Introduction to Number Theory

CS311H: Discrete Mathematics

I Number theory is the branch of mathematics that deals with
Introduction to Number Theory
integers and their properties

I Number theory has a number of applications in computer

Instructor: Işıl Dillig
science, esp. in modern cryptography in cryptography

Instructor: Işıl Dillig, CS311H: Discrete Mathematics Introduction to Number Theory 1/19 Instructor: Işıl Dillig, CS311H: Discrete Mathematics Introduction to Number Theory 2/19

Divisibility Example

I Question: If n and d are positive integers, how many positive

I Given two integers a and b where a 6= 0, we say a divides b if integers not exceeding n are divisible by d ?
there is an integer c such that b = ac
I Recall: All positive integers divisible by d are of the form dk
I If a divides b, we write a|b; otherwise, a 6 | b
I We want to find how many numbers dk there are such that
I Example: 2|6, 2 6 | 9 0 < dk ≤ n.

I If a|b, a is called a factor of b I In other words, we want to know how many integers k there
are such that 0 < k ≤ nd
I b is called a multiple of a
I n
How many integers are there between 1 and d?

Instructor: Işıl Dillig, CS311H: Discrete Mathematics Introduction to Number Theory 3/19 Instructor: Işıl Dillig, CS311H: Discrete Mathematics Introduction to Number Theory 4/19

Properties of Divisibility Divisibility Properties, cont.

I Theorem 2: If a|b and a|c, then a|(mb + nc) for any int m, n
I Theorem 1: If a|b and b|c, then a|c
I Proof:
I

I I Corollary 1: If a|b and a|c, then a|(b + c) for any int c

I Corollary 2: If a|b, then a|mb for any int m

Instructor: Işıl Dillig, CS311H: Discrete Mathematics Introduction to Number Theory 5/19 Instructor: Işıl Dillig, CS311H: Discrete Mathematics Introduction to Number Theory 6/19

1
The Division Theorem Congruence Modulo
I Division theorem: Let a be an integer, and d a positive
integer. Then, there are unique integers q, r with 0 ≤ r < d
I In number theory, we often care if two integers a, b have same
such that a = dq + r
remainder when divided by m.
I Here, d is called divisor, and a is called dividend
I If so, a and b are congruent modulo m, a ≡ b (mod m).
I q is the quotient, and r is the remainder.
I More technically, if a and b are integers and m a positive
I
integer, a ≡ b (mod m) iff m|(a − b)
We use the r = a mod d notation to express the remainder
I Example: 7 and 13 are congruent modulo 3.
I The notation q = a div d expresses the quotient
I Example: Find a number congruent to 7 modulo 4.
I What is 101 mod 11?

I What is 101 div 11?

Instructor: Işıl Dillig, CS311H: Discrete Mathematics Introduction to Number Theory 7/19 Instructor: Işıl Dillig, CS311H: Discrete Mathematics Introduction to Number Theory 8/19

Congruence Modulo Theorem Congruence Modulo Theorem Proof, cont.

I Theorem: a ≡ b (mod m) iff a mod m = b mod m

I Theorem: a ≡ b (mod m) iff a mod m = b mod m
I Part 1, ⇒: Suppose a ≡ b (mod m).
I Part 2, ⇐: Suppose a mod m = b mod m
I Then, by definition of ≡, m|(a − b)
I Then, there exists some p1 , p2 , r such that a = p1 · m + r and
I By definition of |, there exists k such that a − b = mk , i.e., b = p2 · m + r where 0 ≤ r < m
a = b + mk
I Then, a − b = p1 · m + r − p2 · m − r = m · (p1 − p2 )
I By division thm, b = mp + r for some 0 ≤ r < m
I Thus, m|(a − b)
I Then, a = mp + r + mk = m(p + k ) + r
I By definition of ≡, a ≡ b (mod m)
I Thus, a mod m = r = b mod m

Instructor: Işıl Dillig, CS311H: Discrete Mathematics Introduction to Number Theory 9/19 Instructor: Işıl Dillig, CS311H: Discrete Mathematics Introduction to Number Theory 10/19

Example Applications of Congruence in Cryptography

I Prove that if a ≡ b (mod m) and c ≡ d (mod m), then:

I Congruences have many applications in cryptography, e.g.,
a + c ≡ b + d (mod m) shift ciphers

I I Shift cipher with key k encrypts message by shifting each

letter by k letters in alphabet (if past Z , then wrap around)
I
I What is encryption of ”KILL HIM” with shift cipher of key 3?
I
I Shift ciphers also called Ceasar ciphers because Julius Ceasar
I encrypted secret messages to his generals this way

Instructor: Işıl Dillig, CS311H: Discrete Mathematics Introduction to Number Theory 11/19 Instructor: Işıl Dillig, CS311H: Discrete Mathematics Introduction to Number Theory 12/19

2
Mathematical Encoding of Shift Ciphers Ciphers and Congruence Modulo

I First, let’s number letters A-Z with 0 − 25

I Shift cipher is a very primitive and insecure cipher because
I Represent message with sequence of numbers
very easy to infer what k is
I Example: The sequence ”25 0 2” represents ”ZAC” I But contains some useful ideas:
I To encrypt, apply encryption function f defined as: I Encoding words as sequence of numbers

f (x ) = (x + k ) mod 26 I Use of modulo operator

I Because f is bijective, its inverse yields decryption function: I Modern encryption schemes much more sophisticated, but
also share these principles (coming lectures)
g(x ) = (x − k ) mod 26

Instructor: Işıl Dillig, CS311H: Discrete Mathematics Introduction to Number Theory 13/19 Instructor: Işıl Dillig, CS311H: Discrete Mathematics Introduction to Number Theory 14/19

Prime Numbers Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic

I Fundamental Thm: Every positive integer greater than 1 is

I A positive integer p that is greater than 1 and divisible only either prime or can be written uniquely as a product of primes.
by 1 and itself is called a prime number.
I This unique product of prime numbers for x is called the
I First few primes: 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, . . . prime factorization of x

I Examples:
I A positive integer that is greater than 1 and that is not prime
is called a composite number I 12 =

I Example: 4, 6, 8, 9, . . . I 21 =

I 99 =

Instructor: Işıl Dillig, CS311H: Discrete Mathematics Introduction to Number Theory 15/19 Instructor: Işıl Dillig, CS311H: Discrete Mathematics Introduction to Number Theory 16/19

Determining Prime-ness Consequence of This Theorem

I In many applications, such as crypto, important to determine √

Theorem: If n is composite, then it has a prime divisor ≤ n
if a number is prime – following thm is useful for this:

I I Thus, to determine if n is prime, only need to check if it is

Theorem: If n is composite, then it has a prime divisor less √
√ divisible by primes ≤ n
than or equal to n

I I Example: Show that 101 is prime

√
I I Since 101 < 11, only need to check if it is divisible by
2, 3, 5, 7.
I
I Since it is not divisible by any of these, we know it is prime.
I

Instructor: Işıl Dillig, CS311H: Discrete Mathematics Introduction to Number Theory 17/19 Instructor: Işıl Dillig, CS311H: Discrete Mathematics Introduction to Number Theory 18/19

3
Infinitely Many Primes
I Theorem: There are infinitely many prime numbers.

I Proof: (by contradiction) Suppose there are finitely many

primes: p1 , p2 , . . . , pn

I Now consider the number Q = p1 p2 . . . pn + 1. Q is either

prime or composite

I Case 1: Q is prime. We get a contradiction, because we

assumed only prime numbers are p1 , . . . , pn

I Case 2: Q is composite. In this case, Q can be written as

product of primes.

I But Q is not divisible by any of p1 , p2 , . . . , pn

I Hence, by Fundamental Thm, not composite ⇒ ⊥

Instructor: Işıl Dillig, CS311H: Discrete Mathematics Introduction to Number Theory 19/19