JNE514 Lecture & Reference Notes

SHIP BUILDING MATERIALS

To meet today‟s all welded ships requirements high strength-to-weight ratio

alloys intended for low temperature service have been introduced into ship
building. The primary consideration for steel grade selection is weldability, with the
goal to obtain a weld with equivalent strength characteristics to that of the base
metal. The aluminium alloys used in the ship building industry have a high strength-to-
weight ratio compared to steel and are seawater resistant and have the mechanical
properties of mild steel at merely one third of the weight.
Properties of materials:

 Toughness – when a material is bent and it can withstand that bending without
getting fractured, it is known as a tough material. It requires a lot of cycles of
bending before the material actually fails. This property is exactly opposite to the
property of brittleness where a material simply breaks upon application of bending
force.

 Ductility – this refers to the property of the material to get deformed before it
actually fails due to tension. This property is dependent on temperature and
decreases with rise in temperature. Gold is one of the most ductile metals but
since we are considering from the point of view of ship construction, the ductile
materials use for this purpose include tin, zinc, lead, copper etc. A closely related
term is notch ductility and this gives a measure of the relative toughness of steel
which is measured using impact test.

 Malleability – a material tends to crack under compression or when its shape is

changed due to operations such as extrusion, forging and so forth. The
malleability of a metal increases with temperature as against ductility which
follow the reverse trend. This property is useful in working on hot ingots or metal
slabs which are used for building various parts of the ship.

During the past few years there has been an upsurge of interest in the use of composites in
all applications, including maritime, civil engineering and offshore. This growing trend is
clue to the exploitation of the unique properties that today‟s advanced composites offer
properties that are difficult to match with traditional materials such as steel, aluminium or
wood. These include high strength-to-weight and modulus-to-weight ratios.

1. Shipbuilding Steel

The steel used in shipbuilding is mainly mild steel with 0.15-0.23% carbon content and
must be certified by a classification society. There are six grades of steel used in ship
building; A, B, D, E, DS, and CS. The properties of these plain carbon steels depend on
their chemical content and microstructure. Finished steel is stamped by the classification
societies.

High tensile steel is developed to have higher toughness, ductility, weldability, and
strength. This is developed by addition element such as vanadium, chromium, nickel, and
Niobium.
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Shipbuilding traditionally uses structural steel plate to fabricate ship hulls. Modern steel
plates have much higher tensile strengths than their predecessors, making them much
better suited to the efficient construction of large container ships. Such steels make
possible much lighter vessels than before, or larger capacity vessels for the same weight,
offering significant opportunities to save on fuel consumption and hence CO2 emission.

The advanced steels used in these steel-plate applications also find uses in a number of
related industries. Offshore oil rigs, bridges, civil engineering and construction machines,
rail carriages, tanks and pressure vessels, nuclear, thermal and hydroelectric plants – all
these applications benefit from the attributes of modern steels.

Figure 49: Steel sections

Steel sections are formed by welding fabricated standard steel sections to plates as shown
in Figure 49.

In recent years, more attention has been paid to the safety and durability of ships and
environment protection of sea, which have led to the development of new structural steel
plates. One of them is the development of more corrosion resistant plates for double-hull
tankers. Crude oil carriers are now required to have double hulls to prevent oil spill, and
an increase in temperature in oil tanks with the double hull structure increases the
likelihood of corrosion of upper deck steel plates exposed to the vapour space in the
tanks. To prevent the corrosion and to increase the life time of the ships, different
corrosion resistant steel palates have been developed.

The development of new steel plates has also been made to increase construction
efficiency and thereby to decrease construction cost. Longitudinally profiled (LP) steel
plates were developed in this context. Thickness change within a plate was achieved by
controlled rolling, which made it possible to replace the plates which had been made by
welding steel plates of different thickness, and therefore to reduce the welding time and
cost.
 Lecture & Reference Notes

Another development is concerned with residual stress retaining in steel plates. Steel
plates are likely to possess residual stresses from their production, and this often results in
distortion in different ways after cutting and welding of the plates. In order to achieve
residual stress-reduced steel plates, temperature differences over the large surface area in
a wide and long plate and through the thickness should be minimized and cold levering is
also used for the purpose of reducing inhomogeneous stress for block shape accuracy.

Table 3: Properties of ABS steel for ship building

ABS
ABS ABS ABS ABS
Grade Grade Grade Grade Grade
A B D E
C 0.21 0.21 0.21 0.18
Mn(≥) 2.5*C 0.80 0.60 0.70
P 0.035 0.035 0.035 0.035
Chemical
S 0.035 0.035 0.035 0.035
Composition % ≤
0.10- 0.10-
Si 0.50 0.35
0.35 0.35
Al
0.035 0.035 0.035 0.035
(acid)
Yield Strength (Mpa) 235 235 235 235
400- 400-
Tensile Strength (Mpa) 400-520 400-520
520 520
Impacting Test
20 0 -20 -40
temperature (℃)
Mark AB/A AB/B AB/D AB/E
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Standard Strength Steel

 Lecture & Reference Notes

Higher Strength Steels

 Lecture & Reference Notes

2. Aluminium Alloys

Aluminium use in shipbuilding has increased due to the lighter weight (1/3 weight of
steel). This reduction of weight in the upper structure of the ship results in an
improvement of the ships stability. Aluminium has a good resistance to corrosion. The
main disadvantage of aluminium is the high cost. Aluminium sections are formed by
extrusion shown in Figure 50, which is then welded to plating. A special insulating
arrangement is used when joining steel to Aluminium.

Figure 50 Aluminium extrusions

Aluminium is used in hulls, deckhouses, and hatch covers of commercial ships, as well as
in equipment items, such as ladders, railings, gratings, windows, and doors. The major
incentive for employing aluminium is its weight saving compared to steel. Because it is
common practice to use weldable aluminium alloys having strengths approaching or
comparable to mild steel, equal-strength structures can be designed to a weight saving of
55 to 67%.

The principal advantages of weight saving in many types of marine vessels are to increase
payload, to expand capacity for equipment, and to decrease the power required. With
other types of vessels, the chief benefit is to permit better distribution of the weight,
improving stability and facilitating efficient hull design. The use of aluminium normally
results in initial cost premiums that are justified over the life of the application by the
benefits of lightweight and low maintenance cost.

The weight saving achieved depends on the approach to design, which varies with
different applications. Where known or rule loadings exist for specific structures, normal
design principles are applied along with consideration of the mechanical properties of
specific alloys.

Alloys - The 5xxx series alloys used for the majority of commercial marine applications
have weld yield strengths of 100 to 200 MPa. These aluminium-magnesium alloys retain
good weld ductility without post weld heat treatment, and they can be fabricated with
normal shipyard techniques and equipment. The weldable aluminium-magnesium-zinc
alloys are also receiving attention in this field. The corrosion resistance of the 5xxx series
alloys is another major factor in the selection of aluminium for marine applications.
Tensile strength reductions in 10-year sea-water corrosion tests of 1.62mm thick bare
sheet specimens are only 2 to 5%. The 6xxx series alloys, widely used for pleasure boats,
show a 5 to 7% decrease in similar tests.

Aluminium alloys are used, however, in a few applications, such as piping, for maximum
assurance against excessive depth of pitting. Also, 2xxx and 7xxx series alloys are
 Lecture & Reference Notes

selected where tensile strengths of 70,000 to 80,000 psi (482.6-551.2 MPa) are required,
considerably higher than now available in the 5xxx series alloys.

The high-strength alloys are employed where welding is not required, and where their
higher strengths can be used to advantage. Because of their lower resistance to corrosion
by sea water, protective measures such as cladding, painting, or cathodic protection must
be used for satisfactory life in marine service.

2.1 Vessel Types

The use of small boats has expanded rapidly since 1945. Early applications of aluminium
were mainly in canoes and small fishing boats, in which aluminium is now the dominant
material.

Small Craft - Runabouts and small outboard cruisers up to 6m long generally are
constructed either of aluminium or plastic. Styling often is more important than
engineering superiority in these consumer products. However, only recently have
builder‟s emphasized styling in aluminium boats.

Light weight is advantageous, in that it reduces construction costs, allows a boat to be

driven with less power, and provides portability. Furthermore, many accidents that would
have caused fractures and extensive damage in wood or plastic boats result only in
repairable dents with aluminium. Also, aluminium boats are damaged less than steel boats
in service experience to date (even though aluminium plating and steel plating are usually
of the same thickness), because the lower modulus of elasticity of aluminium results in a
larger capacity to absorb energy. For both aluminium sheet and steel sheet, thickness is
selected mostly on the basis of weldability, for which the requirements are the same for
the two metals.

Figure 51: Bar-Crusher runabout

The practical minimum thickness of aluminium parts for repair welding is considered to
be 2.3mm. Although lighter gages (common in small-boat construction) can be welded,
usually they are repaired at perforated locations by riveting sheet patches in place. Dents
are hammered smooth, as in automobile body repair.

Low maintenance reduces the cost of operating, which is an advantage with private
pleasure craft, which are carefully maintained for appearance. Most aluminium boats are
sold painted for fresh-water or salt-water service. For operation in fresh water, aluminium
 Lecture & Reference Notes

boats are commonly left unpainted for 10 years or more, whereas wood boats require
annual caulking and painting. For salt-water service, the typical practice with aluminium
is an annual touch-up plus repainting every three or four years.

Aluminium is used for boat trim and accessories, regardless of hull material. Anodized
bright trim, either as extrusions or roll-formed sheet products, is widely used in boats of
all types for rub rails, dash panels, and other parts.

Small boats are fabricated from a wide range of aluminium sheet alloys, mainly in the
5xxx and 6xxx series. These have an optimum combination of strength, cost, ease of
fabrication, and corrosion resistance. Generally, 5052-H32, 5052-H34, or 6061-T6 is used
for small hulls that need no stretch forming. Where stretch forming is employed, 6061-T4
sheet, which may be subsequently artificially aged to the T6 temper, is utilized.
Extrusions of 6061 or 6063 are used for structural and decorative sections, such as keels,
chines, gunwales, and spray rails.

Larger inboard boats, 6 to 38 m long, are fabricated of aluminium alloys for reasons
similar to those for small craft. Normally, these boats employ welded construction for
hull, interior structure, and cabins, the most popular alloy for hulls is 5086-H32, in
thicknesses of 5 to 12.7 mm. Bulkheads, fuel tanks, and cabins are usually of the same
alloy as the hull, although 5052 or 6061 can be utilized. Structural members, either in
special extrusions or standard structural shapes, can be of 6061-T6 or 5086-H112 in all-
welded construction.

Sailing craft follow a pattern similar to that for power craft; the smaller boats using
riveted construction of 5052 or 6061 alloy, and larger custom yachts using all-welded
construction in 5086. The light weight of aluminium hulls in sailing craft allows the
designer wide latitude in providing balance between sail area and ballast-displacement
ratio. A study of hull weights for wood, glass-reinforced plastic, and aluminium in a 9m
yawl showed that plastic was 10% and wood 37% heavier than aluminium. The currently
standard plastic yawls have a ballast-displacement ratio of 0.433, compared to 0.390 for
the older wood design. Aluminium construction would permit a ratio of approximately
0.47.

Figure 52: Radford 16.75m yacht

Personnel and work boat construction has accelerated with the expansion of the offshore
oil industry since World War II. Initially, steel was established as the standard
construction material for these craft, and it was not until the middle 1950‟s that the first
 Lecture & Reference Notes

aluminium personnel boat went into service. This all-welded 6061-T6 boat quickly
demonstrated the advantages of lighter hull weight, resulting in higher speed for the same
horsepower. As time saved in transportation of personnel to the rigs offers significant
wage savings, the industry rapidly adopted these craft.
Crew boats are normally of hard-chine, planing-hull type, using developable surfaces in
the hull form. This results in an efficient hull that is economical to fabricate. The builder
also benefits from the lighter weight of the material being lifted into place, since fewer
workers and pieces of hoisting equipment are required. One builder of personnel boats
has shown that a 15metre aluminium hull requires a fabrication time 33% less that for
steel.

The majority of aluminium personnel boats are fabricated of 5456-H321 sheet and plate
5mm to 9.5mm thick, and 5456-Hlll or 6061-T6 extruded shapes. Alloy 5086 is also
widely used for hull plating. Cabins are normally of 5052 sheet 3.2mm to 6.5mm thick,
and 6061 extrusions.

Fishing Vessels In these craft, the weight-saving and corrosion-resistance economies of

aluminium have proven to exceed the initial investment premium. The original advantage
attributed to aluminium was the weight saving, which was used to compensate for
additional net-handling gear while retaining adequate stability. Equipment aboard fishing
vessels is often aluminium. The aluminium fishroom, common in Europe, is used in some
vessels in the United States. Extruded or roll-formed aluminium hold sections in 6061-T6
or 6063-T6 result in fishroom systems that are non-absorptive, sanitary, and easily
rearranged by the crew. Fish spoilage is reduced and more fish can be carried, as the
aluminium sections are less than one third the weights of wet-wood fish or pen boards
(portable boards for dividing the hold into small compartments).

Figure 53: Aluminium trawler

Refrigerated fish tanks of unprotected 5052 or 6061 sheet and plate 1.5 to 5mm thick
have proven more sanitary and less expensive to maintain than coated or treated steel
tanks. With brine as the normal coolant, steel tanks require the protection of organic or
metallic coatings to achieve useful service life; in addition, coating maintenance is a
continuous problem.

Government survey boats with aluminium hulls normally carry more surveying
equipment than the conventional steel boats, although some use the weight saving to
expand shallow-draft operations. Both state and federal government agencies operate
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these aluminium boats. The survey boats are fabricated by the builders of personnel boats,
and they are made with similar alloys and construction practice.

Passenger vessels utilize large quantities of aluminium in superstructures and equipment.

Major European-built liners have used aluminium extensively in superstructures and
equipment, ranging from 900 to 1800 tonnes per ship. The "Oriana", "Canberra", and
"France" employed welded construction, using sheet, plate and extrusions of aluminium-
magnesium and aluminium-magnesium-manganese alloys. Since appearance is important
in this class of ship, the structures are painted; aluminium allows at least 50% longer time
until repainting is required.

Dry cargo ships have been affected by new design trends that emphasize a need for lower
topside weight. Heavier cargo handling gear and related machinery, and narrower,
hydrodynamically contoured, high-speed hulls have increased stability problems. Thus,
weight saving is required to permit more efficient hull designs. Approximately 100 tons
of welded 5086 plate and shapes 6.3mm to 19mm thick was used in the midship
structures in each of ten ships built recently. Aluminium structures normally weigh only
40% as much as steel structures, using construction details similar to steel practice
(welded plate and stiffeners bracketed at the decks). In some instances, additional weight
is saved by application of special extrusions.

Bulk carriers normally can take direct advantage of any weight saving by carrying
additional cargo. Six Canadian ore carriers utilized 136 to 230 tonnes aluminium in
deckhouse structures, hatch covers, and equipment such as railings and lifeboats.
Aluminium booms of riveted 2014-T6, 6061-T6, or 6070-T6 extruded or rolled shapes on
self-unloading ore carriers enable operators to achieve economies in converting older
ships to update their usefulness.

Passenger ferries use aluminium superstructures to maintain safe stability while carrying
more passengers.

Hydrofoils These high-speed craft are used for commuter and excursion service.
Although their use in Europe has been an economic reality for decades, the availability of
competing forms of transportation has restricted application in the US. Early European
applications dictated minimum hull weight to utilize practical power sources. This led to
the exclusive use of a 6061-type alloy and riveted construction for the hull, cabin, and
bulkheads. Craft built recently in the United States have employed welded construction
with the 5xxx series alloys.

The 90-ton, 105-ft-long hydrofoil "H.S. Denison" was built in 1961 for the Maritime
Administration. A combination of riveting and welding was used in fabricating the hull,
cabin, and bulkheads of 5456 sheet, plate, and extrusions. Alloy 7079-T6 forgings formed
part of the steel foil structure. Piping systems were of aluminium or plastics, following
aircraft practice.

Smaller hydrofoil craft have also been constructed of aluminium. Two 45-ft-long craft of
welded 5456 were built, with 10 more planned for similar construction. Welded 5086
sheet, plate, and extrusions were used to build the 34-ft "Albatross", which can carry 24
passengers at speeds up to 40 mph.
 Lecture & Reference Notes

Aluminium is not only the accepted material for hydrofoil hull structure, but is used also
in small foil systems in the form of alloy 356-T6 castings and 6061-T6 extrusions.
However, in large craft, such as the "Denison" and the Navy‟s PCB and AGEH, high-
strength steels are employed for the foil structures. Although many questions remain
concerning the relative importance of the various factors in material selection, it has been
established that the strength and stiffness provided by the high-yield-strength steels
(150,000 to 200,000 psi) are necessary in the large craft.

2.2 Naval Vessels

Destroyers About 5500 tonnes of aluminium per year, more than any other type of marine
application, is used on destroyers. During the 1930‟s, extensive application of aluminium
in destroyers was developed, and design practices were refined. During World War II,
construction reverted to steel because of the shortage of aluminium. Following the war,
with growing emphasis on electronic equipment, deckhouse structure weight became a
critical factor, and aluminium was reinstated to combat this problem.

Figure 54: Aluminium Superstructure

Alloy development in the past decade has resulted in an almost standard application of
5456 plate and extrusions in the welded deckhouse structures of destroyers. Quantities
now used range from 90 to 320 tonnes per ship, depending on the type of destroyer. The
weight savings in the aluminium deckhouse structure, normally about 40 to 45%, are
utilized to maintain sufficient ship stability while employing the narrow hull necessary for
high service speeds. Additional equipment installations also are permitted topside.

Over half the aluminium used is in the deckhouse structure, the remainder being
employed in a variety of equipment applications. These include lockers, desks, chairs,
‟bunks, doors, windows, ladders, gratings, and galley equipment: A wide range of the
more corrosion-resistant wrought and cast alloys is found in these items, including 5052,
5086, 6061 and 356.

Aircraft Carriers Aluminium applications totalled over 1600 tonnes on the carrier
"Enterprise" (CVA-65) completed in 1961. The largest single item was the four deck-
edge elevators. The first such elevator platforms, employing welded 6061-T6 members in
a tubular-truss structure, had been installed on the carrier "Shangri-La" (CVA-38). Later,
 Lecture & Reference Notes

alloy 5154-H36 was used for the welded elevators on CVA-61. Alloy and welding
developments led to application of alloy 5456 plate and extrusions in the elevators on the
"Enterprise". These were designed with an open grillwork structure; the deep girders were
fabricated from 19 to 50mm thick.

The 52 by 85-ft structures weighted 95 tons each, 32 tonnes less than similar steel units.
Reduced inertia, during operation between the flight and hangar decks, permitted
reductions in operating machinery.

The "America" (CVA-66), completed in 1965, employs elevators of stiffened-plate

configuration, using high-strength steels; they weighed 115 tons each. A similar design
but employing alloy 5456 resulted in aluminium being specified for the elevators on
carrier CVA-67, at a weight reduction of 15 tons each.

Other uses included the items of equipment mentioned for destroyers, along with radar
masts, superstructure, cooling panels in the flight deck, and comparable structures.

2.3 Advantages of Aluminium

Strength
Aluminium has higher yield strength than steel. It takes a force of around 30,000 psi
(207MPa) to bend mild steel to the point where it won't spring back into shape when
released. This is known as the 'yield strength'. 5-series Aluminium alloys will not yield
until about 39,000psi (275MPa) - roughly 30% stronger than steel. A typical fibreglass
hull, by comparison, is fairly brittle and will crack before flexing significantly. Practically
speaking, this means that an aluminium boat will be able to withstand collisions that
would dent the same boat made of steel, and write off the same boat made of fibreglass.
Table 4: Aluminium, steel & GRP material characteristics

MATERIAL
STEEL G.R.P ALUMINIUM
CHARACTERISTIC
Heavier than
60% heavier than
WEIGHT Aluminium and Lightest
Aluminium
absorbs water well
Lower than
SPEEDS(keeping HP constant) Lowest Highest
Aluminium
Lower than
ENERGY EFFICIENCY Lowest Highest
Aluminium
More than
FUEL CONSUMPTION Highest Least
Aluminium
Low inter-laminar Strongest and
STRENGTH (Interlaminar) Good Strength
strength most resilient
Constant
Frequent
MAINTENANCE maintenance due Nil
maintenance
to corrosion
RESISTANCE TO IMPACT Good Poor Highest

Weight
Aluminium is only around 35% of the weight of steel. This means that given a weight
constraint, we can afford to use about 3 times more material in an aluminium boat than in
steel - allowing us to use thicker shell plating, bulkheads, frames and decking.
 Lecture & Reference Notes

A lighter vessel is easier to launch/recover by road trailer and typically only requires half
the engine horsepower to match the performance of a similarly sized fibreglass boat. Even
a fully equipped workboat is light enough to be launched and recovered by most truck-
mounted loader cranes, offering greater access to canals and riverbanks that would
otherwise be out-of-bounds to multi-ton cranes and flatbed trailers.

Durability
5083 marine-grade aluminium alloy is preferred for marine applications because of its
strength and resistance to salt-water. It has the highest strength of the non-heat treatable
aluminium alloys and retains exceptional strength after welding. Marine-grade 5083 has a
working life of around 100 years.

Figure 55: New aluminium deck plate (right) and the same plate with the protective oxidisation coat
(left)

Aluminium corrodes differently to steel. Unprotected steel will rust when it comes into
contact with oxygen and water and the resulting layer of corrosion is still permeable,
meaning the material can rust right through if unchecked and untreated.

Unlike steel, when aluminium corrodes the resulting layer of oxidation, see Figure 55, is
air-tight and rock hard, keeping the material underneath very highly protected. Even
scrapes and scratches will form their own protective coat over time. This is why it is
recommend the hull is not painted, and the majority of operators choose not to anti-foul -
further reducing maintenance costs and environmental impact.

Cost
The initial outlay for an aluminium craft may be higher than that for a comparable steel or
fibreglass build, that cost will quickly be recouped:

Hull maintenance typically amounts to a cursory visual inspection, regular cleaning and
replacement of the sacrificial anodes. This should keep the hull looking like new in 10
years‟ time. Aluminium does not need any protective painting, and the majority of
operators do not apply anti-foul - this saves the cost of regular rubbing down and re-
painting. The money you will have saved having your steel boat repainted will more than
pay back the difference.
 Lecture & Reference Notes

As mentioned, aluminium vessels can operate with smaller engines than similar steel and
fibreglass builds, offering a saving on the initial cost of an engine and superior fuel
economy.
Aluminium vessels have a high resale value thanks to the long life and high durability of
the material. At the end of a vessel's working life, the aluminium can be sold for
recycling, also reducing the impact of natural resources.

Aluminium is without question the most well reputed material for the construction of
robust workboats. A relatively large craft built from aluminium will be lighter and
stronger than if it were built from fibreglass. Marine grade aluminium has such high
impact resistance, that an aluminium boat can withstand a collision that would seriously
damage a fibreglass craft. Marine grade aluminium also has excellent corrosion
resistance, in most cases aluminium boats will last up to 50 years in the harsh saltwater
environment. Aluminium is by far the lowest maintenance material that could be used for
boat manufacturing. Aluminium does not rust or rot. Residual values for aluminium boats
are high - making overall cost of ownership low.

2.4 Summary of Marine Grade Alloys

Aluminium

The Aluminium Association, Inc. uses a standard four-digit numerical system to indicate
the main alloying additives, as shown below:

1xxx - Pure aluminium at least 99.0%, no alloying elements

2xxx - Main alloying element copper (Cu)
3xxx - Main alloying element manganese (Mn)
4xxx - Main alloying element silicon (Si)
5xxx - Main alloying element magnesium (Mg) (marine grade alloys)
6xxx - Main alloying elements magnesium (Mg) and silicon (Si) (marine grade alloys)
7xxx - Main alloying element zinc (Zn)
8xxx - Other elements
9xxx - Not used

In addition, a temper designation is used to show the cold-working and heat-treating

histories:

F - fabricated
H - strain hardened
O - annealed (brought to desired consistency, texture or hardness by a process of gradual
heating and cooling)
W - solution heat-treated
T - Heat treated to produce stable tempers other than F, O, H or W
 Lecture & Reference Notes

Table 5: Aluminium grades and characteristics

Ultimate
Yield
Grade- Tensile Hardness
General strength Workability Weldability
Temper strength (Brinell)
(psi)
(psi)

Most suited for

33,000
5052- forming operations,
H32 very good corrosion
28,000 12% Fair Good 60
elong.
resistance.

The highest strength

non-heat-treatable
aluminium alloy in
46,000
5083- commercial use. It
H321 retains excellent
33,000 16% Good Excellent 85
elong.
tensile strength in the
weld zone. Excellent
corrosion resistance.

Medium to high
strength non-heat-
treatable alloy. More
formable than 5083.
Excellent corrosion 42,000
5086-
H32
resistance. Most 30,000 12% Excellent Good 78
often for boat hulls elong.
(in addition to 5052
or 6061) due to stress
corrosion cracking
resistance.

Often used for boat

hulls and other
components. The
most often used 45,000
6061-T6 aluminium alloy for 40,000 17% Good Good 95
its strength, heath elong.
treatability,
workability and
weldability.

Softer and lower

strength than 6061,
6063- good for forming,
T52 high surface finish,
21,000 27,000 Good Good 60
excellent for
anodizing.
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Steel or Aluminium?
Feature Steel Aluminium

Strong and very flexible, it can take a Specific gravity 2.7 kg/dm3, about one third of the weight
lot of rough beating before it fails, yet of steel.
heavy (specific gravity 7.8 kg/dm3). Higher elasticity than steel, yielding strength (at which it
Strength and Yielding strength (pressure force to deforms permanently) about 35,000 psi, and about 45,000
weight permanently deform the material) psi to tear it apart. Various aluminium alloys have very
about 30,000 psi (pounds per square different characteristics; some are even stronger than most
inch), and ultimate tensile strength mild steels, yet not all are suitable for marine applications
(force to break it apart) 60,000 psi. or boatbuilding

Higher elasticity than steel (it takes nearly 20% stronger

Because of its weight, suitable only for impact to bend out of shape), but about 25% lower
larger boats. Also, beamier flat- breaking strength. Yet, because it is so much lighter than
bottomed designs may benefit from the steel, a hull can be designed and built to the same strength
extra weight, as the heavier hull would as a steel one, and still be about 45% lighter. And, if it is
generally pitch and roll less. built to the same displacement (weight), then the
Suitable
Sea-going cruisers down to 30 feet. aluminium hull is considerably stronger (and can take
designs
Below that, the displacement would be much stronger impact before it deforms).
either disproportionately heavy, or very Because of its lightness, beamier aluminium boats with
thin sheets would have to be used, shallow draft tend to pitch and roll more than steel ones.
making the welding difficult because But with narrower hulls with deeper draft (sailing boats),
of distortion. aluminium has distinct advantages

Fair, stronger and sharper tools

Workability Good, regular tools will do a good job
required

Cheaper than aluminium to buy, yet

harder (and slower) to work with and Higher initial price, offset by faster work processes while
Price weld. Requires sandblasting before building the boat, and substantially lower maintenance
painting. In use, regular maintenance requirements and costs in use
builds up high costs.

Electrolysis. Keep other metals away or electrically

Rust. Protection by cleaning the rust
Main isolated. Electrical circuits should be properly installed to
away (sandblasting, especially a new
problems avoid stray currents through the hull. Use sacrificial zinc
hull) and painting.
anodes.

Essential as protection against rust.

Not required, mostly aesthetical. If the hull is painted, re-
Painting Prior sandblasting of a new hull is
painting may be required every several years.
required.

Maintenance Regular re-painting to keep rust away. Minimal, watch for electrolysis

Tensile strength reduction of only 2-5% was measured for

All damaged parts can be replaced an unpainted 1.62 mm (5xxx aluminium alloy sheet
Longevity relatively easy. The boat may last sample in a 10 year corrosion test. With a 6xxx aluminium
forever. alloy, widely used in building pleasure craft, the same test
gives a 5-7% reduction.
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2.5 Welding Aluminium to Steel

Triplate®

For a number of years now, shipbuilders have gratefully taken advantage of the
availability of pre-produced transition joint assemblies to make welds between aluminium
and steel.

The older, more traditional methods of joining, like riveting and bolted joints have fallen
from favour due to the fact that in a few years considerable corrosion can occur aided by
capillary action caused mainly by the widely differing thermal expansion coefficients of
aluminium and steel. In spite of efforts to prevent it, this phenomenon allows seawater to
seep into the dissimilar metal joint, thereby resulting in severe corrosion. In many cases
the only way to maintain the ship in a sea-worthy condition is to completely replace the
aluminium-steel transition or, in some cases, to replace the complete wheelhouse.

Transition joints were mainly produced by the explosive weld-bonding process carried
out in the open air in remote locations. This explosive process is in fact a cold pressure
welding process, where investigations have shown that superior joint properties can be
achieved if the process takes place under vacuum.

Cladding Process

To simply and quickly understand what happens during the explosive bonding process
refer to Figure 56 below.

Figure 56: Triplate®

The result is that the two metal surfaces are pressed together with huge force, locally
interlocking the different atomic structures. In this way, by definition, a very strong
atomic bond is formed between two metals like aluminium and steel.
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After the cladding process the plates are flattened and then sawn into strips which are
used as an intermediate layer for welding aluminium alloy superstructures to steel hulls as
can be seen in Figure 57.

As these aluminium-magnesium alloys are too hard to form a strong explosive bond with
the steel, a softer commercially pure aluminium sheet is positioned in the sandwich layer
between them, which gives us the name Triplate.

Figure 57: Bulkhead welded to decking using Triplate®

3. Composites

Composite materials are macroscopic combinations of two or more distinct materials

having a discrete and recognizable interface separating them. Thus composites are
heterogeneous materials, and many are naturally occurring; the most common is wood.
The composites of interest in this discussion, however, are the synthetic, man-made
materials, possessing high strength and/or stiffness relative to weight which are used in
high performance structural applications because of these properties.

Figure 58 below shows typical tensile strength to specific tensile modulus for selected
materials (normalised for density).
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Figure 58: Specific strength & stiffness of various materials (Source: DuPont)

The use of fibreglass construction in the commercial marine industry has flourished over
time for a number of different reasons. Initially, long-term durability and favourable
fabrication economics were the impetus for using FRP. More recently, improved vessel
performance through weight reduction has encouraged its use.

Current regulatory restrictions limit the use of composite materials on large passenger
ships to non-structural applications. This is the result of IMO and USCG requirements for
non-combustibility. ASTM test E1317-90 (IMO LIFT) is designed to measure
flammability of marine surface finishes used on non-combustible substrates. These
include deck surfacing materials, bulkhead and ceiling veneers and paint treatments.
Systems that qualify for testing to this standard include non-structural bulkheads, doors
and furniture. Momentum exists to increase the use of composite materials, especially for
above deck structures where weight and styling are major drivers. Stylized deckhouse
structure and stacks are likely candidates for composites, as regulations permit this.

Although the production of commercial vessels has tapered off drastically, there was
much interest in FRP trawlers during the early 1970s. These vessels that are still in
service provide testimony to the reduced long-term maintenance claims which led to their
construction.

The military has been employing composite materials effectively for many years and has
an increasing number of projects and investigations under way to further explore the use
of composites. Recently, however, there has been growing interest in applying composite
materials to save weight; reduce acquisition, maintenance and life-cycle costs; and
enhance signature control; the Visby Corvette shown in Figure 59, is an example of this
growth in the use of composites in military vessels.

The Navy is considering primary and secondary load-bearing structures, such as hulls,
deckhouses and foundations; machinery components, such as piping, valves, pumps and
heat exchangers; and auxiliary items, such as gratings, ladders, stanchions, ventilation
ducting and waste handling systems.
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Figure 59: Visby corvette

A marine designer with experience using steel or aluminium for hull structure will
immediately notice that most composite materials have lower strength and stiffness
values than the metal alloys used in shipbuilding. Values for strength are typically
reported as a function of cross sectional area (ksi or Gpa). Because composite materials
are much lighter than metals, thicker plating can be used. Because thicker panels are used
for composite construction, panel stiffness can match or exceed that of metal hulls.
Indeed, frame spacing for composite vessels is often much greater. For a given strength,
composite panels may be quite a bit more flexible, which can lead to in-service
deflections that are larger than for metal hulls.

The above discussion pertains to panel behaviour when resisting hydrostatic and wave
slamming loads. If the structure of a large ship in examined, then consideration must be
given to the overall hull girder bending stiffness. Because structural material cannot be
located farther from the neutral axis (as is the case with thicker panels), the overall
stiffness of large ships is limited when quasi-isotropic laminates are used. This has led to
concern about main propulsion machinery alignment when considering construction of
FRP ships over 91 metres in length. With smaller, high performance vessels, such as
racing sailboats, longitudinal stiffness is obtained through the use of longitudinal
stringers, 0° unidirectional reinforcements, or high modulus materials, such as carbon
fibre.

Damage and failure modes for composites also differ from metals. Whereas a metal
grillage will transition from elastic to plastic behaviour and collapse in its entirety,
composite panels will fail one ply at a time, causing a change in strength and stiffness,
leading ultimately to catastrophic failure. This would be preceded by warning cracks at
ply failure points. Crack propagation associated with metals typically does not occur with
composites. Interlaminar failure between successive plies is much more common. This
scenario has a much better chance of preserving watertight integrity. Because composite
laminates do not exhibit the classic elastic to plastic stress-strain behaviour that metals do,
safety factors based on ultimate strength are generally higher, especially for compressive
failure modes.

Properly designed composite structures see very low stress levels in service, which in turn
should provide a good safety margin for extreme loading cases.
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Many design and performance factors make direct comparison between composites and
metals difficult. However, it is instructive to compare some physical properties of
common shipbuilding materials as shown in Table 6.

Table 6: Overview of shipbuilding construction materials