The Structure and Hydrocarbon Traps of Sedimentary Basins: Roy H. Gabrielsen

Chapter 12
The Structure and Hydrocarbon Traps of Sedimentary Basins
Roy H. Gabrielsen
12.1 Tectonic Regimes and Stress or purely structural (e.g. an anticline). To start with the
purely structural trap, this depends on the tectonic
Old knowledge told the early oil explorationist to focus environment (contraction, extension or strike-slip) in
drilling on structurally high-standing areas because which it was created (see Sect. 12.1.2).
hydrocarbons are trapped in positive structures like On a worldwide scale, the structural trap is by far the
folds and rotated fault blocks that, as such, define posi- most common hydrocarbon trap type, but there is a
tive structural features and associated topographic tendency for the two other trap types to be more relevant
highs. Principally, however, three categories of traps in mature hydrocarbon provinces, because exploration
are recognised, namely the structural trap, the strati- moves into a more detailed approach in such areas.
graphic trap and the hydrodynamic trap. Structural traps are generated by tectonic, diapiric,
Structural geology is significant in all stages of the compactional or gravitational processes. They must
“value chain” of the exploration for and the exploita- contain a reservoir constrained in three dimensions, a
tion of hydrocarbon resources, including the initial cap, and be in communication with a reservoir unit. The
exploration screening phase, the targeted exploration, structure has a spill-point defining the volume available
reservoir description and production (Gabrielsen & in the trap, and commonly develops a gas/oil contact at
Møller-Holst 1997). This involves studies that include the top and oil/water contact at its base.
the basin-scale tectonic evolution, interaction between Geometrically speaking, the simplest structural trap
structural evolution and sedimentation, maturation, may be the anticline, or modifications hereof (Fig.
hydrocarbon migration, characteristics of trap type, 12.1a). Compressive tectonic regimes commonly
sealing potential and leakage. But generally, the most include a host of contractional folds and thrusts.
common questions to ask a structural geologist in an Good examples of such areas that are also hydrocarbon
oil exploration environment concerns the trap itself. provinces are the Zagros Mountains of Iran, the Carib-
Many types of traps exist, some of which are deter- bean of South America and the North American
mined purely by the sedimentary development, Cordillera. To be of interest for the entrapment of
whereas the most common are due to structural devel- hydrocarbons, such structures must have a closure as
opment alone. Hence the purely stratigraphic trap is seen along the fold axis, implying that they should not
due solely to sedimentary processes, such as the pri- be strictly cylindrical. This is often the case for natural,
mary pinch-out of sedimentary units. Others may be contractional folds, particularly in situations where
due partly to sedimentological and partly to structural deformation took place above an uneven basement
developments (e.g. some types of inconformity traps), topography and particularly so in areas where double-
folding (folding with to sets of cross-cutting fold-axes)
and halokinesis have occurred (Fig. 12.1d). The anti-
cline must be thoroughly mapped in three dimensions.
R.H. Gabrielsen (*)
Department of Geosciences, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway The complexity and communication between con-
e-mail: [email protected] tractional structures are, to a great extent, dependent on
K. Bjørlykke (ed.), Petroleum Geoscience: From Sedimentary Environments to Rock Physics, 319
DOI 10.1007/978-3-642-34132-8_12, # Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2015
320 R.H. Gabrielsen
3 4
1 2
6
5 7
9
8
8
10
11 12 13
3
1 4 5
Fig. 12.1 Most common structural trap types. (a) Trap types close genetic relation between contractional structural traps so
(folds and thrusts) associated with contraction. There can be a that one type (e.g. a symmetrical fold) may be an early stage of
12 The Structure and Hydrocarbon Traps of Sedimentary Basins 321
the deformation. Thus, a mildly deformed province may complex structural pattern and dismembering of the
contain sets of symmetrical buckle-folds (Figs. 12.1a and structural traps are typical for the more advanced
12.16b), whereas a province of advanced contractional stages of deformation, including diapirism.
deformation may be dominated by systems of complex, In the following sections, trap types and risks
overturned fault-propagation folds and thrusts associated with the different trap types are investigated.
(Figs. 12.1a and 12.15).
Complex folds are also common in strike-slip
regimes, developed either as fold-trains formed orthog- 12.1.1 Principal Stress Regimes and Types
onally to the contractional axis of the strike-slip sys- of Stress
tem (Figs. 12.1c and 12.14) in areas of constraining
bends (Fig. 12.14c), or in connection with transpressional The concept of plate tectonics offers a useful frame-
segments of the strike-slip system. Here, folds may work for structural geological analysis on all relevant
grade into flower structures. (Figs. 12.1a and 12.14c). scales in petroleum geology, from regional in the
Many petroleum provinces occur in extensional basin exploration stage, to local in the reservoir evaluation
settings, where the rotated fault block and affiliated and production stages. This is natural, because the
accommodation structures provide the most common principal geological stress systems are ruled by pro-
trap type (Figs. 12.1b, 12.8, 12.10 and 12.11). For exam- cesses in the deep Earth like mantle convection and
ple some of the major hydrocarbon fields in the Norwe- lithosphere subduction, the secondary effects of which
gian continental shelf, like the Statfjord and the Oseberg are manifested at the base of the lithosphere and along
fields, occur in such settings. The rotated fault block plate margins. Based on these concepts, the basic
itself becomes tilted according to the amount of exten- dynamics of the lithosphere can be quantified, which
sion and the geometry of the principal fault plane (planar is a prerequisite for the evaluation and calculation of
or listric). Secondary traps may occur due to elastic the state of stress at any point. As seen in the perspec-
uplift of the footwall, roll-overs in the hangingwall due tive of the petroleum structural geologist, understand-
to a strongly listric fault plane, or forced folds associated ing and quantifying the stress situation at the plate
with ramps in the detachment (Fig. 12.1e). margins is a prerequisite for understanding the state
Halokinesis (the processes associated with the salt of stress in any basin system and in any reservoir.
movements) occurs because salt has a specific gravity We term principal stresses originated at plate
of 2.2 g/cm3; as opposed to fully consolidated (low margins far-field or contemporary stresses. The stress
porosity) sedimentary rocks that have specific situation in a basin or a reservoir may be a sum of
gravities of 2.5–2.7 g/cm3), creating a buoyancy several far-field stresses combined with a local stress,
effect. This is further supported by the fact that on a which may be related to burial, erosion, geothermal
geological timescale, salt flows plastically. A number gradients, topography, basement relief and structural
of pronounced structural types result, from pillows to inhomogeneities in the substratum. In other words, the
diapirs of salt. Strong structuring may also be plate tectonic framework provides a basic and general
associated with mud diapirism. In a classical study of concept on which any structural geological analysis of
mild to extensive salt movements, Halbouty (1979) a sedimentary basin rests, but it must be supplied with
identified no less than nine different structural trap information on the local stress system that is
types (Figs. 12.1 and 12.17). The general experience superimposed on it. In the context of the far-field
is that larger structures are affiliated with early-stage plate tectonic stress, we distinguish between the plate
salt structures, like pillows, whereas a much more boundary and the intra-plate component.
Fig. 12.1 (continued) the development of fault propagation in strike-slip regimes. (c) Extensional, rotated fault-blocks
fold and a fully developed thrust. See Figs. 12.2 (for structural) above a decollement (floor fault). See Figs. 12.11 and 12.12
and 12.15 (for stratigraphic) traps associated with contractional for structural, stratigraphic and unconformity traps in such
or inverted terranes. (b) Typical structural trap type associated systems. (d) Different types of salt structures and associated
with strike-slip (positive and negative flower structures and trap types. (See also Fig. 12.16)
associated folds. See Fig. 12.13 for possible stratigraphic traps
322 R.H. Gabrielsen
The plate boundary stress is subdivided into three and destroyed throughout large parts of the history of
basic plate margin settings, namely constructive our planet, so that many may be preserved inside the
boundaries where adjoining plates are moving away present plates and hence do not coincide with present
from each other and new crust is formed by magmatic continent/ocean margins. The three basic types of
activity, destructive boundaries where lithosphere is plate margin coincide with the three principal stress
consumed by subduction or obduction, and conserva- configurations, namely the tensional, the compres-
tive boundaries where plates are moving past each sional and the strike-slip regimes. To describe these
other in a strike-slip sense and where lithosphere is regimes, we rely on the concept of principal stress
neither created nor consumed (Fig. 12.2a). It is impor- configurations and their definition in the context of
tant to note that plate boundaries have been generated the principal axes of stress.
a
North American
Plate
Eurasian Plate
Juan de Fuca North American

Iran
Plate Plate
Plate
Caribbean
Plate Philippine
Cocos Arabian Plate
Pacific
Plate Plate
Plate
Nazca
Plate Indo Australian
African Plate
South American
Plate
Plate
Antarctic Plate Scotia Plate Antarctic Plate
Convergent boundary Divergent boundary Transform fault
b σ1
σ3
σ1
σ3
σ2 σ2
σ2
σ3
σ1
Fig. 12.2 (a) The major tectonic plates and their boundaries (from Nystuen in Ramberg et al. 2008). Reprinted with permission
from the Norwegian Geological Society and the author. (b) Principal stress configurations (from Fossen and Gabrielsen 2005)
12.1.2 Tectonic Stress in the Earth’s

σ H > σ v > σ h ; strike-slip; (12.3)
Lithosphere
σ H > σ h > σ v ; contraction; (12.4)
As we have seen already, in addition to stresses
generated at tectonic plate contacts, several other pro-
where σ H and σ h are the maximum and minimum
cesses contribute to the generation of stresses. We
horizontal stresses, respectively. By using σ v as a
may, for example, have residual stress, which is
reference, further calculations become dependent on
inherited from previous deformation, where a rock
the reference system applied. In the contractional
body may have become bent with the elastic stress
regime there will be a tectonic component σ t in
component remaining unreleased, and thermal stress
addition to the reference stress, so that the greatest
which is related to expansion of rocks during heating
(horizontal) stress is:
or contraction during cooling and stress related to local
gravitational gradients. Accordingly, the total stress
σ H ¼ ρgz þ σ t (12.5)
consists of several components:
Assuming uniaxial stress, which implies that the
Total stress ¼ reference stress þ residual stress
reference stress is a function of the elastic properties
þ thermal stress þ tectonic stress of the rock, and ignoring the thermal expansion, we
can describe the stress as:
where the reference stress refers to the stress inside the
plate, devoid of plate tectonic stresses, and thus the h υ i
σH ¼ ρgz þ σ t (12.6)
1υ
Tectonic stress ¼ contemporary stress þ local stress:
where υ is Young’s modulus (Chap. 11). Because
We will not go further into the analysis of residual ðυ=1 υÞ < 1, σ t > σ t . Accordingly, the reference
and thermal stress here, but concentrate on stress stress condition selected also influences the calculated
generated by primary interactions at plate margins or total tectonic stress as long as the buried rock is
forces derived thereof. compressive. For a non-compressive rock ðυ ¼ 0:5Þ,
Taking into consideration the reference stress lithostatic and uniaxial reference systems are equal.
conditions, one can describe the stress situations for
the three principal conditions of deformation, namely
extension, contraction and strike-slip. This was done 12.1.3 Deformation Mechanisms and
by Anderson in two influential works in 1934 and Analogue Models
1951, in which the framework for all modern tectonic
and structural geological analysis is defined. Anderson Our daily contact with the physical world tells us that
used the vertical lithostatic stress (σ v) as a reference: materials deform in many ways, depending on the
applied stress and type of material and its physical
σ v ¼ ρgz (12.1) state. Thus, a liquid reacts to outer stress very differ-
ently from a piece of rock, and one type of rock like
(where ρ is the specific weight, g is the constant of chalk has very different physical properties as
gravity and z is the height of the rock column). This compared to another like granite. Furthermore, one
applies for the three principal stress conditions material may change its mechanical properties dra-
because σ v can be considered similar for one rock matically by change of temperature and pressure.
type for a constant h, assuming that the burial history These contrasts are founded on processes occurring
has been similar. Thereby the three principal stress on the scale of the grains (of the rock) and on the
systems can be defined, each corresponding to a molecular and atomic scales. We have given these
regime of deformation (Fig. 12.2a, b): processes and their associated meso- and macroscopic
physical expressions names like brittle, elastic, plastic,
σ v > σ H > σ h ; extension; (12.2)
324 R.H. Gabrielsen
viscous and ductile, and sometimes combinations like settings. Thus, extensional stress regimes either are
elastico-plastic. associated with subsidence and basin formation (in
Unfortunately, these terms are not always used in a intra-plate settings) or characterise active break-up of
consequent manner and are therefore liable to cause continents (along constructive or passive margins).
confusion when taken out of context or not precisely Although the conditions for development of petro-
defined. This particularly concerns the term “brittle”, leum systems in areas of active spreading may be
because it is used in a double sense, namely as a meagre, the remnants of the earlier stages of break-
deformation mechanism and a deformation style. up, now situated in passive margins settings, fulfil all
When applied in the context of deformation the requirements that characterise productive petro-
mechanisms, brittle deformation implies that existing leum provinces. This is because such tectonic regimes
bonds are physically broken between mineral grains, have undergone crustal thinning and associated subsi-
or that fracturing of the individual grains themselves dence, which involves all the processes essential for
takes place. As a consequence, the rock loses its petroleum to be generated, trapped and accumulated in
cohesion and (potentially) physically falls apart. In sufficient volumes and concentrations for petroleum
contrast, the plastic deformation mechanism implies fields to be commercially interesting. Accordingly,
that deformation takes place by the transfer of such settings frequently display an attractive combina-
dislocations on the atomic scale. This means that the tion and distribution of source, reservoir and cap
mineral can change its shape without loss of cohe- rocks, structural and stratigraphic traps and the
sion. Generally, plastic deformation occurs at higher conditions for maturation, expulsion, migration and
p,T-conditions than those accompanying brittle accumulation of hydrocarbons.
deformation.
Concerning deformation style, the term brittle is
used about localised strain, like that associated with
12.2.1 Extensional Basins
jointing and faulting, and particularly in cases when
the rock loses its cohesion and where the deformation
The formation of extensional basins may be seen as
occurs at lower p,T-conditions (though not necessarily
the first stage of the Wilson Cycle, which begins with
so). The ductile deformation style characterises strain
thinning, stretching and rifting of the continental crust
also by low stress, which is homogeneously distributed
followed by continental break-up and mid-oceanic
over a wider area, as commonly observed in connection
spreading. The concept of the Wilson cycle predicts
with folding and meso- and mega-scale shear-zones. A
that this process becomes reversed, causing closure of
ductile style of deformation is predominant at high p,T-
the ocean, collision between the adjacent continental
conditions, but may also occur under very low p,T-
plates, and hence the construction of a mountain chain
conditions, if it involves weak materials like sand and
along the zone of collision (Fig. 12.3). The junction
clay. In such cases, however, displacement takes place
between the continental plates defines the suture
along grain boundaries or along borders between rock
between the two.
bodies and not by dislocation creep or other atomic-
If we use the present North Atlantic as one exam-
scale mechanisms that characterise the plastic deforma-
ple, the highly hydrocarbon-rich northern North Sea
tion mechanism.
basin system is situated in a passive continental mar-
gin configuration, where the extensional basin system
developed during continental break-up. In contrast,
12.2 Petroleum Systems in Extensional Iceland, where petroleum resources are less abundant,
Regimes is situated on the top of the mid-oceanic spreading
ridge. However, if one looks more closely at the struc-
Areas of extension are affiliated with horizontal diver- tural configuration at depth, one finds that the northern
gent stress and are found in association with construc- North Sea basin system, which includes the Viking
tive or passive plate boundaries and in intra-plate Graben that developed in Jurassic-Cretaceous times, is
Rift valley
Ancient contine
Rifting phase nt Heat flow from
Ancient contine the mantle
nt
Thrusting
direction for
nappes and small
thrust sheets
Continental lithospheric Asthenosphere
plate Continental volcanic zone
Spreading phase Continental shelf

Ocean
Active spreading ridge
Oceanic lithospheric plate
Island arc phase

Volcanic
Island arc
Epicontinental ocean
Island arc core with

gabbro and diurite
Closing phase Passive spreading ridge

Deep-sea trench Accretionary
wedge
Island arc mountain chain
Foreland
Accretionary wedge
Folding and thrusting
Mountain chain on a new continent

Collision phase Marginal zone
Marginal zone
New lithospheric plate
Fig. 12.3 The major stages in the Wilson Cycle (from Nystuen in Ramberg et al. 2008). Reprinted with permission from the
Norwegian Geological Society and the author
326 R.H. Gabrielsen
underlain by an older (Permo-Triassic) basin system in geosciences in modern times. This model assumes
(Fig. 12.4). The Permo-Triassic basin system is in turn thinning of the weak lower crust/lower lithosphere by
superimposed on the even older Caledonian orogeny, pure shear, and hence is characterised by the develop-
which was subsequently affected by gravitational col- ment of a symmetrical configuration (Fig. 12.5a). The
lapse in Devonian times, representing the last stage in pure-shear extension of the ductile lower crust is
a previous Wilson Cycle. accompanied by thinning of the upper crust by brittle
There are several models for the lithospheric faulting and subsequent development and rotation of
configurations that accompany extensional crustal fault blocks.
thinning, the end members of which are the “pure In this context it is possible to separate the active
shear” (symmetrical) and “simple shear” (asymmetri- stretching stage, which is associated with fault-
cal) models (Fig. 12.5). It should be noticed that these controlled thinning of the upper crust, and later subsi-
models are not necessarily mutually exclusive; we can dence controlled by thermal processes. As a response
find basin systems that display elements from more to extension, the crust and upper mantle lithosphere
than one model, such as the “delamination model” becomes thinned and, promoted by extensional
(Fig. 12.6). faulting, the basin floor will subside quickly. This
The “pure-shear model” for extensional crustal implies that deeply seated warm rocks are transferred
thinning was suggested by Dan McKenzie in 1978, upwards in the lithosphere so that the isotherms in the
in a paper that has become the most frequently cited thinned area become elevated and the thermal
Fig. 12.4 The architecture of the North Sea continental shelf. Note the deep structure, showing a Permo-Triassic rift system buried
beneath the younger Jurassic – Cretaceous Viking Graben (from Fossen 2002)
gradients become steepened accordingly. These deep contraction, sediment compaction and sediment load-
processes influence the relief of the basin floor because ing. This sounds complex, but luckily these processes
heating causes rock volumes to expand and elastic, are well understood and can be modelled with good
quasi-plastic and isostatic adjustments to occur simul- accuracy on the basis of the algorithms proposed by
taneously at lithospheric, basin (e.g. by uplift of the McKenzie and supplied with additional modelling
basin margins) and fault block scales. In the next stage tools, developed particularly in the late 1990s.
of development (the post-rift stage), the basin will For modelling purposes and for the analysis of
continue to subside due to a combination of thermal extensional basins with respect to petroleum explora-
tion, three stages of development can be distinguished
(Fig. 12.7).
a
Pure shear The pre-rift stage is characterised by gentle flexuring
and fracturing of the lithosphere. In some rifts we see
Moho the development of a gentle bulge, caused by mantle
doming and associated warming – and hence expansion
– of the lithosphere. In other cases, a gentle subsidence,
defining a broad, shallow basin is seen, caused by mild
b extension of the cold (not-yet-heated) lithosphere. In
Simple shear
both cases, the lithosphere is prone to develop steep
Moho fractures on a crustal or even lithospheric scale. These
fractures have the capacity to accommodate magma,
generating dikes. Regarding hydrocarbon reservoir
potential characterising the pre-rift stage, sand deposits
Fig. 12.5 Basic configuration of (a) pure shear and (b) simple are likely to be sheet-like and relatively thin, with few
shear extensional basins (modified from Fossen and Gabrielsen structural traps developing at this stage. Sediment trans-
2005) port is mainly transverse to the basin axis, but quite
Conceptual model - northern North Sea

NW East Shetland Basin Viking Graben Horda Platform Øygarden F.Z. SE
Base Cretaceous
0
Top
10 basement D1
D2 Top
Depth (km)
basement
20 ? ?
30 Moho High velocity body

(+6 km/s)
Mantle fault
40
250 200 150 100 50 0
Distance (km)
Moho Moho
Localised lower crustal shear zones? Distributed lower crustal deformation?
Fig. 12.6 Model of the Viking Graben, displaying elements of pure and simple shear. Modified after Odinsen et al. (2000)
328 R.H. Gabrielsen
a produce a variety of lithofacies due to the increasing

topographic relief associated with high fault activity.
The marine transgression that commonly follows the
increased subsidence of the basin floor also contributes
to this variety in sedimentary facies. Sand that is
eroded from the high-standing parts of the basin (e.g.
b
basin shoulders and crests of rotated fault blocks) may
be trapped in lows in various structural positions and
these units are likely later to be covered by transgres-
sive marine sediment accumulations. The sediment
transport system in the active stretching stage is likely
c
to be dominated by complex transverse and locally bi-
directional fluvial systems that are strongly influenced
by the elongated, rotated fault blocks, generating axis-
parallel transport in segments along the basin margin.
The central part of the basin may be less complex and
axial-parallel sediment transport would prevail there
Fig. 12.7 Three major stages in the devlopment of extensional (Fig. 12.8b).
basins. After Gabrielsen (1986) In the thermal subsidence stage, thermal contraction
of the lithosphere dominates the basin subsidence pat-
homogeneous due to lack of pronounced gradients in tern. Because solids typically contract during cooling,
the basin. The marginal sediment transport system is the parts of the basin that have experienced the stron-
prone to act in concert with the axial transport system, gest extension (i.e. those that have been thinned the
feeding the latter with sediments. This may consist of most and hence heated the most) will contract and
braided or meandering river systems, depending on subside more than other parts. In a pure-shear configu-
factors like axial basin gradient and climate. Since ration this is most likely to be the central segment
most rifts are generated by break-up of continents, a running along the basin axis. This means that the rota-
terrestrial depositional environment would be most tion of strata upwards away from the basin axis
common for the pre-rift stage, so that source rocks becomes reversed so that strata begin to rotate down-
and cap rocks, which are mostly of marine depositional wards towards the basin axis (Fig. 12.9b). This rotation
origin, may be scarce (Fig. 12.8a). There are, however, is strengthened by sediment loading and compaction
numerous examples of both source rocks and cap rocks (thickest sequence in the central part of the basin).
of terrestrial origin. The transverse sediment transport will persist dur-
In the active stretching stage extension, and hence ing the thermal subsidence stage, while the basin floor
also subsidence, accelerate. Simultaneously, heat becomes gradually smoothed. An axial transport sys-
input increases due to upheaval of hot layers of the tem may also still be active, but is likely to become
mantle lithosphere. The steep fractures generated in less pronounced through this stage of development
the pre-rift stage will not be able to accommodate the (Fig. 12.8c). Depending on the balance between sub-
extension and a new set of low-angle planar or listric sidence and sediment input, the water depth will vary
faults will be activated, separating fault blocks that are from one basin to another, but the depositional envi-
detached from the lower crust by a subhorizontal zone ronment is likely to be marine and the central part of
of weakness. Gliding on the system of detachments, the basin may attain great water depth (thousands of
the fault blocks and their internal beds will rotate away metres). The fault systems that dominated the basin
from the basin axis (Figs. 12.7b and 12.9a). From the floor geometry during the active stretching stage are
view of the petroleum explorationist, the active now quiescent, and stratigraphic hydrocarbon traps
stretching stage deserves particular attention because rather than structural ones are likely to be the most
of the variety of structural and stratigraphic traps that common.
may develop. This stage is also characterised by a Syn-rift to post-rift transition. The pure-shear
complex sediment distribution system that is likely to model predicts that a simple geometrical change of
a b c
Fig. 12.8 Principal sedimentary transport systems associated with the three mains stages in the development of extensional basins.
After Gabrielsen et al. (1995)
the outline of extensional basins will accompany the during the syn-rift stage to tilting directed towards the
transition from the syn- to the post-rift stage. In this basin axis during the post-rift development (Fig. 12.9).
model the margins of the relatively narrow, steep- This change is due to a shift from bulk thermal expan-
walled rift, which traps the syn-rift sediments, become sion to bulk thermal contraction of the lithosphere and
overstepped at the syn- to post-rift transition. This is in most cases clearly distinguishable in reflection
implies that the basin becomes wider and the rate seismic data.
of subsidence decreases asymptotically during the fol- It needs to be emphasised that the syn- to post-rift
lowing post-rift stage. Thus, one defines the beginning transition is unlikely to occur simultaneously through-
of the post-rift development as the stage by which out the entire basin. This is due to differences in
the syn-rift faults become inactive and subsidence structural configurations, e.g. the existence of graben
becomes controlled dominantly by thermal contrac- units, and thermal inhomogeneities associated with
tion and sediment loading. variable stretching both along and transverse to the
In practical terms, the identification of this stage in basin axis. For reasons discussed below (Chap. 22),
the basin development is not trivial, because the tran- the entire Cretaceous sequence of the northern North
sition is frequently not synchronous all over the basin, Sea is included in the post-rift development sensu
and the criteria for identifying the transition in reflec- stricto. Furthermore, analysis of the basin topography
tion seismic data are not always well constrained. To permits three sub-stages to be identified within the
overcome this problem, the syn- to post-rift transition framework of the post-rift development: the incipient,
should be defined more precisely as the point in time the middle and the mature post-rift stages. The config-
when net heat out of the system is greater than net heat uration at the syn-rift/post-rift transition is treated
into the system. It is recognised that a lateral heat flow separately in the present analysis (Section 12.3.1).
gradient commonly exists perpendicular to the basin In the analysis of basin subsidence it is important to
axis. This implies that the area closest to the basin remember that in addition to the effects of fault-related
axis, which coincides with the area of greatest thin- subsidence and thermal expansion and contraction, the
ning, is also the part of the basin displaying the highest basin’s subsidence is affected by elastic deformation
heat flux at the end of the syn-rift stage. The litho- and isostasy, and in many cases also by extra-basinal
sphere beneath the central part of the basin will stress.
accordingly undergo the greatest vertical contraction The simple-shear model for extensional basins is in
during the post-rift stage. The enhanced subsidence at considerable geometrical and mechanical contrast to
the basin axis is further enhanced in cases where the the pure-shear model for extensional basins in that the
basin is filled by sediments, creating an extra load and simple-shear model assumes that extension is
also a greater total compaction. Hence, the syn- to concentrated along one or several inclined fault zone
post-rift transition coincides with a regional shift in (s) affecting the entire crust (Fig. 12.5b). Still, where
tilt from fault block rotation away from the graben axis thermo-tectonic and isostatic responses are concerned
330 R.H. Gabrielsen
Fig. 12.9 Pattern of rotation of sedimentary units in the (a) syn- and (b) post-rift stages. After Gabrielsen et al. (1995)
the principles are similar to those of the pure-shear development. However, the delamination model
model. The simple-shear model is based on makes it necessary to take into account an additional
observations in the Basin-and-Range of North Amer- variable parameter, namely that the two parts of the
ica and was formulated by Brian Wernicke in 1981. lithosphere situated above and beneath the delamina-
The Basin-and-Range basin system displays a particu- tion surface have undergone different amounts of
lar geometry in that the lithosphere is extended to the extension.
degree that the lower crust, described as a metamor-
phic core complex, has become uplifted and exposed
in the central part of the basin. The asymmetrical 12.3 The Structural Architecture
configuration of the basin particularly influences the of Extensional Basins
pattern of isostatic response to extension. An impor-
tant factor is the relative thickness of the upper mantle/ Comparison of many extensional basins reveals that
lithosphere. This is because the lower crust commonly they have many architectural elements in common.
is denser than the upper astenosphere, causing large- These include the position and geometry of the domi-
scale contrasts in differential subsidence and uplift nant fault systems, the position of the most prominent
across the basin. Superimposed on this are more terraces or platforms, and the position of structural
local isostatic effects, associated with contrasting highs. This does not imply that all basins are similar
thicknesses of layers with different densities and the or that all contain the same types of structures. Never-
topography of the basin. theless, a systematisation suggested in the following,
Since the same tectono-thermal principles that is useful in the analysis of extensional basins and their
apply for the pure-shear basin also are valid for exploration for hydrocarbons. Before looking in detail
simple-shear basins, the main basin stages and the at the exploration leads that are typical for extensional
conditions for hydrocarbon generation and entrapment basins, it is therefore instructive to examine the prin-
are also the same. Even though the simple-shear model cipal structural building blocks of the extensional
was inspired by analysis of the Basin-and-Range basin basin (Fig. 12.10a, b).
system it has proved relevant for many other basins The extra-marginal fault complex. The distal part
too, suggesting that simple shear is a common compo- of the basin is separated from the foreland by an
nent in the formation of basins. enhanced fault frequency (as compared to the foreland
The delamination model can be seen as a combina- of the basin) and a set of planar to listric faults com-
tion of the simple- and pure-shear models. In this case monly arranged in an en echelon geometry and some-
the upper and middle crust extends by simple shear. At times generating a horst-and-graben-system with a
depth, the master fault flattens and merges with the moderate relief. In some cases dike systems affiliated
lower crust, which becomes thinned by pure shear. with the initial stage of extension are filling in some of
The Viking Graben of the northern North Sea the faults of the extra-marginal fault complex. In many
seems to have a configuration that fits the delamination cases, a horst is seen to separate the extra-marginal
model (Fig. 12.6). Also in this case, the thermo- fault complex from the platform, defining a topo-
mechanical pure-shear model applies and, with some graphic threshold between the foreland and the basin
modifications, can be used to model the basin itself.
a Sub-platform
Platform
Extra-marginal
Internal graben Internal platform fault complex
Marginal
platform fault complex
high
Outer master
fault system
Inner master Axis of rotation

Interior fault system and area of faulting
graben Deep during cooling stage
Graben planar faults? Limit of intense
axis faulting during
Deep extension
planar faults?
Fig. 12.10 (a) Principal sketch of major structural elements in configuration as seen along the strike of the margin. Redrawn
graben systems. (b) Graben margin with its main structural from Gabrielsen (1986)
elements as seen in three dimensions. Note the change of
The platform is a relatively flat tectonic unit that is transition from the tectonically quiet platform to the
less intensely faulted. The extension may be much more heavily faulted sub-platform or the inner
concentrated on a limited number of faults, but even marginal fault complex. The platform marginal horst
those display only moderate throws as compared to the is asymmetrical in outline in that its platform-facing
major fault complexes that delineate the interior basin. margin is defined by a few faults with moderate
Hence, the platform is characterised by a few broad, throws, whereas its basinward border consists of a
and only slightly tilted, structural traps. Where age complex system of faults with great throws, some-
determinations are possible, the fault systems of the times in the order of several 100 m. The fact that the
platform area are seen to have been activated at an marginal platform horst is such a common feature in
early stage of the basin development, but the activity many mature extensional basins suggests that it has an
slowed down or became arrested when the subsidence important mechanical significance, the position of its
accelerated in the inner part of the basin system. The distal (antithetic) fault perhaps being determined by
platform may also be delineated on its basinward side the mechanical strength of the platform rocks.
by a horst. The sub-platform is delineated by the marginal
A platform marginal horst is sometimes developed platform high on its distal side and the interior graben
at the basinward side of the platform, defining the on the other. The inner marginal fault system that
332 R.H. Gabrielsen
separates the subplatform from the interior graben, 12.3.1.1 The Initial Stage
together with the extra-marginal fault complex, are According to the model presented above, sedimenta-
the most profound fault zones of the basin, and the tion during the initial stage will occur in a broad,
two are likely to be linked along the principal detach- shallow basin with moderate surface gradients. Due
ment found within the lower crust. The subplatform is to the moderate stretching at this stage, sedimentation
heavily faulted and encompasses a number of second- will generally keep pace with subsidence. Local
ary rotated fault blocks that again may be criss-crossed depocentres would be related to few, steep normal
by a third order of faults. There are examples that the faults with attached accommodation structures and
second order faults flatten along local detachments at shallow catchments. Because of the moderate surface
shallower levels than both the primary master faults of gradients and only few and minor fault escarpments, it
the marginal fault complex and the inner and outer is reasonable to assume that source areas for sand must
marginal fault systems. The inner marginal fault sys- be sought outside the marginal platform fault system.
tem also coincides with the axis of basinward rotation Traps generated at this stage can be buried to very
as activated during the post-rift stage. great depths (several kilometres) during the total
The interior basin is the unit of the basin which is graben subsidence. In addition to potential over-
underlain by the most extensively thinned crust and maturation due to deep burial, the scarcity of source
where the maximum post-rift subsidence occurs. In rocks may be a general problem for prospectivity
the case of a symmetrical (pure-shear) basin, it is of traps related to this stage, because terrestrial
delineated on both margins by inner margin fault conditions are likely to prevail. However, exceptions
systems, whereas in the case of an asymmetrical to this are for example the West African rift basin
basin (simple shear) only one of the margins has this lacustrine shales.
status. Even the deepest part of the basin is underlain In cases where later extension has caused signifi-
by rotated fault blocks, initiated during the active cant rotation of the pre-rift succession, the burial prob-
stretching stage of the basin formation. lem may be locally avoided, with pre-rift strata riding
It should be noted that the structural elements structurally high, for example along the marginal areas
described above are not likely to be present along the of the Viking Graben tilt blocks. As a consequence of
entire basin margin. Thus, in some segments, the plat- their early establishment in the subsidence history,
form may be in direct contact with the interior basin, traps of this type may become faulted and fragmented
whereas in other segments the platform or the platform by later movements. Even though the topography is
marginal high may be missing. This inconsistency influenced by active faults to a limited degree, traps
may reflect the influence of structural or lithological related to such structures still may occur.
inhomogeneities in the basement, varying strain rates The general three-stage model suggests that axial
or uneven bulk extension along the basin axis. Indeed, transport dominates in the initial graben stage and
it is common for large rifts that the basin is divided stratigraphic traps might be generated by the axial
into several sub-basins or basin units, each distin- fluvial system (Fig. 12.11, trap type 4). The modest
guished by its particular geometry and even polarity. tectonic subsidence characteristic of this stage would
favour large lateral extension and good continuity of
the sand sheet. The stratigraphic traps would be related
12.3.1 The Structural Influence on Reservoir to meandering or braided river systems and shallow
and Source Rock Distribution in lakes, and the geometry of the system would to a large
Extensional Basins extent be ruled by the subsidence rates in the incipient
central graben. Examples of axially transported
The types of traps related to the different stages in sandstones of this type in the primitive Viking Graben
graben formation are illustrated in Fig. 12.11. The include the Statfjord Formation and Lomvi Formation.
numbered trap types mentioned in the following These sheet sands contrast with the more lenticular
sections refer to this figure. sand bodies of the Lunde and Teist formations,
12
The Structure and Hydrocarbon Traps of Sedimentary Basins
Fig. 12.11 Variations in trap types associated with the pre-rift (orange), syn-rift (yellow) and post-rift (green) stages. The trap types associated with the syn-rift/post-rift transition
are marked in red. See text for detailed explanation. From Gabrielsen et al. (1995)
333
334 R.H. Gabrielsen
deposited under the control of greater subsidence enhance the internal graben relief by rotation and
rates. upheaval of fault-block crests and by isostatic and
In the evolving graben which should be flexural adjustments of the edges of the fault blocks.
characterised by increasing fault activity and eventual The fault pattern, which is initially relatively sim-
magmatism, the continuity of those sand bodies would ple and stable and consists of isolated fault strands,
be later broken. develops into linked structures, and the relief is
Units related to transverse sediment transport enhanced. This gives the possibility of accumulation
encompass both pure stratigraphic and mixed traps of considerable thicknesses of sediments, and with
(Fig. 12.11, trap type 5). Alluvial fan systems, which potentially good strike-continuity in the hangingwall
offer pure stratigraphic traps with potentially great fault blocks of the master faults. Such catchments may
lateral extension and considerable thickness, might be fed with sediments which are transported across the
represent the most important type. The general fault scarp from the foot-wall hinterland, and also
model for this stage in the graben development from the eroded crests of the neighbouring
suggests that axial transport systems dominate, but hangingwall dip slope. With continued subsidence,
that most of the axial transport comes ultimately the initiation of accommodation structures
from transverse systems upstream. (hangingwall anticlines, antithetic faults and forced
Clastic fans related to primary synthetic fault- folds) will restrict both the area of deposition and the
growth represent a mixed trap type, which depends continuity of sands. Simultaneously, fault complexity
on proximal sealing faults and a distal pinch-out will increase with the development of different types
(Fig. 12.11, trap types 1 and 2). Taking the likely of fault-related transfer zones and steps, which in turn
moderate relief, low surface gradient and simple may act as foci for drainage systems.
fault geometry into consideration, it is probable that Finer-grained pelagic and other mature sediments
the reservoirs in this type of trap are characterised by derived from the hinterlands would dominate over the
good lateral continuity in the dip direction. The thick- coarser sandy or conglomeratic deposits eroded from
ness of the source rock may be considerable in stable local structural highs, although the latter may domi-
basins. nate in isolated basins. Initially, the sediment transport
Clastic fans related to accommodation structures is still essentially axial, but due to enhanced relief in
along master faults (Fig. 12.11, trap type 1b) classify the central parts of the basin will be branched to some
as mixed palaeomorphic/structural traps. Because of extent. A growing local influence from relief caused
the steep geometries of the master faults in the initial by rotated fault blocks is expected. This may cause
rifting stage, the accommodation structures will be sediment transport parallel to the graben axis also in
laterally restricted transverse strike, and to constitute the more distal parts of the graben system. Locally this
a trap of some size accordingly demands good conti- pattern will be broken by transverse transport systems
nuity along strike. This is especially the case in late cutting across highs related to rotated fault blocks, or
stages of development where channel amalgamation in connection with relay ramps and bridges between
and progradation lead to a sheet-like geometry. fault blocks. In broader tilted fault-blocks or in
grabens immediately adjacent to the hinterlands, the
volume of transversely-transported coarse sediment
12.3.1.2 The Active Stretching Stage may be great.
During this stage the area of subsidence narrows, and Compared to the initial stage, the final burial depth
the structural elements typical for mature grabens start attained by traps generated in the active stretching stage
to appear. The subsidence, and hence the sedimenta- will of course be shallower. Due to the likely marine
tion pattern, which to a large extent will be influenced influx and sub-basinal restricted conditions, the chances
by the faulting within the graben area, is characterised for generation of source rocks will also be higher, and
by numerous fault-bounded depocentres that are only semi-regional or local areas of enhanced subsidence
partly interconnected. The geometry of faults will may promote the presence of local pockets of source
change from steep planar to low-angle, either by rocks in addition to those of regional significance.
fault-plane rotation or by development of listric faults. Fans related primarily to synthetic growth along
Both low-angle rotational and listric faulting will faults give potentially a mixed trap type, but may also
Drainage system
of footwall Marginal Hangingwall
uplands high Axial dip slope
Relay drainage
ramp system
Fig. 12.12 Drainage systems associated with rotated fault sand is also derived from the rotated hanging wall fault block.
block and associated fault scarps. Note that the fan systems Modified from Nøttvedt, Gabrielsen and Steel (1995)
associated with the fault scarps may be discontinuous and that
include stratigraphic trap elements (Fig. 12.11, trap scarps, the foot-wall fault block is likely to be the
type 5). The trap depends on the sealing of the fault major source for the hangingwall catchment, even
zone. This trap type is initiated before accommodation though the hangingwall dip slope may represent the
structures are activated, and may therefore be more extensive surface of erosion. Examples of strati-
characterised by wide extension towards the basin graphic traps in the hangingwall dip-slope position are
centre. The trap size and complexity depend upon documented several places in the Norwegian shelf,
sediment influx relative to basin floor subsidence rate and are well described from the western margin of
and the stability (potential for reactivation) of the the Viking Graben.
master fault. The first stage of hangingwall deformation in listric
In these syn-rift traps the width of the belt of reser- faulting may be normal drag, followed by development
voir sand/conglomerate out from the master fault zone of a hangingwall anticline (“roll-over”) which mirrors
is directly related to the subsidence rate and the size of the curvature of the master fault. A structural low is
the crestal area being drained. Abundant sediment defined on the proximal side of the hangingwall anti-
supply and moderate subsidence rates will cause larger cline, and opens for entrapment of sediments (Fig. 12.11,
radius fans to develop, whereas high subsidence rates trap type 6). Traps in this position are primarily mixed
cause all clastic sediment to be trapped in much stratigraphic/palaeotopographic and may be related to a
narrower belts in the immediate vicinity of the fault. local unconformity. Since displacement rates along
This trap type is well known from the late Jurassic faults are likely to increase with progressive displace-
interval in the North Sea, where the most prominent ment, it is possible also locally for subsidence to outpace
examples are the Brae Field and the Magnus Field. sedimentation with time, to create considerable space for
Because the coarse-sediment gravity-flow sands and deposition along active faults.
conglomerates are restricted to narrow fault-parallel A special type of palaeotopographic trap related to
belts, they commonly have problematic low continuity hangingwall anticlines may be expected where forced
in this same direction (Fig. 12.12). folds or fault-bend folds above flats in an irregular
Fans associated with accommodation structures fault plane have caused surface deformation. As in
may develop where extended fault activity takes regular hangingwall anticlines, there is room for sedi-
place. Such structures are likely to develop in the ment entrapment between the master fault and the
hangingwall close to the master fault. The type and forced-fold anticline (Fig. 12.11, trap type 9). This
geometry of the accommodation structure depend on trap type is in principle equivalent to that of the con-
the geometry of the master fault as well as on the ventional roll-over described above.
amount of subsidence. Because of development of a In addition, sediments may be trapped along the
fault scarp and the instability associated with such flanks of the forced fold (Fig. 12.11, trap types 8a and
336 R.H. Gabrielsen
8b). Where fault-bend folds are associated with a large transport mechanisms would be block sliding, rock
flat with a significant inclination to the regional dip of fall, or mass flow. In all these cases large volumes of
the master fault, and where sediment supply is good, reservoir rocks may become resident in the
the trapped volumes might be considerable. In fact, the hangingwall in proximal or distal positions relative
total volume may further be increased since the to the master fault.
depocentre will move as the hangingwall is Different types of gravity slides have been reported
transported across the flat, causing stacking of the in this position in front of rotated fault-blocks from the
units. The major disadvantage foreseen for this type North Sea, but have not so far been deliberately
of stratigraphic trap – especially in view of its distal drilled.
position – would be the difficulty for sediments to
bypass the hangingwall anticline. On the other hand, 12.3.1.3 Unconformity Traps Related to
the model allows the possibility of eroding the top of Transition from Active Stretching to
the anticline, thus utilising a local source area. Large- Thermal Cooling
scale fault-bend folds are not uncommon (e.g. Njord The transition from active stretching to thermal
Field), but we are not aware that stratigraphic traps cooling is manifested by a change in style of subsi-
related to such features have been reported in the dence pattern. In the active stretching stage, fault
literature from the North Sea. blocks rotate away from the graben axis, causing sim-
By continued subsidence along the master fault, ilar tilting in the sedimentary cover. The thermal
antithetic faults are likely to form on the distal flank cooling stage, however, causes tilting of strata towards
of the hangingwall fold, and a graben develops parallel the graben axis, mainly because the most rapid subsi-
to the master fault. If the sedimentation rate does not dence takes place along the graben centre (Fig. 12.9).
keep up with subsidence the graben may influence the In strongly asymmetric grabens, this picture will of
drainage pattern, and generate a sediment trap as well. course be modified accordingly.
This eventually heralds the shift from an open to a Overall transgression and onlap of the crestal areas
closed system. At starved basin margins the accom- may be expected towards the end of the active
modation graben may further restrict development of stretching stage because of the overall subsidence of
the primary fan, and in systems where the graben floor the rifted area, and because sediment starvation is not
is close to the marine level, the top of the accommo- uncommon when subsidence outpaces sediment yield.
dation structure may be eroded, and there may be local On a regional scale relief may be enhanced by
sediment transport towards the master fault upheaval of graben shoulders due to isostacy and
(Fig. 12.11, trap types 7a, 7b). elastic response to faulting. The spatial distribution
Examples of this type of trap are found in the “Ula and the magnitude of elevated (possibly eroded) and
trend”, which locally defines the margin of the Central subsiding areas is influenced by the geometry and
Graben. In block 2/2 a system of antithetic faults, depth of the detachments, and by whether the crustal
partly triggered by halokinesis, has developed a local thinning happens during simple or pure shear. Accord-
high, contributing to the initiation of a graben where ingly, these factors will be of importance to the devel-
the sands of the Ula Formation have been trapped. opment, distribution and preservation of stratigraphic
Gravity slides across fault escarpments may occur traps.
along the crestal areas of the rotated fault blocks The accelerated axial subsidence, which is likely to
(Fig. 12.11, trap type 7c). These are the most unstable occur during the early stages of cooling because of the
areas of the graben system and have their instability exponential nature of the thermal decay, will normally
enhanced by the flexural cantilever effect, which be associated with marine transgression, and at the
predicts accentuation of uplift in this area. Eventually, stage where earlier graben walls are onlapped and
slight inversion may further contribute to the uplift of drowned, a break-up unconformity will develop.
fault-block crests along basin margins. Depending on the nature of the subsidence, the uncon-
In reflection seismic data, erosion of uplifted and formity will be diachronously onlapped both along the
rotated fault block crests may be the most easily axis and transversely in the graben system. Depending
detectable effect, but deformation of the escarpment upon the relation between subsidence and sedimenta-
by gravity sliding should not be neglected. The basic tion rate, isostatic stability of the graben margins and
individual fault blocks, the unconformity may be very As the graben is expected to be filled by water,
complex. In this situation a number of unconformity transport agents may be gravity mass flows and turbid-
traps may develop. ity currents (Fig. 12.11, trap type 11b). Large transport
Truncational unconformity traps are formed by distances are therefore possible and the submarine
erosion of units deposited during the active stretching fans may be completely separated from the delta
stage. Fault block rotation and incipient compaction of systems along basin margins, particularly in periods
the sediment package are likely to cause slightly tilted with low-stand of sea level (Fig. 12.11, trap type 12).
units which may be eroded and sealed by the thermal Examples here include some of the main reservoirs in
subsidence shales (Fig. 12.11, trap type 10a). In prin- the North Sea, like the Frigg, Forties and Bruce fields.
ciple, this trap type may form in all parts of the graben The platform-vergent fans are closely related to the
system, but it is most likely to develop along the graben-vergent fans, but occur between crests of
graben shoulders. rotated fault-blocks (Fig. 12.11, trap type 13). During
On-lapping unconformity traps are found above the infilling of the graben, sedimentary packages in areas
unconformity, and are dependent upon whether ero- with the thicker sedimentary fill will tend to suffer a
sion on nearby highs has taken place or not stronger compaction than areas with thin packages.
(Fig. 12.11, trap type 10b). The relief across master This results in development of a hangingwall compac-
faults may be considerable at this stage, and it is likely tion syncline, which, if it has surface expression, may
that there is significant erosion and reworking of sands act as a local sediment trap.
from the marginal highs at this stage. Since the fault The platform-vergent fans will, however, be more
activity is retarded, the graben relief will diminish restricted than the basin-vergent ones, and are more
during this process, and the traps may be of consider- dependent on a local sediment source. These
able lateral extent and contain large volumes of sand. circumstances make this trap type less attractive due
to small potential sediment volumes.
12.3.1.4 Stratigraphic Traps Related to
Thermal Subsidence and Sediment
Loading 12.4 Strike-Slip Systems
At this stage sediment transport may be both axial and
transverse within the graben system, but it is likely that The strike-slip structural regime is characterised by
the transverse systems will dominate in the basin mar- horizontal orientations of σ 1 and σ 3, whereas σ 2 is
gin areas close to major hinterland relief. Minor vertical (Fig. 12.2). Hence, the orientation of the
continued fault activity should still be expected along plane of τmax is vertical, which is also the orientation
the master faults of the graben margins due to isostatic of the master faults. The displacement along the mas-
adjustments. These areas will also act as pivots during ter fault will be in the horizontal plane (parallel to
the shift in subsidence pattern. Altogether this implies strike) and the faulting includes initiation of a complex
relatively smooth graben slopes, with an increased system of secondary fractures.
possibilty to develop thick and extensive sandsheets The general development of shear systems can
with axes oriented transversely to the graben axis. conveniently be analysed by the use of analogue
Because of the high rate of subsidence of the graben mechanical experiments. Strike-slip systems are
floor at this stage, deposition is likely to take place in a highly dynamic, and the geometry of the initial stages
marine environment and the axial basin may be is very different from that of the mature stages of
starved of sediment. As the thermal gradients of the development. Figure 12.13a shows the relation
system approach equilibrium, the basin will fill in and between the structural elements at the initial stage of
finally level out the relief completely. strain for a right-lateral (dextral) shear system. To
Basin-margin fans (Fig. 12.11, trap type 11a) rep- analyse the shear system, one decomposes the shear-
resent a well-described trap type. These are true strati- forces into compressional and tensional vectors by
graphic or palaeotopographic in type, and will constructing a vector parallelogram. The dominant
normally have great lateral extent. Their thickness features define a system of conjugate fractures
will depend upon the degree to which the graben relief (Riedel- and Riedel’-shears) that are related to the
was levelled out when deposition took place. compressive component of the shear. Of these, the
338 R.H. Gabrielsen
Riedel-shears are synthetic to the major shear (mean- along a strike-slip fault. In the ideal case, where the
ing that they are sub-parallel and have similar shear- fault trace is planar and the movements of the oppos-
sense), whereas the Riedel’-shears are oriented at a ing fault blocks are absolutely parallel, the trace would
large angle to the regional orientation of the fault zone be one vertical plane. But since this is the case only for
and also display an opposite (antithetic) shear-sense. very restricted segments of strike-slip faults, there will
In addition to the Riedel- and Riedel’-shears, contrac- be segments where material is squeezed up and out of
tional structures (reverse fault, thrusts and folds) with the fault zone, and cases where slivers of the footwall
their axes oriented 90 to the compressional stress and hangingwall fall into the fault zone. In both cases
component may develop. Due to their favourable ori- the faults are likely to have a steeply dipping root,
entation and synthetic sense of shear, with continued creating diagnostic geometries for strike-slip faults
movement the Riedel-shears tend to become dominant called (positive and negative) flower-structures
at the expense of the antithetic Riedel’-shears. In (Fig. 12.13c). In cases where distinct fault segments
accordance with the orientation of the tensional overlap, but are not in direct contact, zones with pull-
vectors, a set of tensional fractures (T-fractures) may apart basins or turtle-back structures will occur,
be initiated with orientation parallel to the compres- whereas extensional and contractional duplexes will
sional component of the system. develop where the fault-segments are in contact in
By continued displacement there will be a tendency zones of releasing or restraining bends.
for both Riedel- and Riedel’-shears to rotate and for Movements in shear-zones are in many cases not
the tips of Riedel-shears to become joined to constitute entirely parallel, so that a contractional or extensional
a system of linked fractures striking parallel to the component adds to the shear. These situations are
main shear trend. These Y-shears require that some called transpressional and transtensional, respectively,
displacement has taken place and are accordingly not and contribute to exaggerating the morphological
present at the initial state of shear. Another set of shear expressions of the structures described above. In
fractures, P-shears, also occurs at a more advanced such cases there is a tendency for forces to decompose
stage of development. These are oriented at an angle along weak beds in the deforming units so that strain is
of 60 to the contractional component (Fig. 12.13a) taken up in separate systems. Thus a transpressional
and are accordingly symmetrical with the Riedel- stress can be decomposed into a pure contractional
shears, with the Y-shear direction as the plane of regime and a pure strike-slip regime. The process is
symmetry. Dynamically, the P-shears nucleate at the called strain partitioning and is well known for e.g.
profound, principal fault trace and develop up-section the transform delineating the western Barents shelf,
to create an array of fractures with an en echelon where a dextral transpression is decomposed into col-
geometry. lision in the West Spitsbergen Fold- and Thrust Belt
In total, the interaction between the sets of second- and shear along the Hornsund Fault Zone.
ary fractures (R, R’, T, P and Y) contributes to the
complex geometry of the strike-slip fault and
generates an uneven and step-like morphology. The 12.4.1 Hydrocarbon Prospectivity
arrangements of the steps in left-stepping and right- in Strike-Slip Regimes
stepping arrays generate contrasting stress-
configurations along the strike of the strike-slip fault, Large-scale strike-slip systems may be highly
depending on the relative shear-sense (Fig. 12.13b). dynamic depositional systems for sediments and also
Thus a right-lateral (dextral) shear that affects a right- offer a great variety of structural and sedimentary
stepping system of strike-slip fault branches causes traps. However, compared to extensional basins,
extension in the overlap-zones (ramps or bridges) there are two significant differences. Firstly, the ther-
between the individual fault branches, whereas a left- mal development is different in that the steep dips and
stepping system generates overlap zones of contrac- deep roots of the master faults are likely to cause very
tion for the dextral system. For a left-lateral (sinistral) significant and fast thinning. This involves the substra-
shear-sense, the relations are opposite. tum of the basin down to the level where the faults
This implies that a variety of structures, and hence a detach, which may be top of the lowermost crust or
variety of hydrocarbon trap types, are likely to develop even the Moho. This implies that the thermal gradient
a
Antithetic Extension
shear fracture
Master
fault
Secondary Synthetic
synthetic shear
shear
En echelon
folds
Riedel (R) Conjugate

shear Riedel (R’) shear
Y shear
Tension (T)
P shear
fracture
Fig. 12.13 (a–b) Fracture types typical for a dextral strike-slip common hydrocarbon traps in strike-slip systems. Types of
system. By advanced stages of strain, synthetic shears (Riedel structures are indicated in the figure. (a) and (b) are redrafted
shears) and fractures associated with the master fault (Y-shears) from Crowell (1974)
tend to dominate the geometry of the fault zone. (c) Most
340 R.H. Gabrielsen
may very rapidly steepen during early stages of the deformation takes place under high to extremely high
basin formation and that significant leakage of heat p,T-conditions. Such settings are not optimal for the
may start before the syn-rift stage is passed. This may generation and accumulation of petroleum resources
be accompanied by fast burial and maturation (and and will therefore not be considered further here.
perhaps over-maturation) of the source rock, and also However, in the upper (shallow) parts of an orogen
make basin modelling difficult. Secondly, the geome- as well as along its frontal parts, sedimentation and
try and tectonic position of strike-slip systems are such structuring take place during p,T-conditions that are
that the likelihood for accumulation of marine source compatible with the generation and accumulation of
rocks is less than for extensional basin systems now hydrocarbons. Here basins related to the interior
situated in passive margin settings. development and collapse of the central part of the
On the other hand, the structural complexity and orogen will occur, particularly in the later stages of the
variability may develop structural and stratigraphic mountain building, whereas foreland basins may be
trap types that are not found in extensional basin active throughout the entire life of the orogen.
systems. Examples are flower-structures and arrays
of anticlines that may be found along the strike-slip
fault at regular intervals. 12.5.1 The Architecture of Thrust Systems
The most important building blocks of orogens are

12.5 Contractional Regimes folds and contractional faults. Both these types of
structures affect rocks volumes, so that they may be
When reading the following, it is important to remem- constrained from their surroundings by a certain
ber that compression characterises the stress system, geometry and intrinsic style of deformation. Thrust
whereas contraction describes the physical process faults tend to climb up-section, because this is the
of shortening. Contractional regimes are associated direction of σ 3. Still, contractional faults are
with large-scale orogenic processes (formation of characterised by shallow dip and a tendency to flatten
mountain chains), but areas of shortening also may over greater distances, particularly where they follow
occur on local scales within regional extensional beds of low mechanical strength. They are also fre-
or strike-slip realms. Compression is characterised quently seen to merge with other faults along horizon-
by the principal stresses being oriented so that tal fault strands and surfaces between mechanically
σ 1 > σ 2 > σ 3 ¼ σ h max > σ h min > ρgz. In other weak beds, and they regularly intimately affiliate
words, the smallest stress acts in the vertical plane so with folds. This is so because the folds and faults
that the most energy-efficient way of shortening is by frequently are seen to develop in concert. One exam-
transferring excess mass towards the surface. Also, ple can be initial buckling of a bed followed by a fault
due to the orientation of the principal stresses, the breakthrough along the fold hinge. In other cases folds
dip of the plane of maximum shear is 30 , promoting can develop in front of an advancing fault (fault-
the development of thrust faults (Fig. 12.2). propagation folding). In both these examples, the
Orogens are extremely mobile tectonic zones and folds would be asymmetrical with the longer fold
such systems may accommodate displacements that limb dipping at a shallow angle away from the trans-
are several orders of magnitude greater than that port direction, and the shorter fold limb at a steeper
which is typical for extensional basins. This implies angle. The fold axes would be oriented transverse to
that the pattern of deformation may be very complex the direction of transport and may constitute structural
and involve a number of stages or “phases”, each traps of considerable magnitude. By continued
phase representing a unique set of stress conditions shortening the faults may link up, trapping isolated,
and p,T-relations. Still, even the most intricate pattern lens-shaped rock bodies, which commonly incorporate
can be analysed by the utilisation of relatively simple folded beds. The lenses are referred to as horses and
geometrical methods and modelling techniques. where they are stacked between a horizontal floor fault
The major strain in a large-scale contractional sys- and a roof fault, they constitute a duplex (Fig. 12.14a).
tem like an orogen is generally associated with plate In cases where the faults propagate systematically
margins. In the deep and central parts of the oregen, in the direction of the front of the contractional
Age (in Ma)

80 60 40 20 0
a I II III IV V VI VII
150
Temperature (in °C)

PAZ 100
1
50
5
3 4 6
ΔT (in °C)
b 0
Transient heat effect –10
–20
c
(a) st st
hru thru
wsw Lewis thrust M nt. t gstone ENE
2 Femie basin 6-14-8-5W5 Turtle Livin
2
0 0 km
–2 –2
–4 –4
–6 –6
–8 –8
0 20 40 60 80 km
(b)
t
wsw
hrus
t hrus
am t ald t hrus
t Turtle Mountain
gsto
ne ENE
gw a c Don is t 7-20-6-3W5 07-27-6-3W5 Livin ust
Win M Femie basin Lew r
2 07-14-6-3W5 th
2
0
0 km
–2 –2
–4 –4
–6 –6
–8 –8
0 20 40 60 80 km
(c) Flathead Cate
wsw 8-20-4-1W5
Valley Creek Lewis thrust ENE
MacDonald Range Howell Creek 2-1-5-2W5
structure graben Window 07-34-3-1W5 2-16-5-2W5 6-22-5-1W5 3-27-6-27W5
2 6-15-5-2W5 2
0 0 km
–2 –2
–4 –4
–6 –6
–8 –8
–10 –10
0 20 40 60 80 km
Fig. 12.14 (a–b) Temperature-history curves for different (blue: low maturation, dark red: over-maturation). Light blue,
parts of the Canadian Cordillera at different positions relative green and orange colours indicate oil – gas maturation for the
to the apatite annealing zone (PAZ). (c) Structural cross- same profile. From Hardebol et al. (2009). Reproduced by
sections with corresponding organic maturity indications permission of the American Geophysical Union
system, detachments become linked by climbing fault on top of the older ones, and an antiformal stack is
branches. Together these faults may generate duplexes generated. Changes in overburden and friction may
developed by foreland-directed in-sequence thrusting also cause fault activity to switch from one place to
(Fig. 12.14b). In cases where the system halts e.g. due another in an unsystematic way. This is termed out-of-
to increasing friction, the younger horses may pile up sequence thrusting (Fig. 12.14b). Thus, it is not
342 R.H. Gabrielsen
uncommon that shortening is accommodated by This implies that reservoir rocks and hydrocarbon
hinterland-directed thrusting. In cases where the single traps of all kinds are abundant. Because the mountain
faults do not become joined along a roof fault, a chain necessarily is uplifted, however, organic-rich
system of “blind” faults may develop, terminating at marine deposits of the kind that would produce the
a tip-line. Alternatively, the faults may break the sur- source rock, would be rare. An exception to this would
face. In rarer cases the faults climb down-section in the be cases where a source rock deposited before the
direction of transport. This is an indication that the contraction started becomes involved in the orogen.
strain rate is greater along the roof-fault than it is along In such cases, the critical factors would be the depth of
the floor fault. tectonic burial of the source rock, the geothermal
The regions where contractional faults climb up- gradient of the greater orogeny and the positioning of
section are termed ramps and the total geometry of the the source rock relative to the reservoirs. In the
fault is that of a ramp-flat-ramp. In such cases, the pure dynamic environment of a nappe pile, it must be
geometry of the fault planes forces the strata inside the taken into consideration that units now separated by
horses to become folded. The folds reflect the geome- tens of kilometres may have been juxtaposed at the
try and steepness of the fault plane because the front of time of maturation and migration.
the horse depends on the cut-out angle of the original Three principally different basin settings can be
ramp. Ramps parallel to the transport direction may distinguished. Intramontane basins are collapse
also influence the development and the geometry of structures or structural lows generated by folding and
the thrust system. Such features may potentially sepa- thrusting inside the realm of the mountain chain.
rate subunits of contrasting deformational style. In Those active at the peak tectonic activity are likely
cases where strain rates are not similar across the to trap large amounts of coarse clastics over a short
ramp, shear and strong rotation occur, and when the period of time. They are in most cases of restricted size
structures propagate to affect the surface topography and source rocks are rarely associated with them.
they may strongly influence the depositional systems Foreland basins are far more interesting from a hydro-
associated with the mountain chain. carbon exploration point of view. These are stabilised
It is obvious that the tectonic processes described as accommodation areas for sediments due to the
above produce a variety of structural traps, among gravity load of the progressing orogen, and may trap
which anticlines with along-strike closure and horses the bulk of the sediments eroded from the rising
delineated by sealing faults may be the most obvious. mountains and transported towards the orogenic
Because the subsurface structuring also per definition front. The central parts of foreland basins may reach
affects the topography during mountain building, dif- thousands of metres in depth and constitute deep
ferent types of subtle and stratigraphic traps are also marine depositional systems. Thus, the foreland
likely to be generated (Fig. 12.14a). basin may offer a whole range of sedimentary
environments from fluvial, via shallow marine to
deep marine. The structuring in the foreland basin
12.5.2 Hydrocarbon Prospectivity of position is moderate, but increasing during the pro-
Contractional Regimes gressive development of the orogen. Thus, the basin
will eventually become overrun by the advancing
The very dynamic character of contractional systems deformation front and cannibalised. In this process, a
obviously produces a variety of sedimentary systems variety of structures are developed from gravitational
and structural and stratigraphic traps. The relief extensional to contractional complexes of folds, thrust
associated with orogens normally is measured in sheets and duplexes. In basins related to subduction
kilometres. Strong erosional forces, gravitational zones, different types of accretionary prisms may pro-
instability and climatic influences are important vide source rocks and reservoir rocks, as well as traps,
parameters in the development of mountain chains. both stratigraphic and structutral. However, these are
The system is flooded with a variety of clastic ero- very dynamic systems, sometimes too dynamic to
sional products, the mineralogical composition of provide low-risk exploration targets. Also, the
which reflects the types of rocks that are involved in sediments in such systems are likely to be too fine-
the orogen in the first place. grained to provide good reservoirs.
Although perhaps more rare than in extensional • Uplift of basin margins

regimes, source rocks may be involved in orogens, • Uplift of central parts of basins.
such as in the Canadian Cordillera. Detailed studies
here performed by Hardebol and his co-workers reveal The most common configuration at an early stage
a complex maturation history, where both tectonic and of inversion of a fault is shown in Fig. 12.15a. In this
sedimentary burial have to be taken into account. case, the accommodation space generated in the
Although some mountain chains may reveal surpris- hangingwall during extension is completely filled by
ingly homogeneous bulk geothermal gradient patterns, sediments. During inversion of the master fault, these
the individual tectonic units may have undergone sediments will be squeezed out of their position in the
contrasting histories of burial and uplift, making a hangingwall and onto the footwall, accompanied by
full tectonic restoration necessary in the evaluation uplift and folding. For inversion without any oblique
of the hydrocarbon maturation of the system component, the fold axes will be oriented parallel to
(Fig. 12.14). the strike of the extensional fault and, accordingly,
orthogonal to the new σ h max . By continued deforma-
tion, the pre-existing fault may be squeezed against the
12.6 Structural Inversion hangingwall and become steepened as a consequence,
whereas new, low-angle faults generated in the foot-
By the term “structural inversion”, or simply “inver- wall may create local thrusts (Fig. 12.15b).
sion”, we generally mean a system of extensional If one looks at the entire basin, the response on
structures that has subsequently undergone contrac- inversion will depend on the geometry of the basin
tion. This implies that the principal axes of stress and the mechanical properties of the crust and litho-
have been changed from being orientated such that sphere. In the case of a basin that has already been
affected by thinning and thermal weakening, the cen-
σ1 > σ2 > σ3 tral part may become overdeepened and the basin
shoulders uplifted. In contrast, in the case of a
¼
mechanically strong basin fill, the central basin may
σ v > σ h max > σ h min be uplifted, forming an inverted eye-shaped basin
¼ geometry. Alternatively, the basin fill may be folded
ρgz > σ h max > σ h min and squeezed out of the basin, as described above for
switches to faults.
σ h max > ρgz > σ h min
This implies that the dip of the plane of maximum 12.6.1 Hydrocarbon Prospectivity in Basins
shear will switch from 60 to 30 (Fig. 12.15). Thus, with Structural Inversion
although an established zone of weakness will repre-
sent a potential zone of reactivation when structural From a petroleum exploration point of view, structural
inversion occurs, it is unlikely that the already inversion is an effect that comes on top of and
established faults will be able to accommodate much subsequent to the development of a regular exten-
strain, meaning that new faults with lower angles of sional basin, and particularly affects the basin
inclination will be initiated. The most common margins. Inversion structures may provide additional
characteristics of an inverted system are: structural traps as very well exemplified in the mid-
• Reverse reactivation of (extensional) faults Norwegian margin by the Ormen Lange and Helland
• Generation of new, low-angle fault traces Hansen structures. On the other hand, inversion
• Development of secondary contractional structures invokes an additional risk for breaking of the seal
(folds, reverse faults, thrusts) and leakage though reactivated faults. Finally,
344 R.H. Gabrielsen
a Extensional half-graben
Post-rift
Syn-rift
Pre-rift
Basement
Incipient footwall
Normal fault shortcut fault
Inverted half-graben
Fault Footwall
reactivated as thrust shortcut fault
b
3
1
2
2
4
Old planar
fault zone
Fig. 12.15 (a) Typical geometry of an inverted extensional 1: Topographic low inside a pop-up. 2: Topographic low in the
fault. Note the low-angle footwall shortcut fault (modified hangingwall of an inverted fault. 3: Incipient syncline between a
from Cooper et al. 1989). (b) Surface expressions of deforma- train of emergent anticlines. 4: Syncline between two emergent
tion in an inverted terrane. Elevated areas, prone to yield ero- and eroded anticlines
sional products, are marked in red, sand accumulations yellow.
inversion is commonly associated with uplift and ero- properties of halite is well established (the deforma-
sion, that in most cases add to the complication of the tion mechanism changes from dislocation creep to
geological history and reservoir pressure. diffusion creep at a water content as low as 0.05%),
there is still not enough data available on the rheologi-
cal properties of evaporites to predict the detailed
12.7 Basins with Evaporites strain path and geometry that large evaporite bodies
develop when exposed to gravity and loading from a
Rock salt is strictly speaking a crystalline aggregate of clastic sedimentary overburden. In addition, many
the mineral halite (NaCl), which is one of more than evaporite sequences contain a high proportion of clas-
20 evaporite minerals formed by precipitaion from tic material that may be involved in the deformation,
saturated brines, most commonly from solar evapora- and the rheological effect of these clastic
tion. Although salt deposits may contain large portions “contaminations” is not easily predictable.
of other evaporite minerals like anhydrite and gypsum, Although one tends to associate the problem of
most studies of the mechanical properties, and hence seismic imaging in areas with extensive salt deposits
the dynamics, of evaporites, consider rock salt as the to be affiliated with complex salt structures, one
dominant mineral. Although the very strong influence should not overlook that many basins contain
of water on the mechanical strength and flow evaporites that are tabular, flat-lying and stable, and
where the problem of seismic imaging is restricted to migration of contraction can then reach the exten-
seeing through the salt as such. It is still fair to say that sional domain and squeeze the diapirs.
the structural geology of evaporites has attracted much Analogue experiments show that the overall struc-
attention, partly because the high mobility of such tural zoning is mainly controlled by the initial condi-
deposits poses intriguing structural geological tion (salt basin) and the basal slope angle, whereas the
problems, and even more so because salt structures type of structures in the structural domains strongly
are associated with a variety of structural and strati- depends on sedimentation rate (Fig. 12.16b).
graphic traps of significance for the petroleum indus- An early attempt to classify salt structures system-
try. The structural geology of salt very much reflects atically and to set this into a dynamic context was
the local tectonic environment, be it extensional, con- made by Trusheim in 1960. He suggested that salt
tractional or strike-slip. This implies that salt bodies impiercements grow from elongated low-profile ridges
come in an almost infinite variety of shapes, some of (anticlines and rollers) triggered by gravitational
which even challenge the limits of the imagination. contrasts, developing into rows of pillows, diapirs
This variety of shapes, combined with the acoustic and eventually into walls and sheets of salt. The
properties of salt, poses great challenges for reflection diapirs come in a variety of shapes from regular mas-
seismic imaging of salt bodies and the strata beneath sive stocks, via irregular masses to elegant
and close to them. mushrooms. This geometric classification is undoubt-
Gravity-driven deformation at continental margins edly valid for a tectonically stable, evenly subsiding
is generated by the regional gradient of the margin basin. But even this relatively predictable kinematic
itself and is characterised by upslope extension and growth pattern of salt structures causes great problems
downslope contraction. Salt and its overlying sedi- in seismic imaging due to the complex pattern of
mentary pile spread in a seaward direction due to internal flow in the salt structure itself, including hori-
regional tilting in response to lithosphere cooling, zontal displacement, affiliated with the development
whereas synkinematic sedimentation induces loading of overhanging or even horizontal walls.
instabilities. At basin scale, thin-skinned deformation
may induce extreme upslope salt thinning, leading to
the formation of salt welds, as well as massive down- 12.7.1 Hydrocarbon Prospectivity in
slope salt thickening. Most often, the extensional Salt-filled Basins
domain can be divided into three sub-domains, which
are, in a seaward direction, the sealed tilted block, Deep parts of basins where salt structures tend to be
growth fault/rollover, and diapir domains situated may be excellent sediment traps. The growth
(Fig. 12.16a). The upper domain is characterised by of diapirs contributes to the development of local
tilted blocks that are sealed early by synkinematic depocentres and the areas around salt diapirs may
sedimentation. The rollover domain displays a large accumulate large volumes of reservoir rocks of good
amount of extension, whereas the domain of diapirs is quality and be associated with excellent structural and
generally considered as gently translating, accommo- stratigraphic traps. However, due to the capacity of
dating small amounts of extension. Diapirs correspond salt to flow horizontally at shallow levels and develop
to weak zones and are easily and often squeezed. overhanging bulges and sheets, and even to become
Downslope of the margin, contractional structures bal- detached from its deeper sources, the detailed geomet-
ance the amount of upslope stretching. ric configuration around the stem of the salt structure,
The domain of shortening is also divided into three including its diameter, is commonly disguised and the
sub-domains. In a seaward direction they are com- diameter of the stem itself may be impossible to deter-
posed of diapirs squeezed at late stage, polyharmonic mine from reflection seismic data.
folds and thrust faults developed at early stage, and In addition to the bulge above the salt
folds and thrusts developed at late stage. Contractional empiercement itself, which will reflect the geometry
structures are initiated in a domain located at a dis- of the upper layers of the empiercement, the main
tance from the initial salt edge. Compression remains types of features that may constitute structural hydro-
localised in this domain during the initial stages of carbon traps adjacent to salt diapirs are the rim
evolution by continued deformation. The upslope syncline system (sometimes several generations),
346 R.H. Gabrielsen
a Seaward Landward
- Migration of contraction
Extensional domain
1.0
2.0
TWT (s)
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
25 km
Sealed tilted
Growth fault/Rollover domain block domain
Diapir domain
25 cm
Wall 5
6
5
3 1
2 7
1 4
1
Pillow Stock
Fig. 12.16 (a) Analogue experiment showing salt structures different structural positions. 1: Rim syncline. 2: Rim syncline
and related structuring of sediments between salt ridges in an between a stock and a pillow. 3: Rim syncline along a salt wall.
extensional, inclined slope (from Brun and Fort 2008). (b) 4: Salt-induced graben. 5: Graben on top of collapsed salt
Surface expressions of deformation in a terrane affected by pillow. 6: Salt-induced rotated fault block. 7: Stratigraphic trap
halokinesis. Elevated areas, prone to yield erosional products, covered by overhang in salt pillow
are marked in red, sand accumulations given in yellow for
anticlines associated with the rim syncline system, relatively straightforward. For mushroom-shaped
faults generated due to volume reduction during verti- diapirs, however, this is much more challenging and
cal transport of salt, and drag structures close to the several parameters have to be taken into consideration
stem of the diapir (Fig. 12.16b). Due to the circular in the structural analysis: the distance of the rim syn-
nature of the diapir, all these structures are likely to be cline system from the centre of the diapir and its
closed when seen in three dimensions. In addition, amplitude and wavelength depend on the thickness
numerous types of stratigraphic trap may be related of the original salt sequence, on the diameter of the
to any of these structural features. For salt anticlines diapir, and the salt flow rate relative to sedimentation
and simple walls, which have not developed rate. In many cases however, this structure is situated
overhangs, seismic imaging of the structures is usually sufficiently far away from the diapir for seismic
imaging to be straightforward. When it comes to the 12.8 Faults and Fault Architecture
fault systems and the drag structures, these occur close
to the stem of the diapir and are likely to be covered Fractures (faults and joints) are found in practically all
and completely obscured by the overhanging diapir hydrocarbon reservoirs and are crucial elements
bulb. because they both influence the migration of
One particular difficulty in seismic interpretation hydrocarbons within the reservoir and contribute to
may occur in cases where dynamic salt interacts with the entrapment of fluids. Due to great variation in
faulting. At the crests of salt diapirs and stocks a fault rocks and fracture types and their distribution,
combination of ring-shaped and radial fault systems the influence of fractures on reservoir communication
is commonly found, but these are unproblematic in is not easily predictable. It is therefore natural that the
seismic imaging and interpretation. In addition, analysis of single faults and fracture systems is receiv-
numerous examples exist of fault activity promoted ing increasing attention.
by the underlying active salt, providing a substratum For the assessment of the architecture of faults and
for detachment. Again, such structural relations are fracture systems one can, in principle, chose between
also clearly displayed in reflection seismic data. stochastic and deterministic or a combination of the
Finally, though, due to transfer of larger volumes of two. Given the complexity and generalised architec-
salt towards the basin axis, smaller pillow-shaped ture of larger faults, however, stochastic methods are
volumes of salt are frequently left and trapped along less favourable in analysis of such features. This also
basin margins, where they interact with the basin mar- seems to be the case for fracture systems generated in
gin fault system. In such cases different configurations stress situations where σ 1 is distinctly different from
are sometimes developed in the hangingwall and the σ 3. To provide input to a deterministic reservoir model
footwall of the salt-involved fault, causing complex that aims at taking the complexity of larger faults into
and contrasting sedimentary conditions across the consideration, we have performed field studies in
fault so that significant problems arise in sequence order to constrain realistic characteristics for the
correlation. Where salt has intruded along the fault- units that commonly can be defined within the realm
plane, interpretation of seismic data may be hampered of a fault zone.
by reduction of the general data quality. Since mesoscopic and macroscopic faults affect
In more complex tectonic environments (strike-slip volumes of rock, and accordingly should be described
and contraction), the complexity and variety of salt as composite rock bodies that include a complex sys-
body configuration is commonly much greater, tem of structures (fault rock, folds and fractures), the
because the final geometry of the salt body will be term “fault zone” is applied here. In the following we
determined by directed flow reflecting varying differ- use “fracture” as a general term that includes faults,
ential stress and strain. For example, the importance of deformation bands and joints, and we distinguish
evaporite sequences in the development of many between shear fractures (microscale) and faults
thrust belts like the Pyrenees and the West Spitsbergen (meso- and megascale). Also, we use the term “high-
thrust-and-fold belt is well documented. In such strain zone” for the parts of the fault core where shear
settings seismic imaging may be complicated by salt is concentrated.
being involved as an extensive, continuous or
disrupted unit during the thrusting, and also because
it may have accumulated unevenly and become
integrated in contraction structures like fold cores 12.8.1 The Structural Elements of the Fault
and duplexes, and as intrusions along fault planes. Zone
The quality of seismic imaging performance in
areas of salt has been greatly improved in recent It is well established that faults are commonly zoned
years. Still, the days of surprises are not yet over and composed of several units with distinct deforma-
when results from drilling become available. The tion styles (Fig. 12.17). These include the fault core,
effort in improving seismic imaging techniques must where most of the displacement is accommodated, and
therefore continue. And it should go hand in hand with its associated damage zones that are geometrically and
field study and analogue modelling. mechanically related to the development of the fault.
348 R.H. Gabrielsen
Footwall
master Hangingwall
Fault core master
branchline
Distal Central Distal branchline
A: Host rock horse

F B: Fault rock horse
B C: High strain zone
D: Outer fault core
E: Fault core collapsed to slip surface
D A
F: Clay lens
H: Slip surface
III I - III Fracture sets in hangingwall
C
IV - VI Fracture sets in footwall
VI I
IV V E II
Fig. 12.17 The structural elements of an extensional fault
The fault core is in general separated from the suggested that the lenses are close to symmetrical
footwall and hangingwall damage zones by distinct with reference to both the central a- and b-axes. The
fault-branches. Lozenge-shaped rock bodies fre- available data also suggest that these relations are
quently dominate the cores of extensional faults. roughly valid also for the higher-order lenses (2nd,
These are commonly referred to as fault lenses or 3rd, 4th order etc.), although there is a tendency for
horses, which may occur in isolation, as en echelon the a:c- and b:c-values to become slightly reduced for
trains, or be stacked to constitute duplexes. The fault- the higher-order lenses.
rock lenses may consist of relatively undeformed The high-strain zones separating individual or
country rock derived from the footwall or the groups of fault lenses may include deformed units
hangingwall of the fault core. In faults with greater that can be recognised as country rock in the footwall
displacement, the fault lenses may represent and hangingwall, as well as several types of fault
lithologies exotic to that of the observable footwall rocks, the host rock of which cannot be determined.
and hangingwall or be completely reworked fault For example the most intensely deformed zone of the
rocks like cataclasites and breccias. The geometry of fault core is easily distinguishable and this zone may
the lenses, their relative arrangement and their relation represent the latest area of deformation, indicating that
to intervening high-strain zones are important for the strain softening has occurred.
fluid communication along and across faults in cases The damage zones define a halo of fractures on both
where contacts between units of high or low perme- sides of the fault core. The fractures of the damage
ability control the fluid flow. zones are associated with the dynamic development of
Field study of the shape of fault core lenses the fault and may encompass remnants of the propa-
suggests that such features have relatively regular gation of the incipient fracture, commonly termed the
shapes and that the a:c-ratio (relation between length process zone. The strain intensity in the damage zones
measured in the dip-direction and maximum thick- is generally modest compared to that of the fault core,
ness) in extensional faults is in the order of 10:1 and and in sedimentary rocks bedding and other primary
that the b:c-ratio (relation between length measured in features can commonly be recognised. The fracture
the strike-direction and maximum thickness) is some- distribution, frequency and orientation in the
what less than this, perhaps 9:1 or 8:1. It is also hangingwall and the footwall are generally different,
and it is therefore convenient to distinguish the foot- Cunningham, W.D. and Mann, P. 2007. Tectonics of Strike-Slip
wall damage zone from that of the hangingwall. Restraining and Releasing Bends. Geological Society Spe-
cial Publication 290, 482 pp.
Field investigations show that damage zones are Dahlstrom, C.D.A. 1970. Structural geology in the eastern mar-
not symmetrically distributed around the fault core. gin of the Canadian Rocky Mountains. Bulletin Canadian
Accordingly, it is commonly observed that the fracture Petroleum Geology 18, 332–406.
frequency curves build up towards their maximum Fossen, H. and Gabrielsen, R.H. 2005. Strukturgeolgi.
Fagbokforlaget Vigmostad & Bjørke AS, 375 pp (in
values more steeply in the footwall than in the Norwegian).
hangingwall. Also, there are differences where orien- Gabrielsen, R.H. 1986. Structural elements in graben systems
tation of the major fracture populations is concerned. and their influence on hydrocarbon trap types. In: Spencer,
The footwall damage zone is characterised by a set of A.M. et al. (eds.), Habitat of Hydrocarbons on the Norwe-
gian Continental Shelf. Norwegian Petroleum Society.
fractures oriented subparallel to the footwall master Graham & Trotman, London, pp. 55–60.
fault-branch. This fracture population may interfere Gabrielsen, R.H. and Møller-Holst, J. 1997. The influence of
with fracture sets that dip both more and less steeply present and future development in information technology
than the master fault-branch. The hangingwall damage on the Exploration and Production phase model. Petroleum
Geoscience 3(3), 193–202.
zone is influenced to a greater extent by antithetic Gabrielsen, R.H., Steel, R.J. and Nøttvedt, A. 1995. Subtle traps
fractures to the master fault and a wider area is in extensional terranes: A model with reference to the North
affected by these fractures. The fractures of the dam- Sea. Petroleum Geoscience 1, 223–235.
age zones may be of different kinds, depending on Halbouty, M.T. 1979. Salt Domes: Gulf Region, United States
and Mexico, 2nd edition. Gulf Publishing, Houston, Texas.
lithology, depth of burial at the time of deformation, 561 pp.
and strain intensity. Hancock, P.L. (ed.). Continental Deformation. Pergamon Press,
Faults that are in their early stage of development Oxford, 421 pp.
do not possess the complexity described above. In Hardebol, N.J., Callot, J.P., Bertotti, G. and Faure, J.L. 2009.
Burial and temperature evolution in thrust belt systems:
sandstones they develop from single or arrays of Sedimentary and thrust sheet loading in the SE Canadian
deformation bands that with increasing strain coalesce Cordillera. Tectonics 28, TC3003, 1–28, doi: 10.1029/
into one zone of focused shear. This is generally also 2008TC002335.
the case for incipient faults in carbonates. Jackson, M.P.A. and Talbot, C.J. 1991. A glossary of salt tec-
tonics. Geological Circular 91-4, University of Austin,
Texas, Bureau of Economic Geology, 44 pp.
Kearey, P., Klepeis, K.A. and Vine, F.J. 2009. Global Tectonics,
3rd edition, Wiley-Blackwell, New York, NY, 482 pp.
Further Reading Lister, G.S., Etheridge, M.A. and Symonds, P.A. 1986. Detach-
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Chapter 12

The Structure and Hydrocarbon Traps of Sedimentary Basins

Juan de Fuca North American

Antarctic Plate Scotia Plate Antarctic Plate

Convergent boundary Divergent boundary Transform fault

12.1.2 Tectonic Stress in the Earth’s

Spreading phase Continental shelf

Oceanic lithospheric plate

Island arc phase

Island arc core with

Closing phase Passive spreading ridge

Folding and thrusting

Mountain chain on a new continent

New lithospheric plate

Conceptual model - northern North Sea

30 Moho High velocity body

a produce a variety of lithofacies due to the increasing

Inner master Axis of rotation

Riedel (R) Conjugate

The most important building blocks of orogens are

Age (in Ma)

Temperature (in °C)

Although perhaps more rare than in extensional • Uplift of basin margins

A: Host rock horse

Fig. 12.17 The structural elements of an extensional fault

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