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Table of Content

Nature and Scope of Psychology……………………………………………………………..6

• Definition and scope………………………………………………………………..6
• Psychology as a Science………………………………………..………………. 9
• Schools………………………………………………………….……………….. 10,
• Perspectives……………………………………………………..……………… 17
• Models of Psychology………………………………………………………….. 19,
• Recent Trends…………………………………………..……………………… 23
Biological Basis of Behavior………………………………………………………………… 31
• Nervous System, Neuron and its function……………………………….………. 31
• Central and Peripheral Nervous System………………………………….…….. 34,
• Endocrine System ……………………………………..……………………………35
Sensation and Perception…………………………………………………………………. 37
• Sensory process through sense organs………………………………….…….. 37,
• Perception ……………………………………………………………………………45,
• Gestalt Principles ……………………………………………………………..…….51,
• Binocular and Monocular cues……………………………………..…………… 56,
• Illusions and Extra Sensory Perception………………………………..………. 62,
• Determinants of Perception …………………………………………………………65
Learning and Memory…………………………………………………………………..….. 66
• Nature and Forms of Learning………………………………………..…………… 66,
• Types of learning …………………………………………………………………..…67
• Classical and Operant Conditioning, Reinforcement, Extinction, Discrimination,
Punishment………………………………………………………………………..…..67,
Observational Learning………………………………………………………………………67
• Theories of Learning……………………………………………………….………. 68,
• Types of Memory……………………………………………………………………..71,
• Process of Memory………………………………………………………………… 72,
• Forgetting…………………………………………………………………………….. 76,
• Theories of Memory ………………………………………………………..…………79
Motivation and Emotion……………………………………………………………………... 80
• Homeostasis Factors affecting Motivation ……………………………………….. 84,
• Biogenic and Social Motives……………………………………………………….. 88,
• Measurement of Human Motivation…………………………………………………96,
• Theories of Motivation………………………………………………………………..97,
• Emotions………………………………………………………………………..……..104
• Types of Emotions……………………………………………………………..……106,
• Physiological changes and Emotion …………………………………………….…107,
• Theories of Emotion …………………………………………………………………109.
Psychological AssessmentAttributes of Psychological Measures………………….... 116,
• Validity……………………………………………………………………………….. 122,
• Reliability……………………………………………………………………………. 126,
• Item Analysis……………………………………..……………………………..…. 129,
• Norms …………………………………………………………………………………..…130,
• Modern Test Theory………………………………………………………….………. 134,
• Selection and Training………………………………………………………..……….. 136,
• Educational and Clinical Assessment………………………………………….…….. 139 ,
• Ethical Standards………………………………………………………………………….141
• Legal Issues………………………………………………………………………..…… 145

Personality:Determinants of
Personality………………………………………………..……154,
• Factors in Development of Personality ………………………………………….…….156,
• Theoretical Perspectives……………………………………………………………….. 160,
• Traits and Types…………………………………………………………………….……
177,
• Personality Assessment and Techniques
………………………………………………180,
• Cross-Cultural Issues…………………….………………………………………………
205.
Intelligence: Theories of Intelligence
………………………………………………………..….219,
• Types of intelligence (IQ, EQ),Assessing Intelligence………………………..……… 233
Social Influence and Group Dynamics: Social Facilitation………………………………..…..
235,
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 • Attribution……………………………………………………………………………….….
242,
• Conformity……………………………….……………………………………………..……24
8,
• Obedience
……………………………………………………………………………….….252,
• Altruism
………………………………………………………………………………………254,
• Attitudes………………………………………………………………………………….…..2
56,
• Social Norms
………………………………………………………………………………..262.
Developmental PsychologyandPhysical…………………………………………………….…
264,

• Cognitive…………………………………………………………………………………....
265,
• Social and Emotional development in
Childhood………………………………………..266,
• Adolescence
……………………………………………………………………………..….275,
• Adulthood……………………………………………………………………………….…..
276
• Old Age……………………………………………………………………………………...
277

Abnormal and Clinical Psychology, Concept and causes of

Abnormality……………………278,

• Clinical Assessment and

Intervention…..………………………………………………..284,
• Different disorders Schizophrenia, Mood disorder, Anxiety disorder, Personality
disorder......................................................................................................................293
• Psychological treatment including different Therapeutic techniques
…………………297.

Organizational/Industrial Psychology: Leadership styles…………………. 300,

• Decision making ………………………………………………………305,

• Work motivation …………………………………………………….….308,
• Organizational Culture……………………………………………….. 309,
• Stress and Conflict at Work and its Management………………… 312,
• Organizational Socialization ………………………………………….325,
• Job related Attitude …………………………………………………….336
• Sexual Harassment………………..………………………………….339
• Glass Ceiling………………………………….344,
• Human Computer interaction………………. 349.
Health Psychology …………………………………....354:
• Beliefs and Behavior………………………… 353,
• Models of Health Psychology………………. 356,
• Assessment and Intervention………………. 359,
• Models of Stress………………………………360,
• Chronic and Terminal Illness………………… 363,
• Role of Social Support……………………….. 363

Forensic Psychology: Psychology and Law 375,

• Investigation ………………….. 378,

• Confession……………………. 380,
• Eyewitness Testimony………. 382,
• Working with Offenders…….. 385,
• Juvenile Delinquents………… 387,
• DrugAddicts……………………392,
• Sex Offenders………………... 395

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 Nature and Scope of Psychology:
Definition and scope:
Psychology is the study of behavior and mind, embracing all aspects of human experience. It
is an academic discipline and an applied science which seeks to understand individuals and
groups by establishing general principles and researching specific cases. In this field, a
professional practitioner or researcher is called a psychologist and can be classified as a
social, behavioral, or cognitive scientist. Psychologists attempt to understand the role of
mental functions in individual and social behavior, while also exploring the physiological and
biological processes that underlie cognitive functions and behaviors.

Psychologists explore concepts such as perception, cognition, attention, emotion,

intelligence, phenomenology, motivation, brain functioning, personality, behavior, and
interpersonal relationships, including psychological resilience, family resilience, and other
areas. Psychologists of diverse orientations also consider the unconscious mind.
Psychologists employ empirical methods to infer causal and correlational relationships
between psychosocial variables. In addition, or in opposition, to employing empirical and
deductive methods, some—especially clinical and counseling psychologists—at times rely
upon symbolic interpretation and other inductive techniques. Psychology has been
described as a "hub science", with psychological findings linking to research and
perspectives from the social sciences, natural sciences, medicine, humanities, and
philosophy.

While psychological knowledge is often applied to the assessment and treatment of mental
health problems, it is also directed towards understanding and solving problems in several
spheres of human activity. By many accounts psychology ultimately aims to benefit society.
The majority of psychologists are involved in some kind of therapeutic role, practicing in
clinical, counseling, or school settings. Many do scientific research on a wide range of topics
related to mental processes and behavior, and typically work in university psychology
departments or teach in other academic settings (e.g., medical schools, hospitals). Some are
employed in industrial and organizational settings, or in other areas such as human
development and aging, sports, health, and the media, as well as in forensic investigation
and other aspects of law.

Disciplinary organization
In 1920, ÉdouardClaparède and Pierre Bovet created a new applied psychology organization
called the International Congress of Psych technics Applied to Vocational Guidance, later
called the International Congress of Psych technics and then the International Association of
Applied Psychology.[The IAAP is considered the oldest international psychology association.
Today, at least 65 international groups deal specialized aspects of psychology.In response to
male predominance in the field, female psychologists in the U.S. formed National Council of
Women Psychologists in 1941. This organization became the International Council of Women
Psychologists after World War II and the International Council of Psychologists in 1959.

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Several associations including the Association of Black Psychologists and the Asian
American Psychological Association have arisen to promote non-European racial groups in
the profession.

The world federation of national psychological societies is the International Union of

Psychological Science (IUPsyS), founded in 1951 under the auspices of UNESCO, the
United Nations cultural and scientific authority.[24][58] Psychology departments have since
proliferated around the world, based primarily on the Euro-American model.[19][58] Since
1966, the Union has published the International Journal of Psychology. IAAP and IUPsyS
agreed in 1976 each to hold a congress every four years, on a staggered basis.

The International Union recognizes 66 national psychology associations and at least 15

others exist. The American Psychological Association is the oldest and largest. Its
membership has increased from 5,000 in 1945 to 100,000 in the present day. The APA
includes 54 divisions, which since 1960 have steadily proliferated to include more
specialties. Some of these divisions, such as the Society for the Psychological Study of
Social Issues and the American Psychology–Law Society, began as autonomous groups.

The InterAmerican Society of Psychology, founded in 1951, aspires to promote psychology

and coordinate psychologists across the Western Hemisphere. It holds the InterAmerican
Congress of Psychology and had 1000 members in year 2000. The European Federation of
Professional Psychology Associations, founded in 1981, represents 30 national associations
with a total of 100,000 individual members. At least 30 other international groups organize
psychologists in different regions.

In some places, governments legally regulate who can provide psychological services or
represent themselves as a "psychologist".[59] The American Psychological Association
defines a psychologist as someone with a doctoral degree in psychology.

Boundaries
Early practitioners of experimental psychology distinguished themselves from
parapsychology, which in the late nineteenth century enjoyed great popularity (including the
interest of scholars such as William James), and indeed constituted the bulk of what people
called "psychology". Parapsychology, hypnotism, and psychism were major topics of the
early International Congresses. But students of these fields were eventually ostracized, and
more or less banished from the Congress in 1900–1905. Parapsychology persisted for a time
at Imperial University, with publications such as Clairvoyance and Thoughtography by
TomokichiFukurai, but here too it was mostly shunned by 1913.

As a discipline, psychology has long sought to fend off accusations that it is a "soft" science.
Philosopher of science Thomas Kuhn's 1962 critique implied psychology overall was in a
pre-paradigm state, lacking the agreement on overarching theory found in mature sciences
such as chemistry and physics.Because some areas of psychology rely on research methods
such as surveys and questionnaires, critics asserted that psychology is not an objective
science. Skeptics have suggested that personality, thinking, and emotion, cannot be directly
measured and are often inferred from subjective self-reports, which may be problematic.

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Experimental psychologists have devised a variety of ways to indirectly measure these
elusive phenomenological entities.

Divisions still exist within the field, with some psychologists more oriented towards the
unique experiences of individual humans, which cannot be understood only as data points
within a larger population. Critics inside and outside the field have argued that mainstream
psychology has become increasingly dominated by a "cult of empiricism" which limits the
scope of its study by using only methods derived from the physical sciences.[65] Feminist
critiques along these lines have argued that claims to scientific objectivity obscure the values
and agenda of (historically mostly male)[35] researchers. Jean Grimshaw, for example,
argues that mainstream psychological research has advanced a patriarchal agenda through
its efforts to control behavior

Psychology as a Science,
The psychology of science is a branch of the studies of science that includes philosophy of
science, history of science, and sociology of science or sociology of scientific knowledge.
The psychology of science is defined most simply as the scientific study of scientific thought
or behavior. Some key figures currently in the psychology of science are William Brewer,
Kevin Dunbar, Gregory Feist, Michael Gorman, David Klahr, Barbara Kosloswki, Deanna
Kuhn, Sofia Liberman, Dean Keith Simonton, Will Shadish, Frank Sulloway, Paul Thagard,
Ryan Tweney, Ron Westrum, and Wendy Parker.

The psychology of science applies methods and theory from psychology to the analysis of
scientific thought and behavior, each of which is defined both narrowly and broadly.
Narrowly defined, "science" refers to thought and behavior of professional scientists and
technologists. More broadly defined, "science" refers to thought and behavior of any one
(present or past) of any age engaged in theory construction, learning scientific or
mathematical concepts, model building, hypothesis testing, scientific reasoning, problem
finding or solving, or creating or working on technology. Indeed, mathematical, engineering,
and invention activities are included in both the broader and narrower definitions as well. The
methods of psychology that are applied to the study of scientific thought and behavior range
from psych historical, psych biographical, observational, descriptive, correlational, and
experimental techniques.

The psychology of science has well-established literatures in most every subfield of

psychology, including but not limited to: neuroscience, development, and cognition, and
personality, motivation, social, industrial/organizational, and clinical. Feast’s recent book The
Psychology of Science and the Origins of the Scientific Mind reviews and integrates much of
this literature. How scientific concepts are learned is a major topic for the psychology of
science education.

In 2006 the first scientific society for the psychology of science was founded in Zacatecas,
Mexico, The International Society for the Psychology of Science and Technology (ISPST).
Members of ISPST are psychologists and other scholars who study any form of scientific or
technological thought or behavior, either narrowly or broadly defined. One goal of the society
is to promote the application of psychology to the study of thought and behavior in science

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and technology. Research on the psychology of science and technology has the potential to
inform policy, education, and business in selecting, recruiting, training, teaching, and hiring
scientific and technological students and personnel. Therefore, ISPST seeks to:

Promote research aimed at furthering the understanding of recruiting, recognizing, and

retaining scientific talent.

Foster interdisciplinary relationships and research with educators, business leaders, and
scientists themselves.

Schools,
“Psychology has a long past but only a short history.” With these few words, Hermann
Ebbinghaus, one of the great thinkers in psychology, aptly captured the essence of this
field’s development. Since time immemorial, men and women have pondered over questions
that are psychological in nature. From the early Egyptians to the ancient Greek philosophers,
there has been no letup in efforts to understand human thought and behavior. Yet, in spite of
its long past, the formal history of psychology dates back only 133 years to 1879 – the year
when Wilhelm Wundt opened the doors of the first psychology laboratory in Leipzig,
Germany. As a result of this significant move, Wundt is widely regarded as the founder of
psychology. Yet, this was just the beginning of Wundt’s contributions to the field. He went on
to become the first of several spirited speakers to engage in an ongoing debate over what
should be the focus of psychology. The history of psychology is indeed short, but it has
never been short of drama. With that said, let the drama unfold…

WilhelmWundt psychology Structuralism

Wundt’s ideas formed the basis of the first school of thought (or perspective) in psychology,
known as structuralism. In reality, though, it was one of Wundt’s students, Edward B.
Tichener, who formally established this psychological school of thought. Structuralism, as the
name suggests, was centered on investigating the structure of the mind. Wundt believed that
psychology should focus on breaking down consciousness into its basic elements, in much
the same way a child would pull apart a toy to reveal its component parts. The idea of
determining the specific structure of something so abstract and dynamic as the mind may
seem absurd to many today. Yet, structuralists were confident that not only could they
accomplish this goal, but that they could do so scientifically. [showmyads]

Wundt advanced the technique of introspection as the “scientific” tool that would enable
researchers to unveil the structure of the mind. Introspection involves looking inwards;
reflecting on, analyzing and trying to make sense of our own internal experiences as they
occur. In employing this technique, trained subjects were presented with various forms of
stimuli and asked to describe as clearly and “objectively” as possible what they experienced.
Reports would then be examined to determine the basic elements of consciousness. For
example, if you were presented with a slice of cake, it would not be enough to simply identify
the type of food before you. You would also need to explain the basic elements of the cake
that you able to sense. For example, you might describe the taste, smell, texture, color, and
shape of the cake in as much detail as possible. Structuralism played a significant role in

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shaping the field of psychology during its formative years. Wundt and his followers helped to
establish psychology as an independent experimental science and their emphasis on
scientific methods of inquiry remains a key aspect of the discipline today. Nevertheless,
structuralists could not escape criticism. Despite their noble attempt at scientific
investigation, introspection was less than ideal because no two persons perceive the same
thing in exactly the same way. Subjects’ reports therefore tended to be subjective and
conflicting. Some of the fiercest criticisms of structuralism came from the person of William
James, one of the leading proponents of the functionalist perspective.

Functionalism WilliamJames psychology

From the point of view of American scholar William James, structuralists were sorely
misguided. The mind is fluid, not stable; consciousness is ongoing, not static. Attempts to
study the structure of the mind would therefore be futile at worst and frustrating at best. A
more fruitful endeavor, they argued, would be to study the function, as opposed to the
structure, of the mind. Function in this sense can mean one of two things – first, how the
mind operates – that is, how the elements of the mind work together – and second, how
mental processes promote adaptation. Clearly influenced by the teachings of Charles Darwin
and the principle of natural selection (survival of the fittest), James believed that mental
processes serve vital functions that enable us to adapt and survive in a changing world.
Thus, while the structuralists asked “what happens” when we engage in mental activity, the
functionalists were more concerned with “how it happens” and “why.”

Functionalism contributed greatly to the development of psychology. It extended both the

subject matter of psychology as well as the range of methods use to acquire data. For
example, the functionalists’ emphasis on adaptation led them to promote the study of
learning since this is believed to improve our adaptability and chances of survival. Their
concern with “why” certain mental processes occur also meant that they did extensive work
on motivation. Functionalists are also credited with bringing the study of animals, children
and abnormal behavior into psychology, as well as an emphasis on individual differences
(Hergenhahn, 2009). In addition, while the structuralists established psychology as a pure
science, the functionalists broadened this narrow focus by also concentrating on the
practical application of psychology to real-world problems. As it relates to research
methods, functionalists added to the existing repertoire by utilizing mental tests,
questionnaires and physiological measures, in addition to introspection (Schultz & Schultz,
2011).

Nevertheless, functionalists had their share of flaws. Like structuralists, they relied heavily on
the technique of introspection with all the shortcomings previously mentioned and were
criticized for only providing a vague definition of the term “function.” Despite repeated verbal
attacks aimed at each other, neither structuralism nor functionalism remained at the
forefront of psychology for very long. Both made significant contributions to psychology but
neglected one important influence on human thought and behavior – the unconscious. Here
is where Sigmund Freud made his great début.

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Sigmund Freud Psychology Psychoanalysis
Mention the word psychology, and few persons would fail to recall Sigmund Freud. Like the
structuralists and functionalists before him, Freud believed in studying covert behavior, but
unlike his predecessors, Freud was not content with examining only conscious thought; he
dived head-first into the unconscious. Freud compared the human psyche to an iceberg –
only a small portion is visible to others with most of it lying below the surface. Freud also
believed that many of the factors that influence our thoughts and actions lie outside of
conscious awareness and operate entirely in our unconscious. Psychology therefore needed
to study these unconscious drives, motives and impulses to arrive at a more complete
understanding of the individual.

Not all modern psychologists subscribe to Freud’s psychoanalytic theory but none can deny
the significant impact that this man has had on psychology. He opened up whole new
frontiers in psychology and proposed one of the most comprehensive theories of personality
ever written, complete with explanations of how the unconscious mind works and how
personality develops in the early years of life. Many later theorists were influenced directly
and indirectly by Freud as they built on, modified or reacted to his sometimes controversial
views. Freud’s work led to the development of the first form of psychotherapy – one which
has been modified and used by countless therapists throughout the history of psychology.
Even all this, to use Freud’s analogy, is just the very “tip of the iceberg” as far as his
contributions are concerned.

No other psychological school of thought has received as much attention, admiration and
criticism as Freud’s psychoanalytic theory. One of the biggest criticisms is that his theory
falls short of being scientific as many of his concepts are not testable. Freud also failed to
recognize how experiences after childhood contribute to personality development and
focused mainly on psychological disorders rather than more positive, adaptive behaviors
(Burger, 2011).

Behaviorism john b Watson psychology

Despite their differences, structuralism, functionalism and psychoanalysis all shared an
emphasis on mental processes – events that are unseen to the naked eye. John B. Watson, a
staunch supporter of behaviorism, strongly objected to this approach and prompted a
revolution in psychology. Watson was an advocate of scientific scrutiny but for him, covert
behavior, including mental processes, could not be studied scientifically. The emphasis, from
his perspective, should only be on overt or observable behavior. Behaviorists believed that
human behavior can be understood by examining the relationship between stimuli (events in
the environment) and responses (observable behavior). They saw no need to employ
subjective techniques such as introspection to infer mental processes over which even
trained subjects and researchers could not agree. What was once the study of the mind thus
became the study of observable behavior?

B.F. Skinner, another famous behaviorist, supported Watson’s view by advancing the idea
that human behavior can be explained by reinforcement and punishment – observable,
environmental factors – with no need to consider inner mental processes. Later behaviorists

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adopted a more balanced view of matters, embracing the study of both overt and covert
behavior. These became known as cognitive behaviorists.

Watson’s call for greater objectivity, radical as it was, greatly propelled psychology along the
path to becoming a science rather than a mere body of philosophical thought (Benjafield,
2004, cited in Coon &Mitterer, 2010). Many of the learning theories used by psychologists
today were also born out of the behaviorist school of thought and are frequently applied in
behavior modification and the treatment of some psychological disorders (e.g. phobias).
Nevertheless, the strict behaviorist view of Watson, was in no way superior to the narrow
emphasis of structuralists and functionalists on mental life alone. Indeed, “many aspects of
human experience (e.g. thinking, intrinsic motivation, creativity)…lie outside a strict
behavioral definition of psychology” (Walters, 2002, p.29). These too must be studied in
order to gain a more complete understanding of the individual. This was one of the key
arguments of another emerging school of thought known as Gestalt psychology.

Max Wertheimer Gestalt Psychology Gestaltpsychology

The word “gestalt” means “form, pattern or whole.” Gestalt psychologists believed that
psychology should study human experience as a “whole,” not in terms of separate elements
as the structuralists would contend. Their slogan, “the whole is greater than the sum of its
parts” conveyed the idea that meaning is often lost when psychological events are broken
down; only when these pieces are analyzed together and the whole pattern is visible do we
find true meaning in our experiences. To use an example, imagine breaking apart the words
you are now reading into individual letters and scattering them as you wish across the page.
Would you be able to discern anything meaningful from them? Quite likely, you wouldn’t.
Only when the letters are properly combined to form words and then structured into
sentences do you grasp any true meaning. The “whole” then becomes something different,
something greater than the accumulation of its “parts.”

Gestalt psychologists, such as Max Wertheimer, did extensive work on various aspects of
cognition, including perception, problem-solving and thinking. Additionally, their insistence
on studying individuals and experiences as wholes is still preserved in psychology today.
Their work also led to the emergence of a form of psychotherapy widely practiced by
modern psychologists.

Humanistic Psychology Carl Rogers Psychology

With the rise of each school of thought mentioned previously, the face of psychology was
gradually taking shape. Yet, not all were satisfied with the way things were progressing.
Foremost among these were the humanistic psychologists, such as Carl Rogers, who were
uncomfortable with the highly deterministic view of two of the major forces in psychology –
psychoanalysis and behaviorism. Determinism is the idea that our actions are controlled by
forces beyond our control. For the psychoanalysts, these forces are unconscious; for the
behaviorists, they exist in our environment. Humanistic psychologists, however, viewed
humans as free agents capable of controlling their own lives (as opposed to being

12
controlled), making their own choices, setting goals and working to achieve them. Humanism
asserted a positive view of human nature, stressing that humans are inherently good. A
unique form of therapy also emerged out of this school of thought, with emphasis on helping
people to achieve their full potential. This differed greatly from psychoanalysis which only
focused on reducing maladaptive behavior.

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For Complete CSS Psychology
Notes:

Call At:
03084293988,
03314019933

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