EXP.

NO:
DATE:
FORMATION OF Y-BUS MATRIX BY INSPECTION METHOD

AIM:
To develop a program to obtain bus admittance matrix for the given power system
network by inspection method.

THEORY:
Bus admittance matrix is often used in power system studies. In most of the
power system studies, it is necessary to form [Y-bus] matrix of the system by considering certain
power system parameters depending upon the type of analysis.

For example, in the load flow analysis it is necessary to form [Y-bus] matrix
without taking into account the generator impedance, transformer impedance must be taken into
account in addition to the line data.

In stability analysis, line data, the generator transient reactance, transformer

impedances and equivalent load impedance are taken into account.

Y-bus may be formed by inspection method only if there is no mutual coupling

between the lines. Every transmission line will be represented by П equivalent. Shunt admittance
are added to the diagonal elements corresponding to the buses at which they are connected. The
off-diagonal elements are unaffected. The equivalent circuit of tap changing transformer may be
considered in forming [Y-bus] matrix.

The dimensions of the [Y-bus] matrix (nxn), where n is the number of buses. In a
power network, each bus is connected on to a few other buses. So the [Y-bus] of a large network
is highly sparse. This property is not evident in small systems, but in systems with hundreds of
buses, the sparsity is high. It may be as high as 99%. Hence, by applying sparsity technique,
numerical computation time as well as computer storage requirement may be drastically reduced.

ALGORITHM:
1. Initialize [Y-bus] matrix, i.e., replace all entries by zero.
Yij = -Yji = off diagonal element.
n
2. Compute Yii = Y
j 1
ij = Diagonal element.
PROGRAM:
Formation of Y-bus using Inspection method:

clear;
clc;
n=input('no of buses');
ele=input('no of elements');
for i=1:ele
s=input('starting bus');
e=input('ending bus');
y(s,e)= input('element value');
c=input(' checking 1 for imp 2 for admittance');
if c==1
y(s,e)=1/y(s,e);
end
y(e,s)=y(s,e);
ybus=zeros(n,n);
end
for i=1:n
for j=1:n
if i==j
for k=1:n
ybus(i,j)=ybus(i,j)+y(i,k);
end
else
ybus(i,j)=-y(i,j);
end
end
end
ybus
RESULT:
EXP.NO:
DATE:
FORMATION OF Y-BUS MATRIX BY SINGULAR TRANSFORMATION METHOD

AIM:
To develop a program to obtain bus admittance matrix for the given power system
network by singular transformation method.

THEORY:
Bus admittance matrix is often used in power system studies. In most of the
power system studies, it is necessary to form [Y-bus] matrix of the system by considering certain
power system parameters depending upon the type of analysis.

For example, in the load flow analysis it is necessary to form [Y-bus] matrix
without taking into account the generator impedance, transformer impedance must be taken into
account in addition to the line data.

In stability analysis, line data, the generator transient reactance, transformer

impedances and equivalent load impedance are taken into account.

Y-bus may be formed by singular transformation method only if there is mutual

coupling between the lines.

ALGORITHM:

1. Start the program.

2. Initialize the matrix values to zero.
3. Read the branch elements and nodes.
4. Check the type of connection between the node and elements to formulate the incidence
matrix.
5. Put -1 to element pointing towards the node, put +1 to element pointing away from the
node and put 0 to element having no connection with the node.
6. Find the transpose of A-matrix.
7. Check whether the element is impedance or admittance.
8. If impedance then convert their value into admittance using appropriate formula.
9. Form Y-bus primitive matrix by assigning values of branch elements to the diagonal of
matrix.
10. Formulate Y-bus using the formula Y-bus= AT*Yprimitive*A.
11. Print the resultant Y-bus matrix.
12. Stop the execution.
PROGRAM:
Formation of Y-bus using Singular transformation method:

clear;
clc;
n=input('number of buses');
e=input('number of elements');
a=zeros(e,n);
y=zeros(e,e);
for i=1:e
y(i,i)=input('element value');
c=input(' checking whether Z or Y 1 for Z 2 for Y');
if c==1
y(i,i)=1/y(i,i);
end

end
for i=1:e
s=input('starting bus');
b=input('ending bus');
a(i,s)=1;
a(i,b)=-1;
end
y
a'
a'*y*a
RESULT:
EXP.NO:
DATE
FORMATION OF BUS IMPEDANCE MATRIX
Aim:
To form Bus Impedance Matrix for the given network.
Objective:
To write a computer program to form Bus Impedance matrix Z, given the impedances of
a power network and their connectivity.
Software Required:
Mat Lab Software.
Algorithm:
Step wise procedure to build “Z” Matrix.
Step 1 :
Start with a partial network composed only of those elements connected directly to reference
node. Let the number of these elements be r. The corresponding bus impedance matrix Z(1) is of
dimension r x r and is diagonal with the impedance values of the elements appearing on the
diagonal. This process is equivalent to the repeated use of Rule 1.

Zm

Where Z is the impedance matrix of partial Network.

Step 2:
Add a new element which brings a new node and modify z(1) using Rule 2.

Zm

Where Zi is the ith Column of Z

ZiT is the transpose of Zi
Zii is the iith element of Z
Step 3 :
Add a new element connected between existing nodes i and j using Rule 3. Continue until all the
elements are connected.
Program:
clc;
clear all;
close all
% From To R+jX Identi
ldata=[ 0 1 1.2j 0
0 2 1.5j 0
1 2 0.2j 1
1 3 0.3j 0
2 3 0.15j 1]
FB=ldata(:,1); TB=ldata(:,2); ZB=ldata(:,3);
LI=ldata(:,4); nbr=length(FB); nbus=max(max(FB),max(TB));
%RULE-1
for I=1:nbr
if FB(I)==0 |TB(I)==0
K=max(FB(I),TB(I));
Zbus(K,K)=ZB(I);
end;
end;
%RULE-2
for I=1:nbr;
if FB(I)>0 & TB(I)>0
if LI(I)==0
Zbus(:,TB(I))=Zbus(:,FB(I));
Zbus(TB(I),:)=Zbus(FB(I),:);
Zbus(TB(I),TB(I))=ZB(I)+Zbus(TB(I),TB(I));
end;
end;
end;
%RULE-3
for I=1:nbr;
if FB(I)>0 & TB(I)>0
 if LI(I)==1
DelZ=Zbus(:,TB(I))-Zbus(:,FB(I));
ZLL=ZB(I)+Zbus(TB(I),TB(I))+Zbus(FB(I),FB(I))-2*Zbus(FB(I),TB(I));
P=DelZ*DelZ.'/(ZLL);
Zbus=Zbus-P;
end;
end;
end;
ZBUS=Zbus

Result:
Bus impedance Matrix for the given network is formed using Mat Lab program and
verified the calculated values with the output result.
EXP.NO:
DATE:
ECONOMIC DISPATCH IN POWER SYSTEM
AIM:
To develop a program to obtain the economic cost of generation for a given power
system.

THEORY:
It is possible to supply a given load demand in an infinite number of operating
configurations. It is necessary to choose one particular configuration i.e. the system operator
must specify exactly two variables per bus and in addition decide on appropriate tap settings on
all regulating transformers. For a type 1 bus, they must PG and QG . For a type 2 bus, PG and |V|.
For slack bus we must select |V|. The simplest method to select the variables is to use an
intelligent guess. Many systems are today operated on this basis. But there are more
sophisticated method to select the best optimum strategy which will meet the minimum standards
of reliability.

GENERAL PROGRAMMING PROBLEM:

In many occasions, engineering systems needs optimizing a scalar cost criterion

or objective function C and simultaneous observing certain equality and or inequality constraints.
Optimize:
C=(X, U, P) ---------------------------- (1)
X= State variable
U= Control variable
P= Disturbance variable
And simultaneously satisfying the equations
h(X, U, P)=0 -------------------------- (2)
g(X, U, P)=0 -------------------------- (3)
Equations (1), (2) and (3) are linear, it can be solved by means of linear programming technique.
In general some or all the expressions of (1), (2) and (3) are non linear programming problem.
Rarely this can be solved by analytical solution. The best way is to develop computer algorithm
that will render numerical solution.

ECONOMIC DISPATCH PROBLEM – LINE LOSSES NEGLECTED:

Consider a system already in existence and do consider the cost

components that are fixed. Let Fi be the cost expresses in Rs/hr of producing energy in generator
unit at bus i. F be the over-all system production cost.
n
Cost = Fi 1
i Rs/hr

The real power generation, PGi certainly has influence on cost Fi. The reactive
power generation, QGi do not have any measurable influence on cost Fi.
Fi = Fi (PGi)
n
FT   Fi ( PGi )
i 1
Subject to equality constraints
n
h (PGi QGi …… PGn) = P
i 1
Gi  PD = 0
 PGi min<= PG<= PGi max
In addition, we must not violate the limit condition imposed on QGi & |Vi|.
QGi min<= QG<= QGi max
|Vi| min<= |Vi|<= |Vi| max

ALGORITHM:

1. Assign initial trial value of λ or calculate the value of λ

N
bi
PD  
i 1 2a i
  N
1
i 1 2 a i
2. Calculate the generation at all the buses using the equation.

  bi
PGi  ; i =1,2,3,…..N [if cost function is given]
2ai
3. If the computed PGi satisfy the operating limits,
PGi,min<=PGi<=PGi,max, i =1,2,3,…N , then the optimum solution is obtained.
Otherwise go to next step.
4. If PGi violates the operating limits, then fix the generation at the respective
limit
if PGi<PGi,min, then PGi=PGi,min
if PGi>PGi,max, then PGi=PGi,max
5. Redistribute the remaining system load PD
PD new = PD old – sum of the fixed generations to the remaining units.
6. Compute new using P D new and compute the remaining generations using
PGi = (new – bi)/ 2ai
7. Check whether the optimality condition is satisfied.,ie
(dFi(PGi))/dPGi = new for PGi,min<=PGi<=PGi,max
(dFi(PGi))/dPGi <= new for PGi=PGi,max
(dFi(PGi))/dPGi >= new for PGi=PGi,min
If the condition is satisfied, then stop. Otherwise release the generation schedule fixed at
PGi,min or PGi,max of those units not satisfying optimality condition. Include these units in
the remaining units and modify the new power demand
PD new
PD new = PD new + {sum of fixed generators not satisfying optimality condition} and
go to step 6.
PROGRAM:
Economic dispatch (without losses)

clear;
clc;
n=input('Enter the no. of generating units : ');
pd=input('Enter the demand power : ');
pmax=input('Enter the max. power limit : ');
pmin=input('Enter the min. power limit : ');
l=input('Enter the value of lambda : ');
c=0;
d=0;
x=0;
psum=0;
for i=1:n
a(i)=input('Enter the value of a : ');
b(i)=input('Enter the value of b : ');
c=c+(b(i)/(2*a(i)));
d=d+(1/(2*a(i)));
end
while x==0
psum=0;
for i=1:n
p(i)=(l-b(i))/(2*a(i));

if p(i)<pmin
p(i)=pmin;
end
if p(i)>pmax
p(i)=pmax;
end
psum=psum+p(i);
end
dl=(psum-pd)/d;
if psum==pd
x=1;
else
l=l-dl;
x=0;
end
end
l
p
RESULT:
EXP.NO:
DATE:
LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS USING GUASS- SEIDAL METHOD

AIM:
To carry out the load flow analysis of the given power system by Gauss-Seidal
method.

THEORY:
Load flow analysis is the study conducted to determine the steady state condition
of the given system. A large number of numerical algorithms have been developed and Gauss
Seidal method is one of such algorithms.

PROBLEM FORMULATION:

The performance equation of a power system may be written as

[Ibus]=[Ybus][Vbus] ----------------------------(1)
Selecting one of the buses as reference bus, we get (n-1) simultaneous equations. The bus
loading equations can be written as:
P  jQi
Ii  i ------------------------------------------ (2)
Vi
Where i=1, 2, 3…n.
 
n
Pi  Re  Vi *YikVk ------------------------------- (3)
k 1

 
n
Qi   Im  Vi *YikVk ---------------------------- (4)
k 1
The bus voltage can be written in the form of
1.0  n 
Vi   i  YijV j  --------------------------- (5)
I 
Yn  j 1 
Where i=1, 2, 3 …n) & I is not equal to slack bus.
Substituting i in the expression for Vi we get
1.0  Pi  jQi n 
Vi   
new
 o*
YijVi o 
Yn  Vi j 1, j i 
If the latest available voltage is used in the above expression, we get,
1.0  Pi  jQi n n 
Vi  
Yii  Vi o*
  Y V
ij j
n
  Y o
ij j 
V
j 1 j i 1 
The above equation is required formula. This equation can be solved for bus voltages in iterative
manner. During each iteration, we compute all the bus voltages and check for the convergence is
carried out by comparison with voltages obtained at the end of previous iteration.

After the solution is obtained, the slack bus real and reactive powers, the reactive
power generation at the other generator buses and line flows can be calculated.
 This method is easier when compared with other methods, because the
calculations are very simple. This is used for making a good initial start for Newton-Raphson
method.

ALGORITHM:

1. Read the data such as line data, specified bus powers, specified voltages,
Q limits at generator buses and tolerance for convergence.
2. Compute Y-bus matrix.
3. Initialize all the bus voltages.
4. Iter=1.
5. Consider i=2 where i is the bus number.
6. Check whether this P-V bus or P-Q bus. If it is P-Q bus, go to step 8. Otherwise
go to next step.
7. Compute Qi. Check for Q- limit variation. Qgi=Qi+QLi.
If Qgi>Qimax, then equate Qgi to Qimax there by converting it in to P-Q bus. Qi=Qimax-Qi,
then go to step 8.
Similarly, if Qgi<Qimin, then equate Qgi to Qimin there by converting it in to P-Q bus.
Qi=Qimin-QLi, then go to step 8.
If Qgi is with in the upper and lower limits, don’t change Qgi. where
Qi=Qgi-QLi, then go to step 8.
8. Calculate the new value of the bus voltage using Gauss-Seidal formula.
1.0  Pi  jQi n n 
Vi  
Yii  Vi o*
  Y V
ij j
n
  YijV jo  .Adjust the voltage magnitude of
j 1 j i 1 
the bus to specified magnitude if Q limits are not violated.
9. If all the buses are considered, go to step 10.Otherwise increment
the bus number i=i+1 and go to step 6.
10. Check for convergence. If there is no convergence go to step 12.
11. Update the bus voltages using the formula
Vi= Viold + α (Vinew – Viold) (i= 1, 2, 3 …n)
12. Calculate the slack bus power at P-V buses, real and reactive line
flows, real and reactive line losses and print all the results
including all the complex bus voltages and all the bus angles.
13. Stop.

OUTPUT:
EXP.NO:5
DATE:
LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS USING NEWTON-RAPHSON METHOD

AIM:
To carry out the load flow analysis for the given network by Newton-Raphson
method.

THEORY:
POWER FLOW SOLUTION:

Consider the network equation Ip= YpqVq in an expanded form as

nb
I p   Y pqVq --------------------------- (1)
q 1

Where p=1, 2, 3 … nb
Conjugating the above equation and multiplying by Vp, we get
nb
V p I *p  S p  Vp Ypq
*
Vq* --------------------- (2)
q 1

Separating equation (2) in to real and imaginary parts

 nb * * 
Ppcal  Re V p  Ypq Vq  -------------------- (3)
 q 1 
 nb 
Q pcal  ImV p  Y pq*
Vq*  -------------------- (4)
 q 1 
Where p= 1, 2, 3 …nb

NEWTON-RAPHSON METHOD:

In this method mismatch version is widely used for the power flow problem. In this
version we denote,
Vp=|Vp| δp; δpq= δp- δq
and
Ypq=Gpq+jBpq
Equations (3) and (4) can be expressed in terms of the polar components as
Ppcal | V p |  (G pq cos  pq  B pq sin  pq ) | Vq |---------------- (5)
nb

q 1

Q pcal | V p |  (G pq sin  pq  B pq cos  pq ) | Vq | ---------------- (6)

nb

q 1

Where p=1, 2, 3…nb

In the n total number of nodes, let the number of P-Q nodes be (n1), P-V nodes be
(n2) and let there be one slack bus so that
nb= n1+n2+1.
 Our basic problem is to find the unknown voltage magnitudes (|V|) at the P-Q buses
and angles ‘δ’ at the P-Q and P-V buses.

Let x be the vector of all, unknown |V| and δm and Y the vector of specified
variables. The dimension of x is n1+2n2+2. Thus,

|Vθ| on each node

X= P-Q node
δ on each node
P-V node

Vs on slack bus
δs

Y= Ppsp
Qpsp on each P-Q node

Ppsp
|Vp|sp on each P-V node

From the set of equations (5) and (6) we select a number of equations equal to the
number of unknowns in X to form the non-linear power flow equation F(X,Y) = 0. Since Y is
specified we may suppress it from the equations.
Ppsp - Ppcal on each P-Q and P-V
F(X) = node =0
Ppsp - Ppcal on each P-Q node

Where ∆Pp = Ppsp - Ppcal

∆Qp = Qpsp - Qpcal
The linear equation appearing in Newton-Raphson method is given by
F(X) h = -jh ∆Xh ------------------ (7)
The above equation appearing in Newton-Raphson method is given by

∆P H N ∆δ
= ---------------- (8)
∆Q M L ∆|V|

h h h

H N
J =
M L
The linear equation when solved for ∆δ, ∆|V| gives the correction to be applied to |V|h and δ.
|V|h+1 = |V|h + ∆|V|h
δh+1 = δh + ∆δh
Next we get anew set of linear equation evaluated at (h+1)th iteration and the process
is repeated, convergence is tested by the power mismatch criteria.

ALGORITHM:

1. Form the [Y-Bus].

2. Initialize bus voltage and angles.
3. Calculate mismatch real power [∆P] of all buses except slack bus.
4. Calculate mismatch reactive power [∆Q] for all load buses.
5. Check for convergence (i.e., whether all values of mismatch vector are within tolerance
limits). If converged, go to step 9.
6. Form the Jacobian matrix.
7. Solve the equation (8) for [∆δ] and [∆V] and update the vectors [δ] and [V].
8. Go to step (3).
9. Calculate all the line flows, slack bus power, line losses and reactive power generations at
other generator buses and print the results.
OUTPUT:

EXP.NO:
DATE:
SYMMETRICAL SHORT CIRCUIT ANALYSIS

AIM:
To calculate the symmetrical short circuit parameters for the given power
system by using ETAP software.

THEORY:
When an abnormal condition arises in a power system such as fault, an
insulation flashover or lightning stroke to the transmission tower, high current flows in the power
system. These currents are sensed to the relays to isolate the faulty section of the power system.
Delay in the operation of the circuit breakers might result in creating instability in the system and
also cause burnout of costly equipment such as transformer, generator, etc.
Short circuit study is an important study which provides vital information
regarding the magnitude of fault current through various components of the power system during
short circuit. This helps in the proper selection of the circuit breakers and relays. It also helps in
relay co-ordination.
In arriving at a mathematical model for short circuit studies, a number of
assumptions are made which simplify the formulation of the problem. Certain valid assumptions
are:
1. The load, line charging capacitances and other shunt connections to the ground are
neglected.
2. The generator is represented by a voltage source in series with a reactance which is
taken to be sub-transient or transient reactance.
3. All the transformers are considered to be at their nominal taps.
4. If the resistance of the transmission lines is sufficiently smaller than the reactance the
resistances are neglected.
5. Pre-fault voltage at all the buses is (1+j0) p.u.
The mathematical model of the system can be derived as follows.
The figure shows the equivalent circuit of a power system consisting of m generator buses.

V0a : Pre-fault voltage referred to phase ‘A’

Zi : Generator transient impedance, I refer to generator bus.
1, 2…: Generator buses
n : Total number of buses
O : Ground bus

Consider the voltage source Vo is shorted i.e. nodes 0 and 01 are

shorted, the whole network is reduced to a passive network, we may write the mathematical
equation as
[Vbus]= [Zbus] [Ibus]

Now introduce the voltage source between 0 and 01. These results in raising all the bus voltages
by Voa. Hence, we may write
[Vbus]= [Zbus] [Ibus] + b Voa
Where b= [1, 1 … 1]
Suppose that a three phase fault occurs at Pth bus, the voltages are as shown in figure below

Zf = Fault impedance
If = Fault current
Ip (F) = Current injected at bus’p’

It is clear from the above figure that

If = -Ip (f) ………………… (1)
Vf = Vp (F) = If Zf ............................ (2)
Ii (F) = 0;
Vi (F) = unknown for i=1, 2, 3 …. N, i # p
This follows from the fact that the venin’s theorem is applied to n-port network
shown in the above figure. Expanding equation (2) for n-port description,
V1a(F) = Z11 I1(F) + ………+Z1P IP (F) + ………+Z1n In (F) + V0

ALGORITHM:

1. Start.
2. Read the line data, machine data, transformer data and fault impedance etc.
3. Compute Y-bus matrix and calculate modified Y-bus matrix.
4. Form Z-bus by inverting the modified Y-bus matrix.
5. Initialize count l=0.
6. l=l+1. This means fault occurs at bus ‘l’.
7. Compute fault current at faulted bus and bus voltage at all buses.
8. Compute all line currents and generator currents.
9. Check whether l is less than number of buses. If so go to step6. Otherwise go to next step.
10. Print the results.
11. Stop.

OUTPUT:
EXP.NO:
DATE:
SHORT CIRCUIT ANALYSIS
(LINE TO GROUND FAULT)

AIM:
To calculate the unsymmetrical short circuit parameters for the given
power system by using ETAP software.

THEORY:
When an abnormal condition arises in a power system such as fault, an
insulation flashover or lightning stroke to the transmission tower, high current flows in the power
system. These currents are sensed to the relays to isolate the faulty section of the power system.
Delay in the operation of the circuit breakers might result in creating instability in the system and
also cause burnout of costly equipment such as transformer, generator, etc.
Short circuit study is an important study, which provides vital information
regarding the magnitude of fault current through various components of the power system during
short circuit. This helps in the proper selection of the circuit breakers and relays. It also helps in
relay co-ordination.
In arriving at a mathematical model for short circuit studies, a number of
assumptions are made which simplify the formulation of the problem. Certain valid assumptions
are:
1. The load, line charging capacitances and other shunt connections to the ground are
neglected.
2. The generator is represented by a voltage source in series with a reactance, which is taken
to be sub-transient or transient reactance.
3. All the transformers are considered to be at their nominal taps.
4. If the resistance of the transmission lines is sufficiently smaller than the reactance the
resistances are neglected.
5. Pre-fault voltage at all the buses is (1+j0) p.u.

ALGORITHM:

1. Start the execution.

2. Read the given data and form the Z-bus for sequence network.
3. Find the sequence values ik1, ik2, ik0 where
E
ik1  0
Z kk  Z kk  Z kk2  3Z B
1

4. Convert the sequence current into line current using the formula

 I a  111   I k 
0

 I   1 2   I 1 
 b   k 
 I c  1    I k2 
 2
 
5. Find the sequence component of fault voltages by,
1.
Vi1 = E-ZiK1Ik1
2. 2
Vi = 0-ZiK2Ik2
3. Vi0 = 0-ZiK0Ik0
6. Convert the sequence component into line voltages using formula

Va  111  Vk 

0

V   1 2  V 1 
 b   k 
Vc  1 2  Vk2 
 
7. Print the calculated values.
8. Stop the execution.

OUTPUT:
EXP.NO:
DATE:
SHORT CIRCUIT ANALYSIS
LINE TO LINE FAULT

AIM:
To find unsymmetrical short circuit parameters for
the given system for line to line fault by using ETAP software.

THEORY:
When an abnormal condition arises in a power system such as
fault, an insulation flashover or lightning stroke to the transmission tower, high current flows in
the power system. These currents are sensed to the relays to isolate the faulty section of the
power system. Delay in the operation of the circuit breakers might result in creating instability in
the system and also cause burnout of costly equipment such as transformer, generator, etc.
Short circuit study is an important study which provides vital
information regarding the magnitude of fault current through various components of the power
system during short circuit. This helps in the proper selection of the circuit breakers and relays. It
also helps in relay co-ordination.
In arriving at a mathematical model for short circuit studies, a
number of assumptions are made which simplify the formulation of the problem. Certain valid
assumptions are:
1. The load, line charging capacitances and other shunt connections to the ground are
neglected.
2. The generator is represented by a voltage source in series with a reactance which is taken
to be sub-transient or transient reactance.
3. All the transformers are considered to be at their nominal taps.
4. If the resistance of the transmission lines is sufficiently smaller than the reactance the
resistances are neglected.
5. Pre-fault voltage at all the buses is (1+j0) p.u.
6. The mathematical model of the system can be derived as follows.

ALGORITHM:

1. Start the execution.

2. Read the given data and form the sequence impedance matrix.
3. Let Iko=0 and find fault current Ik1= (E)/ (Zkk1+Zkk2+If) and Ik2=-I.
4. Find fault MVA for the specified bus and print the calculated value.
Stop the execution.

OUTPUT:
EXP.NO:
DATE:
SHORT CIRCUIT ANALYSIS
DOUBLE LINE TO GROUND FAULT

AIM:
To find unsymmetrical short circuit parameters for the given
system for double line to ground fault by using ETAP software.

THEORY:
When an abnormal condition arises in a power system such as
fault, an insulation flashover or lightning stroke to the transmission tower, high current flows in
the power system. These currents are sensed to the relays to isolate the faulty section of the
power system. Delay in the operation of the circuit breakers might result in creating instability in
the system and also cause burnout of costly equipment such as transformer, generator, etc.
Short circuit study is an important study which provides vital
information regarding the magnitude of fault current through various components of the power
system during short circuit. This helps in the proper selection of the circuit breakers and relays. It
also helps in relay co-ordination.
In arriving at a mathematical model for short circuit studies, a
number of assumptions are made which simplify the formulation of the problem. Certain valid
assumptions are:
1. The load, line charging capacitances and other shunt connections to the ground are
neglected.
2. The generator is represented by a voltage source in series with a reactance which is taken
to be sub-transient or transient reactance.
3. All the transformers are considered to be at their nominal taps.
4. If the resistance of the transmission lines is sufficiently smaller than the reactance the
resistances are neglected.
5. Pre-fault voltage at all the buses is (1+j0) p.u.
6. The mathematical model of the system can be derived as follows.

ALGORITHM:

1. Start the execution.

2. Read the given data and form the sequence impedance matrix.
3. Find the fault current using the formula
Ik 1
= E (Zkko+Zkk2+3Zf) / ∆
Ik 2
= E (Zkko+3Zf) / ∆
Ik o
= E (Zkk2) / ∆
4. Print all the calculated value.
Stop the execution.

OUTPUT:
EXP.NO:
DATE:

EXP.NO
LOAD FREQUENCY DYNAMICS OF
SINGLE-AREA POWER SYSTEM

AIM:
To study the time response of area frequency deviation following a small
load change in a single-area system provided with an integral frequency controller, to study the
effect of changing the gain of the controller and to select the best gain for the controller to obtain
the best response.

THEORY:
Active power control is one of the important control actions to be performed
during normal operation of the system to match the system generation with the continuously
changing system load in order to maintain the constancy of system frequency to a fine tolerance
level. This is one of the foremost requirements in providing quality power supply. A change in
system load causes a change in the speed of all rotating masses of the system leading to change
in system frequency. The speed change from synchronous speed initiates the governor control
action resulting in all the participating generator-turbine units taking up the change in load,
stabilizing the system frequency. Restoration of frequency to nominal value requires secondary
control action which adjusts the load reference set points of selected generator-turbine units. The
primary objectives of automated generation control are to regulate system frequency to the set
nominal value and also to regulate the net interchange of each area to the scheduled value by
adjusting the outputs of the regulating units. This function is referred to as load-frequency
control (LFC). The block diagram representation of single-area LFC with and without controller
is shown below.

Block diagram representation of single-area LFC: (without controller)

∆PD(S)

-
∆PC(S) + + ∆F(S)

- ∆PG(S)

1/R

For uncontrolled case:

∆PC(S) = 0; and ∆PD(S) = unit step change ie ∆PD(S) = 1/S

From block diagram

1
Fstatic  PC Hz
1
B
R

 PD K P R  t 
 RKP 

RTP  Hz
f (t )  1  e  
R  KP  
 

Block diagram representation of single-area LFC: (with controller)

∆PD(S)

-
∆PC(S) + + ∆F(S)

∆PG(S)
-1/R

From block diagram

∆Fstatic = 0 Hz. And system stability depends upon system roots.(ie based on controller gain
constant value.)

ALGORITHM:

1. Open MATLAB simulink model.

2. Draw block diagram of single-areaLFC by tracking the simulink blocks.
3. After running simulation observe the effect of integral controller added in the LFC
diagram and find how the deviation in system frequency changes by changing controller
gain constant.
RESULT:

EXP.NO:
DATE:

LOAD FREQUENCY DYNAMICS OF

TWO AREA POWER SYSTEM

AIM:
To study the time response of area frequency deviation following a small
load change in a two-area system provided with an integral frequency controller, to study the
effect of changing the gain of the controller and to select the best gain for the controller to obtain
the best response.

THEORY:
Active power control is one of the important control actions to be performed
during normal operation of the system to match the system generation with the continuously
changing system load in order to maintain the constancy of system frequency to a fine tolerance
level. This is one of the foremost requirements in providing quality power supply. A change in
system load causes a change in the speed of all rotating masses of the system leading to change
in system frequency. The speed change from synchronous speed initiates the governor control
action resulting in all the participating generator-turbine units taking up the change in load,
stabilizing the system frequency. Restoration of frequency to nominal value requires secondary
control action which adjusts the load reference set points of selected generator-turbine units. The
primary objectives of automated generation control are to regulate system frequency to the set
nominal value and also to regulate the net interchange of each area to the scheduled value by
adjusting the outputs of the regulating units. This function is referred to as load-frequency
control (LFC). The block diagram representation of single-area LFC with and without controller
is shown below.
Block diagram representation of two-area LFC: (without controller)

∆PG1(S) ∆Ptie1(S)

-
∆PC1(S) + + ∆F1(S)

- -
∆PD1(S)

1/R1
+

-∆F2(S)
-a12

-∆Ptie2(S)

∆PC2(S) + -

+
_ ∆PD2(S)

1/R2

For uncontrolled case:

∆PC1(S) = ∆PC2(S)= 0; and ∆PD1(S) = unit step change ie ∆PD1(S) = 1/S

From block diagram

 PD 2  a12PD1  Hz
Fstatic    
  2  a12 1 
Block diagram representation of two-area LFC: (with controller)

-∆Ptie1(S)

∆PC1(S) ∆PG1(S) ∆F1(S)

-KI1/S _ -∆PD1(S)

1/R1
b1
+
+ +

-a12 _

-∆Ptie2(S)
+ ∆PG2(S)

-KI2/S
∆F2(S)
+ _
-∆PD2(S)

1/R2

b2

From block diagram

∆Fstatic = 0 Hz. And system stability depends upon system roots.(ie based on controller gain
constant value.)

ALGORITHM:

1. Open MATLAB simulink model.

2. Draw block diagram of single-areaLFC by tracking the simulink blocks.
 3. After running simulation observe the effect of integral controller added in the LFC
diagram and find how the deviation in system frequency changes by changing controller
gain constant.
RESULT:
EX.NO:1 COMPUTATION OF PARAMETERS AND MODELING OF
TRANSMISSION LINES

AIM:

To develop a program in MATLAB for determining the transmission line

parameters and verify using MATLAB simulation.

SOFTWARE REQUIRED:
MATLAB software package

FORMULAE:
Single phase Inductance = 10-7[1+4log(d/r)]
Capacitance = 3.14*8.854*10-12/log(d/r)
Three phase Inductance = 10-7[0.5+2log(d/r)]
Capacitance = 2*3.14*8.854*10-12/log(d/r)
Dequivalent = [d1*d2*d3]1/3
where
d = spacing of conductors
r = radius of conductors

ALGORITHM:

STEP 1: Find that the given transmission line is single phase or three phase
STEP 2: If it is single phase, get the value of distance between the conductors.
STEP 3: Get the radius of the conductor
STEP 4 : Using the appropriate formula, find inductance and capacitance.
STEP 5: If the given system is three phase, classify whether it is symmetrical or
unsymmetrical
STEP 6: If symmetrical, get the distance between the conductors and radius of the

Electrical and Electronics Engineering Page 5

 conductor
STEP 7: Using the appropriate formula, find inductance and capacitance
STEP 8 : If unsymmetrical, get the distance between the conductors and radius of
the conductor. Using the appropriate formula, find inductance and capacitance.

PROBLEM:
Determine the sending end voltage, current, power & power factor for a
160km section of 3phase line delivering 50MW at 132kV and P.F 0.8 lagging. Also
find the efficiency and regulation of the line. Resistance per line 0.1557ohm per km,
spacing 3.7m, 6.475m, 7.4m transposed. Evaluate the A, B, C, D parameters also.
Diameter
1.956cm.
Write and execute a MATLAB program and also verify the output with the
manual calculation results.

PROGRAM :
clc;
clear all;
ab=input('value of ab');
bc=input('value of bc');
ca=input('value of ca');
pr=input('receiving end power in MW');
vr=input('receiving end voltage in kv');
pfr=input('receiving end power factor');
l=input('length of the line in km');
r=input('resistance/ph/km');
f=input('frequency');
D=input('diameter in m');
rad=D/2;
newrad=(0.7788*rad);
deq=(ab*bc*ca)^(1/3);
L=2*10^(-7)*log(deq/rad);
C=(2*pi*8.854*10^-12)/log(deq/rad);
XL=2*pi*f*L*l*1000;
rnew=r*l;
Z=rnew+1i*(XL);
Y=1i*(2*pi*f*C*l*1000);
a=1+((Z*Y)/2);
d=a;
b=Z;
c=Y*(1+((Z*Y)/4));
vrph=(vr*10^3)/1.732;
irold=(pr*10^6)/(1.732*vr*10^3*0.8);
k=sin(acos(pfr));
ir=irold*(pfr-(1j*k));
vs=((a*vrph)+(b*ir));
is=((c*vrph)+(d*ir));
angle(vs);
angle(is);
e=angle(vs);
u=angle(is);
PFS=cos(e-u);
eff=((pr*10^6)/(3*abs(vs)*abs(is)*PFS))*100;
reg=(((abs(vs)/abs(a))-abs(vrph))/abs(vrph))*100;
L
C
XL
rnew
a
b
c
d
Vs=abs(vs)
Is=abs(is)
voltage_angle=angle(vs)*180/pi
current_angle=angle(is)*180/pi
PFS
eff
reg

EXECUTION:
EX.NO: TRANSIENT STABILITY ANALYSIS OF A SINGLE MACHINE
INFINITE BUS SYSTEM

AIM:

To analyze the transient stability of a single machine infinite bus system by

point by point method using MATLAB.

SOFTWARE REQUIRED:
MATLAB software package

ALGORITHM:
STEP 1: Evaluate the accelerating power Pa.

STEP 2: From the swing equation

d2/dt 2 =  (0) = Pa (Qt)/M

Where  is the acceleration factor. Evaluation .

STEP 3: The change in angular velocity for the first interval is calculated.

STEP 4: The change in rotor angle for the first interval is also calculated.

STEP 5: If the discontinuity occurs due to removal of the fault or due to

switching operation there are three possibilities.

a. The discontinuity occurs at the beginning of ith interval.

b. The discontinuity occurs at the middle of the ith interval.

STEP 6: To evaluate Pa when under first situation, one should use the value

corresponding to average value of Q-accelerating power i.e., power before

and after clearing the fault.

STEP 7: To evaluate Pa under the situation, a weighted average value of Pa before

and after the discontinuity may be used.

STEP 8: Thus equating for nth interval can be written as

 Pa(n-1) = Ps – Pe (n-1)

n = n-1 + deln

There are used for plotting the curve.

STEP 9: To evaluate Pa under second situation no procedure is required. It is taken as

the value at the beginning of the interval.

PROBLEM:
Consider a system which consists of generator having a rating of 50 MVA & H=2.7
’
MJ/MVA at rated speed. E=1.05, V=1, Xd =0.2, X1=X2=0.4 pu. The generator
supplies 50 MW to the infinite bus when a 3phase fault occurs at middle of line 2. i).
Plot swing curve for a sustained fault up to 0.5 sec.
ii). Plot the swing curve if the fault is cleared in 0.1 sec by simultaneous opening of
breakers at both ends of line 2.
iii).Find the critical clearing angle & clearing time.
iv). Write and execute a MATLAB program and also verify the output with the
manual calculation results.

PROGRAM:

clear all;
clc;
t=0;
tf=0;
f=input('Enter the input frequency');
s= input('Enter the machine rating');
ang(1)=input('Enter the inital
angle'); h=input('Enter the moment of
inertia constant');
tfinal=input('Enter the end time');
tstep=input('Enter the change in
time'); tc=input('enter the clearing
time'); pm=input('enter the power
transfer'); pmaxbf=input('enter the
prefault power'); pmaxdf=input('enter
the power during fault');
pmaxaf=input('enter the postfault
power'); m= (s*h)/(180*f);
delta=ang(1)*pi/180;
i=2;

ddelta=0;
time(1)=0;
while t<tfinal
if t==tf
paminus=pm-pmaxbf*sin(delta);
paplus=pm-pmaxdf*sin(delta);
paav=(paminus+paplus)/2;
pa=paav;
end
if(t==tc)
paminus=pm-pmaxdf*sin(delta);
paplus=pm-pmaxaf*sin(delta);
paav=(paminus+paplus)/2;
pa=paav;
end
if(t>tf&t<tc)
pa=pm-pmaxdf*sin(delta);
end
if(t>tc)
pa=pm-pmaxaf*sin(delta);
end
t,pa
ddelta=ddelta+(tstep*tstep*pa/m);
delta=((delta*180/pi)+ddelta)*(pi/180);
deltadeg=delta*180/pi;
t=t+tstep;
pause
time(i)=t;
ang(i)=deltadeg;
i=i+1;
end
axis([0 0.6 0 180])
plot(time,ang,'ko-')

EXECUTION: