brown, "A Plea for Geography,
ceptual systems; and how the horizon of geography 1813 Style," Annals, Association of American Geogra-
varies among individuals and groups. Specifically, it is phers, Vol. 41 (1951), p. 235. For similar nineteenth-
a study in what Wright calls geosophy: "the nature and century views see my "George Perkins Marsh on the
expression of geographical ideas both past and present Nature and Purpose of Geography," Geographical
... the geographical ideas, both true and false, of all Journal, Vol. 126 (1960), pp. 413-17.
241
242 DAVID LOWENTHAL September
ers makes it catholic and many-sided. In their milieu; anyone who inspects the world around
range of interests and capacities-concrete and him is in some measure a geographer.
abstract, academic and practical, analytic and As with specifically geographical concepts,
synthetic, indoor and outdoor, historical and the more comprehensive world of ideas that
contemporary, physical and social-geogra- we share concerns the variable forms and con-
phers reflect man generally. "This treating of tents of the earth's surface, past, present, and
cabbages and kings, cathedrals and linguistics, potential-"a torrent of discourse about tables,
trade in oil, or commerce in ideas," as Peattie people, molecules, light rays, retinas, air-waves,
wrote, "makes a congress of geographers more prime numbers, infinite classes, joy and sorrow,
or less a Committee on the Universe."4 good and evil."5 It comprises truth and error,
Geographical curiosity is, to be sure, more concrete facts and abstruse relationships, self-
narrowly focused than mankind's; it is also more evident laws and tenuous hypotheses, data
conscious, orderly, objective, consistent, uni- drawn from natural and social science, from
versal, and theoretical than are ordinary que- history, from common sense, from intuition and
ries about the nature of things. Like geography, mystical experience. Certain things appear to
however, the wider universe of discourse cen- be grouped spatially, seriated temporally, or re-
ters on knowledge and ideas about man and lated causally: the hierarchy of urban places,
the annual march of temperature, the location
4Roderick Peattie, Geography in Human Destiny
of industry. Other features of our shared uni-
(New York: George W. Stewart, 1940), pp. 26-27. "In
the broadest sense," Richard Hartshorne notes, "all factsverse seem unique, amorphous, or chaotic: the
of the earth surface are geographical facts" (The Naturepopulation of a country, the precise character
of Geography: a Critical Survey of Current Thought in of a region, the shape of a mountain.6
the Light of the Past [Lancaster, Pa.: Association of
American Geographers, 1939], p. 372). On the interests
and capacities of geographers, see J. Russell Whitaker, Universally Accepted Aspects
"The Way Lies Open," Annals, Association of American of the World View
Geographers, Vol. 44 (1954), p. 242; and Andre Mey-
nier, "Reflexions sur la specialisation chez les Geog- However multifarious its makeup, there is
raphes," Norois, Vol. 7 (1960), pp. 5-12.
general agreement about the character of the
Most of the physical and social sciences are, both in
theory and in practice, more generalizing and formal- world and the way it is ordered. Explanations
istic than geography. The exceptions are disciplines of particular phenomena differ from one per-
which, like geography, are in some measure human- son to another, but without basic concurrence
istic: notably anthropology and history. The subject-
matter of anthropology is as diversified as that of geog- as to the nature of things, there would be nei-
raphy, and more closely mirrors the everyday concerns ther science nor common sense, agreement nor
of man; but anthropological research still concentrates argument. The most extreme heretic cannot re-
predominantly on that small and remote fraction of
mankind-"primitive" or nonliterate, traditional in cul-
ject the essence of the prevailing view. "Even
ture, homogeneous in social organization-whose ways the sharpest dissent still operates by partial
of life and world views are least like our own (Ronald submission to an existing consensus," reasons
M. Berndt, "The Study of Man: an Appraisal of the Re-
lationship between Social and Cultural Anthropology
5 W. V. Quine, "The Scope and Language of Sci-
and Sociology," Oceania, Vol. 31 [1960], pp. 85-99).
More particularistic, more concerned with uniqueness of ence," British Journal for the Philosophy of Science,
context than geography, history also comprehends moreVol. 8 (1957), pp. 1-17, on p. 1.
matters of common interest (especially the acts and 6 For various combinations of geographical facts and
feelings of individuals); but because the whole realm of relationships, see John K. Wright, "'Crossbreeding'
Geographical Quantities," Geographical Review, Vol.
history lies in the past, most historical data is secondary,
derivative. Although "geography cannot be strictly con-45 (1955), pp. 52-65. For the varieties of data that
temporary" (Preston E. James, "Introduction: the Field comprise knowledge in general, see Rudolph Carnap,
of Geography," in American Geography: Inventory "Formal and Factual Science," in Herbert FeigI and
and Prospect [Syracuse University Press, for Associa- May Brodbeck, eds., Readings in the Philosophy of Sci-
tion of American Geographers, 1954], p. 14), geog- ence (New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1953),
raphy is usually focused on the present; direct observa- pp. 123-128; Karl R. Popper, The Logic of Scientific
tion of the world plays a major role in geography, a Discovery (New York: Basic Books, 1959), appendix
x, pp. 420-441: Friedrich Waismann, "Analytic-Syn-
trifling one in history. In theory, at least, the remote in
space is everywhere (on the face of the earth) person- thetic," Analysis, Vol. 11 (1950-51), pp. 52-56; J. W.
ally accessible to us, the remote in time accessible only N. Watkins, "Between Analytic and Empirical," Phi-
through memories and artifacts. losophy, Vol. 32 (1957), pp. 112-131.
1961 GEOGRAPHY, EXPERIENCE, AND IMAGINATION 243
Polanyi, "for the revolutionary must speak in thought." But no one, however inclined to pio-
terms that people can understand."7 neer, visits that frontier often, or has surveyed
Most public knowledge can in theory be ver- more than a short traverse of it. "Primitive
ified. I know little about the geography of man," according to Boulding, "lives in a world
Sweden, but others are better informed; if I which has a spatial unknown, a dread frontier
studied long and hard enough I could learn ap- populated by the heated imagination. For mod-
proximately what they know. I cannot read the ern man the world is a closed and completely
characters in Chinese newspapers, but hardly explored surface. This is a radical change in
doubt that they convey information to the Chi-spatial viewpoint."9 But the innovation is
nese; assuming that there is a world in common, superficial; we are still parochial. "Even in
other peoples' ways of symbolizing knowledge lands where geography is part of a compulsory
must be meaningful and learnable. school curriculum, and among people who pos-
The universe of geographical discourse, in sess considerable information about the earth,"
particular, is not confined to geographers; it isWhittlesey points out, "the world horizon is ac-
shared by billions of amateurs all over the cepted in theory and rejected in practice."'0
globe. Some isolated primitives are still igno- The "dread unknowns" are still with us. In-
rant of the outside world; many more know lit- deed, "the more the island of knowledge ex-
tle beyond their own countries and ways of life;pands in the sea of ignorance, the larger its
but most of the earth's inhabitants possess at boundary to the unknown."" Primitive world
least rudiments of the shared world picture. views were simple and consistent enough for
Even peoples innocent of science are privy to every participant to share most of their sub-
elements of our geography, both innate and stance. Within Western scientific society, no
learned: the normal relations between figure one really grasps more than a small fraction of
and ground; the distinctive setting of objects the public, theoretically communicable world
on the face of the earth; the usual texture, view. The amount of information an individual
weight, appearance, and physical state of land, can acquire in an instant or in a lifetime is finite,
air, and water; the regular transition from day and miniscule compared with what the milieu
to night; the partition of areas by individual, presents; many questions are too complex to
family, or group. describe, let alone solve, in a practicable length
Beyond such universals, the geographical of time. The horizons of knowledge are expand-
consensus tends to be additive, scientific, and ing faster than any person can keep up with.
cumulative. Schools teach increasing numbers The proliferation of new sciences extends our
that the world is a sphere with certain conti- powers of sense and thought, but their rigorous
nents, oceans, countries, peoples, and ways of techniques and technical languages hamper
living and making a living; the size, shape, and communication; the common field of know-
general features of the earth are known by more ledge becomes a diminishing fraction of the
and more people. The general horizon of geog- total store.'2
raphy has expanded rapidly. "Until five centu- 9 Kenneth E. Boulding, The Image (Ann Arbor:
ries ago a primal or regional sense of space University of Michigan Press, 1956), p. 66.
dominated human settlements everywhere"; to- 10 Whittlesey, op. cit., pp. 2, 14.
11 L. S. Rodberg and V. F. Weisskopf, "Fall of Par-
day, most of us share the conception of a world
ity," Science, Vol. 125 (1957), pp. 627-33; on p. 632.
common to all experients.8 12 Polanyi, Personal Knowledge, p. 216; Rafael Rod-
riguez Delgado, "A Possible Model for Ideas," Philos-
The General Consensus Never ophy of Science, Vol. 24 (1957), pp. 253-269, on p.
Completely Accepted 255. "The organism has a definite capacity for infor-
mation which is a minute fraction of the physical sig-
The whole of mankind may in time progress, nals that reach the eyes, ears, and epidermis" (Colin
as Whittlesey suggests, to "the sense of space Cherry, On Human Communication: a Review, a Sur-
current at or near the most advanced frontier ofvey, and a Criticism [New York: Wiley, 1957], p. 284).
See also George A. Miller, "The Magical Number Seven,
7Michael Polanyi, Personal Knowledge: Towards a Plus or Minus Two: Some Limits on Our Capacity for
Post-Critical Philosophy (Chicago: University of Chi- Processing Information," Psychological Review, Vol. 63
cago Press, 1958), pp. 208-209. (1956), pp. 81-97; Henry Quastler, "Studies of Human
8 Derwent Whittlesey, "The Horizon of Geography," Channel Capacity," in Colin Cherry, ed., Information
Annals, Association of American Geographers, Vol. 35 Theory; Papers Read at the Third London Symposium,
(1945), pp. 1-36, on p. 14. 1955 (New York: Academic Press, 1956), pp. 361-371.
On the other hand, we tend to assume things A fair measure of sensate function is also pre-
are common knowledge which may not be; requisite to the general view of the common
what seems to me the general outlook might be world. No object looks quite the way it feels;
mine alone. The most devoted adherents to a at first sight, those born blind not only fail to
consensus often mistake their own beliefs for recognize visual shapes but see no forms at all,
universal ones. For a large part of our world save for a spinning mass of colored light. They
view, we take on faith much of what we are may have known objects by touch, but had
told by science. But we may have got it wrong; nothing like the common conception of a space
as Chisholm points out, "we are all quite capa- with objects in it. A purely visual world would
ble of believing falsely at any time that a given also be an unreal abstraction; a concrete and
proposition is accepted by the scientists of our stable sense of the milieu depends on synesthe-
culture circle."13 In our impressions of the sia, sight combined with sound and touch.15
shared world view we all resemble the fond To see the world more or less as others see it,
mother who watched her clumsy son parade, one must above all grow up; the very young,
and concluded happily, "Everyone was out of like the very ill, are unable to discern ade-
step but my Johnnie." quately what is themselves and what is not. An
infant is not only the center of his universe, he
The World View Not Shared by Some is the universe. To the young child, everything
The most fundamental attributes of our in the world is alive, created by and for man,
shared view of the world are confined, more- and endowed with will: the sun follows him, his
over, to sane, hale, sentient adults. Idiots can- parents built the mountains, trees exist because
not suitably conceive space, time, or causality. they were planted. As Piaget puts it, every-
Psychotics distinguish poorly between them- thing seems intentional; "the child behaves
selves and the outside world. Mystics, claustro- as if nature were charged with purpose," and
phobics, and those haunted by fear of open
space (agoraphobia) tend to project their own ichel, The Psychoanalytic Theory of Neurosis (New
York: W. W. Norton, 1945), p. 204; C. 0. de la Garza
body spaces as extensions of the outside world;
and Philip Worchel, "Time and Space Orientation in
they are often unable to delimit themselves Schizophrenics," Journal of Abnormal and Social Psy-
from the rest of nature. Schizophrenics often chology, Vol. 52 (1956), pp. 191-194; T. E. Wecko-
underestimate size and overestimate distance. wicz and D. B. Blewett, "Size Constancy and Abstract
Thinking in Schizophrenia," Journal of Mental Science,
After a brain injury, invalids fail to organize
Vol. 105 (1959), pp. 909-934; H. J. Eysenck, G. W.
their environments or may forget familiar loca-Granger, and J. C. Brengelmann, Perceptual Processes
tions and symbols. Impairments like aphasia, and Mental Illness, Institute of Psychiatry, Maudsley
apraxia, and agnosia blind their victims to spa- Monographs No. 2 (London: Chapman and Hall,
1957); G. W. Granger, "Psychophysiology of Vision,"
tial relations and logical connections self-evi-
in International Review of Neurobiology, Vol. 1 (1959)
dent to most. Other hallucinatory sufferers may [New York: Academic Press], pp. 245-298; Andrew
identify forms but regularly alter the number, Paterson and 0. L. Zangwill, "A Case of Topographic
size, and shape of objects (polyopia, dysmegal- Disorientation Associated with a Unilateral Cerebral
Lesion," Brain, Vol. 68 (1945), pp. 188-212; A. R.
opsia, dysmorphopsia), see them always in
Luria, "Disorders of 'Simultaneous Perception' in a Case
motion (oscillopsia), or locate everything at of Bilateral Occipito-Parietal Brain Injury," Brain, Vol.
the same indefinite distance (porrhopsia).14 82 (1959), pp. 437-49.
15 "From a perception of only 3 senses ... none could
13 Roderick M. Chisholm, Perceiving: a Philosophicaldeduce a fourth or fifth" (William Blake, "There Is No
Study (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1957), p. 36. Natural Religion: First Series," in Selected Poetry and
Personal surprise and disappointment are evidence to Prose of William Blake [New York: Modern Library,
most of us that our private worlds are not, in fact, iden- 1953], p. 99); the congenital deaf-mute does not know
tical with the common world view (R. E. Money-Kyrle, how music sounds even though he knows that tones
"The World of the Unconscious and the World of Com- exist. For the effects of sensory deprivation, see Felix
monsense," British Journal for the Philosophy of Sci- Deutsch, "The Sense of Reality in Persons Born Blind,"
ence, Vol. 7 [1956], pp. 86-96, on p. 93). G. A. Birks, Journal of Psychology, Vol. 10 (1940), pp. 121-140; Kai
"Towards a Science of Social Relations," (ibid., Vol. 7 von Fieandt, "Toward a Unitary Theory of Perception,"
[1956], pp. 117-128, 206-221) shows what happens Psychological Review, Vol. 65 (1958), pp. 315-20;
when private ideas about the world have to be adjusted Geza Revesz, Psychology and Art of the Blind (London:
to conform with the consensus. Longmans, Green, 1950); J. Z. Young, Doubt and Cer-
14 For the effects of various types of illness and injury tainty in Science: a Biologist's Reflection on the Brain
on perception and cognition of the milieu see Otto Fen- (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1951), pp. 61-66.
therefore conscious. The clouds know what age, however, progressive loss of hearing, de-
they are doing, because they have a goal. "It ficiencies of vision, and other infirmities tend
is not because the child believes things to be to isolate one from reality and to create literally
alive that he regarded them as obedient, but it a second geographical childhood.18
is because he believes them to be obedient that Different as they are from our own, the per-
he regards them as alive." Asked what some- ceived milieus, say, of most children of the same
thing is, the young child often says it is for age (or of many schizophrenics; or of some drug
something-"a mountain is for climbing"- addicts) may closely resemble one another. But
which implies that it has been made for that there is little communication or mutual under-
purpose.16 standing of a conceptual character among
Unable to organize objects in space, to en- children. No matter how many features their
visage places out of sight, or to generalize from pictures of the world may have in common, they
perceptual experience, young children are es- lack any shared view of the nature of things.
pecially poor geographers. To learn that there
are other people, who perceive the world from Mutability of the General Consensus
different points of view, and that a stable, com-
The shared world view is also transient: it is
municable view of things cannot be obtained
neither the world our parents knew nor the one
from one perspective alone, takes many years.
our children will know. Not only is the earth it-
Animism and artificialism give way only gradu-
self in constant flux, but every generation finds
ally to mechanistic outlooks and explanations.
new facts and invents new concepts to deal with
"No direct experience can prove to a mind in-
them. "You cannot step twice into the same
clined towards animism that the sun and the
river," Heraclitus observed, "for fresh waters
clouds are neither alive nor conscious"; the
are ever flowing in upon you." Nor does any-
child must first realize that his parents are not
one look at the river again in the same way:
all-powerful beings who made a universe cen-
"The vision of the world geographers construct
tered on himself. Piaget traces the development
must be created anew each generation, not only
in children of perceptual and conceptual ob-
because reality changes but also because hu-
jectivity, on which even the most primitive and
man preoccupations vary."19
parochial geographies depend.17 Again in old
Because we cherish the past as a collective
guide to behavior, the general consensus alters
16 Jean Piaget, The Child's Conception of the World
(Paterson, N. J.: Littlefield and Adams, 1960), pp.
very slowly. Scientists as well as laymen ignore
248, 357. evidence incompatible with their preconcep-
17 Child's Conception of the World, pp. 384-385; tions. New theories which fail to fit established
Construction of Reality in the Child (New York: Basic
views are resisted, in the hope that they will
Books, 1954), pp. 367-369. Piaget and his associates
have worked chiefly with schoolchildren in Geneva.
How far their categories and explanations apply univer- to be animists.) Elsewhere, however, child animism ap-
sally or vary with culture and milieu remains to be de- pears to be significant and tends to decline with age and
termined. Margaret Mead ("An Investigation of the maturity (Gustav Jahoda, "Child Animism: I. A Criti-
Thought of Primitive Children, with Special Referencecal Survey of Cross-Cultural Research," Journal of Soc-
to Animism," Journal of the Anthropological Institute, ial Psychology, Vol. 47 [1958], pp. 197-212).
Vol. 62 [1932], pp. 173-190) found that Manus chil- 15 The decline of sensory perception leads the elderly
dren rejected animistic explanations of natural phenom- to make false judgments about the environment, and
ena. They were more matter-of-fact than Swiss children often arouses feelings of isolation and apathy. See Al-
(and Manus adults) because their language was devoid fred D. Weiss, "Sensory Functions," and Harry W.
of figures of speech, because they were punished when Braun, "Perceptual Processes," in J. E. Birren, ed.,
they failed to cope effectively with the environment, Handbook of Aging and the Individual: Psychological
because their society possessed no machines too com- and Biological Aspects (Chicago: Univeristy of Chi-
plex for children to understand, and because they werecago Press, 1959), pp. 503-542 and 543-561, respec-
barred from animistic rites until past puberty. In West-tively.
ern society, on the other hand, "the language is richly 19 Marcel Belanger, "J'ai choisi de devenir geog-
animistic, children are given no such stern schooling in raphe," Revue Canadienne de Geographie, Vol. 13
physical adjustment to a comprehensible and easily (1959), pp. 70-72, on p. 70. This version of Heraclitus
manipulated physical environment, and the traditional is in Bertrand Russell, A History of Western Philosophy
animistic material which is decried by modern scientific (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1945), p. 45; a some-
thinking is still regarded as appropriate material for what different phrasing appears in Plato's "Cratylus"
child training" (p. 189). (Indeed, books written for (The Dialogues of Plato, B. Jowett, tr., 2 vols. [New
children show clearly that adults think children ought York: Random House, 1937], Vol. 1, p. 191).
prove false or irrelevant; old ones yield to con- Cantril puts it, "exist for us only in so far as they
venience rather than to evidence. In Eiseley's are related to our purposes. If you leave out
phrase, "a world view does not dissolve over- human significance, you leave out all con-
night. Rather, like... mountain ranges, it stancy, all repeatability, all form."23
erodes through long centuries."20 The solvent Purpose apart, physical and biological cir-
need not be truth. For example, in the seven- cumstances restrict human perception. Our
teenth century many scholars believed that the native range of sensation is limited; other crea-
earth-the "Mundane Egg"-was originally tures experience other worlds than ours. The
"smooth, regular, and uniform; without Moun- human visual world is richly differentiated,
tains, and without a Sea"; to chastise man for compared with that of most species, but others
his sins, at or before the Deluge, God crumpled see better in the dark, perceive ultraviolet rays
this fair landscape into continents and ocean as colors, distinguish finer detail, or see near
deeps, with unsightly crags and chasms; mod- and distant scenes together in better focus. To
ern man thus looked out on "the Ruins of a many creatures the milieu is more audible and
broken World." This version of earth history more fragrant than to us. For every sensation,
was overthrown, not by geological evidence, moreover, the human perceptual world varies
but principally by a more sanguine view of within strict limits; how bright the lightning
God and man, and by a new esthetic standard: looks, how loud the thunder sounds, how wet
to eighteenth century observers, mountains the rain feels at any given moment of a storm
seemed majestic and sublime, rather than hide- depends on fixed formulae, whose constants,
ous and corrupt.2' at least, are unique to man.24
Antthropoventric Character of the World View ed.] New York: Meridian Books, 1959). "There is no
Mankind's best conceivable world view is at ultimate source for the physicist's concepts," adds Kbh-
ler, "other than the phenomenal world" (p. 374).
most a partial picture of the world-a picture
23 Hadley Cantril, "Concerning the Nature of Per-
centered on man. We inevitably see the uni- ception," Proceedings of the American Philosophical So-
verse from a human point of view and com- ciety, Vol. 104 (1960), pp. 467-473, on p. 470. "The
municate in terms shaped by the exigencies of environment with which we are concerned is not the
one which is measured in microns, nor that which is
human life. "'Significance' in geography is
measured in light years, but that which is measured in
*measured, consciously or unconsciously," says millimeters or meters ... [It] is not that of particles,
Hartshorne, "in terms of significance to man"; atoms, molecules, or anything smaller than crystals. Nor
but it is not in geography alone that man is the is it that of planets, stars, galaxies, or nebulae. The
measure. "Our choice of time scale for cli- world of man ... consists of matter in the solid, liquid,
or gaseous state, organized as an array of surfaces or in-
matology," according to Hare, "is conditioned terfaces between matter in these different states"
more by the length of our life span than by (James J. Gibson, "Perception as a Function of Stimula-
logic"; the physics of the grasshopper, Kbhler tion," in Sigmund Koch, ed., Psychology: a Study of a
points out, would be a different physics than Science, Study I. Conceptual and Systematic: Vol. I.
Sensory, Perceptual, and Physiological Foundations
ours.22 "All aspects of the environment," as
[New York: McGraw-Hill, 1959], pp. 456-501, on p.
20 Loren Eiseley, The Firmament of Time (New 469).
York: Atheneum, 1960), p. 38. Scientists at the French 24 S. S. Stevens, "To Honor Fechner and Repeal His
Academy in the seventeenth century denied evidence Law," Science, Vol. 133 (1961), pp. 80-86. For human
for the fall of meteorites, obvious to most observers, be- and animal sensory and perceptual capacities see Adolf
cause they opposed the prevalent superstition that mete- Portmann, "The Seeing Eye," Landscape, Vol. 9
orites came by supernatural means. For this and other (1959), pp. 14-18; Ernest Baumgardt, "La vision des
instances of how "the most stubborn facts will be set insectes," La Nature, Vol. 90 (1960), pp. 96-99; Don-
aside if there is no place for them in the established ald R. Griffin, "Sensory Physiology and the Orientation
framework of science," see Polanyi, Personal Knowl- of Animals," American Scientist, Vol. 41 (1953), pp.
edge, pp. 138-158. 208-44; M. J. Wells, "What the Octopus Makes of It:
21 Marjorie Hope Nicolson, Mountain Gloom and Our World from Another Point of View," Advancement
Mountain Glory: The Development of the Aesthetics of of Science, Vol. 17 (1961), pp. 461-471; J. von Uex-
the Infinite (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1959); kiill, Umwelt und Innenwelt der Tiere (Berlin: Julius
quotations (from Thomas Burnet's Sacred Theory of Springer, 1909); Karl von Frisch, Bees: their Vision,
the Earth [London, 16841) on pp. 198, 206. Chemical Senses, and Language (Ithaca: Cornell Uni-
22 Hartshorne, Perspective on the Nature of Geog- versity Press, 1950), pp. 8-12, 34-36; Donald R. Grif-
raphy, p. 46; F. Kenneth Hare, "The Westerlies," Geo- fin, Listening in the Dark: the Acoustic Orientation of
graphical Review, Vol. 50 (1960), p. 367; Wolfgang Bats and Men (New Haven: Yale University Press,
Kbhler, The Place of Value in a World of Facts ([1938 1958); K. von Frisch, "Tber den Farbsinn der Insek-
The instruments of science do permit partial are not equivalent for us: up and down, front
knowledge of other milieus, real or hypotheti- and back, left and right have particular values
cal. Blood ordinarily appears a uniform, homo- because we happen to be a special kind of bilat-
geneous red to the naked eye; seen through a erally symmetrical, terrestrial animal. "It is
microscope, it becomes yellow particles in a one contingent fact about the world that we at-
neutral fluid, while its atomic substructure is tach very great importance to things having
mostly empty space. But such insights do not their tops and bottoms in the right places; it is
show what it is actually like to see normally at another contingent fact [about ourselves] that
a microscopic scale. "The apparently standar- we attach more importance to their having their
dized environment of flour in a bottle," Ander- fronts and backs in the right places than their
son surmises "would not seem undifferentiated left and right sides."28 Up and down are every-
to any investigator who had once been a flour where good and evil: heaven and hell, the
beetle and who knew at firsthand the complex- higher and lower instincts, the heights of sub-
ities of flour-beetle existence."25 The percep- limity and the depths of degradation, even the
tual powers and central nervous systems of higher and the lower latitudes have ethical spa-
many species are qualitatively, as well as quan- tial connotations. And left and right are
titatively, different from man's. We can ob- scarcely less differentiated.
serve, but never experience, the role of surface Other species apperceive quite differently.
tension and molecular forces in the lives of Even the fact that physical space seems to us
small invertebrates, the ability of the octopus three-dimensional is partly contingent on our
to discriminate tactile impressions by taste, of size, on the shape of our bodies (an asymmetri-
the butterfly to sense forms through smell, or of cal torus), and, perhaps, on our semicircular
the jellyfish to change its size and shape. canals; the world of certain birds is effectively
The tempo of all varieties of experience is two-dimensional, and some creatures appre-
also specific. Time yields humans on the aver- hend only one.29
age eighteen separate impressions, or instants,
every second; images presented more rapidly Princeton University Press, 1947), and Albert A. Blank,
"Axiomatics of Binocular Vision. The Foundations of
seem to fuse into continuous motion. But there
Metric Geometry in Relation to Space Perception,"
are slow-motion fish that perceive separate im- Journal of the Optical Society of America, Vol. 48
pressions up to thirty each second, and snails to (1958), pp. 328-334. But under optimal conditions,
which a stick that vibrates more than four times Gibson maintains, perceptual space is Euclidean ("Per-
ception as a Function of Stimulation," pp. 479-480).
a second appears to be at rest.26
28 Bernard Mayo, "The Incongruity of Counterparts,"
As with time, so with space; we perceive one Philosophy of Science, Vol. 25 (1958), pp. 109-115, on
of many possible structures, more hyperbolic p. 115; Martti Takala, Asymmetries of Visual Space
than Euclidean.27 The six cardinal directions [Annales Academie Scientarium Fennicae, Ser. B., Vol.
72, No. 2] (Helsinki, 1951). Because gravity, unlike
ten," and G. Viaud, "La Vision chromatique chez les bilateral symmetry, affects everything on earth, people
animaux (sauf les insectes)," in Mechanisms of Colour adapt more rapidly to distorting spectacles that invert
Discrimination (New York: Pergamon Press, 1960), up and down than to those that reverse left and right
pp. 19-40 and 41-66, respectively; Conrad G. Mueller, (Julian E. Hochberg, "Effects of the Gestalt Revolu-
"Visual Sensitivity," Irwin Pollack, "Hearing," and tion: the Cornell Symposium on Perception," Psycho-
Lloyd M. Beidler, "Chemical Senses," in Annual Review logical Review, Vol. 64 [1957], pp. 74-76).
of Psychology, Vol. 12 (1961), pp. 311-334, 335-362, 29 G. J. Whitrow, "Why Physical Space Has Three
and 363-388, respectively. Dimensions," British Journal for the Philosophy of Sci-
25 Edgar Anderson, "Man as a Maker of New Plants ence, Vol. 6 (1955), pp. 13-31; I. J. Good, "Lattice
and New Plant Communities," in William L. Thomas, Structure of Space-Time," ibid., Vol. 9 (1959), pp.
Jr., ed., Man's Role in Changing the Face of the Earth 317-319. On righteousness as a function of height, see
(Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1956), pp. 763- Geraldine Pederson-Krag, "The Use of Metaphor In
777, on p. 776. Analytic Thinking," Psychoanalytic Quarterly, Vol. 25
26 J. von Uexkiill, Theoretical Biology (London:(1956), p. 70. Of the opposition of right and left, Rob-
Kegan Paul, 1926), pp. 66-68; Ludwig von Bertalanffy,ert Hertz remarks, "if organic asymmetry had not ex-
"An Essay on the Relativity of Categories," Philosophy isted, it would have had to be invented" (Death and the
of Science, Vol.22 (1955), pp. 243-263, on p. 249. Right Hand [Glencoe, Ill.: Free Press, 1960], p. 98),
27 Visual space is Euclidean only locally; for normal and Rodney Needham concludes that "in every quarter
observers with binocular vision, space has a constant of the world it is the right hand, and not the left, which
negative curvature corresponding with the hyperbolicis predominant" ("The Left Hand of the Mugwe: an
geometry of Lobachevski. See Rudolph K. Luneburg, Analytic Note on the Structure of Meru Symbolism,"
Mathematical Analysis of Binocular Vision (Princeton: Africa, Vol. 30 [1960], p. 20).
Man's experienced world is, then, only one the life of every participant; and anyone who
tree of the forest. The difference between this adheres to a consensus must personally have ac-
and the others is that man knows his tree is not quired some of its contituent elements. As Rus-
the only one; and yet can imagine what the for- sell put it, "If I believe that there is such a place
est as a whole might be like. Technology and as Semipalatinsk, I believe it because of things
memory extend our images far beyond the that have happened to me."33 One need not
bounds of direct sensation; consciousness of have been in Semipalatinsk; it is enough to have
self, of time, of relationship, and of causality heard of it in some meaningful connection, or
overcome the separateness of individual experi- even to have imagined (rightly or wrongly)
ences.30 Thanks to what has been likened to "a that it exists, on the basis of linguistic or other
consummate piece of combinatorial mathemat- evidence. But if the place did not exist in some
ics,"31 we share the conception of a common -and potentially in all-personal geographies,
world. Whatever the defects of the general con- it could scarcely form part of a common world
sensus, the shared world view is essentially view.
well-founded. "We are quite willing to admit
Individual and Consensual Worlds Compared
that there may be errors of detail in this knowl-
edge," as Russell wrote, referring to science, The personal terra cognita is, however, in
"but we believe them to be discoverable and many ways unlike the shared realm of knowl-
corrigible by the methods which have given edge. It is far more localized and restricted in
rise to our beliefs, and we do not, as practical space and time: I know nothing about the
men, entertain for a moment the hypothesis that microgeography of most of the earth's crust,
the whole edifice may be built on insecure foun- much less than the sum of common knowledge
dations."32 about the world as a whole and larger parts, but
a great deal about that tiny fraction of the globe
PERSONAL GEOGRAPHIES
I live in-not merely facts that might be infer-
Separate personal worlds of experience, red from general knowledge and verified by
learning, and imagination necessarily underlie visitors, but aspects of things that no one, lack-
any universe of discourse. The whole structure ing my total experience, could ever grasp as I
of the shared picture of the world is relevant to do. "The entire earth," as Wright says, is thus
"an immense patchwork of miniature terrae in-
30 "I' y a une difference fondamentale dans la 'facon cognitae"34 -parts of private worlds not incor-
d'etre-au-monde' de l'homme et de l'animal superieur: porated into the general image. Territorially,
ce fait d'etre comme englue dans l'objet, de ne pouvoir
as otherwise, each personal environment is both
le survoler, du . . . a l'unite que fait l'animal avec le
monde .... L'animal ne peut transcender le reel im- more and less inclusive than the common realm.
mediat" (Jean-C. Filloux, "La nature de l'univers chez
l'animal," La Nature, Vol. 85 [1957], pp. 403-407, Complex Nature of Personal Milieus
438-443, 490-493, on p. 493). Analogous points are
The private milieu is more complex and many
made by Boulding, Image, p. 29; Geza Revesz, "The
Problem of Space with Particular Emphasis on Specific aspects of it are less accessible to inquiry and
Sensory Spaces," American Journal of Psychology, Vol.
50 (1937), p. 434n; Ernst Cassirer, An Essay on Man: 33Bertrand Russell, Human Knowledge: Its Scope
Introduction to a Philosophy of Human Culture (New and Limits (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1948), p.
Haven: Yale University Press, 1944 and New York: xii. But see J. K. Feibleman, "Knowing about Semipal-
Doubleday Anchor Books, n. d.), p. 67. atinsk," Dialectica, Vol. 9 (1955), pp. 3-4.
31 Max Born, Natural Philosophy of Cause and 34 Wright, "Terrae Incognitae," pp. 3-4. On the other
Chance (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1949), p. 125. For hand, the consensual universe of discourse comprises
a critique on the formation of the common world view, elements from an infinite number of private worlds-
see J. P. McKinney, "The Rational and the Real: Com- not only those of existing persons, but also those that
ment on a Paper by E. Topitsch," Philosophy of Sci- might conceivably be held. No square mile of the
ence, Vol. 24 (1957), pp. 275-280. earth's surface has been seen from every possible per-
32 Bertrand Russell, Our Knowledge of the External spective, but our view of the world in general is based
World (New York: Mentor, 1960), p. 56. The question on assumptions about such perspectives, as analogous
whether the so-called real world actually exists lies be- with those that have been experienced. The Amazon
yond the scope of this paper. As Russell says (p. 57), basin would look different in design and detail from
"universal skepticism, though logically irrefutable, is the top of every tree within it, but we know enough of
practically barren." Sanity and survival depend on the the general character and major variations of that land-
"sense of being a solid person surrounded by a solid scape to describe it adequately after climbing-or hov-
world" (Money-Kyrle, op. cit. [see fn. 13], p. 96). ering in a helicopter over-a small fraction of its trees.
exploration than is the world we all share. "Like In each of our personal worlds, far more than
the earth of a hundred years ago," writes Aldous in the shared consensus, characters of fable and
Huxley, "our mind still has its darkest Africas, fiction reside and move about, some in their
its unmapped Borneos and Amazonian basins. own lands, others sharing familiar countries
... A man consists of ... an Old World of per- with real people and places. We are all Alices
sonal consciousness and, beyond a dividing sea, in our own Wonderlands, Gullivers in Lilliput
a series of New Worlds-the not too distant and Brobdingnag. Ghosts, mermaids, men from
Virginias and Carolinas of the personal sub- Mars, and the smiles of Cheshire cats confront
conscious . . . ; the Far West of the collective us at home and abroad. Utopians not only make
unconscious, with its flora of symbols, its tribes mythic men, they rearrange the forces of
of aboriginal archetypes; and, across another, nature: in some worlds water flows uphill, sea-
vaster ocean, at the antipodes of everyday con- sons vanish, time reverses, or one- and two-di-
sciousness, the world of Visionary Experience. mensional creatures converse and move about.
... Some people never consciously discover Invented worlds may even harbor logical
their antipodes. Others make an occasional absurdities: scientists swallowed up in the
landing."35 fourth dimension, conjurors imprisoned in
To be sure, the general world view likewise Klein bottles, five countries each bordering on
transcends objective reality. The hopes and all the others.37 Non-terrestrial geometries,
fears of mankind often animate its common- topographical monsters, and abstract models of
sense perceptions. The supposed location and every kind in turn lend insight to views of
features of the Garden of Eden stimulated reality. If we could not imagine the impossible,
medieval mapmakers; many useful journeys of both private and public worlds would be the
exploration have sought elusive El Dorados. poorer.
Delusion and error are no less firmly held by
groups than by individuals. Metaphysical as- Extent to Which Private Worlds Are
sumptions, from original sin to the perfectibility Congruous with "Reality"
of man, not only color but shape the shared Though personal milieus in some respects fall
picture of the world. But fantasy plays a more short of and in others transcend the more
prominent role in any private milieu than in the objective consensual reality, yet they at least
general geography. Every aspect of the public partly resemble it. What people perceive al-
image is conscious and communicable, whereas ways pertains to the shared "real" world; even
many of our private impressions are inchoate, the landscapes of dreams come from actual
diffuse, irrational, and can hardly be formu- scenes recently viewed or recalled from mem-
lated even to ourselves. ory, consciously or otherwise, however much
The private milieu thus includes much more they may be distorted or transformed. Sens-
varied landscapes and concepts than the shared ing can take place without external perception
world, imaginary places and powers as well as (spots before the eyes; ringing in the ears), but
aspects of reality with which each individual
alone is familiar. Hell and the Garden of Eden imal, the spiritual as well as the mundane, regions of
their universe" (A. Irving Hallowell, Culture and Ex-
may have vanished from most of our mental
perience [Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania
maps, but imagination, distortion, and igno- Press, 1955], pp. 187-188). The genesis of these men-
rance still embroider our private landscapes. tal maps is explained in R. E. Money-Kyrle, Man's Pic-
The most compelling artifacts are but pale re- ture of His World: a Psycho-analytic Study (London:
flections of the lapidary architecture of the Duckworth, 1960); see p. 171. For instances of theo-
logical location, see Erich Isaac, "Religion, Landscape
mind, attempts to recreate on earth the vision-
and Space, Landscape, Vol. 9 (1959-60), pp. 14-18.
ary images ascribed by man to God; and every The visionary transfiguration of the everyday world by
marvel unattained is a Paradise Lost.36 means of gems and precious stones is a central theme
in Huxley, Heaven and Hell.
35 Heaven and Hell (New York: Harper, 1955), pp. 37 Edwin A. Abbott, Flatland, a Romance of Many
1-3. Dimensions (New York: Dover, 1952 [London, 1884]),
36 "Man's spatialization of his world ... never ap- is a classic of two-dimensional life. For samples of the
pears to be exclusively limited to the pragmatic level of impossible, see Clifton Fadiman, ed., Fantasia Mathe-
action and perceptual experience .... Human beings in matica (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1958), notably
all cultures have built up a frame of spatial reference Martin Gardner, "The Island of Five Colors," pp. 196-
that has included the farther as well as the more prox- 210.
.so expressive a phrase as 'the mind's eye'" is complete fidelity would endanger survival.
current, Smythies points out, because there is Whether we stay put or move about, our envi-
"something very like seeing about having sen- ronment is subject to sudden and often drastic
sory mental images.38 change. In consequence, we must be able to see
Illusions do not long delude most of us; "we things not only as they are, but also as they
see the world the way we see it because it pays might become. Our private milieus are there-
us and has paid us to see it that way."39 To find fore flexible, plastic, and somewhat amorphous.
our way about, avoid danger, earn a living, and We are physiologically equipped for a wide
achieve basic human contacts, we usually have range of environments, including some of those
to perceive what is there. As the Sprouts ex- that we create. But evolution is slow; at any
press it, "the fact that the human species has point in time, some of our sensate and concep-
survived (so far) suggests that there must be tual apparatus is bound to be vestigial, better
considerable correspondence between the mil- suited to previous than to present milieus.
ieu as people conceive it to be, and as it actually As individuals, we learn most rapidly about
is."40 If the picture of the world in our heads the world not by paying close attention to a
were not fairly consistent with the world out- single variable, but by superficially scanning a
side, we should be unable to survive in any en- great variety of things. "Everyday perception
vironment other than a mental hospital. And if tends to be selective, creative, fleeting, inexact,
our private milieus were not recognizably sim- generalized, stereotyped" just because impre-
ilar to one another, we could never have con- cise, partly erroneous impressions about the
structed a common world view. world in general often convey more than exact
details about a small segment of it.4' The
Range and Limits of Personal Knowledge
observant are not necessarily most accurate;
of the World
effective observation is never unwaveringly
However, a perfect fit between the outside attentive. As Vernon emphasizes, "changing
world and our views of it is not possible; indeed, perceptions are necessary to preserve mental
alertness and normal powers of thought."
38J. R. Smythies, "The Problems of Perception,"
Awareness is not always conducive to survival.
British Journal for the Philosophy of Science, Vol. 11
(1960), pp. 224-238, on p. 229; see also his Analysis of He who fails to see a tiger and hence does not
Perception (New York: Humanities Press, 1956), pp. attract its attention "may escape the destruc-
81-105. "The widespread belief that a mirage is some- tion which his more knowing fellow invites by
thing unreal, a sort of trick played on the eyes, is wrong.
the very effects of his knowledge." So, Boul-
The picture a mirage presents is real but never quite
ding concludes, "under some circumstances,
accurate" (James H. Gordon, "Mirages," in Smithson-
ian Institution, Annual Report for 1959 [Washington, ignorance is bliss and knowledge leads to
D. C., 1960], pp. 327-346, on p. 328). On the form disaster."42
and content of landscapes in dreams, mirages, and hal-
lucinations, and their relations with "reality," see Char- 41 Ibid., p. 10; see also Miller, "The Magical Number
les Fisher, "Dreams, Images and Perception: A Study Seven" [see fn. 12], pp. 88-89. We can count only a
of Unconscious-Preconscious Relationships," Journal of few of the stars or raindrops we see, beyond which
the American Psychoanalytic Association, Vol. 4 everything becomes blurred; but our vagueness could
(1956), pp. 5-48; Charles Fisher and I. H. Paul, "The not be rectified by looking longer or more carefully:
Effect of Subliminal Visual Stimulation on Images and "the blur is just as essential a feature of sense perception
Dreams: a Validation Study," ibid., Vol. 7 (1959), pp. as other features are .... Sense perception is inexact in
35-83; Peter Hobart Knapp, "Sensory Impressions in a very different sense from that in which ... a map is
Dreams," Psychoanalytic Quarterly, Vol. 25 (1956), inexact" (Waismann, "Analytic-Synthetic" [see fn. 6],
pp. 325-347; C. T. K. Chari, "On the 'Space' and 'Time' Analysis, Vol. 13 [1953], pp. 76-77). Types and ranges
of Hallucinations," British Journal for the Philosophy of perception and learning are surveyed in M. D. Ver-
of Science, Vol. 8 (1958), pp. 302-306; Aldous Huxley, non, A Further Study of Visual Perception (Cambridge:
The Doors of Perception (London: Chatto and Windus, The University Press, 1952); R. J. Hirst, The Problems
1954). of Perception (London: Allen & Unwin, 1959); James
39 Boulding, The Image, p. 50. Drever, 2d., "Perceptual Learning," in Annual Review
40 Harold Sprout and Margaret Sprout, Man-Milieu of Psychology, Vol. 11 (1960), pp. 131-160. For a con-
Relationship Hypotheses in the Context of International cise theoretical review, see William Bevan, "Perception:
Politics (Princeton University Center of International Development of a Concept," Psychological Review, Vol.
Studies, 1956), p. 61. The essential correspondence be- 65 (1958), pp. 34-55.
tween the perceived and the actual milieu is stressed in 42 Magdalen D. Vernon, "Perception, Attention and
James J. Gibson, The Perception of the Visual World Consciousness," Advancement of Science, Vol. 16
(Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1950). (1959), pp. 111-123, on p. 120; Boulding, The Image,
Essential perception of the world, in short, UNIQUENESS OF PRIVATE MILIEUS
embraces every way of looking at it: conscious

Despite their congruence with each other
and unconscious, blurred and distinct, objective
and with the world as it is, private milieus do
and subjective, inadvertent and deliberate, lit-
diverge markedly among people in different
eral and schematic.
Perception itself is never unalloyed: sensing, cultures, for individuals within a social group,
thinking, feeling, and believing are simulta- and for the same person as child and as adult, at
neous, interdependent processes. A purely per- various times and places, and in sundry moods.
ceptual view of the world would be as lame and "The life of each individual," concludes Dela-
false as one based solely on logic, insight, or gado, "constitutes an original and irreversible
ideology. "All fact," as Goethe said, "is in itself perceptive experience."44
theory." The most direct and simple experience Each private world view is unique, to begin
of the world is a composite of perception, mem- with, because each person inhabits a different
ory, logic, and faith. Looking down from a win- milieu. "The fact that no two human beings can
dow, like Descartes, we say that we see men occupy the same point at the same time and that
and women, when in fact we perceive no more the world is never precisely the same on suc-
than parts of hats and coats. The recognition of cessive occasions means," as Kluckhohn and
Mt. Monadnock, Chisholm demonstrates, is a Mowrer put it, that "the physical world is idio-
conceptual as well as a visual act:43 syncratic for each individual." Experience is
not only unique; more significantly, it is also
Suppose that you say to me, as we are riding through self-centered; I am part of your milieu, but not
New Hampshire, "I see that that is Mt. Monadnock
behind the trees." If I should ask, "How do you of my own, and never see myself as the world
know it's Monadnock?" you may reply by saying, does. It is usually one's self to which the world
"I've been here many times before and I can see that attends; "we will assume that an eye looks at
it is.".. . If I still have my doubts about what you
us, or a gun points at us," notes Gombrich, "un-
claim to see ... I may ask, "What makes you think
that's Monadnock that you see?"... An appropriate less we have good evidence to the contrary."45
answer would be this: "I can see that the mountain Each private world view is also unique be-
is shaped like a wave and that there is a little cabin cause everyone chooses from and reacts to the
near the top. There is no other mountain answering
to that description within miles of here." . . . What milieu in a different way. We elect to see cer-
you now claim to see is, not that the mountain is tain aspects of the world and to avoid others.
Monadnock, but merely that it has a shape like a Moreover, because "everything that we know
wave and that there is a cabin near the top. And this
about an object affects the way in which it
new "perceptual statement" is coupled with a state-
ment of independent information ("Monadnock is appears to the eye," no object is apt to seem
shaped like a wave and there is a cabin near the top;
quite the same to any two percipients.46 Thus
no other mountain like that is within miles of here")
"in some respects," as Clark says, "each man's
-information acquired prior to the present per-
ception. appraisal of an identical situation is peculiarly
his own."47
And each succeeding perceptual statement can
similarly be broken down into new perceptual 44Delgado, "A Possible Model for Ideas" [see fn. 12],
claims and other additional information, until p. 255.
"we reach a point where we find.. no percep- 4 Clyde Kluckhohn and 0. H. Mowrer, "'Culture
and Personality': a Conceptual Scheme," American An-
tual claim at all."
thropologist, Vol. 46 (1944), pp. 1-29, on p. 13; E. H.
Gombrich, Art and Illusion: A Study in the Psychology
p. 169. The classic story illustrating the virtues of ig- of Pictorial Representation (New York: Pantheon
norance of the geographical environment is in Kurt Books, 1960 [Bollingen Series, XXXV, No. 5] ), p. 276.
Koffka, Principles of Gestalt Psychology (New York:
See also Sprout, Man-Milieu Relationship Hypotheses,
Harcourt-Brace, 1935), pp. 27-28.
p. 18.
43 Chisholm, Perceiving, pp. 55-58; for the Descartes
46 Vaughan Cornish, Geographical Essays (London:
argument, from his Meditations, see pp. 154-56. See
also Joseph R. Royce, "The Search for Meaning," Amer- Sifton, Praed, [1946]), pp. 78-79.
ican Scientist, Vol. 47 (1959), pp. 515-35; Ernst Cas- 47K. G. T. Clark, "Certain Underpinnings of Our
sirer, The Philosophy of Symbolic Forms; Volume Arguments in Human Geography," Transactions of the
Three: The Phenomonology of Knowledge (New Institute of British Geographers, No. 16 (1950), pp. 15-
Haven: Yale University Press, 1957), p. 25. 22, on p. 20.
Cultural Differences in Aspects the principal settlement. Westerners are more

of World Views spatially egocentric than Chinese or Balinese.
The religious significance of cardinal directions
Appraisals are, of course, profoundly affected
controls orientation indoors and out on the
by society and culture. Each social system
North China plain, and the Balinese give all di-
organizes the world in accordance with its
rections in terms of compass points. Where we
particular structure and requirements; each
would say "go to the left," "towards me," or
culture screens perception of the milieu in har-
"away from the wall," they say "take the turn to
mony with its particular style -and techniques.48
the West," "pull the table southward," or, in
Consider social and cultural differences in
case of a wrong note on the piano, "hit the key
habits of location and techniques of orientation.
to the East of the one you are hitting."50 Disori-
Eskimo maps, Stefansson reports, often show entation is universally disagreeable; but inabil-
accurately the number and shape of turns in
ity to locate north quite incapacitates the Bali-
routes and rivers, but neglect lineal distances,
nese. The English writer Stephen Potter was
noting only how far one can travel in a day.
amazed to find that most Americans neither
The Saulteaux Indians do not think of circular
knew nor cared what watershed they were in,
motion, according to Hallowell; to go counter-
or which way rivers flowed-facts he main-
clockwise is to move, they say, from east to
tained were second nature to Englishmen.5'
south to west to north, the birth order of the
Apperception of shape is also culturally con-
four winds in their mythology. To find their
ditioned. According to Herskovits, an electrical
way about, some peoples utilize concrete and
others abstract base points, still others edges in
Experience, p. 201; Waldemar Bogoras, The Chukchee.
the landscape, or their own locations. The 11.-Religion. The Jesup North Pacific Expedition, Vol.
Chukchee of Siberia distinguish twenty-two VII, Memoir of the American Museum of Natural His-
compass directions, most of them tied to the po- tory (Leiden: Brill; New York: Stechert, 1907), pp.
303-304. The cultural and environmental contexts of
sition of the sun and varying with the seasons.
orientation are considered at length in Hallowell, op.
The precise, asymmetrical navigation nets of cit., pp. 184-202, and Kevin Lynch, The Image of the
Micronesian voyagers made use of constella- City (Cambridge, Mass.: Technology Press and Har-
tions and islands. Tikopians, never far from the vard University Press, 1960), pp. 123-133.
50 Bengt Danielsson, Work and Life in Raroia: an
ocean, and unable to conceive of a large land
Acculturation Study from the Tuamotu Group, French
mass, use inward and seaward to help locate Oceania (London: Allen & Unwin, 1956), pp. 30-31;
anything: "there is a spot of mud on your sea- Derk Bodde, "Types of Chinese Categorical Think-
ward cheek."49 In the Tuamotus, compass di- ing," Journal of the American Oriental Society, Vol.
rections refer to winds, but places on the atolls 59 (1939), pp. 200-219, on p. 201n; Jane Belo, "The
Balinese Temper," Character and Personality, Vol. 4
are located by reference to their direction from (1935), pp. 120-146, quote on pp. 126-127. Einar
Haugen, "The Semantics of Icelandic Orientation,"
48 "Only exceptionally do we react in any literal sense Word, Vol. 13 (1957), pp. 447-459, shows how cardi-
to stimuli .... Rather, we react to our interpretations of nal orientation can depend on one's location with ref-
stimuli. These interpretations are derived in consider- erence to an ultimate destination; thus an Icelander
able part from our culture and from each person's spe- heading for the southern tip of the island is going
cific experiences in that culture" (Clyde Kluckhohn, "south" even if his coastwise route happens to be
"The Scientific Study of Values and Contemporary Civ- southwest or west. For other early or "primitive"
ilization," Proceedings of the American Philosophical methods of pathfinding, see B. F. Adler, Maps of Prim-
Society, Vol. 102 [1958], pp. 469-476, on p. 469). The itive Peoples (St. Petersburg, 1910), abridged by H. de
classic case study is T. T. Waterman, Yurok Geography Hutorowicz, Bulletin of the American Geographical
(Berkeley: University of California Press, 1920); see Society, Vol. 43 (1911), pp. 669-679; Waldemar
also Erik H. Erikson, Childhood and Society (New Bogoras, "Ideas of Space and Time in the Conception
York: W. W. Norton, 1950), pp. 141-60. The literature of Primitive Religion," American Anthropologist, Vol.
on world views is ably summarized by Clyde Kluck- 27 (1925), pp. 212-215; Pierre Jaccard, Le Sens de la
hohn, "Culture and Behavior," in Gardner Lindzey, ed., direction et l'orientation lointaine chez l'homme (Paris:
Handbook of Social Psychology, 2 vols. (Cambridge, Payot, 1932); Harold Gatty, Nature Is Your Guide:
Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1954), Vol. 2, pp. 921-976. How to Find Your Way on Land and Sea by Observing
49 Raymond Firth, We, the Tikopia: a Sociological Nature (New York: Dutton, 1958).
Study of Kinship in Primitive Polynesia (London: 51 "I hardly found an American who knew which
Allen & Unwin, 1936), p. 19. For the, previous exam- watershed he was in, which left me, as an Englishman
ples, see the letter from Vilhjalmur Stefannson quoted who is uneasy unless he knows which ocean will re-
in Erwin Raisz, General Cartography (New York: ceive his urination, somewhat scandalized" (Potter on
McGraw-Hill, 1948), p. 4; Hallowell, Culture and America [London: Hart-Davis, 1956], p. 13).
engineer working in Ghana complained that As with shapes, so with colors. Our most
"When a trench for a conduit must be dug, I accustomed hues, such as blue and green, are
run a line between the two points, and tell my not familiar in certain other cultures; whereas
workers to follow it. But at the end of the job, Igradations scarcely perceptible to us may be
invariably find that the trench has curves in it." part of their common experience. "There is no
In their land "circular forms predominate.... such thing as a 'natural' division of the spec-
They do not live in ... a carpentered world, so trum," Ray concludes. "Each culture has taken
that to follow a straight line marked by a cord the spectral continuum and has divided it into
is as difficult for them" as drawing a perfect units on a quite arbitrary basis.... The effects
freehand circle is for most of us.52 Zulus tested of brightness, luminosity, and saturation are
with the Ames trapezoidal window actually saw often confused with hue; and the resulting sys-
it as a trapezoid more often than Americans, tems are emotional and subjective, not scien-
who usually see it as a rectangle; habituated to tific."55 Among the Hanunoo of Mindoro,
man-made rectangular forms, we are apt Conklin shows, the most basic color terms refer
unconsciously to assume that any four-sided to degrees of wetness (saturation) and bright-
object is a rectangle.53 ness; hue is of secondary interest.56
Territoriality-the ownership, division, and As the diverse views of color suggest, it is not
evaluation of space-also differs from group to merely observed phenomena that vary with cul-
group. In American offices, workers stake out ture, but whole categories of experience. A
claims around the walls and readily move to simple percept here may be a complex abstrac-
accommodate new employees; but the Japanese tion there. Groupings of supreme importance
gravitate toward the center of the room, and in one culture may have no relevance in
many Europeans are loathe to relinquish space another. The Aleuts had no generic name for
once pre-empted. Eastern Mediterranean Arabs their island chain, since they did not recognize
distinguish socially between right and left hand its unity. The Aruntas organize the night sky
sides of outer offices, and value proximity to into separate, overlapping constellations, some
doors. In seeing and describing landscapes, out of bright stars, others out of faint ones. To
Samoans emphasize the total impression, Mo- the Trukese, fresh and salt water are unrelated
roccans the details. The Trukese sharply differ- substances. The gauchos of the Argentine are
entiate various parts of open spaces, but pay said to have lumped the vegetable world into
little attention to dividing lines or edges-a four named groups: cattle fodder, bedding
trait which makes land claims difficult to straw, woody material, and all other plants-
resolve.54 including roses, herbs, and cabbages.57 There
is no natural or best way to classify anything;
52 Melville J. Herskovits, "Some Further Comments
all categories are useful rather than true, and
on Cultural Relativism," American Anthropologist, Vol.
60 (1958), pp. 266-273, on pp. 267-268. the landscape architect rightly prefers a mor-
53 Gordon W. Allport and Thomas F. Pettigrew,
"Cultural Influence on the Perception of Movement: Truk: Man in Paradise, Viking Fund Publications in
the Trapezoidal Illusion among Zulus," Journal of Anthropology No. 20 (New York: Wenner-Gren, 1953),
Abnormal and Social Psychology, Vol. 55 (1957), pp. pp. 225-226, 269-270.
104-113. Under "optimal" visual conditions, how- 55 Verne F. Ray, "Techniques and Problems in the
ever, the Zulus mistook the trapezoid for a rectangle Study of Human Color Perception," Southwestern Jour-
almost as often as Americans do, perhaps because most nal of Anthropology, Vol. 8 (1952), pp. 251-259,
of them recognized it as a model of a Western-type quotes on pp. 258-259; see also Ray, "Human Color
window (Charles W. Slack, "Critique on the Interpre- Perception and Behavioral Response," Transactions of
tation of Cultural Differences in the Perception of Mo- the New York Academy of Sciences, Ser. II, Vol. 16
tion in Ames's Trapezoidal Window," American Jour- (1953), pp. 98-104.
nal of Psychology, Vol. 72 [1959], pp. 127-131). 56 Harold C. Conklin, "Hanunoo Color Categories,"
Another aspect of spatial perception which varies with Southwestern Journal of Anthropology, Vol. 11 (1955),
culture is surveyed in Donald N. Michael, "Cross-Cul- pp. 339-344.
tural Investigations of Closure," in David C. Beardslee 57 The Argentine data are cited in Karl Vossler,
and Michael Wertheimer, eds., Readings in Perception "Volkssprachen und Weltsprachen," Welt und Wort,
(New York: Van Nostrand, 1958), pp. 160-170. Vol. 1 (1946), pp. 97-101, on p. 98, and discussed by
54 Edward T. Hall, The Silent Language (New Harold Basilius, "Neo-Humboldtian Ethnolinguistics,"
York: Doubleday, 1959), pp. 197-200, and "The Word, Vol. 8 (1952), pp. 95-105, on p. 101. For the
Language of Space," Landscape, Vol. 10 (1960), pp. rest, see Gladwin and Sarason, Truk, p. 30, and Lynch,
41-45; Thomas Gladwin and Seymour B. Sarason, op. cit., pp. 131-132.
phological to a genetic taxonomy. The patterns their linguistic one."61 Classifications into ani-
people see in nature also vary with economic, mate or inanimate, masculine, feminine, or neu-
ethical, and esthetic values. Esthetically neu- ter, and mass (sand, flour, grass, snow) or par-
tral to Americans, colors have moral connota- ticular nouns (man, dog, thimble, leaf) vari-
tions to Navahos; an Indian administrator's ously affect the way different speech communi-
attempt to use colors as impartial voting sym- ties view things. We tend to think of waves,
bols came to grief, since the Navahos viewed mountains, horizons, and martinis as though
blue as good and red as bad.58 they were composed of discrete entities, but
conceive surf, soil, scenery, and milk as aggre-
The Significance of Linguistic Differences gates, principally because the former terms are
in Apperception of the Milieu plurals, the latter indefinite nouns.62
61 Garrett Hardin, "The Threat of Clarity," ETC.:

The very words we use incline us toward a
a Review of General Semantics, Vol. 17 (1960), pp.
particular view of the universe. In Whorf's now 269-278, on p. 270. Similarly, people more readily per-
classic phrase, "We dissect nature along lines ceive and identify colors that have widely-known spe-
laid down by our native languages.... We cut cific names (like blue and green) than those that do
not (Roger W. Brown and Eric H. Lenneberg, "A
nature up, organize it into concepts, and ascribe Study in Language and Cognition," Journal of Abnor-
significances as we do, largely because we are mal and Social Psychology, Vol. 49 [1954], pp. 454-
parties to an agreement to organize it in this 462).
62 "English terms, like 'sky, hill, swamp,' persuade us
way-an agreement that holds throughout our
to regard some elusive aspect of nature's endless variety
speech community."59 To be sure, language as a distinct THING, almost like a table or chair"
also adjusts to the world view, just as environ- (Whorf, Language, Thought, and Reality, p. 240; see
also pp. 140-141). But Roger W. Brown (Words and
ment molds vocabulary: within a single gener-
Things [Glencoe, Ill.: Free Press, 1958], pp. 248-252)
ation the craze for skiing has given us almost as maintains that the distinction between mass and spe-
many different words for snow as the Eskimos cific nouns makes perceptual sense and corresponds
have. well with perceived reality.
One can easily, as critics of Whorf have pointed out,
Linguistic patterns do not irrevocably im- make too much of such distinctions. The fact that the
prison the senses, but rather, Hoijer judges, word for sun is masculine in French and feminine in
"direct perception and thinking into certain German, whereas that for moon is feminine in French
and masculine in German, cannot easily be correlated
habitual channels."60 Things with names are
with the habits of thought or Weltanschauung of either
easier to distinguish than those that lack them; people. The fact that in Algonquian languages the
the gauchos who used only four floristic terms gender class of "animate" nouns includes such words
as raspberry, stomach, and kettle, while "inanimate"
no doubt saw more than four kinds of plants,
nouns include strawberry, thigh, and bowl does not im-
but "their perceptual world is impoverished by ply "that speakers of Algonquian have a shrine to the
raspberry and treat it like a spirit, while the strawberry
"I Hall, Silent Language, pp. 132-133. Many land- is in the sphere of the profane" (Joseph H. Greenberg,
scape features exist as separate entities only in our "Concerning Inferences from Linguistic to Nonlin-
minds. As Gombrich says (Art and Illusion, p. 100), guistic Data," in Harry Hoijer, ed., Language in Cul-
"There is a fallacy in the idea that reality contains such ture, American Anthropological Association, Memoir
features as mountains and that, looking at one moun- No. 79 [Chicago, 1954], pp. 3-19, on pp. 15-16). In
tain after another, we slowly learn to generalize and short, "If grammar itself was once founded on an
form the abstract idea of mountaineity." Owing to the unconscious metaphysic, this linkage is now so vestigial
19th-century popularity of Alpine climbing, the Eng- as to have no appreciable bearing on the structure
lish standard of mountains changed dramatically: for of philosophic ideas" (Lewis S. Feuer, "Sociological
Gilbert White the 800-foot Sussex Downs were "ma- Aspects of the Relation Between Language and Philoso-
jestic mountains"; today anything below 2,000 feet is at phy," Philosophy of Science, Vol. 20 [1953], pp. 85-
best a "hill" (Vaughan Cornish, Scenery and the Sense 100, on p. 87). This may be true of most aspects of
of Sight (Cambridge: University Press, 1935), p. 77. language, and of philosophical ideas in their broadest
" "Science and Linguistics" [1940], in Language, sense. On the other hand, the fact that English-speak-
Thought, and Reality; Selected Writings of Benjamin ing mid-Victorians clad table and piano legs in ruffs
Lee Whorf, John B. Carroll, ed. (Cambridge, Mass.: and deplored direct reference to them in mixed com-
Technology Press; New York: Wiley; London: Chap- pany was not a necessary outgrowth of prudery but de-
man and Hall, 1956), p. 213. pended also on the metaphorical extension of the word
60 Harry Hoijer, "The Relation of Language to Cul- for human limbs to furniture-a connection not made
ture," in A. L. Kroeber et al., Anthropology Today: an by speakers of other languages. In this respect, lan-
Encyclopedic Inventory (Chicago: University of Chi- guage certainly altered the English-and still more the
cago Press, 1953), pp. 554-573, on p. 560. American-home landscape.
The structural aspects of language influence ences also occur within linguistic families. The
ways of looking at the world more than do French distinction between the imperfect tense
vocabularies. Seldom consciously employed, (used for things and processes) and the perfect
usually slow to change, syntax pervades basic (used for man and his actions) contrasts the
modes of thought. In Shawnee, La Barre sug- uniformity of nature with the uniqueness of
gests, "I let her have one on the noggin" is man in a way that English does not ordinarily
grammatically analogous to "The damned thing express.
slipped out of my hand."63 Lacking transitive That such distinctions can all be conveyed in
verbs, Greenlanders tend to see things happen English shows that language does not fetter
without specific cause; "I kill him," in their thought; with sufficient care and effort, prac-
language, becomes "he dies to me." In Euro- tically everything in any system of speech can
pean tongues, however, action accompanies be translated. Nevertheless, a concept that
perception, and the transitive verb animates comes naturally and easily in one tongue may
every event with purpose and cause. The Hopis require awkward and tedious circumlocution in
have subjectless verbs, but most Indo-Euro- another. The difference between what is cus-
pean subjects have objects, which gives expres- tomary for some but difficult for others is apt
sion a dualistic, animistic stamp. In Piaget's to be crucial in terms of habits of thought and,
illustration, to say "the wind blows" "perpe- perhaps, orders of events. European scientists,
trates ... the triple absurdity of suggesting that whose languages lump processes with sub-
the wind can be independent of the action of stances as nouns, took much longer to account
blowing, that there can be a wind that does not for vitamin deficiencies than for germ diseases,
blow, and that the wind exists apart from its partly because "I have a germ" was a more
outward manifestations."64 Important differ- natural locution than "I have a lack of vitamins."
In short, as Waismann says, "by growing up in
63 Weston La Barre, The Human Animal (Chicago: a certain language, by thinking in its semantic
University of Chicago Press, 1954), p. 204. See Whorf, and syntactical grooves, we acquire a certain
op. cit., p. 235. more or less uniform outlook on the world....
64Piaget, Child's Conception of the World, p. 249. A Language shapes and fashions the frame in
book has been written to tell parents how to answer a
child who asks such questions as "what does the wind which experience is set, and different languages
do when it's not blowing?" (Ruth Purcell, "Causality achieve this in different ways."65
and Language Rigidity," ETC., Vol. 15 [1958], pp.
175-180, on p. 179). Whorf (Language, Thought, and Personal Variations in Aspects
Reality) compares Hopi language and thought with of the World View
that of "Standard Average European" in several papers
(e. g., pp. 57-64, 134-159, 207-219). Private world views diverge from one another
Unlike most psychologists and anthropologists, geog- even within the limits set by logical necessity,
raphers have tended to assume, with positivistic philos- human physiology, and group standards. In
ophers, that we could rid ourselves of animistic and any society, individuals of similar cultural back-
teleological kinds of explanation and ways of looking at
ground, who speak the same language, still per-
the world by substituting other words and phrases in
our language. "Ritter's teleological views ... though ceive and understand the world differently.
they colour every statement he makes, yet do not affect
the essence," according to H. J. Mackinder; "it is easy 65 Waismann, "Analytic-Synthetic" [see fn. 6],
to re-state each proposition in the most modern evolu- Analysis, Vol. 13 (1952), p. 2. "The fact that an eth-
tionary terms" (President's address, Section E, British nologist can describe in circumlocution certain distinc-
Association for the Advancement of Science, Report of tions in kin that are customarily made by the Hopi does
the 65th Annual Meeting, Ipswich, 1895 [London: not alter his conclusion that the Hopi name kin and be-
Murray, 1895], pp. 738-748, on p. 743); that is, Mac- have toward them differently from us" (Harry Hoijer,
kinder found it easy to accommodate Ritter's brand of review of Roger W. Brown, Words and Things, in Lan-
determinism to his own. For other views on the rela- guage, Vol. 35 [1959], pp. 496-503, on p. 501). For a
tion between teleological language and habits of range of views on metalinguistics see Eric H. Lenne-
thought, see Sprout, Man-Milieu Relationship Hypoth- berg, "Cognition in Ethnolinguistics," Language, Vol.
eses, pp. 27-28; A. J. Bernatowicz, "Teleology in 29 (1953), pp. 463-71; Franklin Fearing, "An Exam-
Science Teaching," Science, Vol. 128 (1958), pp. ination of the Conceptions of Benjamin Whorf in the
1402-1405; Ernest Nagel, "Teleological Explanation Light of Theories of Perception and Cognition," in
and Teleological Systems," in Feigl and Brodbeck, Hoijer, ed., Language and Culture, pp. 47-81; Anatol
Readings in the Philosophy of Science, pp. 537-558; Rapoport and Arnold Horowitz, "The Sapir-Whorf-
Karl A. Sinnhuber, "Karl Ritter 1779-1859," Scottish Korzybski Hypothesis: a Report and a Reply," ETC.,
Geographical Magazine, Vol. 75 (1959), p. 160. Vol. 17 (1960), pp. 346-363.
"You cannot see things until

other physiological facts. you
The Unitedknow
States r
what they are," comments C. S. Lewis, whose Navy was advised to switch the color of survival
hero on the planet Malacandra at first perceives gear and life jackets from yellow to fluorescent
"nothing but colours-colours that refused to red, not so much to increase visibility as to buoy
form themselves into things."66 But what you the confidence of the man lost at sea; dressed in
think you know depends both on what is famil- red, he imagines, "They can't fail to see me."70
iar to you and on your proclivities. When the The way a landscape looks depends on all
well-known is viewed from fresh perspectives, the attendant circumstances, for each sense is
upside down or through distorting lenses, form affected by the others. Velvet looks soft, ice
and color are enhanced, as Helmholtz noted; sounds solid, red feels warm because experi-
the unexpected has a vivid, pictorial quality. ence has confirmed these impressions. The
On the other hand, prolonged observation may sight of gold and blond beech trees lit by sun-
change red to apparent green, or shrink a fig- light made Cornish forget that he was cold; but
ure in proportion to its surroundings.67 he could not appreciate a "frosty" blue land-
The purpose and circumstances of observa- scape seen from a cold railway carriage. "Quite
tion materially alter what is seen. The stage often," notes H. M. Tomlinson, "our first
electrician cares how the lights look, not aboutimpression of a place is also our last, and it
the actual colors of the set; the oculist who tests
depends solely upon the weather and the
my eyes is not interested in what the letters are,
food."7'
but in how they appear to me. Intent modifies Circumstance apart, each person is distinc-
the character of the world.68 tively himself. "The individual carries with
Outside the laboratory, no two people are him into every perceptual situation ... his char-
likely to see a color as the same unless they acteristic sensory abilities, intelligence, inter-
similarly identify the thing that is colored. Even
ests, and temperamental qualities," according
then, preconceptions shape appearances, as to Vernon; and his "responses will be coloured
Cornish points out: "The exquisite colours and to some extent determined by these inher-
which light and atmosphere impart to a snowy ent individual qualities."72 Ability to estimate
landscape are only half seen by many people vertical and horizontal correctly, for example,
owing to their opinion that 'snow is really
varies with sex and personality as well as with
white.' "69 Such stereotypes may outweigh
maturity: strongminded men are better at tell-
ing which way is up than are women, neurotics,
66 Out of the Silent Planet (New York: Macmillan,
1952), p. 40. and children, whose kinesthetic sense reinforces
67 For Helmholtz, see Cassirer, Philosophy of Sym- visual perception less adequately.73 The story
bolic Forms, Vol. 3, pp. 131-132. On changes in ap-
parent color and size, see T. N. Cornsweet et al.,
of the Astronomer-Royal, Maskeleyne, who dis-
"Changes in the Perceived Color of Very Bright Stim- missed a faithful assistant for persistently
uli," Science, Vol. 128 (1958), pp. 898-899; Dorothea recording the passage of stars more than half a
Jameson and Leo M. Hurvich, "Perceived Color and Its
second later than he did, is often told to illus-
Dependence on Focal, Surrounding, and Preceding
Stimulus Variables," Journal of the Optical Society of trate the inevitability of perceptual divergence
America, Vol. 49 (1959), pp. 890-898; Wolfgang Koh-
ler, Dynamics in Psychology (New York: Grove Press, Vol. 64 (1951), pp. 216-227; Arthur Kapp, "Colour-
1960 [1940]), pp. 84-86. Image Synthesis with Two Unorthodox Primaries,"
68 "Without the conception of the individual and his Nature, Vol. 184 (1959), pp. 710-713; Edwin H.
needs, a distinction between illusion and 'true' cogni- Land, "Experiments in Color Vision," Scientific Ameri-
tion cannot be made" (Horace B. English, "Illusion as can, Vol. 200, No. 5 (May 1959), pp. 84-99.
a Problem in Systematic Psychology," Psychological 70 "Navy Research on Color Vision," Naval Research
Review, Vol. 58 [1951], pp. 52-53). The size and shape Reviews (October, 1959), p. 19.
of objects seem appropriately and necessarily constant, 7t The Face of the Earth; with Some Hints for Those
but most of us can afford to be "fooled" by the appar- About to Travel (Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1951),
ent bending of a stick half-submerged in water. p. 52.
69 Cornish, Scenery and the Sense of Sight, p. 22. On 72 Vernon, A Further Study of Visual Perception, p.
the dissimilar impressions of identical shapes and col- 255.
ors, see Karl Duncker, "The Influence of Past Experi- 73 H. A. Witkin et al., Personality Through Percep-
ence upon Perceptual Properties," American Journal of tion: an Experimental and Clinical Study (New York:
Psychology, Vol. 52 (1939), pp. 255-265; Jerome S. Harper, 1954); Herman A. Witkin, "The Perception of
Bruner and Leo Postman, "Expectation and the Per- the Upright," Scientific American, Vol. 200, No. 2
ception of Color," American Journal of Psychology, (February 1959), pp. 51-56.
under the best of circumstances.74 Each of us feast smells more fragrant to the hungry, the
warps the world in his own way and endows mountains loom higher to the lost. "Had our
landscapes with his particular mirages. perceptions no connexion with our pleasures,"
People at home in the same environments, for wrote Santayana, "we should soon close our
example, habitually select different modes of eyes on this world."77 We seldom differentiate
orientation. There is only one published "New among people, places, or things until we have a
Yorker's Map of the United States," but Trow- personal interest in them. One American town
bridge found a great variety of personal imagi- is much like another to me, unless I have a good
nary maps. Individual deviations of direction motive for telling them apart. The most exhaus-
ranged from zero to 180 degrees off course; tive study of photographs and ethnological evi-
some were consistent, others more distorted at dence does not enable us to distinguish among
Times Square than at the Battery, or accurate individuals of another race with the ease, speed,
about Albany but not about Chicago. Still and certainty generated by strong feeling. All
others assumed that streets always point Chinese may look the same to me, but not to the
towards cardinal directions, or imagined all man-however foreign-with a Chinese wife.
distant places as lying due east or west. A few Only the flea circus owner can tell you which is
know which direction they face the moment which among his performing fleas.78
they emerge from subways and theatres, others Stereotypes influence how we learn and what
are uncertain, still others are invariably mis- we know about every place in the world. My
taken. Lynch characterizes structural images notions of Australia and Alaska are compounds
of the environment as positional, disjointed, of more or less objective, veridical data and of
flexible, and rigid, depending on whether peo- the way I happen to feel about deserts, ice-
ple orient themselves principally by distant fields, primitive peoples, pioneers, amateur
landmarks, by memories of details in the land- tennis, and American foreign policy. Similar
scape, by crossings, street turns, or directions, evanescent images come readily to mind; to
or by maps.75 Englishmen in the 1930's, according to one
writer, Kenya suggested "gentleman farmers,
Subjective Elements in Private Geographies
Another reason why private world views are confirmed (J. S. Bruner and George S. Klein, "The
irreducibly unique is that all information is Functions of Perceiving: New Look Retrospect," in
inspired, edited, and distorted by feeling. Coins Bernard Kaplan and Seymour 'Wapner, eds., Perspec-
tives in Psychological Theory: Essays in Honor of
look larger to the children of the poor,76 theHeinz Werner [New York: International Universities
Press, 1960], p. 67).
74 Polanyi, Personal Knowledge, pp. 19-20, recounts 77 George Santayana, The Sense of Beauty; Being the
this and similar episodes. H. J. Eysenck, "Personality Outline of Aesthetic Theory [1896] (New York: Dover
and the Perception of Time," Perceptual and Motor Publications, 1955), p. 3. "I cannot," writes Gardner
Skills, Vol. 9 (1959), pp. 405-406, shows that intro- Murphy, "find an area where hedonistic perceptual
verts and extroverts clock the passage of time at syste- theory cannot apply" ("Affect and Perceptual Learn-
matically different rates. See also John R. Kirk and ing," Psychological Review, Vol. 63 [1956], p. 7).
George D. Talbot, "The Distortion of Information," 78Anton Ehrenzweig, The Psycho-Analysis of Ar-
ETC., Vol. 17 (1959), pp. 5-27; Melvin Wallace and tistic Hearing and Vision: an Introduction to a Theory
Albert I. Rubin, "Temporal Experience," Psychological of Unconscious Perception (New York: Julian Press,
Bulletin, Vol. 57 (1960), pp. 221-223. 1953), p. 170. See also James J. Gibson and Eleanor
75 C. C. Trowbridge, "On Fundamental Methods of J. Gibson, "Perceptual Learning: Differentiation or
Orientation and 'Imaginary' Maps," Science, Vol. 38 Enrichment?" Psychological Review, Vol. 62 (1955),
(1913), pp. 891-892; Lynch, Image of the City, pp. pp. 32-41. Science is more often apt to be accelerated
88-89, 136-137. See also T. A. Ryan and M. S. Ryan, "by the passionate, and even the egocentric partisan
"Geographical Orientation," American Journal of Psy- bias of researchers in favour of their own chosen meth-
chology, Vol. 53 (1940), pp. 204-215. ods or theories" than by disinterested impartiality (W.
76 Jerome S. Bruner and Cecile C. Goodman, "Value B. Gallie, "What Makes a Subject Scientific?" British
and Need as Organizing Factors in Perception," Journal Journal for the Philosophy of Science, Vol. 8 [1957], pp.
of Abnormal and Social Psychology, Vol. 42 (1947), 118-139, on p. 127). Metaphysical doctrines which can
pp. 33-44. Further tests yielded significant differences
neither be proved nor disproved "play regulative roles
in size estimation principally when coins were judged in scientific thinking" because "they express ways of
from memory (Launor F. Carter and Kermit Schooler, seeing the world which in turn suggest ways of explor-
"Value, Need, and Other Factors in Perception," Psy- ing it" (J. W. N. Watkins, "Confirmable and Influ-
chological Review, Vol. 56 [1949], pp. 200-207), but ential Metaphysics," Mind, Vol. 67 [1958], pp. 344-
the initial general hypothesis has been substantially 365, on pp. 360, 356).
the seedy aristocracy, gossip columns and Lord by conveying "less of its appearance than of its
Castlerosse"; South Africa "Rhodes and British implications."82 In Blake's lines,83
Empire and an ugly building in South Parks
This Life's dim Windows of the Soul
Road and Trafalgar Square."79 Education and Distorts the Heavens from Pole to Pole
the passage of time revise but never wholly dis- And leads you to Believe a Lie
place such stereotypes about foreign lands and When you see with, not thro', the Eye.
people. The present consensus of teen-aged The ideal traveler, according to one critic,
geography students in an English school is that ought to be "aware not only of the immediate
"South Africans break off from the Boer War to visual aspect of the country he visits, its his-
eat oranges, make fortunes from gold and dia- tory and customs, its art and people, but also of
monds, and oppress natives, under a govern- his own relation to all these, their symbolic and
ment as merciless as the ever-present sun."80 mythic place in his own universal map."84
Those who think of China as an abode of laun- We mistrust science as the sole vehicle of
drymen, France as a place where people eat truth because we conceive of the remote, the
snails, and the Spanish as hotblooded are only unknown, and the different in terms of what is
a trifle more myopic than anyone else; it is near, well-known, and self-evident for us, and
easier to deplore such generalizations than to above all in terms of ourselves. What seems to
replace them with more adequate and convinc- us real and true depends "on what we know
ing images. about ourselves and not only on what we know
Because all knowledge is necessarily subjec- about the external world. Indeed," writes Hut-
tive as well as objective, delineations of the ten, "the two kinds of knowledge are inextrica-
world that are purely matter-of-fact ordinarily bly connected."85
seem too arid and lifeless to assimilate; only
color and feeling convey versimilitude. Besides The Role of the Individual Past
unvarnished facts, we require fresh firsthand in Apperception of the Milieu
experience, individual opinions and prejudices. Personal as well as geographical knowledge
"The important thing about truth is not that it is a form of sequent occupance. Like a land-
should be naked, but what clothes suit it best.' scape or a living being, each private world has
The memorable geographies are not compen-
dious texts but interpretative studies embody- 82A. Alvarez, "Intelligence on Tour," Kenyon Re-
ing a strong personal slant. A master at captur- view, Vol. 21 (1959), pp 23-33, on p. 29; see Henry
James, The Art of Travel, Morton D. Zaubel, editor,
ing the essence of a place, Henry James did so
(New York: Doubleday, 1958). The virtues of the
personal slant on description are discussed by Freya
79 Graham Green, "The Analysis of a Journey," Spec- Stark, "Travel Writing: Facts or Interpretation?" Land-
tator, Vol. 155 (1935), pp. 459-460. "Even if we re-_ scape, Vol. 9 (1960), p. 34, and Wright, "Terrae In-
member as many facts about Bolivia as about Sweden, cognitae" [see fn. 21, p. 8.
this has little relevance to the relative importance of 83 William Blake, "The Everlasting Gospel" [c.
these two countries in our psychological world" (Rob- 1818], in Selected Poetry and Prose, pp. 317-328, on
ert B. MacLeod, "The Phenomenological Approach to p. 324.
Social Psychology," Psychological Review, Vol. 54 84 Peter Green, "Novelists and Travelers," Cornhill
[1947], p. 206). Magazine, Vol. 168 (1955), pp. 39-54, on p. 49. "Man
80 John Haddon, "A View of Foreign Lands," can Geog-
discover and determine the universe inside him
raphy, Vol. 65 (1960), pp. 286-289, on p. 286. If their only by thinking it in mythical concepts and viewing it
view of South Africa is recognizable, the students' in mythical images" (Cassirer, Philosophy of Symbolic
impressions of America leave more to be desired: Forms, Vol. 2, p. 199; see also pp. 83, 101).
"America is a country of remarkably developed, highly 85 Ernest H. Hutten, "[review of] Sigmund Freud:
polished young women, and oddly garbed, criminally Life and Work, Vol. 3, by Ernest Jones," British Journal
inclined young men travelling at great speed in mon- for the Philosophy of Science, Vol. 10 (1959), p. 81.
strous cars along superhighways from one skyscraping Experience always influences the severest logic: no
city to the next; the very largest cars contain million- matter how convinced a man is that heads and tails
aires with crew-cuts; everyone is chewing gum" (p. have exactly equal prospects, he is not likely to bet on
286). Such stereotypes die hard, even face to face with tails if heads has come up the previous fifty times (Pop-
contrary realities, as one traveler noted among Ameri- per, Logic of Scientific Discovery, pp. 408, 415; John
cans in Russia (Richard Dettering, "An American Cohen, Chance, Skill, and Luck: the Psychology of
Tourist in the Soviet Union: Some Semantic Reflec- Guessing and Gambling [Baltimore: Penguin Books,
tions," ETC., Vol. 17 [1960], pp. 173-201). 1960, pp. 29, 191] ). See also Ernst Topitsch, "World
81 Russell Brain, The Nature of Experience (Lon- Interpretation and Self-Interpretation: Some Basic Pat-
don: Oxford University Press, 1959), p. 3. terns," Daedalus, Vol. 88 (Spring, 1959), p. 312.
had a career in time, a history says, "is built

of up itsas aown.
result of Since
all past experi-
personality is formed mainly in the earliest ence of the possessor of the image. Part of the
years, "we are determined, simultaneously, both image is the history of the image itself." I have
by what we were as children and by what we touched on this in connection with color per-
are experiencing now." In Quine's words, "We ception: "The color in which we have most
imbibe an archaic natural philosophy with our often seen a thing is imprinted ineffaceably on
mother's milk. In the fullness of time, what our memory and becomes a fixed attribute of
with catching up on current literature and the remembered image," says Hering. "We see
making some supplementary observations of through the glass of remembered colors and
our own, we become clearer on things. But ... hence often differently than we should other-
we do not break with the past, nor do we attain wise see them."89 The sitter's family invariably
to standards of evidence and reality different incomplain that the painter has made him look
kind from the vague standards of children and too old, because they view as a composite mem-
laymen."86 ory the face the painter confronts only today.
The earlier mode of thought continues "Everyone sees the world as it was in the past,
throughout life. According to Portmann, we all reflected in the retarding mirror of his mem-
remain to some extent pre-Copernican: "The ory."90
decisive early period in our contact with nature Memory need not be conscious to influence
is strongly influenced by the Ptolemaic point images; as Hume pointed out, aspects of our
of view, in which our inherited traits and past that we fail to recall also leave their im-
responses find a congenial outlet.... Nor is the print on mental maps. "The unconscious inner
Ptolemaic world merely a phase to be out- world," writes Money-Kyrle, "is peopled by
grown, a kind of animal experience; it is an figures and objects from the past, as they are
integral part of our total human quality."87 imagined often wrongly to have been." Correct
As every personal history results in a particu- or not, recollections can virtually efface aspects
lar private milieu, no one can ever duplicate the of the actual contemporary landscape. Prato-
terra cognita of anyone else. An adult who lini's I1 Quartiere portrays inhabitants of a
learns a foreign word or custom does not start
razed and empty section of Florence who
from tabula rasa, but tries to match concepts
instinctively continued to follow the lines of the
from his own language and culture-never with
former streets, instead of cutting diagonally
complete success. Among "children, exposed
across the square where buildings had stood.9'
serially to two cultures," notes Mead, ". . . the
Memory likewise molds abstract ideas and
premises of the earlier may persist as distor-
tions of perception into later experience, so hypotheses. Everything I know about America
that years later errors in syntax or reasoning today is in part a memory of what I used to
may be traced to the earlier and 'forgotten' think about it. Having once conceived of the
cultural experience."88 frontier as a cradle of democracy, it is quite
We are captives even of our adult histories. another thing for me to learn- that it was not
The image of the environment, as Boulding than it is for someone else to learn the "true"
fact without the old error. What we accept as
86 Hutten, op. cit., p. 79; Quine, "Scope and Lan-
guage of Science" [see fn. 5], p. 2.
true or real depends not only on what we think
87 Portmann, "The Seeing Eye," Landscape, Vol. 9
(1959), p. 18. See also D. 0. Hebb, The Organization 89 Boulding, The Image, p. 6; Ewald Hering, Grund-
of Behavior; a Neuropsychological Theory (New York: zfige der Lehre vom Lichtsinn (Berlin: Springer,
Wiley, 1949), p. 109; Felix Deutsch, "Body, Mind, and1920), pp. 6 ff.; quoted in Cassirer, Philosophy of Sym-
bolic Forms, Vol. 3, pp. 132-133. See also J. S. Bruner
Art," in The Visual Arts Today, special issue of Daeda-
lus, Vol. 89 (Winter, 1960), pp. 34-45, on p. 38; Ed-and Leo Postman, "On the Perception of Incongruity:
ward S. Tauber and Maurice R. Green, Prelogical Ex- a Paradigm," in Beardslee and Wertheimer, Readings
perience: an Inquiry into Dreams and Other Creative in Psychology, pp. 662-663; Bruner and Klein, "Func-
Processes (New York: Basic Books, 1959), p. 33. tions of Perceiving" [see fn. 78], p. 63.
88 Magorah Maruyama, "Communicable and In- 90 Maurice Grosser, The Painter's Eye (New York:
communicable Realities," British Journal for the Phil-Rinehart, 1951), p. 232.
osophy of Science, Vol. 10 (1959), pp. 50-54; Marga- 91 David Hunle, A Treatise of Human Nature [1739],
ret Mead, "The Implications of Culture Change for Per-Book I, part iv, sec. vi; Money-Kyrle, Man's Picture of
sonality Development," American Journal of Orthopsy-His World, p. 107; Vasco Pratolini, The Naked Streets
chiatry, Vol. 17 (1947), pp. 633-646, on p. 639. (New York: A. A. Wyn, 1952), p. 204.
we know about the external world but on what reality.93 The surface of the earth is shaped for
we have previously believed. each person by refraction through cultural and
Shared perspectives of whole cultures simi- personal lenses of custom and fancy. We are
larly incorporate the past. "Meanings may all artists and landscape architects, creating
reflect not the contemporary culture but a much order and organizing space, time, and causality
older one." The landscape in general, Lynch in accordance with our apperceptions and pre-
remarks, "serves as a vast mnemonic system for dilections. The geography of the world is
unified only by human logic and optics, by
the retention of group history and ideals."92
the light and color of artifice, by decorative
arrangement, and by ideas of the good, the true,
CONCLUSION and the beautiful. As agreement on such sub-
jects is never perfect nor permanent, geogra-
Every image and idea about the world is phers too can expect only partial and evanes-
compounded, then, of personal experience, cent concordance. As Raleigh wrote, "It is not
learning, imagination, and memory. The places truth but opinion that can travel the world
that we live in, those we visit and travel without a passport."94
through, the worlds we read about and see in
93 As natives of places we acquire and assimilate in-
works of art, and the realms of imagination and formation differently than we do as travelers; and per-
fantasy each contribute to our images of nature sonal observation, whether sustained or casual, yields
and man. All types of experience, from those impressions different in quality and impact from those
we build out of lectures, books, pictures, or wholly
most closely linked with our everyday world to imaginary visions. The climates of each of these modes
those which seem furthest removed, come of geographical experience, and the kind of informa-
together to make up our individual picture of tion they tend to yield about the world, will be con-
sidered in a series of essays to which this one is meant
to be introductory.
92 Kluckhohn, "Culture and Behavior" [see fn. 48],94 Quoted in C. V. Wedgwood, Truth and Opinion:
p. 939; Lynch, Image of the City, p. 126. Historical Essays (London: Collins, 1960), p. 11.

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Geography, Experience, and Imagination: Towards a Geographical Epistemology

Author(s): David Lowenthal

GEOGRAPHY, EXPERIENCE, AND IMAGINATION:

American Geographical Society, New York

and hearts of men." With these words, John K.

Essential perception of the world, in short, UNIQUENESS OF PRIVATE MILIEUS

embraces every way of looking at it: conscious

Cultural Differences in Aspects the principal settlement. Westerners are more

61 Garrett Hardin, "The Threat of Clarity," ETC.:

"You cannot see things until

had a career in time, a history says, "is built

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