Architecture of Microprocessor

Microprocessor is a single IC package in which a number of useful functions are

integrated and fabricated on a single silicon semiconductor chip. Its architecture
consists of a central processing unit, memory modules, a system bus and an input/output
unit.

Architecture of Microprocessor
The system bus connects the various units to facilitate exchange of information. It
further consists of data, address and control buses to perform data exchanging in a
proper manner.

The Central processing unit consists of one or more arithmetic logic unit (ALU),
registers, and control unit. Based on the registers also the generations of
microprocessor can be classified. A microprocessor consists of general purpose and
special type of registers to execute instructions and to store the address or data while
running the program. The ALU computes all arithmetic as well as logic operations on data
and specifies the size of microprocessor like 16 bit or 32 bit.
The Memory unit holds the program as well as data and is divided into a processor,
primary and secondary memory. The Input and output unit interfaces the I/O peripheral
devices to microprocessor for accepting and sending information.

Generation of Microprocessor
1st Generation: This was the period during 1971 to 1973 of microprocessor’s history. In
1971, INTEL created the first microprocessor 4004 that would run at a clock speed of
108 KHz. During this period, the other microprocessors in the market including Rockwell
international PPS-4, INTEL-8008 and National semiconductors IMP-16 were in use. But,
all these were not TTL compatible processors.
2nd Generation: This was the period during 1973 to 1978 in which very efficient 8-bit
microprocessors were implemented like Motorola 6800 and 6801, INTEL-8085 and
Zilogs-Z80, which were among the most popular ones. Owing to their superfast speed,
they were costly as they were based on NMOS technology fabrication.
3rd Generation: During this period 16 bit processors were created and designed using
HMOS technology. From 1979 to 1980, INTEL 8086/80186/80286 and Motorola 68000
and 68010 were developed. Speeds of those processors were four times better than the
2nd generation processors.
4th Generation: From 1981 to 1995 this generation developed 32 bit microprocessors by
using HCMOS fabrication. INTEL-80386 and Motorola’s 68020/68030 were the popular
processors.
5th Generation: From 1995 to until now this generation has been bringing out high-
performance and high-speed processors that make use of 64-bit processors. Such
processors include Pentium, Celeron, Dual and Quad core processors.
Thus, microprocessor has evolved through all these generations, and the fifth
generation microprocessors represent advancement in specifications. Therefore, some
of the processors from the fifth generation of processors with their specifications are
briefly explained below.

Intel Celeron
Intel Celeron is introduced in April 1998. It refers to a range of Intel’s X86 CPUs for
value personal computers. It is based on Pentium 2 and can run on all IA-32 computer
programs.

Intel Celeron
From the year 2000 to up to now, here is a brief history of Intel Celeron processors.

The year 2000 marked the introduction of the following processors:

 Jan 4-Intel Celeron Processor (533MHz)
 Feb14-Mobile Intel Celeron Processor (450, 500 MHz)
 June19-Low Voltage Mobile Intel Celeron Processor (500 MHz)
The year 2001 marked the introduction of the following processors:

 Jan 3-Intel Celeron Processor (800 MHz)

 Oct 2-Intel Celeron processor (1.2 GHz)
The year 2002 marked the introduction of the following processors:

 Jan 3-Intel Celeron Processor (1.30 GHz)

 Nov 20-Intel Celeron Processor (2.10, 2.20 GHz)
The year 2002 marked the introduction of the following processors:

 Jan 14: Mobile Intel Celeron processor (2 GHz)

 Low Voltage Mobile Intel Celeron Processor (866 MHz)
 Nov 12: Mobile Intel Celeron Processor (2.50GHz)
 Ultra-Low Voltage Mobile Intel Celeron Processor (800 MHz)
The year 2004-2007 marked the introduction of the following processors:

 Jan4, 2004: Intel Celeron M processor 320 and 310 (1.3, 1.2 GHz)
 July 20, 2004: Intel Celeron M processor Ultra Low voltage 353 (900 MHz)
 March- Intel Celeron M processor 430-450 (1.73-2.0 GHz)
 Nov 23: Intel Celeron D Processor 345 (3.06 GHz)
The year 2008 marked the introduction of the following processor:

 Jan 2008 Celeron Core 2 DUO (Allendale)

Pentium
Pentium was introduced on March 2, in 1993. Pentium succeeded the Intel 486; The 4
indicates the fourth generation micro architecture in the microprocessor’s history.
Pentium refers to an Intel’s single core x 86 microprocessor, which is based on the fifth
generation micro-architecture. This processor’s name was derived from the Greek word
penta, means five.

The original Pentium processor was succeeded by the Pentium MMX in 1996. This
processor has a data bus of 64 bits. A standard single transfer cycle can read or write
up to 64 bits at a time. The Burst read and writes back cycles are supported by the
Pentium processors. These cycles are used for cache operations and transfer 32 bytes
(size of the Pentium cache line) in 4 clocks. All cache operations are burst cycles for the
Pentium.

Microprocessor - 8085 Architecture

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8085 is pronounced as "eighty-eighty-five" microprocessor. It is an 8-bit

microprocessor designed by Intel in 1977 using NMOS technology.

It has the following configuration −

 8-bit data bus

 16-bit address bus, which can address upto 64KB

 A 16-bit program counter

 A 16-bit stack pointer

 Six 8-bit registers arranged in pairs: BC, DE, HL

 Requires +5V supply to operate at 3.2 MHZ single phase clock

It is used in washing machines, microwave ovens, mobile phones, etc.

8085 Microprocessor – Functional Units

8085 consists of the following functional units −

Accumulator
It is an 8-bit register used to perform arithmetic, logical, I/O &
LOAD/STORE operations. It is connected to internal data bus & ALU.

Arithmetic and logic unit

As the name suggests, it performs arithmetic and logical operations like
Addition, Subtraction, AND, OR, etc. on 8-bit data.

General purpose register

There are 6 general purpose registers in 8085 processor, i.e. B, C, D, E, H &
L. Each register can hold 8-bit data.

These registers can work in pair to hold 16-bit data and their pairing
combination is like B-C, D-E & H-L.

Program counter
It is a 16-bit register used to store the memory address location of the next
instruction to be executed. Microprocessor increments the program
whenever an instruction is being executed, so that the program counter
points to the memory address of the next instruction that is going to be
executed.

Stack pointer
It is also a 16-bit register works like stack, which is always
incremented/decremented by 2 during push & pop operations.

Temporary register
It is an 8-bit register, which holds the temporary data of arithmetic and
logical operations.

Flag register
It is an 8-bit register having five 1-bit flip-flops, which holds either 0 or 1
depending upon the result stored in the accumulator.

These are the set of 5 flip-flops −

 Sign (S)

 Zero (Z)

 Auxiliary Carry (AC)

 Parity (P)

 Carry (C)

Its bit position is shown in the following table −

D7 D6 D5 D4 D3 D2 D1 D0

S Z AC P CY
Instruction register and decoder
It is an 8-bit register. When an instruction is fetched from memory then it is
stored in the Instruction register. Instruction decoder decodes the
information present in the Instruction register.

Timing and control unit

It provides timing and control signal to the microprocessor to perform
operations. Following are the timing and control signals, which control
external and internal circuits −

 Control Signals: READY, RD’, WR’, ALE

 Status Signals: S0, S1, IO/M’

 DMA Signals: HOLD, HLDA

 RESET Signals: RESET IN, RESET OUT

Interrupt control
As the name suggests it controls the interrupts during a process. When a
microprocessor is executing a main program and whenever an interrupt
occurs, the microprocessor shifts the control from the main program to
process the incoming request. After the request is completed, the control
goes back to the main program.

There are 5 interrupt signals in 8085 microprocessor: INTR, RST 7.5, RST
6.5, RST 5.5, TRAP.

Serial Input/output control

It controls the serial data communication by using these two instructions:
SID (Serial input data) and SOD (Serial output data).

Address buffer and address-data buffer

The content stored in the stack pointer and program counter is loaded into
the address buffer and address-data buffer to communicate with the CPU.
The memory and I/O chips are connected to these buses; the CPU can
exchange the desired data with the memory and I/O chips.

Address bus and data bus

Data bus carries the data to be stored. It is bidirectional, whereas address
bus carries the location to where it should be stored and it is unidirectional.
It is used to transfer the data & Address I/O devices.

8085 Architecture
We have tried to depict the architecture of 8085 with this following image −