Pakistan Journal of Education

Vol. 35, No. 3, 2018, 187-204

Reflective Practices at Tertiary Level:

A Gender Wise Comparison
Mahek Arshad*
Allah Bakhsh Malik**

Abstract

The study aimed to determine reflective practices of teachers at tertiary

level and to determine the difference in reflective practices of teachers on
the basis of gender. Present study was descriptive in nature. Population of
the study comprised of all the 5404 teachers teaching in universities of
Islamabad. 12% of teaching faculty was selected by using proportional
stratified sampling technique. Questionnaire developed by Wilkes and
Chapman (2015) was adapted as research tool. Findings revealed that
tertiary level teachers were practicing reflection in-action and reflection
on-action, using different tools of reflection, they practice reflection by
examining others and own perspectives and question assumptions of
others as well as their own related with their teaching. A significant
difference was found among teachers by gender regarding their reflective
practices. Male teachers were found better as compare to female teachers
in their reflective practices. On the basis of findings of the study it is
recommended that at tertiary level workshops and awareness seminars
may be conducted to raise teacher’s awareness of the importance and use
of reflective practices in teaching especially for female teachers.

Keyword: reflective practices, tertiary level, gender, comparison

*
Ph.D. Scholar, National University of Modern Languages, Islamabad. Email:
[email protected]
**
Professor of Education (Rtd), National University of Modern Languages,
Islamabad.
Arshad & Malik 188

Introduction

The notion of reflective practices is one of the latest approaches to the

professional development of teachers. It is not like the traditional approach
of professional development where most of the time teachers remain the
focal point and discussion revolves around only one topic and no attention
is given towards any dialogue with colleagues and students. A teacher's
reflective practice includes valuings opinions of colleagues, sharing of
experiences, considering philosophies and thinking critically. Reflective
practice helps a teacher challenge and study their own assumptions and
thoughts about teaching. Reflection is a complicated process where
emotion and cognition are related and connected. Reflection is a
purposeful pursuit; this is not idle wandering or activity of day dreaming,
but a targeted and meaningful activity (Bound, Keogh & Walker, 1985).

Reflection is the thinking process involved in everyday life and is

considered more valuable than the ordinary knowledge (Rashidi &
Javidanmehr, 2012). Many kinds of reflections in the professional context
seem to have two main purposes that include changes that are made to
improve practice and further develop self-knowledge and understanding.
Johns (1995) believes that reflection is a way to think of something to find
out some differences and try to find an answer and clarification. The major
purpose of reflection is to expose the interchange of internal ideas that
build the daily practices of a person. People give reaction and act
according to their reasonable internal reflections. This is called instinct
reasoning (Brookfield, 1995).

Gender diversity includes both biological phenotypes and their

psychological characteristics. Thinking of teachers as reflective
practitioners assume that teachers can both raise and resolve issues related
to their educational practices. Present research was concerned with gender
differences in practicing reflection among teachers. Feminine
psychologists believe that women generally seem to have more experience
in discussing, thinking and interpreting their inner thoughts and feelings
(Belenky, Clinchy, Goldberger, & Tarule, 1986). Three different studies
were conducted by Csank and Conway (2004) in which they discussed the
gender differences in the tendencies to reflect on self-descriptive traits and
in the consequences of participating in this trait reflection, reported that
women reflect more than men, changes has been observed in women after
self-reflection but on the other hand men's self-definition in the entire
situation have not changed after reflecting on their personality traits. On
the other hand, Afshar and Farahani (2015) study indicated gender-based
differences among teachers regarding reflective thinking and reflective
Reflective Practices at Tertiary Level: A Gender Wise Comparison 189

teaching in which male teachers performed better as compare to female

teachers regarding their reflective teaching and thinking.

Literature Review

The word "reflection" has its roots in a Latin word "reflectere,"

meaning turning round, bending back or turning backwards (Rushton &
Suter, 2012). According to Finlay (2008) the word "reflective practice"
has a variety of meanings, ranging from independent reflection by
professionals to a critical discussion with others and adds that practitioners
may sporadically accept in a formal and clear manner. However, the
understanding of "reflective practice" varies greatly among diverse fields
and knowledge societies. Different and contradictory definitions and
meanings of reflective practice can even be present in the same subject
field. Reflection is a practice of intellectual process that is practiced to
achieve our ends or attain any desired result. It is useful to well understand
comparatively complex or shapeless notions, and is constructed primarily
on the recycling of information, thoughtfully and possibly, the sentiments
that people before now have (Moon, 2005).

Purpose of all kinds of reflections in the professional context seems to

have two main purposes that include changes that are made to improve
practice and further develop self-knowledge and understanding. Reflective
practice is one of the strategies for teachers teaching at university. The
ability to reflect on the action means participating in the practice of
continuous learning, which is one of the characteristics of professional
practice. This practice encourages practitioners to develop teaching as an
insight. Reflective practice is considered to be a vital tool in the environment
of teaching and learning, teachers learn from their own professional
experience to a certain extent as compare to the traditional teaching (Schön,
1991). Zeichner and Liston (1996) believe that every teacher reflects in his
or her own way so unreflective teacher does not exist.

Unlike traditional career growth, teachers often have a central place to

focus on one concept without discussing it with colleagues and students.
This method additionally encourages teachers to inspect their positive and
negative teaching and learning experiences to get knowledge that why they
incline to do things and why avoid others. Reflective practice is a method
of individual improvement. There are many self-conscious, self-
development factors in building one's opinion. Reflective practice needs
uniqueness in the field and by keeping in view past experience teachers
bring fresh changes to the methods of overcoming these problems (Bound,
Keogh & Walker, 1985). Reflection as a professional development
Arshad & Malik 190

strategy, through reflection, professionals will have the opportunity to

explore, express and represent their own ideas and knowledge.

Every day, every hour, even every minute, teachers always try to solve
the issues in the classroom. Reflective teachers not only think of how they
are framed, but also think of how to solve immediate problems.
Introspection means recognizing that the production of new pedagogical
knowledge is not the exclusive property of universities, colleges and
research development centers, rather it is a realization that teachers also
have their own ideas, beliefs and theories that can contribute to improving
teaching (Zeichner & Liston, 2014). Reflective practice usually involves
practical problems. As a result of reflection, practitioners become more
informed because of the effective acquisition of relevant knowledge and
are considered proficient. So reflection can sound valuable in different
fields and industries by enabling the person concerned to reflect on the
situation and is therefore very important for practice (Loughran, 2006).
Reflecting in education require teachers to systematically think and
logically, rationally and step wisely analyze their teaching and related
scenarios (Korthagen, 1993).

Wilkes (2015) gives a model of reflective practices for reflective

teachers by adding five characteristics which a reflective practitioner may
possess and can assess himself by keeping in view these characteristics.

a. Reflection in-action and on-action: Reflections in action is denoted

as present action that exists. Schön (1983) believes that it is a useful
tool that can be used by a professional who must respond to an incident
when it happens, rather than considering what happened and making
changes later. In addition, reflection on action involves reflection on
how to change practices after an event occurs because we reflect on
actions and recall what we have done to determine how the knowledge
in our actions may have contributed to unpredicted outcomes.
Teachers tend to act reflectively and respond to what's happening
around them. This may involve quick reflection because teachers
participate in events or experiences. Teachers can take immediate
action based on circumstances. This is a valuable way of thinking and
learning about events. Teachers be likely to reflect on actions,
followed by an extra thoughtful practice (Wilkes, 2015).

b. Tools for Reflection: Reflective practitioners use different tools to

record reflection, implement reflection and improve reflection which
may include reflective diary, reflective journal, theories, models,
discussion with seniors and colleagues, observation, sound and video
recordings and many others. Teachers use a series of reflective
activities to gain insight into work. They tend to walk out of their own
Reflective Practices at Tertiary Level: A Gender Wise Comparison 191

comfort zone, seek feedback, self-criticism, examines hypotheses,

question the theory, and defy the status quo (Wilkes, 2015).

c. Examining others and own perspective: For a reflective practitioner

it is important to broaden his horizon and come out of his comfort zone
by examining and understand not only his own self-vies or self-
judgment about his teaching but to keep in mind others views about
his reflective practices regarding teaching (Wilkes, 2015).

d. Questioning assumptions: Assumption is a natural belief in the world

and it is also our position in it. Brookfield (1995) identified
assumption analysis as one of the type of reflection; he described it as
a challenge to teachers' beliefs, values, cultural habits, and social
structure. Practitioners may consider more of the assumptions hidden
in the opinions of others, as well as those expressed in the media,
books, research, etc. Practitioners may be aware of the values, beliefs
and attitudes of themselves and others and tend to examine their own
beliefs and challenges elsewhere in the status quo (Wilkes, 2015).

e. Ability to reflect: Ability here means the available time and capacity
of a reflective practitioner to make time for reflective activities
regarding his teaching. Time, resources or deficiency of autonomy
have a tendency to limit reflective actions. Practitioners may
overcome barriers to reflection and thereby gradually improve
learning and growth (Wilkes, 2015).

A study conducted by Odeh, Kurt and Atamtürk (2010) with 60

teachers at a Turkish university examines whether gender, length of
experience, and qualification make a significant difference in the level of
teacher reflection. The results show that gender, experience and
qualification does not play any important role in teacher’s reflection.
Sammaknejad & Marzban (2016) did a comparative case study of teachers'
self-reflection on classroom management. The results show that female
teachers have a positive attitude towards self-reflection, on the other hand,
the responses of the male teachers to the classroom management
questionnaire indicated that they had a more positive view on the issue.
Experienced female teachers with the highest self-reflection and
classroom management awareness; her reflective questions and classroom
discipline diary proves this claim. Experienced men and women teachers
are very close in the answer to the questionnaire, so they are "self-
reflection and classroom management standards" attitude. Sharar (2012)
conducted a study about introducing and improving reflective practices of
teachers in a school at Chitral, it was found that reflective practice is a big
challenge for the teachers to practice because of lack of knowledge about
reflective practices and due to lack of time, professional development and
Arshad & Malik 192

pedagogical issues. Some studies like of Poyraz, Usta, (2013) and Rashidi,
Javidanmehr, (2012) it was found that female reflective teachers
outperformed men in reflective practices.

Ghaye and Lillyman (2000) explain that reflective practice is not only
an academic or intellectual effort, but also a complex procedure involving
individuals as a whole. Raelin (2002) expresses his point of view on the
practice of reflection, believing that what has been done recently is the
basis of future approaches; it mainly provides a research opportunity to
understand the occurrence of events. Bolton (2010) expressed his view that
reflective practice meant focusing attention on the day-to-day actions that
led to professional development. When practitioners engage in reflective
practice, it means that they take into account the work of the past and
present circumstances in order to achieve better results (Beveridge, 1997).
Reflective practice in their own actions and practice is called mediation.
Donald Schön and David Boud were inspired by Dewey's work, who
found reflection on all aspects of practice. Reflective practice is developed
in connection with theory and practice. At first, only theory is the best, but
with the passage of time, the actual work has been recognized, pragmatic
knowledge has been recognized and considered to be the first step in
professional development of reflection as a practice, focusing on practical
work and thinking in which you can consider the consequences by looking
at the various aspects of practical work.

Sellars (2014) emphasizes that reflection practices permit teachers to

change their minds and encourage them to justify their beliefs. In his
research, Narelle (2007) used photography as a tool for reflective practice
and discussed how to use photography to trigger and assist teachers in
professional practice, photos being taken by colleagues, themselves or
students to provide different perspectives for classroom learning while
generating issues, setting goals, and strengthening self-assessment and
self-monitoring. Xavier (2009) proposed to use group discussion and
reflection as a strategy to promote the emotional reconstruction of
teachers' experience and to promote teacher development. Through group
discussions and reflections with other participants, teachers discuss and
evaluate current practices to explain and evaluate student activities, in
result collaboration and community reflection emerged which facilitate
problem-solving and the formation of dialogue thinking, leading to the
shift of teachers' perceptions from the contextual characteristics of
traditional teaching to more systematic awareness of curriculum
behaviors. The problem under exploration is to determine the reflective
practices of teachers at tertiary level on the basis of gender difference.
Reflective Practices at Tertiary Level: A Gender Wise Comparison 193

Objectives of the Study

Objectives of the study were:

i. To determine reflective practices of teachers at tertiary level.
ii. To determine the difference in reflective practices of male and female
teachers at tertiary level.

Research Questions

i. What are the reflective practices of teachers at tertiary level?

ii. Is there any difference between the self-reported reflective practices
of male and female teachers at tertiary level?

Methodology

Present study was descriptive in nature in which survey method was used.

Population of the Study

Population of the study comprised of 5404 faculty members teaching

in twenty-seven public and private sector universities (main and sub-
campuses) of Islamabad. Population of the study was divided in two major
strata which include 3544 male and 1860 female teachers.

Sample and Sampling Technique

Proportional stratified sampling technique was adopted. 12% of both

genders were selected for sample. Through this technique 650 teachers
were selected which include 426 male and 224 female teachers. Gay
(1987) suggests that 10% of large and 20% of small population as
minimum may be selected. Krejcie and Morgan (1970) suggest sample
size of 357 against population of 5000.

Research Instrument
Researcher adapted Reflective Practice Assessment instrument of
Wilkes and Chapman (2015). Research instrument comprised of five
subscales/dimensions which includes: Reflection in-action and on-action
which comprised of seven items, Tools for reflection which comprised of
ten items, examining others and own perspective regarding own reflective
practices which comprised of nine items, questioning assumptions which
comprised of seven items and Ability to reflect about own teaching which
Arshad & Malik 194

comprised of nine items. The scale was based on 42 items. Research was
conducted after pilot testing of questionnaire and was reviewed by the
experts before administration. Researcher conducted a pilot study to find
out the reliability and validity of instrument. The instrument was found
reliable as the value of Cronbach’s Alpha Coefficient was .82. Reliability
of subscales was .79, .86, .72, .76 and .73.

Data Collection

Data has been collected by personal visits to universities. 650

questionnaires were distributing among respondents and only 564
respondents returned questionnaires, further 24 questionnaires were
rejected due to incomplete data. Total 540 questionnaires were filled
properly and return rate was 87%.

Data Analysis

After collecting the data from respondents it was tabulated and

analyzed statistically by applying t-test and Mean.

Results
Table 1
Reflective practices of teachers at tertiary level
Dimensions of Reflective practices N Mean SD
Reflection in-action and on-action 540 3.52 0.78
Tools for reflection 540 3.38 0.76
Examining perspectives 540 3.64 0.72
Questioning assumptions 540 3.62 0.75
Ability to reflect 540 3.55 0.72
Total 540 3.54 0.64

Table No. 1 describes reflective practices of teachers at university level. On

first dimension of reflection ‘reflection in action and on action’, the majority
of respondents indicate that they practice reflection (Mean score = 3.52),
whereas on second dimension which deals with the teachers use of reflective
tool in their daily routine, majority of respondents indicate that they use
different tools for reflection (Mean score = 3.38). Majority responded that
they practice reflection by examining others and own perspective regarding
their teaching (Mean score = 3.64). When inquired teachers view about the
Reflective Practices at Tertiary Level: A Gender Wise Comparison 195

reflective practice of questioning assumption, the majority of respondents

claim that they practice this feature of reflection (Mean score =3.62). The last
dimension of reflection inquires about the ability of teachers to reflect,
majority agrees that they have freedom to reflect (Mean score = 3.55). Overall
mean results (Mean = 3.54) indicates that teachers possess reflective
characteristics and practicing reflection in their teaching.

Table 2
Reflective Practices (Comparison between Male and Female)
Group Sig
Variable N Mean t df Cohen’s d
(Gender) (2-tailed)
Reflective Male 354 3.62 3.99 538 .00 0.35
Practices Female 186 3.39

The above table shows t value (3.99) was statistically significant at

0.01 level of significance. It shows that there was significant difference
found between male and female respondents. Male respondents mean
score (Mean score =3.62) was higher as compare to female respondents
score (Mean score =3.39). The effect size was found 0.35 that shows the
large effect size between the two means.

Table 3
Dimensions of Reflective Practices (Comparison between Male and
Female)
Dimensions of Group Sig (2-
N Mean t df Cohen’s d
Reflection (Gender) tailed)
Reflection in Male 354 3.59 2.67 538 .00 0.24
and on action Female 186 3.40
Tools for Male 354 3.49 4.67 538 .00 0.41
reflection Female 186 3.18
Examining Male 354 3.72 3.39 538 .00 0.29
perspectives Female 186 3.50
Questioning Male 354 3.69 2.94 538 .00 0.26
assumptions Female 186 3.49
Ability to Male 354 3.63 3.33 538 .00 0.29
reflect Female 186 3.41

Table 3 shows that on first dimension of reflective practices t value (2.67)

was statistically significant at 0.01 level of significance. It shows that there
was significant difference found between male and female respondents on
Arshad & Malik 196

‘Reflection in and on action’. Male respondents (Mean score =3.59) were

found better as compare to female respondents (Mean score =3.40). The effect
size was found 0.24 that shows the medium effect size between the two
means. On second dimension t value (4.67) was statistically significant at 0.01
level of significance. It shows that there was significant difference found
between male and female respondents on ‘Tools of reflection’. Male
respondents (Mean score =3.49) were found better as compare to female
respondents (Mean score =3.18). The effect size was found 0.41 that shows
the large effect size between the two means.

At third dimension t value (3.39) was statistically significant at 0.01

level of significance. It shows that there was significant difference found
between male and female respondents on ‘Examining perspectives’. Male
respondents (Mean score =3.72) were found better as compare to female
respondents (Mean score =3.50). The effect size was found 0.29 that
shows the medium effect size between the two means. t value (2.94) was
statistically significant at 0.01 level of significance on fourth dimension of
reflective practices. It shows that there was significant difference found
between male and female respondents on ‘Questioning assumptions’.
Male respondents (Mean score =3.69) were found better as compare to
female respondents (Mean score =3.49). The effect size was found 0.26
that shows the medium effect size between the two means. On last
dimension t value (3.33) was statistically significant at 0.01 level of
significance. It shows that there was significant difference found between
male and female respondents on ‘Ability to reflect’. Male respondents
(Mean score =3.63) were found better as compare to female respondents
(Mean score =3.41). The effect size was found 0.29 that shows the
medium effect size between the two means.

Discussion

Results revealed that majority of teachers believe they are practicing

reflection on five dimensions including reflection in and on action, tools
of reflection, examining perspectives, questioning assumptions and ability
to reflect. These findings are aligned with the study conducted by Bibi and
Aziz (2012) on 42 teachers from the universities of Islamabad and
Rawalpindi, Pakistan to check the current situation of reflective practices
Reflective Practices at Tertiary Level: A Gender Wise Comparison 197

of teachers, findings of the study revealed that teachers usually write

diaries, encourage teaching management, follow the practice of student
record keeping and management, get feedback from other colleagues,
evaluate themselves, and coordinate well with colleagues and students. A
study conducted by Ray and Coulter (2008) determine the depth of
reflective practices among teachers and found similar results. Results are
in line with the study conducted by Minott (2008) which shows that
teachers mainly use both reflections in-action and on action. Bell and
Mladenovic (2013) interviewed six tutors, revealing the way they think
about reflection and reflecting practice as part of their teaching. Tutors
have seen various benefits of reflection, including improving their
teaching. Reflection before and after teaching is focus of tutors, but less
during teaching. Reflection is triggered by negative events and positive
feedback; some tutors participate in informal discussions about their
teaching with their colleagues, seniors and friends. Sharar (2012) found
that reflective practice is a big challenge for school teachers of Chitral to
practice because of lack of knowledge about reflective practices, lack of
time, professional development and pedagogical issues.

Significant difference was found regarding the self-reported reflective

practices of male and female teachers at tertiary level. This finding is in
consistent with the survey conducted by Rashidi and Javidanmehr (2012)
on 190 school teachers in which significant difference was found between
male and female teachers regarding their reflective practices. Poyraz and
Usta (2013) also found that there is a significant difference among gender
regarding their reflective practices. The results of the study are
contradictory with the study of Odeh, Kurt and Atamtürk (2010) in which
university teachers were examined by using self-report questionnaire to
know that whether gender make a significant difference in the level of
teacher reflection. Results revealed that gender does not play any role in
teacher’s reflection.

In present study with the help of self-reported views further it was

found that male teachers are practicing reflection more as compared to
female teachers in their reflective practices. These findings are contradict
with the findings of some researches in which female reflective teachers
outperformed men in reflective practices (Rashidi, Javidanmehr, 2012;
Arshad & Malik 198

Poyraz, Usta, 2013). The results of present study are in line with the study
of Afshar and Farahani (2015) which found a significant difference
between male and female teachers regarding reflective thinking and
reflective practices in teaching. In present study as reported by results male
respondents were found practicing more reflection as compare to female,
it may be because male are more involved in their professional
development and have more time to improve themselves in professional
field, in our culture working female have more responsibilities they have
to complete their home responsibilities and professional responsibilities
both so maybe that’s why they found less time for reflective practices.

Conclusion

The majority of respondents indicate that they practice reflection in

action and on action, majority of respondents indicate that they use
different tools for reflection, majority responded that they practice
reflection by examining others and own perspective regarding their
teaching, the majority of respondents claim that they practice reflective
practice of questioning assumption, majority agrees that they have
freedom to reflect. Overall results indicate that teachers believe that they
are practicing reflection in their teaching at tertiary level. A significant
difference was found among teachers by gender regarding their own
assessments of their reflective practices in teaching. Male teachers were
found to assess their reflective practices at a higher level than female
teachers assessed their reflective practices. A significant difference was
found among teachers by gender on the dimension reflection in and on
action, tools of reflection, examining perspectives, questioning
assumptions and ability to reflect.

Recommendations

It is recommended that universities may allocate special time for

conducting reflective trainings and awareness seminars for teachers with
special focus on female teachers. Reflective practitioners are
recommended to discuss various situations and events so as to naturally
cultivate reflections and follow teachers' values and exploration spirit. The
opportunities for discussion also allow teachers to question and are
Reflective Practices at Tertiary Level: A Gender Wise Comparison 199

questioned. It is recommended to incorporate practical approaches to

reflection into practice in teacher in-service training programs by
introducing models and techniques of reflection. In future researchers may
deal with other demographic differences like socio-economic background,
level of teaching, pre-service and in-service teachers and other with a
larger sample size.
Arshad & Malik 200

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Citation of this Article:

Arshad, M., & Malik, A.B. (2018). Reflective practices at tertiary level: A
gender wise comparison. Pakistan Journal of Education, 35 (3), 187-202.