Chapter - 1

Antiquity and Meaning of Nātya and Tantra.

1. Tantra Origin and Traditions

Although Tantras are not considered part of the orthodox Vedic scriptures, they
actually go to the same source. It is believed that Lord Śiva’s philosophy is
promulgated in the world through the many Tantras which exist in the form of
dialogues between Himself and his Śakti.. Legend also ascribes the origin of
Tantrā to Dattatreya, a yogic diety to whom is attributed the Jivanmukta Gita
("Song of theliberated soul"). Śiva & Śakti - ……. Says - He saw, he thought -
May I be many. From the Brahman with Śakti issued Nāda (sound) and from
Nāda appeared Bindu. It seems appropriate to assess that Nātya Śāstra is itself a
kind of Tantra (the science). The texts and lineages of both the Śāstras follow
Vedic pattern. Tantra, meaning literally ‘Looms’ weaves, spins, spreads,
represents the fabric that connects all of creation itself . Modern references date
back to numerous scriptures of esoteric traditions, written between the 10th and
14th centuries CE. Generally, Tantra includes a variety of mystical, occult and also
medical and scientific works. Occult and clairvoyant practices have attracted
man unequivocally from times immemorial and the ambience of a sylvan and
idyllic vicinity invigorates the inventive and intuitive mystique in the personae of
oracles, augmenting hope and faith. Prophetic auspices and auguries become the
keystone for certain traditions, ratified by provenance. Having to manoeuvre out
of a the vortex of mundane difficulties, man seeks a plausible panacea from the
mythical, the mystical, the philosopher’s stone. Deeper the quagmire, higher the
desire to enter the outlandish domain of the palliative and beatific other-
worldly…………

The Tantras, Āgamās, and the Vedās, (they are called Nigamās) represent the
same tradition. In the beginning the Vedās themselves were called Āgama. Later
as the specialization started, they gave the name of Nigama for the Vedās and

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reserved the term, Āgama for the study and practice of the development of
consciousness in the mode of the Tantra.

The authorship of later Tāntric works is assumed to many others as well, eg-
Matsyendranath is credited with Kaulajnāna-nirnaya, a ninth-century tantra
dealing with mystical and magical subjects, and occupying an important position
in both the Hindu tāntric lineage, as well as Tibetan Vajrāyana Buddhism .
Buddist and Hindu Tantras, though appearing similar, do have some distinctions.
Tantra has roots in the first millennium CE, and incorporates much more of a
theistic basis. Almost entirely founded on Śiva and Śakti worship, Hindu tantra
visualizes the ultimate Brahman as Param Śiva, manifested through Śiva (the
passive, masculine force of Lord Śiva) and Śakti (the active, creative feminine
force of his consort, variously known as Mā Kāli, Durgā, Śakti, Pārvati and
others). It focuses on the kundalini, a three and a half-coiled 'snake' of spiritual
energy at the base of the spine that rises through the cakras until union between
Śiva and Śakti (also known as samādhi) is achieved.

Tantrā seeks to ritually appropriate and channel the macrocosmic energy, within
the human microcosm, A family of voluntary rituals modeled on those of the
Vedās. These practices are usually said to require permission from a qualified
teacher or Guru who belongs to a legitimate guruparampara or teacher-student
lineage. Thus Tantrā shares some similarities with yoga. Most Tantrā were
written between the 10th and 14th centuries CE. Tantra include a variety of
mystical, occult, medical and scientific works. Buddhist and Hindu Tantra,
though having many similarities from the outside, do have some clear
distinctions. Scholars are unable to determine whether the Hindu or the Buddhist
version of Tantra appeared first in history. Buddhist Tantra is always part of the
Mahāyana school of Buddhism. Buddhist Tantrā spread out from (North) India,
chiefly to Tibet, where it became known as the Vajrāyana school of Buddhism. It
also had some influence on Chinese and Japanese Buddhism (notably Shingon).
Eg.- Śivambu Kalpa Vidhi of the Damar Tantra.

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Tantra practices that have been promulgated include necrophilia, necromancy,
sorcery, exorsion, witchcraft, wizardry. The positive aspects of austerity, sobriety
and sublimity remain recondite. Essentially, Tantra is that belief and practice
which is based on the Vedāntic principle that the universe we experience is the
material, conspicuous and tangible manifestation of the divine energy itself.
Tantra seeks to, within a discipline, apply worship, rituals and actions that can
contact, imbue, channelise and imbibe that ‘macrocosmic’ energy, within the
human microcosm. These rituals are akin to those in Vedic times.

2. Tantra and the Vedas

An ethnological study of India opens a melting pot, syncoetic, ethnic, indigenous

and soul-searching in character.

The Vedas are the most ancient books in the World and the Foundation of
Hinduism. Veda means knowledge with no beginning or end. The ancient seers
who wrote these accepted that knowledge of reality of the Universe could never
be completely accomodated in a treatise and there would be new things to
discover.

The Vedas are believed to be compiled by the great sage Krishna Dwipayana
during the Dwāpara Yuga. Based on the teachings passed on, he compiled them
into four the Rig, Yajur, Sāma. He became known then as "Veda Vyāsa" which
means "Compiler of the Vedas". Paila arranged the hymns of the Rig Veda. Those
that were chanted during religious and social ceremonies were compiled by
Vaishampayana under the title Yajus mantra Samhita. Jaimini is said to have
collected hymns that were set to music and melody - "Sāman". The fourth
collection of hymns and chants known as the Atharva Samhita was by Sumanta.

The Rigveda, the oldest, consists of 1028 hymns. The Sāmaveda is more of a
rearrangement of the Rigvedain a musical way. The Yajurveda contains sacrificial
prayers and the Atharvaveda gives charms, incantations and magical guidelines.

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The next category of texts are the Brāhmanās. These are ritual texts that describe
the sacrifices in which the Mantrās are to be used, with meanings.

The Aranyakās and Upaniṣads are philosophical or spiritual interpretations of the

Vedas, and are considered their essence. Thus known as Vedānta, "the end of the
Vedas". Hindu tradition regards the Vedas as uncreated, eternal and being
revealed to sages (Rishis).

The Vedas are considered as ‘Śruti’, or revealed texts. They were not given by a
prophet, but heard by many different sages or Rishis during deep meditation.
These were combined and written in the Vedas as verses in poetic form. The word
"veda" means "knowledge", and is derived from the root "vid-", Sanskrit for
"know". The fundamental belief is that the Vedas are ‘sanātan’ or eternal and
‘apaurusheya’ or not composed by human entity. ]

The Vedas are neither polytheistic nor pantheistic. While there is evidence that
everyone was equally allowed to study the Vedas and many Vedic "authors" were
women, the later Dharmaśāstrās [Sutra age], held that the lower caste-Śudrās and
women were neither required nor allowed to study the Veda. The study of the
Vedas became a religious duty of the three upper Varnās (Brāhmins, Kshatriyās
and Vaishyās).

The ‘Upavedas ‘are derived from the Vedas and are specific applications of the
teachings of the Vedas. The main Upavedas are:
1. Medical system of Ayurveda -Living with nature instead of fighting it,
preventive instead of corrective medicine using herbs for cure.
2. Martial arts , archery , defensive arts called Dhanur Veda-
These utilize and enhance Prāna (Life Force/ Energy).
3. Architecture, sculpture and geomancy [ for Temple design] -Stahapatya Veda
4. Gandharva Veda- Music, poetry and dance [Nātya Veda]
5. Jyotish Śāstra (Indian Astrology),
6. Tantrā (derived from the Purānas which are in turn based on Vedas),
7 . Grammar and pronunciation or Śiksha and Vyākarana are also based on the

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 Vedas.‘Smriti’," that which is remembered" refers to a specific body
of scriptures. Their categories are-

1. Dharmaśāstras or the laws. This is represented by 18 books. Each book

corresponds to an age of time.

2. Itihāsas or the histories. This is represented by 4 books. It includes the

Mahakāvyas or Epics like Mahābhārata and Rāmayana.

3. Purānās or the writings. This is represented by 18 books. They are

secondary scriptures that mainly focus on Viṣṇu, or Śiva as Supreme.

4. Sutrās or proverbs. This is represented by 6 categories of documents: the

Śiksha ,Vyākarana ,Chandas ,Nirukta ,Jyotisha and Kalpa.

5. Āgamās or the doctrines. This ia represented by 3 divisions: the Vaiṣṇava,

Śaiva, and Śākta . Mantra, Tantra, and Yantra is another way to group
them.

6. Darshana or philosophies. This is represented by 6 schools of thought:

Nyāya, Vaiśeṣika, Sānkhya, Yoga, Pūrva Mimāmsa and Vedānta [Dwaita,
Viśishta Advaita and Advaita].

Hindu Tantrā is sometimes conceived as being antithetical to views in the Vedas.

This is not so at all. In fact, a famous proverb calls Tantra and Veda as the two
human eyes that are together contributing to vision. The ascribing of esoteric
meaning and symbolism to the vedas is commonplace in the Tāntric tradition.
Tāntric concepts are said to be reflected in myths, secretly hidden to the
uninitiated. The esoteric (tāntric) interpretation often takes the form of
meditational instruction where the body and its processes have a microcosmic
correspondence with the macrocosm.

Tripura Rahasya, one of the central texts of Śākta Tantra, says "This text has been
created by summarising the teachings of the Vedas, Purānas and other
Scriptures".

Sri Aurobindo saw hidden meanings in the Vedas. These essays have been

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condensed as a book form in “The Secret of the Vedas”. He said that the Rig Veda
inspires people to move towards God in a hidden language.

So Indra is the God of Indriya, or the senses. Varun means air, but in esoteric
sense means Prāna, or the Life force. So when the Rig Vedas says “Call Indra and
Varun to drink Soma Rasā” they mean use the Mind senses and Pran to receive
divine bliss (Soma means Divine Bliss - as in Right handed Tantra).

Agni, or God of Fire, is the hidden Divine Spark in us which has to grow in our
whole body. The sacrifice of the Vedas means surrendering the ego to this spark.

The renowned David Frawley interprets similarly: Indra the King of Indriya is
said to symbolize the senses. Varun which means Air, also stands for Prāna or life
force. Agni refers to Kundalini. Soma, the feeling that makes one drunk with
happiness occurs when kundalini is raised. The person who has controlled his
senses and his prāna can raise the Kundalini and feel the Divine Bliss.

3. History of Tantra

Tantras contain descriptions of ritual practices, sacred formulae (mantrās).

Mystical diagrams (yantrās), gestures (mudrās), postures (āsanās), initiations
(dikśa), yoga or mystic practices.
Many tantras offer mythical explanations for their origins, often it is the voice of
either Śiva or His consort -Devi. Scholarly depictions of their origins are often as
varied, ascribing tantras to Indus Valley civilizations or the then tribal and ethnic
groups. But we have to note that there are several variations. Tantra , which in its
earliest written form was a distinctly esoteric practice, evolved into a number of
respected exoteric traditions. Two popular categories are: left-handed and right-
handed. Left-handed tantras (vāma mārg) incorporate five sacraments
(pancamakārapuja). Right-handed tantras (dakśin mārg), on the other hand,
advocate the meditative visualization of these practices.

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4. Hinduism today

Hinduism now divided into major divisions like Vaiṣṇavism, Kaumāram,

Ganapatyam, Śaivism, Śaktism, and another sect – Smārtha, believes that all
religions are the same, Śiva or Viṣṇu, mean the same. The primary differences
are between the sects of Vaiṣṇavism, which conceives God as Viṣṇu, and
Śaivism, which conceives God as Śiva. Śaktism worships a female divinity or
goddess, Devī, sometimes as the power of Śiva personified, in which case we
could classify the approach as belonging to a subsect of Śaivism. The study of the
external meaning of the hymns, their utility in the rituals came to be known as the
movement which culminated in the Brahmanas. That part of the movement which
concerned itself with recovering the ritual aspect of the Vedic past, developed
into Purva-Mimamsa, or the school of Brahmanas. The offshoot of all these
developments, which preferred to focus its attention on the knowledge and
spiritual-experience aspects, concentrated on the inner meaning of the Vedic
hymns and this came to be known as the Uttara-Mimamsa or the Upaniṣads.

Upaniṣads, a compatible, integrative and relevant philosophy today embraces

transcendent and yet multiple immanent forces, subjectively realized by each
individual. Some see these forces as an identification of unity in diversity. The
Vedas are full of mysticism and allegories. Unlike the Vedas, which are more
esoteric and intricate, the Gītā is a summary of the Vedic, Yogic, Vedāntic and
Tāntric branches of philosophy. The Bhagavad Gītā is described as the essence of
the Vedas. Tantra, in practice and popularity bears a distinct stamp of the
’MOTHER’, Feminine ENERGY, etc. Devī Mahātmya, an ode to Devī, and the
Yoga Sūtrās, a key meditative yoga text of Shri Patanjali are important works in
this respect. Also commanding respect are a number of revered Hindu Tantras
like Mahanirvāṇa Tantra, Tirumantiram and Śiva Sūtrās, the Manusmṛiti, and
various Sūtrās.

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5. Tāntric Guru Dattatreya

Dattatreya is a Hindu God who is an incarnation of the Divine Trinity Brahma,

Visnu and Śiva. The word Datta means "Given," Datta is called so because the
divine trinity have "given" themselves in the form of a son to the sage couple Atri
and Anasuya. He is the son of Atri, hence the name "Ātreya."

Dattatreya was at first a "Lord of Yoga" with Tāntric characteristics.

The Tripura Rahasya [the secret of the Goddess Tripura] is believed to be an

abbreviated version of the original Datta Samhita or Dakshināmurthi Samhita of
Dattatreya. This book has three parts - The first part is concerned with the origin,
mantra and yantra of the Goddess Tripura, also known as Lalita Tripurasundari.
The second section on knowledge elaborates on the themes of consciousness,
manifestation, and liberation. Unfortunately, the last part on conduct has been
lost or even perhaps destroyed.

Another work, the Avadhuta Gita –Song of the Free is a compilation of the
highest thought. Ideas in this Gita are common to both Śaiva and Buddhist
Tantras.

Dattatreya who is considered the creator of Tantra is visualized as the Unity of

the Trinity - Brahma, Viṣnū, Śivā, surrounded by four dogs representing the
Vedas and his female coherent principle, Sakti is behind him. In the Nāth
tradition, Dattatreya is recognized as an Avatār or incarnation of the Lord Śivā
and as the Ādi-Guru (First Teacher) of the Ādināth Sampradāya of the Nāthas.
Although Dattatreya was at first a "Lord of Yoga" exhibiting distinctly Tāntric
traits, he was adapted and assimilated into the more devotional tradition and
propitiated as a benevolent God than as a teacher of the highest essence of Indian
thought.

The Mārkandeya Purāna reports that Dattatreya, to free himself of all

attachments, lived in a lake for many years. Later, he emerged from the water
naked in the company of a beautiful woman. The text relates that he engaged in

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union with his consort, drank liquor, and enjoyed singing and music. In spite of
this, the Munis did not abandon him, and Dattatraya, accompanied by his Śakti,
continued to engage in these practices and was meditated on by those longing for
Mokśa.

In the Bhagavata Purāna, Dattatreya enumerates a list of his twenty-four Gurus-

earth, air, ether or sky, water, fire, sun, moon, python, pigeons, sea, moth, bee,
bull elephant, bear, deer, fish, osprey, a child, a maiden, a courtesan, a blacksmith,
serpent, spider, and wasp. The image of the Nātha ranged from that of a siddha
living in the woods with animals, to that of a frightening, even demonaic, being.
The above interprets the belief that Tantra means reflection of godliness in every
aspect and being of the universe.

6. Nātya Origin and Traditions-

There is no better formula for appraising a magnum opus like Natya Shastra
within a coeval framework of it’s commentaries than run the gamut as a
practitioner. The multitudinous facets of the format of dance incorporates a strong
foothold to explore the plenitudes of time and space. Study of scientific laws of
kinetics, kinematics, callesthenics and iconography give a periscopic perception.
The structural training and methodology being the hallmarks of tradition are
interpolated within a panoramic perspective. All these would elicit better finesse.
The archetype of a performance brings a picture perfect of a mosaic or a montage
of a euphonic narrative, a kaleidoscopic modus operandi evincing a protracted
vation. A propitious response to these plaudits, especially from erudite pundits
gets juxtaposed with the approbation from the unanimous vox populi.

Constructs in performing arts have been contemporaneous despite chasms both in the
orient and the occident. While obituaries were laid to some civilizations obliterating their
wealth of culture, the few fortunate lands continued as beatific havens and oases of
cultural legacies, albeit being bereft of optimal circumstances. From the world view,
Performing arts during the Gothic period maintained a strict segregation between sacred

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and profane. All artistic means are at the disposal of the sacred including even the
grotesque and bizarre. This shows the similarity with the esoteric Indian system. All the
same, any art that served merely as entertainment was looked down upon. The timeless
character of liturgy, scenically evoked through the medium of and art form suggests the
glorification of the divine and involuntarily kindles our conduits towards the primordial
silence. Dance is a divine play !

Nātya Śastra is the earliest known treatise on dramaturgy and dance. Written by
the scholarly sage Bharata Muni, it’s legend is the belief that the divine dancing
duo –Śiva and Pārvaty themselves showed their cosmic DANCE containing the
dynamic –Tāndava and graceful-Lāsya aspects to the author. The Gods
approached Brahma to create another fifth Veda that is a composite version of all
other Vedas. Absorbing poetry and verses, musical elements, expressions and
aesthetic flavours respectively from the Rig, Samā, Yajur and Atharva Vedās,
Bharata presented his Nātya Veda, incomparable and superior to all, that can
elevate mankind to divine glory and bliss. Nātya vedā was evolved as common to
all varnās ( castes), social or religious barriers.

“There is a mention of a Bhāsya and Vartika beside a Nātya Sutra. This system of
assigning Sutrās, Bhāśyas and Vātikas is common to all systems of Indian
Philosophy”. [1]

“The work available now under the name of Nātya Śāstra of Bharata Muni
contains about five thousand six hundred verses”. [2]

“Bhavabhuti the dramatist is probably the first to mention Bharata Muni as the
author and he calls him Tauryatrikasutrakāra.” [3]

Bharata Nātyam, it is said, is the embodiment of music in visual form, a sacred

ceremony, and an act of devotion. Dance and music are inseparable forms; only
with Geetam and Vādyam, vocal and instrumental music can dance be performed
with fulfillment. The parlance associated with Bharathanātyam covers manifold

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terms, the foremost being nātya, nrittā and abhinayā. Abhinava Gupta has
expatiated the Natyaśāstra felicitously, albeit with brevity, bereft of expendable
statements. Even if the commentaries refer to a precise period of a history of
Natyaśāstra in general, not without certain anachronisms considering the subject
matter, they all rather seem to ratify that the Vedas form the fountainhead of
Natyaśāstra and that nātya refers etymologically to drama.
“Dance is inseparable from drama.” [4]
Bharatanātyam, which is the cultural heritage of Southern India, especially of
Tamil Nadu, is said to have derived this name from Bharata Muni himself.
Secondly, ‘Bharatā’ itself means dance. Yet another school of thought propagated
by Vedānta Desikar declares that the word ‘Bharatā’ is actually an acrostic
comprised of the syllables ‘bha’ ‘ra’ and ‘ta’ which respectively stand for ‘bhāva’
(facial expression), ’rāga’ (musical note) and ‘tāla’ (rhythm); these three certainly
form the essential aspects of Bharatanātyam and are indisputably important.

The word Bharata, interpreted as the dance form created by sage Bharata, has
within it -BHA for Bhāvā or abhinaya or expression, RA for Rāgā or melody, and
TA for Tālā or rhythm. Bharatanātyam is the manifestation of the Indian idea of
the celebration of the eternal universe through the celebration of the beauty of the
material body.

Bharatanātyam is considered to be a fire-dance - the mystic manifestation of the

metaphysical element of fire in the human body. It is one of the five major styles
(one for each element) Eg: Odissi (element of water), and Mohiniattam (element of
air). The movements of an authentic Bharatanātyam dancer resemble the
movements of a dancing flame .A professional danseuse (pātra), according to
Abhinayadarpanam (one of the two most authoritative texts on Bharatanātyam),
must possess the following qualities. She has to be youthful, slender, beautiful,
with large eyes, self-confident, witty, pleasing, well aware of when to dance and
when to stop, able to follow the flow of songs and music, and to dance to the time
(tālam), with splendid costumes, and of a happy disposition.

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“The necessity of learning the different sciences has been stressed in the Nātya
Śāstra. Readiness to work always, alertness, absence of indolence, affectionate
feelings, forbearance, modesty, impartiality, training in polity, good manners and
customs etc. Knowledge of psychology is essential for the successful portrayal of
various emotions, Rasās, Bhāvās etc. Enjoyment of the dramatic performances
presupposes the peculiar reaction which the playwright’s skill and the actors’
adroitness can evoke in the spectators of diverse kinds of capacities and tastes.
Dogmatism and domineering attitude should be eschewed and the views of the
common man should be taken into consideration.” [5]

Bhāvam, Rāgam, Tālam meaning expression,music and rhythm are essential

components that give a complete, holistic [Yogic] stature to Nātya. Nātya Veda
was Bharata’s gift to mankind that could now both entertain and enlighten with
this unique practice of dance. However, there are references to Rishi Agastya
teaching his disciples a different form of sacred dance than the one taught by
Bharata Muni. In fact, it is the celestial dancers, Apsarās , who are depicted in
many scriptures as dancing in heaven, what is known on earth as Bharatanātyam.
Dance originated and became a part of the temple because its aim was to attain
spiritual identification with the eternal. It is vital to observe that the essence of all
arts in India is Loving devotion -Prema Bhakti that alone can show the pathway to
salvation.

As civilizations developed, dance forms became more and more stylized and
suited to lifestyle changes. Many of the ancient sculptures in Hindu temples are
based on Bharata Nātyam dance postures. The sculpturesque forms gained
impetus from temples, verses of poetic saints became adapted to performing arts.
Epics and great mythological texts were performed.. All along, yet another
parallelly connected system of Devadāsis grew.

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Some of the royal patrons created a hedonistic hegemony in the society and
opened a Pandoras box of sorts. The Devadāsis, stigmatized by the amorous
pseudo-impresarios, were awakened from a state of fool’s paradise when the time
of nemesis finally dawned. After the resurrection, the manipulations of power
mongers over the artistes became neutralized. Although sundered by foreign
invasions, it was indeed the inherent the resilience in the art itself that it rose to its
zenith from the nadir. The exceptionally stupendous efforts of few altruistic
minds heralded this renaissance.

“In 36/68 Nātya Śāstra, it is mentioned that Kohala would mention apparent
omissions herein in his Uttara Tantrā (Later Compendium).” [6]

An account of the Lingapurāna shows that Nandideśvara, the attendant of Śiva

was originally a mortal – the son of a blind woman named Silāda who prayed to
gods for a ‘immortal’ son and was given by Śiva a son named Nandi. This Nandi
came afterwards to be known as Nandikeśvara and was immortalized by Śiva as
the chief of his ganās. The Silappadikaram, 5th Century B.C to 4th century A.D., is
a complete treatise on dance, drama and music. The first performance of the
dancer, Mādhavi, described in picturesque detail with codes for dancer, teacher
and accompanist. A ceremony of presenting the dancer with a stick, Talaikkol at
the Arangetram, debut, is explained
“It is not easy to say anything with certainty about the life and times of
Nandikesvara, the reputed author of the AD. This name has been found not only
in connection with abhinaya, but also in relation to works on various stages, such
as, Tālā, Rasā, Yoga, Tantra, Kāma Śāstra, Purva -Mimāmsa and Lingāyet
Śaivism.”[7]

7. Ancient and medieval history

History of the present day dance form [Sadir or solo format] can be traced to the
Devadāsi Systems in our country. Devadāsi (servant of god) is a religious practice

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still found in some communities, especially in south India, whereby young girls
are married to a deity of a temple. The institution of devadasis are also known by
various other local terms in India. Several examples from different regions and
languages are:

1 Dogams and Sanis in Andhra Pradesh

2 Bhāvinis in Goa and Western regions.

3 Jogatis and Basavis in Karnataka

4. Ārādhinis, Jogitis in Maharashtra (other than the coastal area):

5. Bhagtānis in Marwar.

6. Dāsis or Devaradiar in Tamilnadu.

7. Kudikkars in Travancore district.

Women who belonged to the Isai Vellayar (also known as 'Isai Vellaalar') caste
would often become Devadāsis at the age of three.

Devadāsis were not treated as untouchables. The doors of every temple was open
to them. They have, in fact, been honored in the public in the past, and even
offered seats alongside the figures of royalty. Devadāsis confined their cultural
activities to the boundaries of temples (especially great traditional temples. The
so-called 'traditional devadasi system' disappeared along with the kingdoms and
royal patronages. In the later stages (modern times), Jogins/Basavis adopted the
name Devadāsi. The term 'Devadāsi(s)' was used hereinafter to denote all local
variants . Devadāsi has a long history, and, like many Hindu practices has
evolved into a number of forms.

Sadly, the first Devadāsis were celibate temple dancers, who eventually lost the
great lineage and some were forced into not so pure ‘trades’. Reference to dancing
girls in temples is found in Kalidāsa's "Meghadhoot". It is said that dancing girls
were present at the time of worship in the Mahākāl temple at Ujjain. Some
scholars are of the opinion that probably the custom of dedicating girls to temples

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became quite common in the 6th century A.D., as most of the Purānās containing
reference to it have been written during this period. Several Purānās encouraged
the services of singing girls at the time of worship at temples. By the end of 10th
century, the total number of devadasis in many temples was in direct proportion
to the prosperity of the temple. During the medieval period, they were regarded
as a part of temples, occupying a rank next only to the priests.

Local kings often invited temple dancers to dance in their courts, and created a
new category of dancers, Rajadāsis and modified the technique and themes of the
recitals. A devadāsi had to satisfy her own soul while she danced unwatched and
offered herself (surrendered) to the lord, but the rajadāsi's dance was meant to be
an entertainment. Plays were written, Sanskrit theatre grew in dimensions and
Kings patronized these arts and appointed court artistes.

The rise- fall in the status of Devadāsis can be seen to be running parallel to the
rise -fall of temples. The destruction of temples by invaders started from the
northwestern borders of the country and spread to the whole of the country.
Thereafter the status of the temples fell very quickly in North India and slowly in
South India. Likewise,was the status of Devadāsis in India. As the temples
became poorer and lost their patron kings (and in some cases temples were
destroyed), the Devadāsis were forced into a life of poverty and prostitution.

8. The Uprising

Towards the end of the 19th century, there was a spurt of social movements in
India. Nationalism led to social movements relating to Devadāsis. These
movements can be classified into two heads: Reformers and Revivers. Reformers,
under the influence of the European Christian missionaries, conceived the
Devadāsi practice as a social evil . The revivers tried to emphasize the idealistic
view of this institution. They pointed out that the ancient temple dancers are pure
and chaste women, as they were originally. They even stressed that the dance of

15
devadāsi was a form of 'Nātya Yoga' that is above the physical realm and is
highly spiritual.Some modifications again were introduced into the content of the
dance. Since the revivers mostly belonged to Brāhmin dominated Theosophical
circles,many Brāhmin girls started to learn from Devadāsis. Due credit has to be
given to Devadāsi women who kept classical arts like Bharatnātyam, alive for
centuries. Mr. Shankara Menon strongly appreciates that Smt. Rukmini Devi
Arundale raised Bharatanatyam to a puritan art form, divorced from its
controversial past by "removing objectionable elements" like the expressive
Tāntric Sringāra[Love] elements from some original styles of Sadir such as
Pandanallur, Tanjavur, Vazhuvoor, Mysore, Melattur, Kancheepuram etc.
Henace Sringāra is presented in a delicate and delectable manner nowdays.

9. The Two Traditions of Tantrā and Nātya.

That there was Tantra known during the origin of Nātya is obvious. The sages
like Silalin who gave the Nata Sutrās were devout and austere as well that made
them codify their knowledge into an added dimension of dance and drama.
Referring to what is scientifically analyzed in the Vijnānabhairava tantra,
“Although the Tantras were written and discussed later on, even after Nātya was
popularized, it seems that the basic knowledge of tantra was always there.
Vijnānabhairava is a part of the ancient Tantras. It is held in high esteem in
Śaivāgama. Abhinavagupta, also called Nrisimhagupta, a Tantra practitioner of
Kashmir Śaivism who gave the celebrated commentary on Nātya Śāstra, the
Abhinavabharati, calls it Śiva-vijnanaupaniṣad The text of Vijnānabhairava claims
to be the quintessence of Rudrayamāla Tantra which means union of Rudra with
his Śakti (Spiritual energy).” [8] .

The terms used in Nātya like “bha” and “ra” have tremendous meaning and
signigficance in the Tantras. “Bha, ra, and va; bha indicates bharana or
maintenance of the universe; ra indicates rāvana or withdrawal of the universe; va
indicatres vāmana or projection i.e.., manifestation of the universe.” [9] Tala has

16
the deeper meaning of dissolution.

“Nāda. It is a mystical resonance and extends from the summit of the head and
expands through the susumna i.e. the central channel. It is anāhata i.e.
spontaneous sound, not produced by percussion and is inarticulate. It never sets
i.e. it always goes on sounding in all living creatures. The subtlety of its vibration
consists in 1/16 of a mātra.” [10]

Nādanta – This is an aspect of energy beyond nada. It is extremely subtle and

resides in brahmarandhra which is a little above the top of the head. The subtlety
of its vibration consists in 1/32 of a mātra.

“Nāda-bindu: The first creative pulsation and its compact mass; the creative
sound and light: Śakti and Śiva. Bindu : Written also as Vindu – a point, a
metaphysical point; concentration of luminous energy; compact mass of Śakti
gathered into an undifferentiated point ready to create; parah pramata – the
highest experient; the anusvara or nasal sound indicated by a dot on a letter
indicating the fact that Śiva in spite of the manifestation of the universe is
undivided ; symbol of Śiva ; a Śakti of pranavā.” These tantric works add
testimony to the terminologies rampontly spoken about in Natya shastra. [11]

10. Common Vedic origin of Tantrā and Nātya and a glimpse into
other religious dances of ancient eastern civilizations

The drama teaches the path of virtue to those who carry on their duty; the modes
of love to those eager to get it fulfilled; it admonishes the uncivilized and the ill
natured ones; encourages self control of those who are amenable to discipline;
makes the coward bold; the heroic ones are given more incentives, the men of
poor intellect are enlightened and the wisdom of the learned is enhanced. The
play entertains kinds and affluent ones, sorrowing can received solace therefrom;
those who want to acquire wealth can understand ways and means thereof; and

17
men who become agitated can derive composure and comfort from it. Imitation of
the conduct of the people full of emotional fervour while depicting different
situations is the main item in the type of drama evolved by me, says Bharata.
Accord encouragement, amusement and pleasure along with sound advice to
everyone. It is an agent for educating people through the Bhāvās and Kriyās .All
the branches of learning find a place in the drama, different arts and actions
converge therein. Because imitation of everything taking place in the world of
seven continents is an invariable feature of the Dramatic art.

“As early as the Vedas, it was laid down, for instance, that in connection with the
great Aswamedha and other sacrifices or Yajnas performed for the good of the
country, there should be enacted some specified sacred dance. The Yajurveda and
the Brāhmanas, as a matter of fact, speak of the Mahā -Vrata dance and a special
and elaborate performance in connection with the Stotra after the Rājasuya and
other Yajnas. Such is the beginning of the art. The religious dance was not
peculiar to India. Egypt had it; Assyriahad it; Palestine had it. The old testament
speaks of flute and tabor and drum, and of the maidens dancing before Samuel
and Saul. King Solomon has referred oftentimes to the practice of this art. China
and Japan have developed the art mainly on the secular side, with great
minuteness and artistic skill, and the play of the fan has been well known
accompaniment. Throughtout the ages, therefore, the dance has had a great part
of play. But so far as India is concerned, manifestations are well-known and
familiar. The dance of Natarāja, the dance of Ganeśa, the dance of Subrahmanya
(after the conquest of Sura Padmāsura), the dance of Krishna in two aspects – the
Kāliyarmardana and the Rasamandala, the fierce and delicate – the dance of Kāli,
the great Uddhata dance which heralds the final cataclysm and the end of the
world, all these parts of Indian heritage of culture . Bharata, for instance, divides
Nartana, the great art of dance, into what he terms the sacred and the secular
aspects. The sacred aspect is demonstrated by the Tāndava dance and the Lāsya
dance, the Allegro and the Pianissimo to borrow terms from another art.” [12]

18
Bharata’s chapter on the construction of the playhouse theatre and replicating the
stage as a vedika, and then offerings as in a pūja reveals the coexistence of
Tāntric, Āgamic Pūja with Nātya ;a harmonizing ,spectacular synthesizer !
Bharata was aware of and acquainted with the elaborate procedures of rituals of
Vedic yajna, the necessity of consecrating the space through Pūja. Through the
holding of a Pūja with homa and japa, offerings of water, food and flowers, this
space would be enlivened, given breath and soul. It would acquire the same
potency as an image through the ceremony of prāna pratistha.

Theatre was a model of the cosmos; each deity had a specific place in the cardinal
directions that were demarked and the centre of brahma-mandala established on
stage itself. Even today, the Rangapūja is done at the onset with rangākramana
movements in Bharatanātyam.

“The chanting of the sacred mantras in the Rig Vedic period, 1200 B.C., was the
earliest known music in India. There are many references to musical instruments,
especially various drums, and stringed instruments which included the veena.
The Sāma Veda was chanted in a particular style and it is said by scholars that the
South Indian rāga Kharaharapriya resembles the Sāman scale, the first chant of
man .After Bharata many indeed were the authors and commentators or music
and dance. Matanga Muni, who wrote the Brihaddeshi (5th to 7th century A.D)
gave the first clear exposition or raga. This is further developed in Nārada’s
Sangeeta Makaranda (about 14th century A.D) and Somanath’s Rāgavibodha (1609
A.D) which also mentions the Nāyika, and Nāyakās, the heroines and heroes of
dance and drama.”[13]

By the tenth century, we encounter the towering figures of Ānandavardhana and

Abhinavagupta. The categories are not insulated because when we peruse a work
like Bhoja’s Sringāra Prakāsa, it encompasses a vast field. Matanga gives the
description of the articulation of sound from different centres of the body.

19
Bharata mentioned the three locations (sthānās) of sound from the chest, throat
and palate. Sārangadeva gives physiological and Tāntric explanations. The
concept of the five natural / primary elements (the Panchabhutās) is implied in
the Nātyaśāstra.
Abhinavagupta opines that the origin of the art cannot be traced; it is without a
beginning. One can only renew and adorn it and it is not a new creation but a new
discovery, just as the Vedas were discovered and not invented. Vedas is
beginningless and endless and hence, immortal. The creative powers of the
intellectual and aesthetic minds result in accurate perception and absorption.

“The earliest extant literature on the subject of Indian Dance is Bharata’s

Nātyasāstra. There seems to have been some Nata Sutrās even before this Sāstra
was penned. But they have either been lost or got dissolved into the present
Nātyaśāstra.” [14]

Like the Hindu religion which is itself a fusion of the Āryans’ Vedic yagna and the
non - Āryans Āgamic Pūja, the Hindu theatre also took the form of a homogenous
presentation of dance and drama. Dance seems to have been a favourite sport of
the non - Āryans, while drama, with its literary beauty was the Āryan’s love. The
art of dance developed as drama through its getting mingled with the Āryan
culture. Nātya was the term which indicated this composite whole. The term
Sangita was always referred to in its triple aspects viz./, Gita (song), Vādya
(instrumental music) and Nritya (dance).

“Are the categories of vāstu, silpa, citra, sangita, nātya, sāhitya, kāvya insulated,
autonomous, inclusive and exclusive? If not, then, what is the internal
interdisciplinary or interpenetrating system? How do these texts, and the Nātya
Śāstra as the earliest of them all, approach the question of the autonomy and
specificity of each art-form and its intrinsically inter-related character.” [15]
There were texts on poetics, on dramaturgy, dance as separate category,
architecture, sculpture and painting, together and separate, and special sections of

20
the Puranas devoted to the arts. All were indebted in part or whole to the
Nātyasāstra. The āgāmas, difficult to date, have relevance to the Nātyasāstra
tradition or parampara. A close reading of these verses also convinces one of the
intrinsic relationship of the Ayurveda system of medicine and the arts of music
and dance
The Gandharva Upaveda belongs to the Sāma Veda.

Abhinavagupta, attaches highest importance to the actual practice of the art.He

points out that the rhythm and action, to become charmingly graceful, cannot be
comprehended unless one is an adept in the field. Those who know the form can
in the true sense, absorb the linking of movements through the use of the head,
eyes, neck, etc.

“The fact that there was a flourishing tradition of poetry, dance and music, even
of architecture, sculpture and painting, is evident from innumerable references in
the Vedās and epics. Patanjali’s Mahābhaśya and Arthaśāstra, the Rāmayana
and the Mahābhārata provide interesting details of theatre halls, recitals, social
status and training. [16]

“The Origin of Drama-

“Atreya and other noblesouled sages with great control over their sense organs
approached the righteous Bharata, the master of Science of drama and dance

O Brahman, verily you had propounded it.

Manvantara of Svayambhuva passed by the Kritayuga of Vaivasvata Manu too
passed. When the Tretayuga arrived people became victims of lust and
covetousness, and were engaged in Rustic rites and activities, overwhelmed by
jealousy and deluded by wrath.The Vedic discussion and practice cannot be
proclaimed among those born of the Śudra caste. Hence evolve another Veda
common to all the Varnās (castes).It shall be conducive to righteousness,

21
production of wealth and diffusion of fame; it will have succinct collection of
didactic material. Richly endowed with the topics dealt with in all the scriptural
texts. Fully recalling to his mind all the Vedās after this resolution ,Pathyam
(recitals) from the Rigveda, Gitam (music) from the Sāmans; Abhinayas (histrionic
and gestural representation) from the Yajurveda and the Rasās (sentiments) from
the Atharvaveda.Its origin and connection with the Vedas and Upavedās was
evolved by the noble soul, Brahma .Devās are incapable of receiving, retaining,
comprehending and putting it into practice.These are the sages conversant with
the esoteric mystery of the Vedās and perfect in the observance of holy vows.The
moon god will protect the main building, the wind gods the four corners, Varuna,
Mitra, the fire god, the clouds, the four Varnās, the Rudrās, the Aidtyas, the
Yaksinis,
Yama. The trident shall be placed at the top. Niyati and Mrtyu were assigned the
post of door keepers.The powerful Bhutas, Yaksās, Pisācās and the Guhayakas
were assigned the responsibility of guarding the pillars of the Mattavārani. This
Nātya Vedā has been evolved to portray both the good and the bad things that
befall all whether gods or Daityās. Being the representation of the states of all the
worlds. In it there is reference to Dharma (piety), Artha (wealth), peace, laughter,
fighting”. [17]

In the playhouse you must have adoration with offerings, performances of Homās
with Mantrās and Japās and Naivedyās (food offerings) should consist of all types
of foodstuffs hard and soft .This is on par with Vedic Yajna. Ranga Puja is an
essential item in a society that meticulously follows the noble ideals of the vedic
seers of Mantrās and philosophers irrespective of the schools of Darsanā they may
be specially interested in. Types of playhouses viz. Vikrsta (Rectangular)
Caturasra (square) and Tryasra (triangular). The soil should be plain, firm hard
and black or white for the purpose of erecting the playhouse. On a day with the
Pusya star the builder spreads a piece of white string of cotton, wool, Munja grass
or the bark of a tree. Brahmins should be propitiated and the Punyaha Mantra
should be recited. At the outset white garlands and unguents and a piece of gold

22
from an ear ornament are thrown at the foot of Brahmin pillar. Nātyacārya offers
ghee purified with Mantra and he is also fed with Krsara and salt. The playhouse
should resemble a mountain cave. Nātyacārya has to consecrate the play house.
He has to be initiated for the purpose. He will be wearing new clothes. Previously
he should have observed fast for three days and have kept his senses under full
control. Afterwards he shall be sprinkle his limbs with Mantra inspired water.
The stage is lit brightly and the Acārya with bodily purity and mental
concentration performs the Pūjā after due initiation.

In connection with this ceremony a Yantra -mystic diagram is to be drawn in

accordance with the injunctions at the due places. The overall dimension of the
mystic diagram/yantra is sixteen Hastās square (here Hastā = half of cubit = 22.5
cm). It has doors on all four sides. In the middle horizontal and vertical lines are
drawn to the sides. In the squares made by them different deities are installed for
the purpose of adoration. In the middle, Brahma is to be installed seated in a
lotus. Then, at the outset, Lord Śiva is to be installed in the east. In accordance
with these rules of procedure all the deities are to be installed in their
conventional form and colour in their respective positions. After the performance
of the adoration of the Jarjara in this manner and having offered all the oblations,
the Nātyacārya shall perform Homā in the fire with ghee duly uttering the
requisite Mantrās. After brightening the dancing girls and the king along with the
musical instruments he shall sprinkle them with water inspired with Mantrās.
After the due performance of the Homā through Mantra inspired Havis (i.e
clarified butter) the Nātyacārya shall scrupulously perform the rite of
Kumbhabhedana (breaking the pot). When the pot is broken the Acārya can be
without fear; he shall take up the lighted lamp and illuminate the entire dramatic
hall. With the production of sounds from Śankhās and Dundubhis as well as
Mrudangās and Panavā drums and blowing all the other musical instruments he
shall cause some fights in the stage. Wpunds like bruises cuts and lacerations,
spilling blood is considered an omen of success. spilling blood. A bright wound
inflicted is an omen for the success in the play.

23
Well consecrated hall and stage shall bring about splendid results to the lord, to
the region and to the city including the old and the young. This adoration of the
deities of the stage is on a par with a Yajna (holy sacrifice). No one shall produce
a play without the worship of the stage.

11. Some Vedic Sciences/Tāntric treatises and their relevance to

modern Thought

“We have observed that in the movement of revival of the Vedic heritage, that
form which concerned itself with reestablishment of ritualism came to be known
as the Brahamanas while that which concerned itself with resuscitating the
knowledge-content became the Upani ṣads; and what is more important, the line
that reclaimed, developed and continued in an enlarging transformation the
esoteric practice and the way of inner communion with the Gods came to be
known as Yoga and the Tantra”. [18]

ANUKARANA ŚABDA ŚASTRAM

Rishi Kandhika has written the above treatise on nature of sounds, their
reelection, and the fundamental principles of resonance and echoes. It is a sound
document on sound.

CHITRA KARMA

Rishi Bhima has prepared a treatise named as above on the fine art of painting
and photography. It indicates that Indians knew photography thousands of years
ago.

24
GERANDA SAMHITA

This is a treatise on Hata Yoga. Hata Yoga is one of the most important forms of
Yoga in which attempt is made to attain Samādhi by purification of the body and
by the Āsanās. This kept is in the form of a dialogue between sage Geranda and
his disciple Chanda Kapāli.

VIGNYAN BHAIRAVA

It is an ancient work on Yoga. It describes 108 types of Yogāsanās, and studiously

avoids, mechanical worship, external rites and ceremonies, and goes directly to
the heart of the problem of the union of human consciousness with the Divine. It
is in form of a dialogue and has 163 verses.

ŚAKTI TANTRAM

Rishi Agastya, has written a great work on energy. According to his work, there
are 32 varieties of energy or power (Śakti) and he explains how to utilize them for
the welfare of mankind.

ŚIVA SWARODAYAM

It is a rare work on breath analysis. It explains how to distinguish the overall

winds (Vāyus) circulating in our body, how they affect the mental and
psychological processes, leading to a predetermination of behavioral patterns, and
their outcome. This work has 372 meaningful verses.
Maharishi Mahesh Yogi said,’ ’The Veda, from the clear vision of a modern
physicist, has the characteristics of a super particle the ultimate basis of all
creation in the theory of super gravity. It should be studied in the light of
quantum electrodynamics, quantum chromo dynamics, and geometro –
dynamics.’’

25
Taitttiriya aranyaka, p.7.a.17, Sun’s energy influence everything in the universe
and consists of three division such as ‘’paka’’ the creative energy,’’rasā’’ the
sustaining energy ‘’veerya’’ the energy condusive to growth. All these occur due
to the chemical inter mixture of light and heat in different proportions.

Agni Purana states that,’’our body contains millions of nerves and blood vessels:
There are seventy two thousand nerves just around the navel, however ten of
these are integral and life –supporting. Similarly our system has ten types of
winds in it. They are’prāna’ which activates lungs and causes respiration,’Apāna’
which follows food and water through alimentary canal and helps expelling
excretion, ‘Samāna’ which enters blood and bile and helps to maintain an
equilibrium, ‘Udāna’ which activates the nerves in the mouth and face,
‘Vyāna’creates ‘Hiccup’ indicating lack of liquid in the system. ‘Nāga’ produces
flatulence. Kurma activates the eyelids, ‘Girikara’ helps digestive system in the
stomach, ‘Devadntta’ produces yawn, and ‘Dhahanjaya’ prevents shrinkage and
helps to keep the body in full bloom. Only this wind remains in the body even
after death, to retain its shape and prevent distortion”. [19]

In the NATYA ŚASTRA, it is said that -

The ideal theatrical troupe consists of the following – Bharata (Main Actor), the
Viduśaka, Tauripa (Songs), the Nata Sutradhāra, Nātyakara, Mutukāraka (Maker
of crowns), ābharonākrt (goldsmith, maker of ornaments), Mālakarā (gardener) the
Rājakā (washerman, dyer), Citrakāra (Painter) Kāru (craftsman), Śilpi (expert in
fine arts), Kuśilavās (Musicians) and others as well.

Dramatic art has originated from the Vedas, their ancillaries or angās and their
further subdivisions. It has been evolved and set in practice with great difficulty.
It should not be ruined. Actually it has a great basis and is highly meritorious.

Nature draws out the best to improvise and extemporize with intricacies

26
exquisitely. The expertise in a virtuoso’s oeuvre proves the reflexivity to divinity
placing him or her at the anvil to get moulded by the fountainhead of all
superlatives. Often the quicksilver temperament in creative minds is a result of
the quivering of nature’s refulgent rhapsody and dissolves in a palliative piece of
music, the resonance and equilibrium being pervasive and phenomenal. Ethereal
joy isn’t fleeting like the evanescent bubbles of ephemeral pleasures.

To preserve the arts ,the demystification of dance forms like Bharatanātyam to

some extent through communicative language is important to give it apolitical
value and reach beyond regional and religious barriers with wide appeal.
Simultaneously, one has to guard against fallacies in comprehending the Sanskrit
mantrās and other lyrics used in dance. Rhythm, seen heard, is felt in every
muscle. Working knowledge of music is considered as collateral by every dancer,
which undoubtedly would add on a vantage point .It is important to know the
practices and processes of dance in detail to co-relate them with the mystical
Tantrā.

27
Notes and References

[1] Natya Shastra –Translation into English by a board of Scholars Sri Sathguru
publications [Raga Nrtya Series no.2] Introduction……….. Page 8

[2] Ibid ………………Page 9

[3] Ibid………………Page 10

[4] Ibid………………Page 11

[5] Ibid………………Page 12

[6] Ibid………………Page 13

[7] Abhinaya Darpanam- by Nandikeswara edt. & Transl. by Dr. Gosh. M.,
Manisha Granthalaya Pvt. Ltd., 1981……….. page 29/30.

[8] Vijnanabhairava or divine consciousness by Jaideva Singh, Mothilal

Banarasidass publishers – 2006……. Page 10

[9] Ibid…………….Page 11

[10] Ibid……………page 27,28

[11] Ibid……………page 154,156

[12] The Art of Dance: Dr. C. P. Ramaswami Iyer, Vivekananda Kendra

Patrika Volume X. no2 August 1981….. Page 17,18

[13] Understanding Bharatanatyam, Mrinalini Sarabhai, Darpana

Publications-1996…………..… .page 107.

[14] Bharatiya Natya and Nritta: Dr. Padma Subrahmaniam, Vivekananda

Kendra Patrika , Volume X. no2 August 1981.. Page 1

[15] Bharata – The Natyashastra, Dr. Kapila Vatsyayan, Publisher:

Sahitya Akademi (January 2003)……. Page 44

[16] Ibid…………..Pages 114 to 119

[17] Translation into English by a board of Scholars Sri Sathguru publications
[Raga Nrtya Series no.2]…….from Pages 1 ,3,7,8,9.

[18] The Mystic Traditions of India [II], Traditions in mysticism, M. P. Pandit,

28
 Sterling Pub. Pvt Ltd., 1987, Page. No 17,

[19] The paper, “Vedic Sciences and their relevance to modern thought,
by Acharya Ratnanada, Sri Sri Ravishankar Mutt.

29