DEGREE PROJECT, IN RADIO COMMUNICATION , SECOND LEVEL

STOCKHOLM, SWEDEN 2015

LTE Mobile Network performance with

Antenna Tilt considering Real
Radiation Patterns

ALBERTO CAMACHO RUIZ

KTH ROYAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY

LTE Mobile Network Performance with Antenna Tilt
considering Real Radiation Patterns

Student:
Alberto Camacho Ruiz

Supervisors:
Cicek Cavdar, ClaesBeckman and Sara Steffanson

Examiner:
Ben Slimane

Wireless@KTH

School of Information and Communication Technology,

KTH-Royal Institute of Technology
Stockholm, Sweden.

May 2015
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Abstract

Due to the increasing demand of traffic, mobile networks requires flexibility to modify the area of
service at any time. The use of antenna tilt is a crucial element in the design of modern networks
as this element can modify the area of served cell and affects several parameters like coverage
capacity or energy. The tilt of antennas automatically with remote electrical tilt (RET) is
particularly relevant due to new smart networks that require the control of the system remotely.
However, RET has limitations as a result of the imperfections of the design of real antennas. This
is due to the fact that the whole pattern can vary for each tilt iteration.

This study proposes a system level simulation of two real antennas with similar characteristics like
gain, beam width and frequency, in order to evaluate the results in terms of coverage and capacity
for different degrees of tilt. The results show that remote electrical tilt improves both coverage and
capacity up to 32% and 50% respectively. However the performance of both the antennas differ.
For example, different sizes of networks are simulated and different degree of optimum tilt is
obtained for each antenna, which is explained by the comparison of the radiation patterns. The
difference between the angles of the optimum tilt for different sizes of the network also affects to
the energy efficiency metrics that have been simulated. One type of antenna shows better effects
when tilt is applied and the energy efficiency improves up to 13% with respect to the other antenna.

Through the comparison of the radiation pattern, it is possible to conclude which elements are the
most important for different areas of coverage of the network. The high gain and the roll off of the
main beam play an important role for cell edge coverage. In addition, sharp roll-off inclination and
higher gain are the elements which have the strongest influence on tilt. Finally, the effect of side
lobe levels on other parameters of the network is shown in this study. Lower side lobe level affects
the areas closer to the base station and upper side lobe level interfere the adjacent cell. This study
shows how these levels change for each tilt iteration and, thus, explains the difference in the
performance of both antennas.

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Acknowledgment

This thesis is the end of my year as an exchange student at KTH. I would like to thank the
department of Communication Systems, particularly Wireless@KTH to give me the opportunity
to work with them and learn with the projects they work on.
Besides, I would like to mention the help that I received from my supervisors Cicek Cavdar and
Claes Beckman. It has been a great pleasure to work with them and I appreciate all the time they
spent with me to develop this thesis.
The project has also the collaboration of Cellmax. I have been always welcomed in their facilities
and it was been very useful for me to learn from their activities. Therefore I would like to
appreciate their kindness and courtesy. Particularly, I would like to mention the help of Sara
Steffanson, who is my supervisor within the company. She has supported and added ideas that
have been crucial to develop this work.
Finally, I must mention the support of my family; I could not get so far without their help and love.

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

1 Introduction 1

1.1 Background and Motivation 1

1.2 Problem Description and Research Questions 3

1.3 Scope of the thesis 4

1.4 Related work 4

2 Remote Electrical Tilt 9

2.1 Phased Arrays……………………………………………………….……………. 9

2.2 Phase Shifter Technologies………………………………………….……………. 12

2.3 Remote Control Unit………………………………..…………………………….. 13

3 Methodology of Simulations 15

3.1 Overview of the simulator………………………………………………………... 15

3.2 Calculation of SINR and capacity……………………………………………...… 17

3.3 Model of Energy efficiency……………………………………………………..... 18

4 Comparison between real and ideal antennas . 21

4.1 Antennas…………………………………………………………………………... 21

4.2 System Level Model………………………………………………………………. 22

4.3 Results…………………………………………………………………………….. 23

5 Simulation of tilted antennas 29

5.1 Antennas and System Model 29

5.2 Coverage and Capacity Measurements 31

5.3 Energy Efficiency Measurements 37

5.4 Changes in the radiation pattern when tilting 40

5.4.1 Vertical Pattern………………………………………………………….... 40

5.4.2 Horizontal Pattern……………………………………………………….... 44

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6 Discussion and Conclusions 47

REFERENCES 51

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List of tables

3.1 Power Parameters …………………………………………………………………. 19

4.1 Antenna Features .…………………………………………………………………. 22

4.2 Simulations Parameters ………………………………………………………....…. 24

5.1 Antenna characteristics for simulations ....…………………………………………. 30

5.2 Simulation Parameters ……………………………………………………………... 30

5.3 Improvement of optimum tilt in coverage and capacity …………………………… 34

5.4 Improvement of performance of antenna 1 with respect to antenna 2……………… 35

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List of figures
1.1 Representation of mechanical (left) and electrical (right) tilt ….…………………. 2

1.2 Modification of the horizontal pattern with two mechanisms of tilt …………...…. 2

1.3 Modelling of antenna pattern …………………………………...…………………. 5

1.4 Comparison of antenna patterns ...…………………………………………………. 6

2.1 Array with K equidistant elements …………………..……………………………. 9

2.2 Array with K element and phase and amplitude modules before the array ………. 10

2.3 Remote Electrical Tilt within a base station antenna with 7 elements ……………. 11

2.4 Phase shifter with air-filled coaxial cable for the feeding network and a dielectric part
(9) that creates the phase shift……………………………………………………..……12

2.5 Reflective type phase shifter ……………...………………………………………. 13

2.6 Switch line phase shifter ………………………………………………………...… 13

2.7 System to control the Remote Control Unit by PCA in a three sector base station ...14

3.1 Structure of LTE-A system Level Simulator ………………………………………. 16

3.2 Physical layer abstraction for LTE system level modelling ..………………………. 18

4.1 Horizontal and Vertical antenna Patterns …………………………………………... 23

4.2 SINR difference map of the central cell for Antenna type 1 (left) and for ideal antenna
(right)………………………………………………………….………………………… 24

4.3 SINR results for all the users of the network and 3 different antennas ………………25

4.4 UE that are most influenced by the signal of real antennas for the centre cell …...… 26

4.5 Average throughput of all users of the network for 3 different antennas …………… 27

5.1 Macro cellular Network ………………………………………………..……………. 31

5.2 5th and 50th percentile of SINR with different tilt degree for UE of the centre cell… 32

5.3 5th,50th,95th percentile of throughput of UE of the centre cell …..…………………. 33

5.4 Optimum degree of tilt for different ISD for both antennas …………………………. 36

5.5 Coverage for different ISD and the optimum tilt for both antennas …………………. 36

5.6 Cell edge throughput for different ISD and the optimum tilt for both antennas ..……. 37

5.7 Number of base stations per area required for a certain level of cell edge throughput
…………………………………………………………………………………….………. 38

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5.8 Power per area for different level of cell edge throughput ……………………………. 38

5.9 kbit per joule for the optimum tilt in every intersite distance …………………………. 39

5.10 Vertical Pattern for 0º, 3º and 6º of tilt for each antenna ………………………..……. 41

5.11 Variation of lower side lobe level and upper side lobe level peak to 20º for each antenna
at every tilt iteration ……………………..…………………………………………………. 42

5.12 Received Power for a site with different antennas with respect to the distance. 0º,3 and 6º
of tilt for each figure respectively ………………………………………..…………………. 43

5.13 Received power for both antennas by adding 8 degrees of mechanical tilt to 6º of RET
…………………………………………………………………………………….…………. 44

5.14 Variation of Horizontal plane at each tilt iteration …….………………………………. 45

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List of Abbreviations
3GPP Third Generation Partnership Project

AISG Antenna Interface Standard Group

CCU Central Control Unit

CDF Cumulative Distributive Function

ECR Energy Consumption Ratio

ERG Energy Reduction Gain

GoS Grade of Service

HPBW Half Power Beam Width

HSPA High Speed Packet Access

ISD Inter-site Distance

LTE Long Term Evolution

PCA Portable Control Adapter

RAN Radio Access Network

RCU Remote Control Unit

RET Remote Electrical Tilt

ROI Region of Interest

SON Self Organizing Networks

SINR Signal to Interference plus Noise Ratio

SIR Signal to Interference Ratio

TTI Transmission Time Interval

UMTS Universal Mobile Telecommunication System

WCDMA Wideband Code Division Multiple Access

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1. INTRODUCTION
This introductory chapter describes the background of the topic and the motivations of
working on the issue first, then the description of the found problem in combination with
the research question is described; following that the scope of the thesis and, finally some
important work related to the main topic is explained.

1.1 Background and motivation

The design of antennas for base stations is a concern for the deployment process since
this element affects several aspects of the whole network as it is responsible for
transforming the energy from the circuits in the base station into radiation energy [1]
which makes the simulation with different types of antennas very important in order to
obtain system-level performance. The tilt of the antenna is particularly relevant, which is
the process of changing the direction of the radiated electromagnetic energy in order to
improve the needs of the network for a particular moment.

The increasing demand of traffic and the huge quantity of users whom current networks
have to provide services make the flexibility of the operation crucial. Antenna tilt is one
of the existing solutions for these requirements, since it can improve and modify the
coverage and capacity of the networks depending on the movements of the population
and the required direction for the best radio communication link. Hence, the evaluation
of this parameter is basic to improve the performance of the whole network.

Changes in the radiation pattern of the antenna, in terms of tilting can be produced by two
mechanisms, electrical and mechanical tilt [2]. The most common type of tilt is the down
tilt of the main directional point of energy in the vertical plane, i.e. the plane perpendicular
to the ground. On the one hand, mechanical tilt adjusts the direction of the main lobe by
physically moving the axis of the antenna so that this degree of tilt has no limitation and
it is a flexible system to tilt the antenna towards one determined direction. On the other
hand, remote electrical tilt (RET) remotely changes the shape of the pattern without
physically moving the antenna through a system of phase change in the feeding of the
antenna. The next figures that are presented in [2] will represent visually these systems:

Figure 1.1: Representation of mechanical (left) and electrical (right) tilt [2].

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However, when tilt is applied to the antenna, not only does the main lobe of the vertical
plane change, as it is described in [3], but the entire radiated pattern changes, i.e. besides
the vertical plane, the horizontal plane can also distort when tilting. In the following
figure, the distortion in the horizontal plane with different angles of tilt is described:

Figure 1.2: Modification of the horizontal pattern with two mechanism of tilt [4].

Moreover, the modification of the vertical plane is not only for the main lobe but also the
rest of the pattern has distortions, which give directional antennas different effects
depending on the transformation of the radiation pattern. Thus, it is very important to
consider these modifications and when simulating different scenarios, the more realistic
the patterns are, the more precise the results will be.

The effect of antenna tilt on mobile networks has been studied in different aspects as the
related work will describe after. For instance, electrical tilt can be a significant factor for
the shape of the vertical sectorization within an LTE network in terms of capacity gain as
it is introduced in [5]. Furthermore, there are studies about the creation of pattern models
besides the ideal 3GPP model so that there is an approximation of the radiation model to
the real radiation pattern. This has been observed in [6], where the analysis of the
proposed model in terms of capacity and spectral efficiency is evaluated, having a pattern
more realistic than the ideal 3GPP model and trying to emulate a real antenna pattern.

However, it is observed that changes of tilt not only affects the coverage and capacity
analysis, but it is also an important factor on LTE energy savings as has been described
in [7]. As it will be explained, in many cases the simulations take into account
approximations to represent the two planes of the antenna radiation pattern and it does
not take into consideration the possible changes of a measured pattern. Thus, with all
exposed above, antenna tilting has a big influence in different parameters of the network
and it is an important factor to address while designing a network.

This document will focus on the impact of RET on LTE networks because this system is
the most relevant when the new smart networks are coming nowadays. In fact, the
introduction of the antenna tilt in the Self Organizing Network (SON) concept by the

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3GPP Release [8] means that this system is one of the key points to control the operation
of the optimization of the network by the vendors and operators. This introduction of the
RET as a use case to improve the performance is an indicator to have standards that
connect the RET with the rest of the network so that the operations are as efficient as
possible and the new technology is adapted to the new needs. This previous fact and the
impact of the electrical tilt on coverage and capacity for the optimization of the networks
is the reason why 3GPP has standardised the control of RET by the network automatically
by [9] [10]. Thus, the tendency of the use of RET for new self-organizing networks is the
other big motivation to evaluate and study this system in detail, as this document does.

1.2 Problem description and research questions

So far, antenna tilt and the possibilities of this mechanism to affect the performance of
the networks have been described. Thus, the simulation of system-level performance is
especially relevant since results are useful for both antenna manufactures and operators
to evaluate the behaviour of different antennas.

Many of the ideal antenna models are accurate approximations like the proposed model
in 3GPP [11], which is used in the previous study [12] to find the optimum tilt by
observing system-level measurements, as well as there are proposed models that have
been compared to real models and it shows precise similarities as it is described in [5].
However, these models do not take into consideration the possible variation of the
radiation pattern when tilting that the research in [3] shows.

The problem appears because the simulation of different antennas with real changes on
the radiation pattern has not been achieved yet for the previous studies. Hence, the
comparison of system-level performance results for different real radiation pattern on
both vertical and horizontal plane is needed.

Thus, in general terms, the aim of this thesis is to complete a system level simulation on
LTE network with different real antenna patterns with the aim to tackle the previous
problem. In short, the aim is to state what the improvements of tilting for different real
antennas pattern are and how the changes of the radiation pattern affect the different parts
of a cell.

Particularly, in order to address the problem, the aim of this thesis will be summarized in
answering the stated questions. The intention is to evaluate the capacity and coverage
measurements of remote electrical tilt. Following that, a brief study of the energy
efficiency when tilted the optimum degree is achieved and, lastly, observe the radiation
pattern of the considered antennas and explain how changes affect the previous results.
Thus, the goal of this statements is converted into answering the following research
questions:

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  What is the improvement of tilt optimization and which is the optimum angle by
considering the effect on coverage and capacity in a macro cellular network and
two different real antenna radiation pattern within various inter-site distance
(ISD)?
 What are the energy efficiency values when the optimum tilt is applied for both
antennas?

 When tilting the antenna, how do changes in the radiation patterns affect the
received signal in each of the antennas evaluated?

1.3 Scope of the thesis

This thesis is aimed at finding the optimum tilt, its improvement in coverage and capacity
and the energy efficiency study on the LTE network for two different real antennas.
Furthermore, the pattern of both antennas will be compared to explain how the tilt
variations affect to both radiation planes and, thus, to the network performance. In order
to achieve this goal, in the next chapter the process of remote electrical tilt is explained
for real antennas to study the functionalities of this mechanism.

Afterword, the methodology and the simulator in MATLAB that will be used are
introduced in the following chapter, i.e. the 3D antenna model that this simulator uses and
how the measurements of capacity, coverage and energy efficiency have been considered.
Following that, a brief study of a comparison between the 3GPP ideal antenna and two
real antennas is presented in order to assess the difference when using real antennas
instead of an ideal one. Lastly, results of the simulations and the solutions to the research
problems are presented as well as the comparison between the radiation patterns. Finally,
the discussion, the closing summaries and the future possible work will conclude this
thesis.

1.4 Related work

It is presented hereby some of the most comprehensive work that is related to the
concerned topic and will be divided in three main blocks: first, the effect of antenna tilt
on cases such as load balancing and SON is presented; secondly, the next section will
focus on some real simulations and approximations of antenna radiation patterns and
their global performance and, lastly the last part will introduce some studies about the
effect of antenna tilt on energy savings and efficiency.

The master thesis in [4] provides a general understanding of SON at the beginning and
its goal is to define some antenna tilting and assess the performance within load

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balancing uses case, it also presents theoretically how the tilt affects the general
radiation pattern in both vertical and horizontal plane. It is noticeable how the radiation
pattern is simplified to obtain the results corresponding to link level simulation on load
balancing:

Figure 1.3: modelling of antenna pattern [4]

From this thesis two papers have been published, [13] where it has presented results in
both link and system level load balancing. In spite of choosing a simple radiation
pattern in the link level, very helpful graphics were developed to understand how tilting
antenna alters cell load, received signal or SIR; on the other hand, in system level
simulation it is chosen WCDMA with HSPA network model and several parameters are
presented like throughput, GoS or the load in cells.

Secondly, the next group of documents has been chosen in order to have a review about
simulations that use approximations of radiation patterns. In the next studies [12] [6]
define the simple antenna horizontal and vertical planes and the 3D pattern by adding
these two ones mentioned in the 3GPP releases. On the one hand, in [12] it chooses the
main parameters from a real antenna (SLL, HPBW...) to represent both the horizontal
and vertical plane as the azimuth and elevation gain.

The evaluation of the LTE downlink channel is obtained with the antenna model
presented. Particularly, the coverage and capacity measurements are the main study. In
this work this previous research will be extended with a different antenna model, by using
real horizontal and vertical antenna pattern instead as well as RET will be evaluated. On

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the other hand, in [6] the simplest horizontal model is compared with the proposed model,
generating the patterns to compare them in the simulations:

Figure 1.4: Comparison of antenna patterns [6]

The proposed model is found to be more accurate and 3GPP model under-estimated cell
isolation by providing macro-cell simulation case on HSPA and LTE and verifying that
by using the simplest model of 3GPP the simulation is far from reality. In this work the
horizontal 3GPP radiation pattern will be compared with two real antenna patterns and
the difference among them will be presented and evaluated.

The next document where a 3D real antenna is also evaluated is in [14]. In this paper one
single site with three sector is evaluated with a combination of electrical and mechanical
tilt and its effect on Signal to Interference Ratio in a UMTS network. The results show
an improvement when this tilting is applied for a single base station scenario and different
degrees of tilt are needed depending on the cell size and the traffic load. The extension of
this works takes in place in the evaluation of LTE networks as well as macro cellular
scenario with 7 sites creating interference to the centre cell.

Finally, two documents are presented where energy savings as well as spectral and energy
efficiency are examined. In [15] it is assessed the tilting of antenna beam related to the
cell size, whose configurations are presented in order to reduce the transmission power
consumption and the energy savings. The simulation is deployed in a HSDPA scenario
with a simple antenna configuration as well as the relevant parameters to take into account
are energy consumption ratio (ECR) and energy reduction gain (ERG), and, in the
conclusion, a point is made about continuing with the research in energy topic within a

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more complicated structure in LTE RANs. This work will be extended by adding a
simulation of energy efficiency results for the optimum tilt of two different antennas. On
the other hand, with a more complex scenario, in [16] the possibility of introducing a self-
learning algorithm is investigated in a sense that the tilting optimization is chosen
depending on the traffic conditions that take place in every current moment. Taking the
model of the 3GPP antenna, these simulations achieve a very realistic scenario of a
heterogeneous LTE network with results in both spectral and energy efficiency. A
different model of the energy efficiency calculation is taken into account in this thesis in
order to see the energy metrics when the optimum remote electrical tilt is applied for
different antennas.

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2. REMOTE ELECTRICAL TILT
Since remote electrical tilt is the mechanism used in the antennas that will be simulated,
this chapter focuses on some important points about RET so that the process is clearer to
understand by giving a detailed explanation hereby. First of all, the theory basis about
phased arrays, i.e. the principle of modifying the shape of the radiation pattern of the
antenna by changing the phase of the feeding signal, is introduced; secondly some
practical methods to shift the phase of the signal within the antenna are explained in order
to extend the theoretical description; finally, the element that controls the phase shifter,
i.e. Remote Control Unit (RCU) will be presented briefly in order to understand the whole
mechanism as well as the connection of this element with the eNodeB.

2.1 Phased Arrays

Mobile communication antennas are usually designed with a linear array of radiation
elements, typically dipoles of a determined length depending on the specifications. The
reason why these arrays are used is the flexibility of the design to implement a determined
shape of the radiation pattern. The basis of the theory is explained in [17] where the next
figure is presented to explain a linear array antenna with equidistant elements:

Figure 2.1: Array with K equidistant elements [17]

The radiation pattern of the entire array is obtained by the so-called operation pattern
multiplication, i.e. the multiplication of the radiation function of one single element by
the function called array factor [17]:

𝑆(𝜗) = 𝑆𝑒 (𝜗) × 𝑆𝑎 (𝜗), (2.1)

where 𝑆𝑒 (𝜗) is the radiation pattern of one element and 𝑆𝑎 (𝜗) is defined as follows:

𝑆𝑎 (𝜗) = ∑𝐾
𝑖=1 𝑒
𝑗𝑘0 (𝐾−𝑖)𝑑𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜗)
, (2.2)

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Where K is the number of elements of the array, d is the distance between each other and
𝑘0 is 𝑘0 = 2𝜋⁄𝜆 .
0

Therefore, this is a brief summary of the theory of a linear array with elements to the same
distance and no phase difference to introduce the fundaments. However, RET is produced
when the main beam is steering due to the change of the phased signal in each element.
This is again explained in [17], where the same visual description is found and the
relationship between the array factor and the phase signal with which every element is
fed:

Figure 2.2: Array with K element and phase and amplitude modules before the array [17]

In this case it is noticeable the module with different phase and amplitude in the incoming
signal to every radiation element which will make vary the radiation pattern as follows
[17]:

𝑗[𝑘0 (𝐾−𝑖)𝑑𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜗)+ψ𝑖 ]
𝑆(𝜗) = 𝑆𝑖 (𝜗) = 𝑆𝑒 (𝜗) ∑𝐾
𝑖=1 𝑎𝑖 𝑒 (2.3)

The radiation pattern is the same as the previous formula but with an extra element of
phase ψ. Assuming that the amplitude is uniform and the linear phased taper considered
by [17] takes the form of

𝜓𝑖 = −𝑘0 (𝐾 − 𝑖)𝑑𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜗0 ), (2.4)

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Then, the array factor in this case is [17]:

𝑗𝑘0 (𝐾−𝑖)𝑑[𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜗)−sin(𝜗0 )]
𝑆𝑎 (𝜗) = ∑𝐾
𝑖=1 𝑒 , (2.5)

In this formula the variable 𝜗0 makes the array factor the greatest value when 𝜗 = 𝜗0
because with this assumption 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜗) − sin(𝜗0 ) = 0. Therefore, by setting the phasing of
the linear array with the linear phase as 𝜓𝑖 = −𝑘0 (𝐾 − 𝑖)𝑑𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜗0 ), the main beam will
be pointed to the desired direction 𝜗0 .

So far the theoretical fundaments of using a phased array to modify the direction of the
main beam of the antennas have been presented. However, this theoretical model is not
always implemented due to the restrictions of the design of the antennas on mobile base
stations, where not all the elements are individually separated by having its own feed
network. This is reasonable because of the limitation of the cable, wires, microstrip or
any other technology that may be used for the feeding of the elements for a real antenna.
For instance, in [18] the author emphasises the beam tilting in mobile networks and its
aim to reduce interference and improve the coverage and shows a figure where a real base
station with a designed antenna is presented with the tilting system:

Figure 2.3: Remote Electrical Tilt within a base station antenna with 7 elements [18]

In this figure the mentioned design with groups of element with the same feeding branch
takes place so that every group of element has a different phase for a determined moment.
The capacity to achieve remote electrical tilt is dependent on the efficiency of the phase
shifter and how fast this element can be controlled. The module that controls such a phase

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shifter is the remote electrical tilt Unit, which is joined the network and it has its own
software and way to operate. Thus, in the following section some phase shifter
technologies will be explained and the last sub section ends with an explanation about the
role of RET in a mobile network.

2.2 Phase Shifter Technologies

This chapter introduces briefly two types of technology that is applied to phase shifter
within modern antennas: the shift can be produced by introducing an element with
different properties than the feeding network or by introducing physical lengths elements
that make the signal travel with different phase.

First, the system presented in the document [19] explains a system where a dielectric part
is installed with the coaxial line network that goes to the dipoles. The coaxial line
technology is air-filled line in this case, and a dielectric part is located between the inner
conductor and the outer conductor of the coaxial lines. The physical effect creates the
phase shift that the dielectric material has higher permittivity than air. Therefore, this
effect will reduce the phase velocity of the propagation of the signal through the
transmission line and create the phase differential when the dielectric part (9) moves
through the coaxial lines. The next figure shows a phase shifter element with this
technology [19]:

Figure: 2.4: Phase shifter with air-filled coaxial cable for the feeding network and a dielectric
part (9) that creates the phase shift [19].

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The input is the number 1 and the dielectric part that is installed between the two outputs
is the element number 9. Both inputs and outputs are connected via a crossover lid (7).
As the figure is presented, there is no phase change in of the outputs, since the dielectric
element is placed in the middle of both outputs. If the dielectric part moves towards the
output 2, this part will have more dielectric material than output 3 and the phase shift with
respect to the input will increase. Since the output 3 would be filled with less dielectric
material, the phase shift with respect to the input will decrease and the output 2 will lag
the phase at the output 3.

Secondly, the technology of phase shifter in microstrip is presented. There are two
different shifters explained in [20]: a reflective type and a switch line phase shifter.
A reflective type phase shifter is formed by a coupler terminated in variable reactance
that make the signal reflect with a phase shift [20]:

Figure 2.5: reflective type phase shifter [20].

The switch line phase shifter has different delays depending on either lengths of the line
or different lumped elements [20]:

Figure 2.6: switch line phase shifter [20].

2.3 Remote Control Unit

The last part of this chapter ends with the explanation of the RCU, which is the element
that drives the phase shifter in antenna through mechanical interface so that the change

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of the electrical downtilt is applied. The RCU is usually at the bottom of the antenna with
the necessary mechanical components to make the phase shifter move into different
configurations for several degrees of tilt. It can be either installed within the antenna
system or as a separated part as it is showed in [21].

Besides the different technologies, the RCU is controlled and attached to the network
through two different elements: Central Control Unit (CCU) or Portable Control Adapter
(PCA) [22]. CCU is the main element, is within the base station and is inherent to the
network layout; in order to fulfil the requirements at a certain moment the CCU is
accessed by the Operational Maintenance Center so that the Operational and Maintenance
processes are controlled with this link. On the other hand, PCA is a system that is not
inherent to the design of the network and allows to be installed for portable applications
such maintenance operations for temporary access. This system is described graphically
in [22]:

Figure 2.7: System to control the Remote Control Unit by PCA in a three sector base
station.[22]

The figures describes 3 sector site where the elements that are connected to the antennas
such a PCA, PCA notebook and Power supply are inside the site. The connection between
PCA or CCU and the RCU is always the same considering the standard defined by AISG.
In this case, the tilt is controlled locally since the PCA is dependent on the Notebook and
the PCA software, so an installation and maintenance engineers should be present to
supervise the process. However, it is also common to manage the RCU remotely by the
operation and management network via local or wide area network [22].

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3. METHODOLOGY OF SIMULATIONS
The simulations that will be presented in this work are held by a system-level simulator
based on MATLAB, called LTE-a System Level Simulator [23]. In order to explain the
characteristics of the simulator, the author references to the documentation where the
functionalities of the tool are explained by the developers [24] and, in this chapter, some
characteristics that concerns to the simulations of this work are presented.

3.1 Overview of the simulator

First of all, a summary with the main features of the simulator is described. The LTE
system level simulator evaluates the Downlink Shared Channel with different antennas
and transmit modes by abstracting the physical layer with an accurate model for the
estimation of the SINR [25]. The explanation of all the procedures of this simulation is
too extended and it exceeds the aim of this chapter, so a series of characteristics as well
as patterns and the main loop of the simulator are shown in order to introduce the basis.
In order not to mention the continuous reference, this and part 3.2 are based on the
explanation of the previous references [23] [24] [25].

The structure of the simulator is composed by a number of inputs to its link-measurement

model, which is the abstracted part for calculating the SINR of each user at a certain
moment and position. Following that, link-performance model achieves the output as
throughput error rates and distribution measurements. The next figure shows graphically
the structure of the simulator:

Figure 3.1: structure of LTE-A system Level Simulator [25]

The inputs are presented as a table for each simulation for the next chapters and results.
Generally, the simulator is run by several transmission time intervals (TTI), where the

15
layout with a set of eNodebs as well as a certain distribution of UEs is considered and the
channel for each UE will be calculated. The defined area is called Region of Interest
(ROI), which is the area within the network where the user has to be for calculating the
parameter for that user. The positions for the ROI are into a matrix in MATLAB where
each position of the matrix contains a value for the path loss and shadow fading map and
it coincides with the position of every user. The main loop of the simulator is presented
with the following pseudo code format:

When the UE feedback is sent, the rest of the output as bit error rate and distribution and
the thorughput are calculated in different traces. The simple inputs are presented as a
table: the basic simulation settings that are applied are the network layout, geometry,
distances of the network, UE distribution, antenna transmision, etc. From now on, we will
focus on the parameters that concerns this work like the model of the antenna and the
calculation of the SINR and the capacity.

The main input that has been added to the simulator is a new class for a new type of
antenna in order to compare the tilt of two different real antennas. The 3D antenna
modelling is presented in the documentation and it is based in the conventional model
that is in [26] This paper is aim at comparing the modeling of 3D antennas and,
particularly, the LTE system- level simulator used takes into account the introduction of
the data of both the vertical and the horizontal pattern so that the conventional method for
a 3D pattern is applied:

𝐺(𝜙, 𝜃) = 𝐺𝐻 (𝜙) + 𝐺𝑉 (𝜃) (3.1)

For each angle of tilt and frequency, the data from the measured antennas are
implemented in its specific format for the azimuth and the elevation angle.

16
3.2 Calculation of SINR and capacity
As described before, the simulator utilizes an abstraction for the link level measurements
and it calculates the so-called post equalization SINR [27]. This model is developed in
order to quantify the quality of the received signal after reception and equalization. All
this structure is very tedious and the explanation is summarized in the next figure
presented in [27]:

Figure 3.2: Physical layer abstraction for LTE system level modelling [27].

However, this post-equalization SINR (subcarrier SINR vector in the figure) is not the
measure that will be presented in this work, since the first one is the parameter that the
simulator calculates as the abstraction of the link level layer. Otherwise, the so-called
wideband SINR is evaluated in order to calculate the strength of the signal that every user
has within one certain cell considering other interferers. Therefore, the formula of this
concept is given as follows:

𝐺𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑛𝑎,𝑜 𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑐𝑟𝑜,0 𝑃𝑡𝑥0

𝛤= (3.1)
𝜎𝑛2 +∑𝑁𝑖𝑛𝑡
𝑙=1 𝐺𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑛𝑎,𝑙 𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑐𝑟𝑜,𝑙 𝑃𝑡𝑥,𝑙

Where L macro is the multiplication of both path losses and shadow fading losses, G
antenna is the gain of the antenna considering the previous model at a certain position,
Ptxo is the transmitted power of the target base station, and 𝜎 is the noise level for a
certain bandwidth. Besides, in the simulations the shadow fading is not considered so the
losses will be taken into account as path losses. The model for the path loss is COST 231-
Hata Model for sub-urban areas, which is found in [1]:
17
𝐿 = 46.3 + 33.9 log 𝑓 − 13.82 log ℎ𝐵 − 𝑎(ℎ𝑅 ) + [44.9 − 6.55 log ℎ𝐵 ] log 𝑑 + 𝐶 (3.2)

𝑎(ℎ𝑅 ) = (1.1 log 𝑓 − 0.7)ℎ𝑅 − (1.56 log 𝑓 − 0.8)

Where L is the median path loss in dB, f is the frequency of transmission in MHz, ℎ𝐵 is
the base station antenna effective height in metres, d is the link distance in km, ℎ𝑅 is the
mobile station antenna effective height in meters, C is 0 or 3dB depending on the use of
suburban or metropolitan areas, and a(hr) is the mobile station antenna height correction
factor as described in the Hata model for urban areas.

Finally, the capacity for the results are as Shannon formula states:

𝐶 = 𝐵 log 2 (1 + 𝑆𝐼𝑁𝑅) (3.3)

3.3 Model of energy efficiency

This chapter describes the simple model for energy efficiency results that has been
selected. The aim is to show the model for the optimum tilt of each antenna and evaluate
the energy metrics. This model for energy consumption and efficiency is taken from [28]
where the theoretical model for the energy efficiency results is presented. First of all, the
model for the power consumption of a base station has to be considered:

𝑃𝑖𝑛 = 𝑁𝑇𝑅𝑋 (𝛥𝑝 𝑃𝑡𝑥 + 𝑃𝑜 ) (3.4)

Where Ntrx is the number of base stations that are transmitting at the same time, Δp is
the portion of the transmitted power consumption due to feeder and amplifier losses and
Po is the power that the base station consumes when it is turned on and put in the
signalling mode. DTX means Discontinuous Transmission and this technology will not
be considered in this work. Since the networks that will be considered in this work are
macro cellular networks, the values of these parameters for the consumption of a base
station will be taken for macro cellular for the next table [28]:

Table 3.1. Power parameters

The aspects to be considered as energy efficiency metrics are two: energy in Watts per
area and bit per Joule of the network.

The formula used to calculate the energy per area is the following [28]:
18
 𝑃𝑡𝑜𝑡
𝛺= (3.5)
𝐴

Where Ptot will be the power consumption of one base station, since the users are for the
central base station, and A will be the area to get a minimum throughput by observing the
5th percentile throughput within different ISD.

On the other hand, the energy efficiency in terms of bit per Joule is shown in the next
formula [28]:

𝐶𝑛𝑒𝑡
𝜓= (3.6)
𝑃𝑡𝑜𝑡

In order to assess this performance, the capacity Cnet will be the average throughput as
the 50th percentile of the CDF throughput, and Ptot is the total power consumption of the
network for different ISD.

19
20
4. COMPARISON BETWEEN IDEAL AND REAL
ANTENNAS
This chapter introduces the simulation for comparing two different real antennas and the
simple model for horizontal pattern by 3GPP. In order to explain the difference when
using distinct antennas, a 7 site scenario with a frequency reuse of 3 is simulated and the
performance in terms of capacity and coverage are presented for three antennas.

4.1 Antennas
The first step is to enumerate the characteristics of every antenna that will be used. The
terms that describes these antennas are the horizontal and vertical beamwidth, which is
the width in degrees of the beam where the energy decreases 3 dB below the maximum
gain; the maximum gain of the main gain, i.e. the maximum point of energy; and the
different frequencies that the ports of the antenna support.

The three different types of antennas are the ideal model for 3GPP TS 36.942, the antenna
provided by Cellmax CMAB 6521 with 65 degrees of horizontal beamwidth, a frequency
range of 1800-2100 MHz and a vertical beamwidth at the frequency used of 3.9 degrees
with a maximum gain of 21dBi, which will be referenced as antenna type 1; and the
antenna from KATHREIN, the type 742212 with a frequency range of 1710-2170 MHz,
a horizontal beamwidth of 63 degrees and a vertical beamwidth of 6.5 degrees at the
aimed frequency with a maximum gain of 18dBi and will be called as antenna type 2. The
next table summarizes the characteristics for this antennas:

Antenna 1 Antenna 2
Type CMAB 6521 KATHREIN 742212
Frequency range 1800-2100 MHz 1710-2170 MHz
Maximum Gain 21 dBi 18 dBi
Vertical Beamwidth 3.9 6.5
Horizontal Beamwidth 65 63
Table 4.1: Antenna features

The previous data matches with the frequency of 2130 and 2140 MHz respectively at
which the simulations are fulfilled. Besides, the patterns for 3 antennas are presented in
the following figures in order to see the difference of the energy transmitted at every
direction:

21
 Figure 4.1 Horizontal and Vertical antenna Patterns

It is noticeable that the ideal antenna only represents the horizontal radiation pattern and
the other two real antennas will be implemented by the 3D antenna model previously
presented.

4.2 System Level model

The quantification of the performance of different antennas is the aim of this chapter. It
is important to observe the behaviour of antennas with different characteristics in order
to measure how accurate ideal antennas can be. Besides, the difference of the pattern is
reflected in some parts of the network.
This simulation takes place over a network with 7 sites where each site is divided by 3
sectors or cells with a hexagonal shape and with frequency reuse of 3. Moreover, the
users are distributed uniformly over the cells, with a constant number of UE per cell.
The rest of inputs to the simulator are presented in the next table:

22
 Number of eNodeBs 21 (7 sites, three sector)
Frequency 2 GHz
Intersite distance 2000 m
UEs per eNodebs 20
UE distribution Constant UE per Cell
Pathloss model COST 231 – Hata Model, urban macro
Shadow fading area
none
Minimum coupling loss 70 dB
Antennas (Tx - Rx) 2x2
MIMO mode CLSM
Tx power 40 W
Total Bandwidth 20 MHz (100 RB)
Noise spectral density -174 dBm/Hz
Simulation length 30 subframes (TTI)
Scheduler algorithm Round Robin
Table 4.2: Simulation parameters

4.3 Results
As it has been mentioned, taking into account a factor reuse of 3 a mapping of the SINR
values of the central 3-sector site is presented, which is limited to 15 dB as the ‘y’ axes
indicates and shows how the values of SINR of each cell are distributed. This SINR values
are measured as the maximum SINR value from the target base station at one point minus
the second highest SINR from the most interfering base station, which represents a map
of SINR difference and at the same time it shows how powerful the signal of the target
cell for each point is. It is observable that the ideal antenna pattern has no areas without
radiation, but actual antennas show drops of energy where no energy is transmitted and
that can be noticed with a narrower influenced zone of high values of SINR. On the other
hand, high directional values of SINR cover more area with actual antennas, this is, in the
zone closer to the edge, because of the maximum gain of 21 dBi is higher than 15 dBi of
3GPP antenna.

23
 Figure 4.2: SINR difference map of the central cell for Antenna type 1 (left) and for ideal
antenna (right).

With this first overview the results of the cumulative distribution function of the average
wideband SINR of all the users of the network has been calculated for each of the types
of antenna. The above graph of the figure 4.3 is the CDF over the SINR average values,
and the second figure the CDF is analysed by separating the percentage of UEs that are
in a range of value of SINR, in this case it is considered as limits 10 and 20 dB.

Percentage of UE vs SINR
100
80
60
40
20
0
less than 10 dB between 10 and 20 dB More than 20 dB

3GPP Antenna 2 Antenna 1

Figure 4.3: SINR results for all the users of the network and 3 different antennas

24
These result reflects, generally, that there is margin of 10% of difference as the maximum
on some of the intervals between antenna 2 and 3GPP, which means that to measure the
average SINR wideband of all the users the difference of the radiation patterns does not
turn into divergent results. However, inspecting the performance of each UE of the central
site it is noticeable how the UEs that are situated away from the antenna in the direction
of the main lobe are the only ones that obtain more SINR using real high gain antenna
than ideal 3GPP antenna:

Figure 4.4: UE that are most influenced by the signal of real antennas for the centre cell

This means that high gain antennas show better performance on defined locations around
the main lobe and close to the edge, which will be useful to next step of this research on
LTE antenna tilting, since this area will be the most affected by the influence of the main
lobe of the antennas and, thus, these real high gain antennas will be evaluated. On the
other hand, the rest of the users that are spread over the sector obtain better SINR values
with 3GPP antenna since the pattern is ideal and there is no drops of energy in the
radiation pattern.

Finally the same study is fulfilled for the CDF of the throughput of all users showing a
similar variation with respect to the previous study of SINR:

25
 Percentage UE vs throughput (Mb/s)
100

80

60

40

20

0
less than 2 MB/s between 2 and 6 Mb/s More than 6 Mb/s

3GPP TS36.942 Antenna 2 Antenna 1

Figure 4.5: average throughput of all users of the network for 3 different antennas

The results show the same difference; that is the use of an ideal antenna is a good
approximation when evaluating the whole network in terms of capacity as well.

In order to sum up the ideas from the previous results are summarized in the next points:

 In the first part the results of a system level performance simulation with ideal
3GPP antenna and real high gain antennas have been presented and compared
 The parameter that have been assessed in detail is the SINR values over the whole
network and the results show that ideal antenna can be suitable for a general view
of the system level performance since the difference is not remarkable. In terms
of percentage the variation is 10% of the users in certain measurements as the
maximum.
 Ideal antenna without drops of energy in the radiation pattern makes the users that
are distributed randomly obtain a better average SINR.
 However, SINR areas differ and real antenna shows better performance close to
the edge, where the difference in main lobe is more significant.

26
 The next step will be to assess the tilt of the antenna, where actual high gain
antennas will be evaluated. The influenced area of the change of the tilt will be
around the edge of the cells.

27
28
5. SIMULATION OF TILTED ANTENNAS
This section contains the final results of the thesis, where the tilt of the antennas is
evaluated within a macro cellular scenario. The main goal of the part is to go through the
two remaining research questions, which are presented hereby.

First of all, the evaluation of the effect of remote electrical tilting on system-level
simulations is to be done, which brings to the following question: What is the
improvement of tilt optimization and which is the optimum angle considering the effect
on coverage and capacity in a macro cellular network and two different real antenna
radiation pattern within various ISD?

Secondly, the energy efficiency evaluation will take place in order to answer the question:
What are the energy efficiency values when the optimum tilt is applied for both antennas?

Finally, the radiation patterns of the antenna are the main interest, since remote electrical
tilt performance in real cases makes both horizontal and vertical antenna pattern change
significantly. Thus, the next question comes up: When tilting the antenna, how do changes
in the radiation patterns affect the received signal in each of the antennas evaluated?

In order to answer these questions the chapter is subdivided in three sections, where the
previous points will be addressed respectively.

5.1 Antennas and System Model

The first simulation is performed with similar characteristics to the previous one: with a
reuse factor of 3, 20 MHz as the bandwidth for the whole network and the users are
distributed uniformly over the entire network. In this case the antenna type 2 is the same
as the previous one, but the antenna type 1 is changed in order to find antennas with
similar values of RET in order not to limit this parameter.

The antenna type 1 that has been chosen is the CMAB-6520 with a RET that goes from 0
to 8 degrees, with a range of frequencies of 1710-2170 MHz and the maximum gain of
19.5 dBi. The next table compares the two selected antennas:

Antenna 1 Antenna 2
Type CMAB 6520 KATHREIN 742212
Frequency range 1710-2170 MHz 1710-2170 MHz
Maximum Gain 19.5 dBi 18 dBi
Vertical Beamwidth 5.4º 6.5º
Horizontal Beamwidth 65º 63º

29
 Remote Electrical Tilt 0º-8º 0º-8º
Table 5.1: Antenna characteristics for simulations

The same network is utilized for every tilt iteration, i.e. for the same number of eNodebs,
ISD and UE the simulations are run to calculate the coverage and capacity results.
Besides, the tilt is applied in every antenna of the system: for each iteration of tilt, the
antennas of the whole network have the same configuration. The next table shows the rest
of important parameters to run the simulation:

Number of eNodeBs 21 (7 sites, three sector)

Carrier frequency 2 GHz
Intersite distance 2000 m
UE distribution Uniformly
Pathloss model COST 231 – Hata Model, urban macro
Shadow fading area
none
Minimum coupling loss 70 dB
Antennas (Tx - Rx) 2x2
MIMO mode CLSM
Tx power 40 W
Total Bandwidth 20 MHz (100 RB)
Noise spectral density -174 dBm/Hz
Simulation length 30 subframes (TTI)
Scheduler algorithm Round Robin
Antenna height 32 metres

Table 5.2: Simulation parameters

30
 Figure 5.1: Macro cellular Network

5.2 Coverage and Capacity Measurements

The evaluation of coverage and capacity is the main measurement for the presentation of
these results. For that matter, the coverage is considered as two values of the CDF of the
previously showed SINR: 5th percentile and 50th percentile of the CDF of the SINR for
the coverage at the cell edge and average SINR respectively.

On the other hand, the capacity of the network is considered by 3 terms: cell edge (5th
percentile), average and peak throughput (95th percentile) of the network respectively.
Considering the average throughput, this is the arithmetic mean value of the users
considered, which are the ones in the centre site (3 centre cells). It is important to notice
that this value depends on the bandwidth that each user receive from the scheduler round
robin. In this case 20 MHz (100 Resource Blocks) are shared equally for the average users
per cell, which are approximately 25 users per cell. Therefore, the mean Resource Block
for each users is 4.

31
Moreover, the figures that will be showed correspond with the users in the site at the
center of the network, so 3 center cells are the evaluated cells, since the interference is
created by the ring of 6 sites around it.

Then, the all the results with all the different iteration of the remote electrical tilt and
comparing both antennas in order to solve the research question: “What is the
improvement of tilt optimization and which is the optimum angle considering the effect
on coverage and capacity in a macro cellular network and two different real antenna
radiation pattern?”. Therefore, with this research, the improvement of tilt optimization is
calculated and after, in the next part, the radiation pattern and the relationship with the tilt
optimization is analysed.

5th-percentile SINR
10
8
SINR (dB)

6
4
Antenna 1
2
0
Antenna 2
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Remote Electrical TIlt (°)

50th-percentile SINR
20

15
SINR (dB)

10
Antenna 1
5
Antenna 2
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Remote Electrical Tilt (º)

Figure 5.2: 5th and 50th percentile of SINR with different tilt degree for UE of the centre cell.

In terms of coverage, with the exposed graphics it is noticeable that remote electrical tilt
increases both the average and cell coverage (5th and 50th percentile) until the optimum
tilt degree, which is the same for both antennas. This is logical because if the electrical
downtilt is 7-8 degrees, the inclination of the energy is so high that the edge of the cell is

32
not covered anymore and the performance on SINR in these users decreases significantly.
Regarding the presented data and taking into account the improvement from the state of
no tilt, – 0 degrees of tilt- the results show that for the 5th percentile of SINR it is possible
to increase up to 18% for antenna 2 and 32% for antenna 1; then, for the 50th percentile
of SINR the tendency is to increase the performance as well, with the 30% of increasing
performance for antenna 2 and 50% for antenna 1, within the same degree of optimum
tilt angle for both of them.

Therefore, these results show that electrical downtilt greatly improves the performance
of coverage, especially for the worst-case users which are considered to have the least
coverage on the network, i.e. the 5th percentile of the average SINR. In addition, there is
a difference in the behaviour of the tilting between the two selected antennas, with
different performance for the optimum tilt. Moreover, antenna 2 shows better coverage
for 0 and 1 degrees of tilting and as the applied tilt takes place, antenna 1 increase the
tendency and get better results for the optimum tilt of 3 degrees.

The next step of the results is the effect of the tilt in capacity terms, which brings to show
the next graphics, following the same methodology as before, but taking into account
average throughput:

95th percentile throughput

10
Throughput Mb/s

4 Antenna 1

2 Antenna 2

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Remote Electrical Tilt (°)

average throughput
3,5
Throughput Mb/s

3
2,5
2
1,5 Antenna1
1
0,5 Antenna 2
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Remote Electrical TIlt (°)

33
 5th percentile throughput
2

Throughput Mb/s
1,5

1
Antenna 1
0,5 Antenna 2

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Remote Electrical TIlt (°)

Figure 5.3: 5th,50th,95th percentile of throughput of UE of the centre cell

This time, considering the previous graphs of the capacity measurements, the same
tendency can be seen in the coverage results, i.e., there were significant improvements
when applying electrical downtilt in all aspects- edge, peak and average cell throughput.
It is described each of these aspects in the following.

Firstly, cell edge throughput (5th percentile) is discussed and it can be observed that
electrical downtilt improves the performance up to a certain degree, when all the users
near the edge start receiving a reduced signal as the tilt is increased to aim at areas closer
to the base station. With moderated degree of tilt, the improvement is, taking the reference
the no tilt state for each antenna, up to 40% for antenna 2 and 50% for antenna 1.

Secondly, average cell throughput has the same tendency as cell edge except for the fact
that the high level of tilt makes the average throughput decrease with less intensity than
cell edge throughput does, which is reasonable since this is the 50th percentile and it is
the average of the users. The improvement will be assessed by taking the optimum
degrees of tilt for the cell edge users, and, as a result, for antenna 2 the improvement is
25% and 33% for antenna 1.

At last, peak cell throughput shows an increasing tendency within all different grades of
tilt, which is reasonable since this measure can be taken as the users that are closer to the
base station, and every time the antenna is tilted, the energy will be pointed to areas closer
to the base station. However, there is a compensation between peak cell and cell edge
measurements and, since the optimum tilt for cell edge users also improves peak cell edge,
the improvement will be assessed with these angles. Therefore, for antenna 2 the
performance increases by 40% and for antenna 1 it does by 38%, both of them being tilted
by 3 degrees.

Finally, in the next table there is a summary with the measurements obtained so that they
can be checked more clearly:

34
 Antenna 2, 3 degrees optimum tilt Antenna 1, 3 degrees optimum tilt
Coverage Average Throughput Coverage Average Throughput
5th- 50thcenti Pea Averag Edg 5th- 50thcenti Pea Averag Edg
centi
18% l30% k40% e25% e40% centi
32% l50% k38% e33% e50%
l l
Table 5.3: Improvement of optimum tilt in coverage and capacity

In addition, the next table shows the values in percentage of the improvement of antenna
1 network performance in comparison with antenna 2 for the optimum tilt of 3 degrees:

Coverage Average Throughput

5th- 50thcentil Peak Average Edge
centil
14% 20% 10% 8% 0%

Table 5.4: Improvement of performance of antenna 1 with respect to antenna 2

From these results it can be emphasized the next points:

 Tilt adjustment is an important factor that can improve the performance of the
network in terms of coverage and capacity.
 Coverage is dramatically affected by tilting, and the improvement of this field was
very pronounced. The difference was noticeable between the two antennas, due to
the high gain of antenna 1 and will be described in the following part with respect
to the radiation pattern of both antennas.
 Capacity is a factor that is also improved with tilt adjustment. However, an
important observation is found because not all the aspects of capacity change in
the same way. That is, when optimum tilt was found for cell edge users, this is
used for the average and peak capacity because of the significant increased values
of these measurements, even though other angles may be optimum for the latter.

The next step is to define the same scenario as before with different inter-site distance
(ISD). The purpose of this calculation is to see how the optimum tilt varies as the ISD
changes and evaluate what is the difference of performance between both antennas for
the optimum tilt in each ISD. The consideration of this simulation has been for macro
cells so that the ISD will vary between the minimum of 500 metres and 2000 metres and
the same antennas with the same remote electrical downtilt are applied to the network.

35
First of all the next figure will represent how the tilt changes as several ISDs are applied
to the simulations:

OPTIMUM TILT WITH DIFFERENT ISD

8
7
6
Angle of tilt

5
4
3 Antenna 1
2 Antenna 2
1
0
500 1000 1500 2000
ISD (metres)

Figure 5.4: Optimum degree of tilt for different ISD for both antennas

The explanation of this figure starts with the fact of the decreasing tendency of the
optimum tilt as the ISD is higher, that is, with larger area to cover. This is logical, since
the bigger the area to cover, the less amount of tilt it can be applied due to the lack of
coverage when the downtilt is so high that the area cannot be satisfied. On the other hand,
small areas are covered when the tilt is at the maximum of 8 degrees and there is different
optimum tilt for each antenna and different inter-site distance. However, it is noticeable
that for 500 metres the optimum tilt is the same as for 1000 metres. This means that for
small cells RET is limited since a larger tilt or a combination with mechanical tilt change
would be necessary for optimizing the network.

The performance of each of the presented optimum tilt has been calculated and with the
next figure it is seen the percentage of improvement in the performance for coverage as
the 5th percentile of SINR and cell edge capacity as the 5th percentile of the CDF
throughput.

5th percentile SINR vs ISD for optimum tilt

20
15
SINR (dB)

10
Antenna 1
5
Antenna 2
0
500 1000 1500 2000
ISD (metres)

Figure 5.5: Coverage for different ISD and the optimum tilt for both antennas
36
 5th percentile throughput vs ISD for
optimum tilt
3

Throughput Mb/s
2,5
2
1,5
1 Antenna 1
0,5 Antenna 2
0
500 1000 1500 2000
ISD (metres)

Figure 5.6: Cell edge throughput for different ISD and the optimum tilt for both antennas

In these figures it is again observable the fact that for 500 metres the RET is limited since
it does not follow the tendency of optimization. In this case mechanical downtilt should
be applied. Besides, it is noticeable that antenna 1 shows better performance when tilted.
For the 0 tilt and 1 degree tilt the performance is similar and antenna 2 even shows better
results. The last section will explain why this behaviour happens, that is, why antenna 1
as better performance when they are tilted from 2 degrees forwards.

5.3 Energy efficiency measurements

For every optimum tilt and ISD, the energy efficiency results are studied with the
theoretical basis explained in chapter 3. The research question to answer is the next one:
What is the energy efficiency values when the optimum tilt is applied for both antennas?
The measurements to evaluate energy efficiency will be the metrics in Watts per area and
Bits per Joule.

First of all, the study of the energy efficiency in terms of Watts per area will be taken as
𝑃𝑡𝑜𝑡
mentioned in previous chapters, 𝛺 = . In this formula, Ptot will be the power
𝐴
consumption of one base station, since the users are for the central base station, and A
will be the area to get a minimum throughput by observing the 5th percentile throughput
within different ISD. The data will be considered from figure 5.6, where the needed area
for various throughput values is calculated so that different areas are necessary for
different aim throughputs. The area is calculated with the cell radius, which is known due
to the reuse factor of 3 and the intersite distance. With the cell radius, the area of a cell
will be calculated as [29]:

𝐼𝑆𝐷
𝑅=
3

37
 3√3 2
𝐴= 𝑅
2

Since there is only one base station considered, the power consumption of one base station
over the area for each throughput value is taken into account to calculate the next graph
about power per area:

Base Stations per km2

6
5
4
BS/km2

3
Antenna 1
2
Antenna 2
1
0
1,5 1,75 2 2,25
5th percentile throguhput

Figure 5.7: Number of base stations per area required for a certain level of cell edge throughput

Power per Area

1000
900
Power per Area (W/km2)

800
700
600
500
Antenna1
400
300 Antenna 2
200
100
0
1,5 1,75 2 2,25
5th percentile throughput (Mb/s)

Figure 5.8: Power per area for different level of cell edge throughput

These results show how both the power consumption per area and the base stations per
area increase with a minimum range of throughput required. Both antennas are compared

38
with their optimum tilt respectively, which turns out in different energy efficiency metrics
for different tilts and antennas.

The last calculation to be made is the energy efficiency in terms of bit per Joule. In order
to assess this performance, the average throughput as the 50th percentile of the CDF
throughput is taken into account, as well as the evaluation for different inter-site distances.
𝐶𝑛𝑒𝑡
The calculation is made with the next formula presented before 𝜓 = .
𝑃𝑡𝑜𝑡

The considered power will be the same as before for one base station and the aggregate
capacity is regarded as the average throughput. The next graph is presented in order to
calculate the energy efficiency with different intersite distance:

Energy efficiency kbit/Joule

20
18
16
14
kbit/Joule

12
10
Antenna 1
8
6 Antenna 2
4
2
0
2000 1500 1000 500
Intersite distance

Figure 5.9: kbit per joule for the optimum tilt in every intersite distance

This figure shows how the tilt optimization improves energy efficiency, i.e. more bits per
Joule with the optimum tilt measurements as well as with small cells the efficiency is
higher than with bigger cells. This explains that remote electrical tilt finds better energy
efficiency results when the optimization is utilized in smaller cells. The results are for
average capacity and this parameter varies less when tilting and that can be observed in
the small difference between the energy efficiency parameters of both antennas.

39
5.4 Changes in the radiation pattern when tilting
The radiation pattern changes when the RET is applied to the antenna. The study of these
changes is made by examining the two cuts of the pattern, i.e the vertical or elevation
pattern and the azimuth pattern. This chapter explains how the patterns affect the received
power in the base station cells.

5.4.1 Vertical Pattern

There are several characteristics that are in the requirements and the standards for the
shape of the base station antennas. This text will focus on three factor mentioned in [30]:
the null fill and the first lower side lobe, which are the level of power gain just below the
main lobe and affect to the areas closest to the base station; the gain of the main lobe and
the roll-off, which will affect to the cell edge received power; and the upper-side lobe
peak to 20º, that is the level of suppression of the maximum side lobe above the main
one considering 20º up the main lobe and it will interfere the next cells when tilt is larger
by combining remote an mechanical tilt.

The radiation pattern for 0º, 3º and 6º are presented and the variation of the lower side
lobe and the upper side lobe peak to 20º with respect to the tilt are described. In order to
explain how the side lobes and the main lobe with the gain and the roll off affect to the
received signal in the cell, a model with the previous path loss COST 231-Okumura hata
and the received power for every distance from the base station is presented. The
following figures show the radiation pattern for 0º, 3º and 6º.

40
 Figure 5.10: Vertical Pattern for 0º, 3º and 6º of tilt for each antenna

The main characteristics considering the gain and the roll off is that antenna 1 maintains
a sharper inclination of the roll off as well as the difference of the peak gain also is
noticeable. This will be described in the following figures about the received power.

The first figure shows what the elements to take into consideration are. SLL1 corresponds
with the lower side lobe just after the main lobe and SLL2 corresponds with the peak side
lobe taking the range of 20º from the main lobe. The next graphs will show the variation
of SLL1and SLL2 when RET is applied from 0º to 8º:

41
 Side lobe level 1
20
15

SLL (dB)
10
Antenna 1
5
Antenna 2
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Degree of Tilt

Side lobe level 2

25
20
SLL (dB)

15
10 Antenna 1
5 Antenna2
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Degree of tilt

Figure 5.11: Variation of lower side lobe level and upper side lobe level peak to 20º for each
antenna at every tilt iteration.

The first graph shows how the first side lobe and, as a consequence, the null fill as
previously described as well, is higher for antenna 1, that is, the side lobe level is lower
at each tilt iteration. That means that the power for the areas closer to the base station are
higher for antenna 1. On the other hand, the SLL2 corresponds with the upper side lobe
level that creates interference to the next cells. The analysis shows that antenna 1 has
lower SLL2 and, thus, the upper side lobe is higher than antenna 2, which will convert
into more interference as we well se in the next graphs.

As it was explained, the next graphs show the received signal in dBm with respect to the
distance for the path loss model Okumura Hata-COST 231 presented in the previous
chapter and a transmission power of 46 dBm. Thus, it is an emulation of the previous
simulation for one base station to evaluate how the received power change with the
variation of the distance. The figures show the performance of the antennas for 0,3 and 6
degrees and the cell range is presented as a red line for a base station that covers a cell
with an inter-site distance of 2000 metres:

42
Figure 5.12: Received Power for a site with different antennas with respect to the distance. 0º,3
and 6º of tilt for each figure respectively.

The figures describe, on the one hand, the better performance for the optimum tilt of 3
degrees as the previous simulations showed. The high gain of the antenna 1 (blue line)
and its sharper roll off makes the effect of the tilt more intense. This is the reason why for
6 degrees the inclination is so intense that it does not cover the cell anymore and this
confirms the previous results for 2000 metres of ISD, where the antenna 1 decreased the
performance from 6 degrees of tilt. Thus, the sharpness of the roll off explains the
difference between the optimum tilt for different ISD: antenna 1 has a sharper roll-off and
the effects of tilt changes are stronger and, as a result, it is necessary less degrees of tilt
to optimize the performance of the network when the ISD changes. Besides, the previous
explanation in combination with the difference of 1.5 dB in the maximum gain of the
main beam make the effect of the tilt of antenna 1 deeper.

43
The other parameter that is noticeable in the figures above is the lower side lobe, which
is the second peak of energy just before the main peak. This power is received by the
users that are closest to the base station and the figures show how this peak is bigger for
antenna 1 (blue line) as the tilt is applied.

Finally, in order to evaluate the upper side lobes and the interference that is created in the
adjacent cell the same figures as above are presented, but including a mechanical tilt of 8
degrees, so that the influence of those lobes are presented. Besides, the cell range is
reduced since this configuration is more common for smaller cells, and the red line is set
by 200 metres. Although these lobes are not relevant in the previous simulation because
a reuse factor of 3 was used and the adjacent cells was not interfered by each other, it is
very important for networks with reuse factor of 1 and it is described below:

Figure 5.13: Received power for both antennas by adding 8 degrees of mechanical tilt to 6º of
RET.

The figure shows just in the cell range border and after the upper side lobes are creating
the interference in the next cell. The previous graphs described how the antenna 1 had
more power in these lobes and this figure reflects that the interference in the next cell is
significantly higher. This is another important element to consider when the tilt is very
high for smaller cells and the scenario presented before.

5.4.2 Horizontal Pattern

Lastly, and by knowing that both vertical and horizontal radiation pattern have influence
in the 3D radiation pattern that is used in this simulation, the latter is presented for both
antennas and different tilts (0, 3, 6 and 8 degrees), where the figures and the relationship
with the coverage and capacity results are analysed:

44
 Figure 5.14: Variation of Horizontal plane at each tilt iteration

From the last figures the main difference is the amount of the change of the horizontal
radiation pattern in each iteration, i.e. it is very perceptible that the pattern of antenna 2
have sharper changes that antenna 1, where at every tilt the change is softer. This also
coincides with the variation of the previous values, since the tilt optimum degree is 3 for
antenna 2 and 6 for antenna 1 and for values more than 3 the tilt adjustment shows no
improvement in the case of antenna 2. Therefore, this manifests less distortion that the
remote electrical tilt mechanism makes into the horizontal radiation pattern, the better
performance in each iteration of tilt it will be obtained.

45
46
6. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS
In this work the remote electrical tilt (RET) of real antennas has been evaluated by
examining the effect of coverage capacity and energy efficiency on LTE networks.
Besides, the changes of the radiation pattern of different antennas is examined and its
effect of the received signal of a site when the tilt is applied.

In the introductory part, the background of the topic is presented, where it is shown how
important the tilt of the antenna is in order to improve the performance of the network
when the population moves and the areas of influence of the cell have to be modified.
Besides, the distortion of the pattern when the antenna is tilted is presented and the found
problem is described when simulations and analysis of real antenna patterns are necessary
because of the several changes in the radiation pattern. Hence, it is shown why the
simulation of real antenna pattern is important and relevant. Moreover, the related work
and the importance of remote electrical tilt on Self Organizing Networks and coverage,
capacity and energy studies are described as well.

Following that, the basis of the Remote Electrical Tilt within the antenna is presented in
order to understand how this mechanism work. The theoretical principles of phased shift
arrays as well as different technologies of phase shifters are explained too. There is also
a brief extension of the role of RET and its connection with the rest of the network, i.e.
the Remote Control Unit is presented. Following that, the methodology of the simulations
is analysed by explaining the functionalities of the LTE Downlink System level Simulator
that has been used during the whole document.

The following chapter presents the results for a system level simulation of 3 different
antennas, two antennas with real patterns and the ideal model of 3GPP. The aim is to
analyse the difference in terms of coverage and capacity when using each antenna. With
the established scenario, measurements show that there is a variance of 10% at maximum
in the results obtained and, as a result, it is a good approximation of the ideal 3GPP
antenna. However it is significant to mention that the imperfections of the patterns of real
antennas as well as its higher gain, makes the users close to the edge receive better
performance than the ideal antenna. On the other hand ·3GPP ideal antenna has a wider
influence in the cells and shows better performance in the whole network.

Finally, the concluding chapter is the main part of the work, since all the research
questions are answered in this part.` Two different real antennas are compared and the
results in terms of coverage and capacity shows that tilt can improve up to 50% for cell
edge throughput and 32% in terms of coverage for a macro cellular network. However,
improvement of tilt is different for both antennas, showing that different real pattern does
not achieve similar results.

In addition, the same simulations are run for different inter site distances in order to find
the optimum tilt for each antenna. Results show two main points: both antennas have

47
different optimum tilt when the size of the cells changed, and for the smallest size remote
electrical tilt is not enough to optimize the network and mechanical tilt would be needed,
since the coverage results are similar for 500 and 1000 metres for the optimum tilt.

Following that, the energy efficiency results are presented for the optimum tilt at each
ISD. The results show that the optimum tilt influences more for antenna 1 than for antenna
2; which means that the effect of tilting is also higher in energy efficiency metrics.

Finally, the antennas are evaluated with respect to the pattern for each degree of tilt. A
tool that calculates the received signal helps evaluate the effects of the vertical pattern
over a base station.

Results show that there are three elements that affect the received signal close to the base
station, cell edge received signal and interference signal, respectively are the lower side
lobe, the roll-off and the high gain of the main lobe and upper side lobe. Results show
that antenna 1 has sharper roll-off and higher gain at each iteration of tilt and that makes
the cell edge coverage improve as well as the impact of the tilt is higher. In addition,
antenna 1 has better received signal in areas close to the base station due to the low side
lobe level below the main lobe, confirming the previous results that showed better peak
throughput in this case. Lastly, it is observable that the side lobe level above the horizon
are higher for antenna 1 and a new graph is created with mechanical tilt to assess such a
behaviour. The results show that at every tilt iteration the interference that antenna 1
creates on the adjacent cell is higher than antenna 2.

About the horizontal pattern, it is shown how the antenna that has more distortion in the
horizontal pattern showed worse performance in the results showed in the part 5.1 and
5.2.

Therefore, these characteristics of the antennas that have been analysed are very important
factors to be considered to install the antenna in a certain deployment. Operators and
manufactures can find in this work some key factors for systems where remote electrical
tilt is applied. Antennas with apparently similar characteristics can give different
performance as it has been showed. Thus, all the pointed features of the antenna have to
be considered as the elements that can affect different parts of the system.

Therefore with all the collected analysis, the next points are the most relevant:

 Electrical tilt is a crucial factor that improves capacity coverage within macro
cellular networks; especially with results in the edge of the cell.
 Optimum tilt changes with the size and the antenna used, because of the
differences of the radiation pattern.
 Energy efficiency varies depending on the optimum tilt and the size of the
network, therefore depending on the antenna chosen; the energy savings can be
obtained.

48
  The vertical and horizontal pattern significantly affect the received signal of the
base station. Those characteristics should be considered when the antenna is
implemented.

Possible limitations

The limitation that this work presents is the absence of more possible tilt; for instance,
adding mechanical tilt for smaller cells. This factor affects the optimization of the small
cells because their performance cannot improve for the height and tilt presented.

Besides, there is no inter-cell interference due to the reuse factor of three, so the effects
of the upper lobes are not taken into account in the simulations. This also means that the
level of interference between adjacent cells is considered in this work.

Lastly, the users are considered to be uniformly distributed in the network, which can be
a limitation, since different distribution with hotspots could represent better results
because certain areas could examined.

Future work

There are several points that can continue the work presented. The simulations are run for
macrocellular scenario so it would be suitable to test heterogeneous scenario with small
cells and assess the effect of tilt in those networks.

Besides, different user distributions could be set in order to evaluate the cell edge effects,
i.e creating hotspots near the edge of the cells can improve the accuracy of results for the
measurements of coverage. Moreover, this issue can be related to load balancing by
examining how the users switch cells when the tilt is applied.

Finally, the work can be extended in terms of energy consumption metrics. A deployment
with heterogeneous networks that can be tilted is interesting because of the possibility of
turning on and off base stations. This scenario can be introduced because the tilt effect
can leave base stations without users or with a very low quantity of users to provide
service. Therefore, these base stations can be either turn off or reduce the power of
activation because of the low load of users.

49
50
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