Training Manual

PART 66 – Basic Training

Cat B1 – Module 1

Mathematics
 Mathematics PART 66 – Basic Training
Arithmetic Cat B1 – Module 1

1.2.3.2 Other Number Systems............................................................... 64

Table of Contents 1.2.3.3 Mathematical Conversion of Number Systems ........................... 68
1.3 Geometry ......................................................................... 70
1 Mathematics .................................................................... 3 1.3.1 Simple Geometry ................................................................... 70
1.1 Arithmetic ......................................................................... 3 1.3.1.1 Coordinate Systems .................................................................... 70
1.1.1 Basic Arithmetic Operations .................................................. 3 1.3.1.2 Definitions, Terms and Basic Constructions ................................ 71
1.1.1.1 Basic Terms of Arithmetic and Algebra ....................................... 3 1.3.1.3 Plane Geometry .......................................................................... 76
1.1.1.2 Basic Arithmetic Operations with Integers .................................... 5 1.3.1.4 Deduction of Mathematical Triangle Theorems ........................... 85
1.1.1.3 Basic Arithmetic Operations with Fractions ................................ 10 1.3.1.5 Solid Geometry ........................................................................... 89
1.1.2 Mathematical Operations with Powers ................................. 16 1.3.2 Plane Trigonometry ............................................................... 94
1.1.2.1 The Term ’Power’ ....................................................................... 16 1.3.2.1 Right Triangle Trigonometry ........................................................ 94
1.1.2.2 Basic Operations with Powers .................................................... 20 1.3.2.2 Trigonometric Functions.............................................................. 96
1.1.2.3 Polynomials and Factoring ......................................................... 23 1.3.2.3 Oblique Triangles ...................................................................... 103
1.1.2.4 Scientific Notation....................................................................... 25
1.1.2.5 Powers with Fractional Number Exponents (Roots) ................... 25
1.1.3 Roots and Radicals ............................................................... 26
1.1.3.1 Definition of the Terms ’Root’ and ’Radical’ ................................ 26
1.1.3.2 Finding the Root ......................................................................... 28
1.1.3.3 Mathematical Operations with Roots .......................................... 28
1.1.3.4 Simplification of Roots ................................................................ 30
1.1.3.5 Simplifying Radical Expressions................................................. 30
1.1.4 Calculation of Percentage..................................................... 32
1.1.4.1 Percentage ................................................................................. 32
1.1.4.2 Average Value ............................................................................ 33
1.1.5 Physical Quantities, Standards and Units ........................... 34
1.1.5.1 The Role of Quantities and Standards ...................................... 34
1.1.5.2 Basic Units of the SI System ...................................................... 37
1.1.5.3 Unit Conversions ........................................................................ 44
1.2 Algebra ........................................................................... 47
1.2.1 Algebraic Operations ........................................................... 47
1.2.1.1 Arithmetic Operations with Literal Numbers .............................. 47
1.2.1.2 Algebraic Equations ................................................................... 50
1.2.1.3 Linear Equations with one Variable ............................................ 50
1.2.1.4 Linear Systems of Equations with Two Variables ...................... 52
1.2.1.5 Formulas ................................................................................... 54
1.2.1.6 Functions and Graphs ............................................................... 54
1.2.2 Mathematical Operations with Logarithms .......................... 56
1.2.2.1 Logarithms.................................................................................. 56
1.2.3 Number Systems .................................................................. 63
1.2.3.1 Decimal System ......................................................................... 63

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 Mathematics PART 66 – Basic Training
Arithmetic Cat B1 – Module 1

1 Mathematics
1.1 Arithmetic
1.1.1 Basic Arithmetic Operations

1.1.1.1 Basic Terms of Arithmetic and Algebra

The study of arithmetic and algebra is the study of the general

properties of numbers, mainly the real numbers.

Numbers and Digits

Numbers are represented by words or signs, numerals and digits. The

standard number system used for computations is the decimal
system. All numbers can be written by means of the 10 digits (0, 1, 2,
3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9). The digit place within a numeral determines its
value. Each digit position represents a decimal step, since 10 units of
a step form the next higher step. For instance, in the number 427 the
4 stands for 4 hundreds, the 2 for 2 tens, and the 7 for 7 units.

Three decimal steps form a group. For better readability groups of

numerals may be separated by a space, or by a comma in English
speaking countries, or by a point in other countries.

Real Numbers

Numbers are called ’natural numbers’ or ’counting numbers’, if there

is no particular sign in front or within the numeral. Using these
numbers, objects can be counted, measured, sorted, grouped or
divided.
Figure 1: Types of Real Numbers
Refer to Figure 1.

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 Mathematics PART 66 – Basic Training
Arithmetic Cat B1 – Module 1

A good way to get an idea of real and natural numbers is to refer to a The Absolute Value
number line. Any point on the number line is chosen and called 0. The
distance 01 determines a unit. Multiples of 01 determine points The absolute value of a number a, written ⎢a⎜, is the distance on the
representing other numbers, e.g. 2, 3, 4 etc., positive numbers to the number line from 0 to a. Thus the absolute value of 5 is the same as
right of 0 and negative numbers to the left. the absolute value of –5, since each lies five units apart from 0.

Positive and negative whole numbers including the number 0 (zero) Mathematical Operations
are referred to as ’integers’. When adding, subtracting or multiplying
integers, the result is always an integer. Mathematical calculations are frequently required in daily life. They
The result of dividing integers is a fraction or ratio. On the number are performed with the aid of laws and standard operations of
line, all points between two integers are fractions. Each fraction arithmetic. The four basic arithmetic operations are
consists of a nominator and a denominator. It can be positive,
negative or zero.  addition
 subtraction
A special form of fractions is the decimal fraction, whose denominator  multiplication
is some power of 10, usually indicated by a dot (decimal point) written
 division.
before the nominator.

Integers and fractions are rational numbers. Every number that can The basic arithmetic operations are used in equations that consist of
be represented by a finite sequence of digits is rational. Numbers, elements like algebraic expressions, numerals and operation
which do not correspond to that rule are irrational. symbols.

Rational and irrational numbers form the group of real numbers. They The equality symbol ’=’ separates the equation into two parts. It must
are called relative numbers, if they have a positive (+) or negative (–) only be set between two really equal values. If the values are
sign, which refers to its position to zero. different, the solution of the task is wrong.

In mathematics, it is sometimes helpful to use letters (Latin or Greek The operation symbols of the four basic arithmetic operations are as
alphabet) to represent numbers. The Greek letter Pi (π) is one of follows:
them. These numbers are referred to as literal numbers.
They make it possible to write mathematical laws and rules in
shorthand. A literal number can be replaced by any real number, but
its meaning must not be changed during mathematical operations.

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 Mathematics PART 66 – Basic Training
Arithmetic Cat B1 – Module 1

Addition and subtraction can only be performed with concrete

Operation Symbol Meaning numbers, that refer to the same set and this includes the set of
indefinite numbers.
Addition + plus
Subtraction – minus
1.1.1.2 Basic Arithmetic Operations with Integers
Multiplication ∙ times, multiplied by,
Addition and Subtraction
Division : divided by
Addition of Natural Numbers
Note: These operation symbols have to be used according to
International Standards (SI). Addition is regarded as the first elementary mathematical operation. It
involves summing up two or more numbers or quantities.
In many publications and books other operation symbols will be used Adding can be described as the shortened process of forward–
e.g. for multiplication and division operations: counting, e.g. 3 + 2 as 3 + 1 → 4 + 1 → 5.

Operation Symbol Meaning ’Summands’ or ’addends’ are names for elements (numbers) which
are added. The result is called ’sum’.
Multiplication ×,∗ times, multiplied by
Division / , −, ÷ divided by Summand Plus Summand Equals Sum
Addition
2 + 3 = 5
Note: These operation symbols will not be used in the calculation
The term sum is used for both, the result and the expression (3 + 2).
examples and worksheets of the following lessons.
The addition of natural numbers is always practicable. The result is a
natural number.
When calculating with numbers, concrete and indefinite numbers
must be discriminated. Concrete numbers relate to sets of objects.

Example: 5 apples + 4 apples = 9 apples (concrete)

5 +4 =9 (indefinite)

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 Mathematics PART 66 – Basic Training
Arithmetic Cat B1 – Module 1

The number or element, from which the other element or number is

Rules of Addition taken, is called the ’minuend’. The number or element used for
deduction is called the ’subtrahend’. The result is referred to as
 Only sets of the same kind can be added. 5 US$ and 7 kg ’difference’.
cannot be added, since they refer to different units.
 The addition of numbers with more than one digit is generally Minuend Minus Subtrahend equals Difference
done in writing. First the units are added, then the tens, Subtraction
hundreds, thousands etc. To this end, the summands are 7 – 3 = 4
written unit under unit, tens under tens, etc. A line under the
summands takes the place of the equality sign in sum
columns. The result is underlined by a double line. Similar to the term ’sum’, the term ’difference’ is used for both, the
result (4) and the expression consisting of minuend and subtrahend
(7 – 3).
Example: Problem: Solution:
Negative Numbers
4,273 + 597 + 3,759 4,273 (summand)
+ 597 (summand) The result of subtraction of two natural numbers may be a negative
+ 3,759 (summand number; e.g. the result of the operation 2 – 9 is not a natural number
8,629 (sum) (positive integer), but the negative number –7.
Note: The summands can be interchanged. Negative numbers have been introduced by the demand, that the
subtraction should be performed with no limitations. In the range of
Example: 3+2=2+3 positive results, the minuend is larger than the subtrahend. This can
be expressed in the literal number formulae:
Subtraction of Natural Numbers
c=a–b if a > b.
The opposite operation of summing is taking or deducting numbers or
quantities from another number or quantity. This operation is called If the minuend ’a’ is smaller than the subtrahend ’b’, the result of the
’subtraction’. For the subtraction the operation symbol ’ – ’ is used. operation is negative, and the following formulae hold true:
Subtracting may be described as shortened process of backward–
counting, e.g. 7 – 3 as 7 – 1  6 – 1  5 – 1  4. The subtraction is c = – (b – a) if a < b.
therefore the inversion of the addition.
The equation shows the procedure of subtracting a larger number,
e.g. 9, from a smaller number, e.g. 2, (2 – 9):
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 Mathematics PART 66 – Basic Training
Arithmetic Cat B1 – Module 1

 minuend and subtrahend are exchanged Adding and Subtracting of Integers

 subtraction is performed
 the result is marked with a negative sign. As stated before, all positive and negative whole numbers and the
number 0 are designated ’integers’. In order to understand the rules
Example: 2 – 9 = – (9 – 2) = – 7 of adding and subtracting integers positive integers are regarded as
credits and negative integers as debts.
The minus sign in the left expression is an operation symbol, whereas
the minus symbols in front of the bracket and in front of the result are  Adding a positive integer to a positive integer means, adding a
signs which declare the number and expression negative. Positive credit to the account, which has a credit. As a result, the credit
demonstrative signs are omitted, but negative numbers and of the account is increasing.
expressions must always be marked by a respective sign. +5 + +3 = 5 + 3 = 8
 Adding a negative integer to a positive integer means,
subtracting a debt from the account, which has a credit. The
Rules of Subtraction credit of the account is decreasing.
+5 + – 3 = 5 – 3 = 2
 Only quantities of the same kind can be subtracted from each  Adding a positive integer to a negative integer means, adding
other: 7 𝑈𝑆$ – 4 𝑈𝑆$ = 3 𝑈𝑆$ a credit to the account, which has a debt, or subtracting from
So 5 US$ cannot be subtracted from 7 kg, since they are the credit the debt of the account. The debt of the account is
quantities of different units. decreasing.
 The elements of an equation of subtraction must not be – 5 + +3 = – 5 + 3 = 3 – 5 = – 2
interchanged, without respective changes of demonstrative  Adding a negative integer to a negative integer means, adding
and operative signs: 7 – 2 = – (2 – 7) ≠ 2 – 7 a debt to the debt of the account. The debt of the account is
 For written solutions, using columns of numerals, the same increasing.
rules to positioning of digit places and to the use of the single – 5 + – 3 = – 5 – 3 = – (5 + 3) = – 8
and double line are applicable.  Subtracting a positive integer from a positive integer means,
subtracting a credit from the credit of the account. The credit
Example: Problem: Solution: of the account is decreasing.
5,352 – 137 – 2,241 5,352 (minuend) +5 − +3 = 5 − 3 = 2
– 137 (subtrahend)  Subtracting a negative integer from a positive integer means,
5,215 (difference) converting a debt to a credit and adding this converted credit
to the credit of the account. The credit of the account is
– 2,241 (subtrahend)
increasing.
2,974 (difference)
+5 − −3 = 5 + 3 = 8
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 Mathematics PART 66 – Basic Training
Arithmetic Cat B1 – Module 1

 Subtracting a positive integer from a negative integer means, The numbers, that are multiplied, are referred to as ’factors’, the result
converting a credit to a debt and adding this debt to the debt of the multiplication is the ’product.’ The first factor is called
of the account. The debt of the account is increasing. ’multiplicand’ and the second one ’multiplier’. The expression formed
-5 − +3 = −5 − 3 = − (3 + 5) = −8 by the factors and the result are referred to as ’product’.
 Subtracting a negative integer from a negative integer means,
converting a debt to a credit and adding this credit to the debt Multiplicand times Multiplier equals Product
of the account, or subtracting from the converted credit the
debt of the account. The debt of the account is decreasing. Multiplication 3 ∙ 12 = 36
−5 − −3 = −5 + 3 = 3 – 5 = −2
Factor times Factor equals Product

Mathematical rules to the previous examples: Rules of Multiplication

 If the operation symbol before an integer and the sign of the
integer are identical the integer is added.  Precondition for successfully performing multiplications of
+ (+5) = +5 natural numbers is the knowledge of the multiplication tables
− (−5) = +5 up to ten.
 If the operation symbol before an integer and the sign of the  A concrete number can be multiplied by an indefinite number.
integer are different the integer is subtracted. 3 ∙ 4 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑠 = 12 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑠
− (+5) = −5  Factors can be interchanged.
+ (−5) = −5 5 ∙ 3 = 3 ∙ 5 = 15
 The result of all multiplications with the number 0 is 0.
Multiplication 𝑎 ∙ 0 = 0; 5 ∙ 0 = 0
 The multiplication of several numbers is carried out by
Multiplication of Natural Numbers successively calculating products of factor pairs. The
sequence of the combination of pairs does not have any
Multiplication is the third of the basic arithmetic operations. It is influence on the result:
derived from the addition and is developed from the shortened writing 3 ∙ 4 ∙ 7 = (3 ∙ 4) ∙ 7 = 12 ∙ 7 = 84
of the addition of identical summands. The operation symbol for the 3 ∙ 4 ∙ 7 = 3 ∙ (4 ∙ 7) = 3 ∙ 28 = 84
multiplication is the multiplication symbol ’•’ (read: times or multiplied
by). Sometimes the symbol ’x’ is used.

Example: 3 + 3 + 3 + 3 = 4 ∙ 3

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 Mathematics PART 66 – Basic Training
Arithmetic Cat B1 – Module 1

element by which the dividend is divided is the ’divisor’ and the result
Multiplication of Integers is called the ’quotient’ or better the ’value of the quotient’, since the
left side of the equation, the expression ’dividend divided by divisor’,
Integers are multiplied by observing the following rules considering is also referred to as ’quotient’.
the signs of the numbers:
Dividend divided Divisor equals Quotient
 The product of 2 numbers with identical signs is always by
positive Division
+5 ∙ +6 = +30; −5 ∙ −6 = +30 12 : 3 = 4
 The product of 2 numbers with different signs is always
negative
+5 ∙ −6 = −30; −5 ∙ +6 = −30 Rules of Division of Natural Numbers

Example: +5 ∙ −6 ∙ +7 = (+5 − 6) ∙ +7 = −30 ∙ +7 = −210  The division is the inversion of the multiplication.
 Division means splitting up, sharing out or measuring.
 Concrete and indefinite numbers can be divided.
 Dividend and divisor must not be interchanged.
Division  The division of natural numbers does not always give a result
with a natural number. There can be a remainder. But in the
Division of Natural Numbers domain of rational numbers (fractions) division can be
performed with no limits.
Division is the fourth of the basic arithmetic operations. It is the
inversion of the multiplication. That means, if the result (product) of a Example: Problem: Solution:
multiplication is known and one factor is missing, the division is that 858 858 ∶ 7 = 122, remainder 4
arithmetic operation used to determine the unknown factor. The 858 ∶ 7 (𝑜𝑟 )
7
7
operation symbol for the division is the division symbol ’:’ (read: 15
divided by).
14
18 4
Example: 3 ∙ 4 = 12 12 ∶ 4 = 3 (or 122 )7
12 ∶ 3 = 4 14
4
Similar to the other 3 basic arithmetic operations the problem which  Division by the number 0 is indefinite.
shall be solved by a division is written as an equation. The element of
the equation which shall be divided is referred to as ’dividend’. The
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 Mathematics PART 66 – Basic Training
Arithmetic Cat B1 – Module 1

Fractions Division of Integers

A quotient can also be written as a fraction. Integer numbers are divided with regard to the following rules of sign
operation:
12
12: 4 =
4  If the signs of dividend and divisor are identical the quotient is
always positive:
In this example the operation symbol, the line, is set between
dividend (12) and divisor (4) and the equation symbol is arranged at −6
the level of the operation symbol. This presentation is called a = 3
−2
’fraction’ and the operation sign is referred to as line (of fraction).
 If the signs of dividend and divisor are not identical the
Fractions belong to the class of rational numbers. The term ’fraction’ quotient is always negative:
implies a value between two integers.
−6
In a fraction the dividend is called the ’numerator’ and the divisor is = −3
+2
referred to as ’denominator’. Numerator and denominator, beside the
line of fraction, may be separated by a slash or a colon: 1.1.1.3 Basic Arithmetic Operations with Fractions
1 Fractions may be subject to all the basic arithmetic operations and
= 1/5 = 1 ∶ 5
5 various conversions. As a special type of numbers, the working with
fractions requires special rules, however.
Depending on whether the denominator is smaller or larger than the
divisor, the fraction is called ’proper’ or ’improper’.
Conversion of Fractions
3
(proper fraction) Conversion of Improper Fractions
5
6 1
5
= 1 (improper fraction)
5
Improper fractions can be converted into a mixed number by
determining the quotient that consists of an integer plus a remainder
The improper fraction may be written as mixed number, which
where the latter over the denominator provides the proper fraction
consists of an integer and a proper fraction.
summand to the mixed number.

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 Mathematics PART 66 – Basic Training
Arithmetic Cat B1 – Module 1

7 7 3 2
Example: 4
= 7 ∶ 4 = 1, remainder  4 = 1 4 Example: The fraction 4 contains the common divisor 2 for the
numerator and the denominator. Thus, 2 : 2 = 1 and 4 : 2 = 2 provide
When converting improper fractions into mixed numbers the value of 1
the quotient 2 :
the numbers is not changed. 2
Expansion of Fractions 2 1
= 2=
4 4 2
When calculating with fractions and mixed numbers, it is sometimes
2
necessary to convert the numerator or the denominator of the
fraction. This can only be done by multiplying the numerator and the
denominator by an identical number.
7
Example: Numerator and denominator of the fraction 8 have to
be multiplied by 4. This leads to the following expression:

7 7 ∙4 28
= =
8 8 ∙4 32
This procedure does not affect the value of the quotient.

Reduction of Fractions

If numerator and denominator of proper fractions have a common

divisor they can be converted by dividing the numerator and the
denominator by this common divisor. This procedure is called
’reduction’.

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 Mathematics PART 66 – Basic Training
Arithmetic Cat B1 – Module 1

Addition of Fractions 3 5 7
Example: + +
6 8 12
In order to add fractions they must have a common denominator. In 24 24 24
case the denominators are different, they must be made common. Least common denominator = 24, 6
= 4, 8
= 3, 12
=2

Addition of Fractions with Common Denominators 3∙4 5∙3 7∙2 12 15 14 17

+ + = + + =1
6∙4 8 ∙ 3 12 ∙ 2 24 24 24 24
Fractions with common denominators are added by retaining the
denominator and adding the numerators. If the resulting fraction is an In the previous example, the least common denominator is 24, since
improper fraction, it is usually converted into a mixed number. 6 is 4 times, 8 is 3 times and 12 is twice contained in 24. Thus, the
4
3 5 7 3+5+7 15 first fraction has to be multiplied with 4 over 4 (4), the second one
Example: + + = = 178 3 2
8 8 8 8 8
with 3 over 3 (3), and the third one with 2 over 2 (2) to get 24 as
When adding mixed numbers with common denominators, first the common denominator. The procedure for adding mixed numbers is
integers are added and then the numerators. similar.
1 3
Example: 416 + 356 + 716 = 1476 = 1516 Example: 23 + 64

This procedure does not affect the value of the quotient either. 1 ∙4 3∙3 4 9 13 1
2 + 6 =2 +6 =8 = 9
3 ∙4 4 ∙3 12 12 12 12
Addition of Fractions with Different Denominators

In adding fractions with different denominators, first the denominators

must be converted into a common denominator. This is performed by
finding the least common denominator of all fractions to be added.
Then the numerator and the denominator of each fraction have to be
multiplied by the factor that converts the denominator into the least
common denominator.

The least common denominator is the denominator which provides an

integer result when used as dividend for all denominators of the
fractions to be added.

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 Mathematics PART 66 – Basic Training
Arithmetic Cat B1 – Module 1

Subtraction of Fractions Subtractions of Fractions with Different Denominators

As for the addition, when subtracting fractions they must have a As for the addition, when subtracting fractions with different
common denominator. Different denominators must be made denominators, first the denominators must be converted into a
common. common denominator.

Subtractions of Fractions with Common Denominators 5 3

Example: − least common denominator = 24.
6 8
Fractions with common denominators are subtracted by retaining the
denominator and subtracting the numerators. If the resulting fraction 5 ∙4 3 ∙3 20 9 11
− = − =
is an improper fraction, it is usually converted to a mixed number. 6 ∙4 8 ∙3 24 24 24

7 5 1 7−5−1 1 The procedure for subtracting mixed numbers is similar.

Example: − − =
8 8 8 8 8
2 3
Example: 6 −2 , least common denominator = 3 ∙ 4 = 12.
When subtracting mixed numbers with common denominators, first 3 4
the integers are subtracted and then the numerators.
2∙4 3 ∙3 8 9 20 9 11
6 −2 =6 −2 =5 −2 =3
5 1 5−1 4 2 3∙4 4∙3 12 12 12 12 12
Example: 4 −3 (4 − 3) + ( ) = 16 = 13
6 6 6

When subtracting mixed numbers, the minuend fraction may be

smaller than the subtrahend fraction. In that case, an integer unit of
the minuend is converted into an improper fraction.

1 5 7 5 2 1
Example: 4 −2 =3 −2 =1 =1
6 6 6 6 6 3

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 Mathematics PART 66 – Basic Training
Arithmetic Cat B1 – Module 1

2 4 2 ∙4 8
⋅ = =
Multiplication of Fractions 3 5 3 ∙5 15

Fundamentals of Multiplying Fractions  multiplying a mixed number by a fraction

When multiplying fractions the following rules have to be observed: 2 4 14 4 14 ∙ 4 56 11

4 ⋅ = ⋅ = = = 3
3 5 3 5 3 ∙5 15 15
 Each problem of division can be written as a fraction.
 multiplying a mixed number by a mixed number
300 5 15 3
300 ∶ 60 = = = 5; 15 ∶ 25 = = 2 4 14 19 14 ∙ 19 266 11
60 1 25 5 4 ⋅ 3 = ⋅ = = = 17
3 5 3 5 3 ∙5 15 15
 Fractions are multiplied by multiplying the numerators of the
fractions and the denominators separately.

numinator ∙ numerator 2 5 2∙5 10 5

∙ = = =
denominator ∙ denomerator 3 8 3∙8 24 12
Multiplication of Different Types of Numbers

Five different cases of problems can occur:

 multiplying an integer by a fraction

4 7 4 7 ∙4 28 3
7 ⋅ = ⋅ = = = 5
5 1 5 1 ∙5 5 5

 multiplying an integer by a mixed number

4 7 14 7 ∙ 14 98 3
7 ⋅ 2 = ⋅ = = = 19
5 1 5 1 ∙5 5 5

 multiplying a fraction by a fraction

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 Mathematics PART 66 – Basic Training
Arithmetic Cat B1 – Module 1

Division of Fractions  dividing a fraction by a fraction

Fundamentals of Dividing Fractions 6 1 6 2 12 5

∶ = ∙ = =1
7 2 7 1 7 7
As stated before, a division can be written as a fraction. If the
dividend and the divisor of the quotient are interchanged the result is  dividing an integer by a fraction
referred to as the reciprocal value of the quotient.
3 4 3 4 7 28 1
4 12 4∶ = ∶ = ⋅ = =9
4 ∶ 12 = , which is the reciprocal value of . 7 1 7 1 3 3 3
12 4
 dividing an integer by a mixed number
Rule of Dividing Fractions
2 9 17 9 3 27 10
Fractions are divided by forming the reciprocal value of the divisor 9∶ 5 = ∶ = ⋅ = = 1
3 1 3 1 17 17 17
(2nd fraction) and multiplying this reciprocal value with the dividend.
 dividing a mixed number by a fraction
2
2 3 2 4 2 ∙4 8
∶ = 3= ∙ = = 4 6
8 ∶ =
76 6
∶ =
76 7
⋅ =
38 ∙ 7
=
266
= 9
23
3 4 3 3 3 3 ∙3 9 9 7 9 7 9 6 9 ∙3 27 27
4
 dividing a mixed number by an integer
Division of Different Types of Numbers
5 45 5 45 1 9 ∙1 9 1
Eight different cases of problems may occur: 5 ∶ 5 = ∶ = ⋅ = = = 1
8 8 1 8 5 8 ∙1 8 8
 dividing a fraction by an integer
 dividing a mixed number by a mixed number.
4 4 2 4 1 4 2
∶2= ∶ = ∙ = = 3 1 27 13 27 6 27 ∙ 3 81 3
5 5 1 5 2 10 5 6 ∶ 2 = ∶ = ⋅ = = = 3
4 6 4 6 4 13 2 ∙ 13 26 26
 dividing a fraction by a mixed number

2 2 2 8 2 3 6 1
∶2 = ∶ = ∙ = =
3 3 3 3 3 8 24 4
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 Mathematics PART 66 – Basic Training
Arithmetic Cat B1 – Module 1

When continuing the division of dividends which can no longer be

Decimal Fractions divided without having a remainder, often the same number or a
sequence of numbers are repeated periodically in the quotient (third
Fractions represented by a numerator above and a denominator case of the example before). These fractions are called ’infinite
below a horizontal or diagonal line are referred to as common or periodic decimal fractions’ or ’periods’. They are marked by 3 points,
vulgar fractions. But an improper fraction can also be represented as e.g. 0.33..., or by overscoring the last sequential digit, e.g. 0.3.
a decimal numeral where the integer is separated from the proper
fraction by a decimal point in English speaking countries or by a Sometimes a division can infinitely be continued not resulting in a
comma in other countries. In this case the digits representing the period. These fractions are called ’infinite decimal fractions’.
integers are on the left side of the decimal point. On the right side of If the division is finished at one position right of the decimal point with
the point the tenths, hundredths, thousandths etc. are placed. no remainder, then the fraction is referred to as ’finite decimal
fraction’.
Examples:
1 Considering the infinite periodic decimal fractions it is found that the
1. = 0.1
10 figure is not exact. The value is only approximated. In such cases it is
251
2. 342 1,000 = 342.251 recommended to use common fractions for further calculations.

In order to convert a proper fraction into a decimal fraction, the fact is Problems that are solved with an approximate result must not be
used that the proper fraction is the ratio of two integers. described by an equality symbol. The symbol ’≈’ (read: equals
approximately) is used instead.
Examples:
1.1.2 Mathematical Operations with Powers
1 1 5
1. = 1 ∶ 10 2. =1∶4 3. =5∶6
10 4 6 1.1.2.1 The Term ’Power’
1 ∶ 10 = 0.1 1 ∶ 4 = 0.25 5 ∶ 6 = 0.83 … It is convenient to have a shorthand for writing repeated products. For
0 0 0 example, the product x • x • x • x can be written as x4. The number 4
̅̅̅̅
10 ̅̅̅̅
10 ̅̅̅̅
50 shows that x is used as factor 4 times in the product. Here, 4 is called
10 8 48 the ’exponent’ or ’power’ and x is called the ’base’. The quantity x4 is
̅̅̅̅
0 ̅̅̅̅
20 ̅̅̅̅
20 called a power. x4 is read as ’x to the fourth’ or ’x to the power of 4’. x2
20 18 is read as ’x to the second’, or more commonly ’x squared’, just as x3
̅̅̅̅
0 ̅̅̅
2 is commonly read ’x cubed’. Since x = x1, the exponent of x is 1, but
normally it is only spoken of x.

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𝑎 ⋅ 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑎 = 𝑎6 The exponent is 6
and the base is a

(−2) ∙ (−2) ∙ (−2) ∙ (−2) ∙ (−2) = (−2)5 = −32 The exponent is 5

and the base
is –2
1 1 1 1 3 1
(4) (4) (4) = (4) = The exponent is 3
64
and the base is ¼

(2 + 1) ∙ (2 + 1) ∙ (2 + 1) ∙ (2 + 1) = (2 + 1)4 The exponent is 4

and the base 2+1,
or 3

Refer to Figure 1.

Figure 1: Basic Form of a Power Equation

Using literal numbers, a power equation looks like

𝑏 𝑛 = 𝑏 ∙ 𝑏 ∙ 𝑏 ∙ . . .∙ 𝑏
𝑏𝑛 = 𝑐

where:

𝑏𝑛 = power term
c = value or result
b = base
n = exponent or power index.
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With respect to the result ’c’, it is spoken of ’c’ being the nth power of
the base b.

To obtain a numeral result from this equation, the literal numbers ’b’
and ’n’ would be replaced by real numbers. Especially the number
types

 natural number
 zero
 negative integer and
 fraction

assigned to the exponent ’n’, require specific mathematical operations

or provide specific results.

Powers with Integer Exponents

Refer to Figure 2.

The set of natural numbers are identical with the positive integers or
whole positive numbers [1, 2, 3, 4 ...].

Example: Base b=3

Exponent n=5
Figure 2: Use of bn = c with Natural Number Exponents
Example 1 in Figure 2 shows that the base 3 has been raised to the
fifth power by multiplying it five times or the result of 243 is the fifth
power of 3.

To raise a fraction to a power, as shown in Example 2, both, the

numerator and the denominator, are raised to the given power.

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Arithmetic Cat B1 – Module 1

5. If the base is a negative number and the exponent an odd

3 number, then the result of the power is a number with negative
Example: Base b=
4 sign.
Exponent n=4

Three special cases do exist concerning writing and articulating a Powers of Sums and Differences
power with natural number exponent:
Powers of sums and differences have the general form
 If n = 1, then c = b1 = b. In writing and expressing, the first (𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐 + . . . )n.
power is omitted and the result is the base itself.
This means raising the power algebraically requires multiplying the
 If n = 2, then c = b2. One usually speaks of squaring the expression in the bracket ’n’ times by progressively multiplying all
number ’b’, and ’c’ being the square number of ’b’. summands with each other, in the same manner as it would be done
in case of multiplying ordinary algebraic summands.
 If n = 3, Then c = b3. One usually speaks of cubing the number
’b’, and ’c’ being the cube number of ’b’. The binomial formulae
General Rules
(𝑎 + 𝑏) ⋅ (𝑎 − 𝑏) = 𝑎2 − 𝑏 2
Considering the various values for the base, general rules of powers (𝑎 + 𝑏)2 = 𝑎2 + 2𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏 2
with natural number exponents can be derived:
(𝑎 − 𝑏)2 = 𝑎2 − 2𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏 2
1. If the base of a power is +1, its result is +1; i.e. 1n = 1
are the most often used ones and should be remembered as they
2. If the base of a power is zero, its result is zero, i.e. 0n = 0 (for often permit quick mental squaring or multiplication of large number
n ≠ 0) sets by multiplying, respectively squaring their sum and/or difference
to the next convenient number.
3. The absolute values of powers with the same exponent are
mirror inverted to the point 0 on the number line,
e.g. ⎥(–3)3 ⎥ = ⎥33⎥ = ⎥±27⎥ = 27; i.e. ⎥(± b)n⎥ = ⎥±c⎥ = c

4. If the base is a negative number and the exponent an even

number, the result of the power is a number with positive sign

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Using the commutative and associative properties and the product

theorem of exponents the solution is as follows:
1.1.2.2 Basic Operations with Powers
(5𝑦 2 ) ∙ (−3𝑦 4 ) = 5 ∙ (−3) ∙ 𝑦 2 ∙ 𝑦 4
Addition and Subtraction of Powers
= −15𝑦 2+4
Only powers having the same base and the same exponent may be (5𝑦 2 ) ∙ (−3𝑦 4 ) = 15𝑦 6
added or subtracted.

𝑘𝑎𝑛 ± 𝑚𝑎𝑛 = (𝑘 ± 𝑚)𝑎𝑛 Division of Powers

𝑎8
Example: 15 ∙ 63 − 12 ∙ 63 = (15 − 12) ∙ 63 A quotient, such as 3 , can be simplified in almost the same way as
𝑎
= 3 ∙ 63 a product. The denominators of all quotients of this type are assumed
= 648 not to be zero.
Multiplication of Powers
Using the definition of an exponent, it follows:
An expression, such as a5 ⋅ a3, can be simplified by using the
definition of an exponent to write out the repeated factors: 𝑎8 𝑎∙ 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑎
3
=
𝑎5 ⋅ 𝑎3 = (𝑎 ⋅ 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑎) ⋅ (𝑎 ⋅ 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑎) 𝑎 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑎

= 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑎
= 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑎
𝑎8
𝑎5 ⋅ 𝑎3 = 𝑎8 = 𝑎5
𝑎3

When multiplying powers with the same base the exponents are Note: 8 − 3 = 5.
added (if the exponents are not zero). This is called the ’product
theorem’ of exponents.

𝑎𝑚 ∙ 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎𝑚+𝑛 Product Theorem

Example: The product of 5𝑦 2 and −3𝑦 4 has to be found.

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In the same way: Powers with Negative Integer

𝑎3 𝑎∙ 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑎 From the third result of the quotient theorem (m < n) it can be derived:
8
=
𝑎 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑎 ∙𝑎 ⋅ 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑎 1
𝑎−𝑚 =
𝑎3
1 𝑎𝑚
8
= 5
𝑎 𝑎 Using this definition of negative exponents, it can be shown that all
the theorems of exponents given above are also valid for any integer
exponent, positive, zero, or negative.
And finally:
Examples:
𝑎3 𝑎∙ 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑎 1
 3−2 = 32 =
1
= 9
𝑎3 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑎 1 1
 5−3 = 53 = 125
𝑎3
= 1
𝑎3
It can be seen from the examples that when powers with the same
base are divided, the exponents are subtracted (if the exponents are
whole numbers and not zero). This is called the ’quotient theorem’ of
exponents.

If m and n are any whole numbers (𝑚, 𝑛 ≠ 0), and if 𝑎 ≠ 0 then

𝑎𝑚−𝑛 if 𝑚>𝑛

𝑎𝑚
= 1 if 𝑚=𝑛 Quotient Theorem
𝑎𝑛

1
if 𝑚<𝑛
𝑎𝑛−𝑚

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 Mathematics PART 66 – Basic Training
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Powers with Exponent Zero Raising the Power of a Power

It is known that if 𝑎 ≠ 0 The expression (𝑎4 )2 can be simplified by writing

𝑎𝑚 (𝑎4 )2 = 𝑎4 ∙ 𝑎4 = 𝑎4+4 = 𝑎8
=1
𝑎𝑚
Note: 4 ⋅ 2 = 8.
Using the quotient theorem of exponents it follows
𝑎𝑚 From this example the power theorem of exponents can be
= 𝑎𝑚−𝑚 = 𝑎0
𝑎𝑚 generalized:

From these two equations it is derived that (𝑎𝑚 )𝑛 = 𝑎𝑚∙𝑛 Power Theorem

𝑎0 = 1 (−6𝑥 2 )3 ∙(−2𝑥)2
Example: The expression has to be simplified.
(2𝑥 3 )3 ∙ (−𝑥 2 )3
By comparing the powers and results of the completed worksheet,
there are conclusions, which confirm the statements made before: Using the theorems of exponents the solution is as follows:
 A number raised to a negative power is identical with the
1
reciprocal of the corresponding positive power, i.e. 𝑎−𝑛 = 𝑛 (−6𝑥 2 )3 ∙ (−2𝑥)2 (−6)3 ∙ (𝑥 2 )3 ∙ (−2)2 ∙ 𝑥 2
𝑎 =
for (−𝑛) < 0 (2𝑥 3 )3 ∙ (−𝑥 2 )3 23 ∙ (𝑥 3 )3 ∙ (−𝑥 2 )3
 A number raised to the power of zero is ’1’, i.e. 𝑎0 = 1 for 𝑎 ≠
0. −216 ∙ 𝑥 6 ∙ 4 ∙ 𝑥 2
=
8 ∙ 𝑥 9 ∙ (−𝑥 6 )
−108 ∙ 𝑥 8
=
𝑥 15
−108
=
𝑥7

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1.1.2.3 Polynomials and Factoring

Simplification of Polynomials
An ’algebraic expression’ is any mathematical expression involving
variables, numbers, and a finite number of operations, such as When solving or rearranging equations simplifying polynomials is
addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, or finding roots. often necessary to make computation more convenient. In order to
Polynomials are the simplest kind of algebraic expressions. perform simplification of polynomials the following axioms are applied:

A ’term’ is an expression consisting of the product of a number and Distributive axiom: 𝑎 ( 𝑏 + 𝑐 ) = 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑎𝑐

one or more variables raised to powers. The number in the product
(which may be 1) is called the coefficient. Associative axiom:  (𝑎 + 𝑏) + 𝑐 = 𝑎 + (𝑏 + 𝑐)
 (𝑎𝑏) 𝑐 = 𝑎 (𝑏𝑐)
1
Example: 4𝑥, − 2 𝑚2 𝑛, 5. Commutative axiom:  𝑎 + 𝑏 = 𝑏 + 𝑎
 𝑎𝑏 = 𝑏𝑎
A ’polynomial’ is any finite sum of terms, such as
Example: Simplify the polynomial 4𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 2 :
 3𝑥𝑦 − 5
4𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 2 = (4 + 5)𝑥 2 = 9𝑥 2 Distributive Axiom
 4𝑥 3 𝑚5 − 5𝑥 2 𝑚 + 6
 3𝑥 2 𝑡 6 𝑚5 Example: Simplify the polynomial −5𝑥 2 𝑦 2 + 8𝑥 2 𝑦 2 − 6𝑥 2 𝑦 2 :

−5𝑥 2 + 8𝑥 2 𝑦 2 − 6𝑥 2 𝑦 2 = (−5 + 8 − 6)𝑥 2 𝑦 2 = −3𝑥 2 𝑦 2

The expression 3𝑥𝑦 − 5 is called a ’sum of terms’ or ’algebraic sum’
even though it involves subtraction, but it can also be written 3𝑥𝑦 + The examples show that only terms containing exactly the same
(−5). variables to the same powers can be combined. Such terms are
called ’like terms’. It is not possible to further combine the terms in the
polynomial 4x + 5x2, since this polynomial consists of unlike terms.

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Addition and Subtraction of Polynomials Example: Find the product of 5𝑥 2 and the polynomial
2𝑥 3 − 4𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 2
Addition and subtraction (inverse addition) of polynomials is
performed by using associative, commutative and distributive axioms. 5𝑥 2 ∙ (2𝑥 3 − 4𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 2) = 5𝑥 2 ∙ 2𝑥 3 − 5𝑥 2 ∙ 4𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 2 ∙ 3𝑥 − 5𝑥 2 ∙ 2

Example: Add the polynomials 4𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 2 and −6𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 4d = 10𝑥 5 − 20𝑥 4 + 15𝑥 3 − 10𝑥 2

(4𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 2) + (−6𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 4) = 4𝑥 2 + (−6𝑥 2 ) + (−5𝑥) + 3𝑥 − 2 Example: Multiply (3𝑥 − 4) and (2𝑥 2 + 𝑥):
= −2𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 2 = −2(𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 1) (3𝑥 − 4) ∙ (2𝑥 2 + 𝑥) = 3𝑥(2𝑥 2 + 𝑥) − 4(2𝑥 2 + 𝑥)
= 3𝑥 ∙ 2𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 ∙ 𝑥 − 4 ∙ 2𝑥 2 − 4 ∙ 𝑥
Example: Subtract −𝑥 3 − 5𝑥 2 + 3 from 4𝑥 3 + 7𝑥 2 − 8. = 6𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 − 8𝑥 2 − 4𝑥
= 6𝑥 3 − 5𝑥 2 − 4𝑥
Using the fact that −(𝑎 + 𝑏) = −𝑎 + (−𝑏), the signs of the terms of
the second polynomial are changed and add: Factoring of Polynomials

(4𝑥 3 + 7𝑥 2 − 8) − (−𝑥 3 − 5𝑥 2 + 3) = 4𝑥 3 + 7𝑥 2 − 8 + 𝑥 3 + 5𝑥 2 − 3 Factoring is the reverse process of finding the product of any two
= 5𝑥 3 + 12𝑥 2 − 11 polynomials. A polynomial is given and now it is looked for if this
polynomial can be expressed as the product of two or more simpler
Multiplication of Polynomials polynomials. The result of the last example has been 6𝑥 3 − 5𝑥 2 − 4𝑥,
which is the product of the two polynomials (3𝑥 − 4) and (2𝑥2 + 𝑥).
In order to find the product of two polynomials the theorem of
exponents is used in addition to the distributive, commutative, and The distributive property is used to find the greatest common factor of
associative axioms. a polynomial. In the polynomial 12𝑥 3 + 18𝑥 2 − 9𝑥 each coefficient can
be divided by a factor of 3. Also, x is the largest factor of 𝑥 3 , 𝑥 2 and 𝑥.
Example: Multiply 2𝑚2 𝑧 4 and 8𝑚3 𝑧 2 𝑏 Thus 3𝑥 is the greatest common factor of the complete polynomial.

(2𝑚2 𝑧 4 ) ∙ (8𝑚3 𝑧 2 𝑏) = 2 ∙ 8 ∙ 𝑚2 ∙ 𝑚3 ∙ 𝑧 4 ∙ 𝑧 2 ∙ 𝑏 Example:

12𝑥 3 + 18𝑥 2 − 9𝑥 = 3𝑥 ∙ 4𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 ∙ 6𝑥 − 3𝑥 ∙ 3
= 16𝑚5 𝑧 6 𝑏
= 3𝑥(4𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 − 3)

By determining the greatest common factor the polynomial can be

simplified.

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 Mathematics PART 66 – Basic Training
Arithmetic Cat B1 – Module 1

1.1.2.4 Scientific Notation

Finally calculate the numerical factor:
An important application of integer exponents is their use in
simplifying work with extremely large or small numbers. In scientific = 0.2 ∙ 105
notations a number is written as a number between 1 and 10 (or −1 = 20,000
and −10) and some power of 10.
Example: Use scientific notation to estimate the value of
−6 379,500 ∙0.001,2
Example: 0.000,002,5 is written in scientific notation as 2.5 ∙ 10
1,360,000,000 as 1.36 ∙ 109 and 4,980
147,000 as 1.47 ∙ 105
Since only an estimation is wanted, the numbers can be rounded as
Scientific notations frequently make it possible to utilize the theorems follows:
of exponents to estimate answers or to simplify lengthy calculations
as shown in the following examples. 379,500 ∙ 0.001,2 400,000 ∙ 0.001
≈
4,980 5,000
1,920,000 ∙ 0.001,5
Example: Calculate
0.000,003 ∙ 45,000 The symbol ’≈’ means ’is approximately equal to’. If each number is
now written in scientific notation the answer can be estimated:
First express all numbers in scientific notation:
400,000 ∙ 0.001 4 ∙ 105 ∙ 1 ∙ 10−3
1,920,000 ∙ 0.001,5 1.92 ∙ 106 ∙ 1.5 ∙ 10−3 = =
= 5,000 5 ∙ 103
0.000,003 ∙ 45,000 3.2 ∙ 10−6 ∙ 4.5 ∙ 104 4
= ∙ 10−1
5
Next, use the commutative and associative axioms and the theorems
= 0.8 ∙ 10−1
of power to simplify the expressions:
= 0.08
1.92 ∙ 1,5 106 ∙ 10−3
= ∙
3.2 ∙ 4.5 10−6 ∙ 104
1.92 ∙ 1.5
= ∙ 105
3.2 ∙ 4.5

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 Mathematics PART 66 – Basic Training
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1.1.2.5 Powers with Fractional Number Exponents (Roots) As demonstrated in the examples, ‘raising to the power’ means
multiplying a number n times by itself. ‘Finding the root’ means
So far it is known how to solve the power equation b = an. This is knowing the result of the multiplication by itself and to convert this
done by raising a to the power of n. number into n factors of the same value.

Example: b = 22 = 2 ⋅ 2 = 4 1.1.3 Roots and Radicals

But in the equation above it can be asked for the value of a if the 1.1.3.1 Definition of the Terms ’Root’ and ’Radical’
numbers b and n are known. This leads to the first inversion of raising
to the power. This mathematical operation is referred to as ’finding the In general, powers with fractions in the exponent are referred to as
root’ (the second inversion is referred to as ’finding the logarithm’). ’roots’, ’radicals’ or ’radices’. In the following the term ’root’ stands for
For explaining finding–the–root operations, fractional number all these expressions.
exponents are introduced.
Roots are introduced when a solution for the following equation has to
In order to find the value of a, the equation above is presented in the be found:
1
form 𝑎𝑛 = b. Each side of the equation is raised by the power of 𝑛 ,
and the power theorem is used. 𝑎𝑛 = 2

𝑎𝑛 =𝑏 Using the power theorem of exponents it can be proved whether

1
1 1 𝑎 = 2𝑛 is a solution of that equation:
(𝑎𝑛 )𝑛 = (𝑏1 )𝑛
1 1
𝑎𝑛 ∙ 𝑛 = 𝑏1 ∙ 𝑛 1 1
(2𝑛 )𝑛 = 2(𝑛)∙(𝑛)
𝑎1 1
= 𝑏𝑛 = 21
1 =2
𝑎
= 𝑏𝑛
1
The number 2𝑛 is called an nth root of 2.
Example:
𝑎2 =4 1 1
In general, 𝑎𝑛 is the nth root of a, where 𝑎𝑛 is that number with the
1 1
𝑎 1
= 42 property that (𝑎𝑛 )𝑛 = 𝑎. For example, 𝑎2 represents a second (or
1 1

𝑎 =2 square) root of a, 𝑎3 represents a third (or cube) root of a, and 𝑎4

represents a fourth root of a.
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 Mathematics PART 66 – Basic Training
Arithmetic Cat B1 – Module 1

1
The nth root of a, or 𝑎𝑛 , is commonly written with a radical √𝑎. Using 𝑚 𝑛
this symbol a root can be written as 𝑎 𝑛 = √𝑎𝑚 = 𝑏
Example: If 𝑚 = 3, 𝑛 = 2, 𝑎 = 4
1
𝑛 3
𝑎𝑛
= √𝑎 𝑏 = 42 = √43 = √64 = √82 = 8
Note: Read: ’a’ to the power of one over ’n’ equals ’nth’ root of a.
The result of roots with an even index number ’n’ and positive
radicand ’a’ may have a positive or negative sign, e.g.
Here, ’a’ is called the ’radicand’, ’n’ is called the ’index’ of a root or
𝑛
’radical index’, and the expression √𝑎 is called a ’radical’ or a ’root’.
√64 = √(−82 ) and
Finding the root of ’a’ is an inverse mathematical operation for raising √64 = √(+82 ) therefore
a natural number to a power. √64 = ±8
Example: If 𝑛 = 1, 𝑚 = 4, 𝑏 = 16:
Normally the positive result is picked up as the correct root value and
1 is referred to as the prime result.
4 4
164 = √16 = √2 ∙ 2 ∙ 2 ∙ 2 = 2
In contrast to the ambiguous root result in the case of an even
At times the root result is not a perfect whole number factor, but an number index and positive radicand, any other combination of root
irrational number which will be displayed by a pocket calculator as a index and radicand provides a single result:
non–recurring decimal number,
a) If the radicand ’b’ is positive–signed and the index ’m’ an
e.g. √3 = 1.7320508. odd number, then the root result ’c’ is positive–signed, e.g.
3 3
√27 = √3 ∙ 3 ∙ 3 = 3
When this is done, results from the pocket calculator are rounded up
to a sensible level of accuracy, e.g. b) If the radicand ’a’ is negative–signed and the index ’n’ an
odd number, then the root result ’b’ is negative–signed;
 rounded to three decimal places (DP) 1.732 e.g.
 rounded to two significant figures (SF) 1.7 3 3
√−27 = √(−3) ∙ (−3) ∙ (−3) = 3

When a fractional exponent has a numerator m > 1, then the c) If the radicand ’a’ is negative–signed and the index ’n’ an
numerator indicates the power to which the number ’a’ is to be raised, even number, then the root result is a number of the form
while the denominator ’n’ indicates the root to be taken.
𝑐√−1; e.g. √−16 = √42 ∙ (−1) = 4√−1
Thus, the equation is as follows:

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 Mathematics PART 66 – Basic Training
Arithmetic Cat B1 – Module 1

Thus, values with √−1 as a final result are not often used but they
sometimes occur as intermediate results of algebraic operations. Note: Only roots with the same radicand and radical index can be
4
added or subtracted. Sums or differences, such as √3 + √6 or
1.1.3.2 Finding the Root 4 ∙ √3 − 2 ∙ √2, cannot be added or subtracted.

Nowadays evaluating the value of a radical with a real number Multiplication of Roots
radicand is done by using a scientific pocket calculator. Therefore it is
not necessary to learn how to find the root by intention and in written Rule 1
form. There are procedures to do this not using a calculator but using
other aids instead, such as tables (especially for finding square and Roots having the same radicand are multiplied by converting the
cube roots). radical expression into a power expression with fractional exponents
and raising the common radicand to the sum of the exponents:
1.1.3.3 Mathematical Operations with Roots
1 1 1 1
𝑛 𝑚 +
Since roots can be described as powers with fractional number √𝑎 ∙ √𝑎 = 𝑎 𝑛 ∙ 𝑎 𝑚 = 𝑎 𝑛 𝑚
exponents the rules for mathematical operations are the same as
those for operating with powers. Example:
3 6 1 1
√3 ∙ √3 = 33 ∙ 36
Addition and Subtraction of Roots 1 1
= 33 + 6
Rule 2 1
= 36 + 6
Only roots having the same radicand and the same radical index may 3
be added or subtracted: = 36
1
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 =3
𝑎 ∙ √𝑐 ± 𝑏 ∙ √𝑐 = (𝑎 ± 𝑏) √𝑐 2

= √3
Example:
4 6 3 (4+6−3) = 1.732
√3 + √3 − √3 = √3
7
= √3
= 12.12

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Rule 2 Rule 2

Roots having different radicands but the same radical index are Roots having different radicands but the same radical index are
multiplied by converting the radical expression into a power divided by finding the root out of the quotient of the radicands:
expression with fractional exponents and raising their base product to
𝑛
the common exponent: √𝑎 𝑛 𝑎
𝑛 = √
1 1 1 √𝑏 𝑏
𝑛 𝑛 ∙ 𝑛
√𝑎 ∙ √𝑏 = 𝑎𝑛 𝑏 𝑛 = (𝑎 ∙ 𝑏)𝑛 = √𝑎 ∙ 𝑏
In order to prove this theorem, verify that
Example: √4 ∙ 6 = √24 1
𝑛 1
√𝑎 𝑎𝑛 𝑎 𝑛 𝑛 𝑎
Division of Roots 𝑛 = 1 = ( ) = √
√𝑏 𝑏 𝑏
𝑏𝑛
Rule 1
Examples:
Roots having the same radicand are divided by converting the radical
expressions into power expressions with fractional exponents and √6 6 3
raising the common radicand to the difference of the numerator  = √ =√
√4 4 2
exponent (top term) minus denominator exponent (bottom term):
√300 300
1
 = √ = √100 = 10
𝑛 √3 3
√𝑎 𝑎𝑛 1 1
( ∙ )
𝑚 = 1 = 𝑎𝑛 𝑚
√𝑎 𝑎𝑚

Example:
1
√125 1252 1 1
4
√125 = 1 = 1252−4
1254
2 1 1
= 1254−4 = 1254
4
= √125 = 3.344

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18 √18
√ =
125 √125
1.1.3.4 Simplification of Roots √9 ∙ √2
=
√25 ∙ √5
Simplifying Expressions including Multiplication and Division
3 ∙ √2
The rules of multiplication and division of roots can be used to simplify =
5 ∙ √5
roots. A root is said to be in simplified form if the following three
conditions hold: The denominator contains a root, which must be eliminated by the
last condition in the definition of simplified form given above. The term
 When factored to prime factors, the radicand contains no
√5 can be eliminated in the denominator by multiplying both the
factor to a power greater than or equal to the radical index
 The radicand has no fractions numerator and the denominator by √5.
 No denominator contains a root.
3 ∙ √2 3 ∙ √2 ∙ √5
=
Example: Simplify the root √24. 5 ∙ √5 5 ∙ √5 ∙ √5
3 ∙ √10
First the largest perfect square (square of an integer) that divides =
evenly into 24 has to be found. In this example, the largest number is 5 ∙5
4. Thus: 3 ∙ √10
√24 = √4 ∙ 2 =
25
= √4 ∙ √6
= 2 ∙ √6

18
Example: Simplify the root √
125
.
Begin as follows:

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1.1.3.5 Simplifying Radical Expressions

Simplifying Expressions including Addition and Subtraction

A radical expression is an algebraic expression which contains roots.

For example:

Examples:
4
 √3 + √6
√2−1

√5
3

√8− √2

In the previous chapter simplification of radical expressions including

multiplication and division had been discussed. Now it is considered,
how to simplify radical expressions which include addition and
subtraction.

Numbers such as √3, √19, and −√2 are real numbers. Therefore, the
distributive property applies to these numbers. Using this property an
expression such as 4 ∙ √2 + 3 ∙ √2 can be simplified as follows:

A radical expression which includes subtraction, such as 2 ∙ √3 − 5 ∙

√3 can often be simplified in the same way:

2 ∙ √3 − 5 ∙ √3 = (2 − 5) ∙ √3

= −3 ∙ √3

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1.1.4 Calculation of Percentage Example: Last year a company produced 3000 computers. This
year the company produced 3600 computers. How much is the
1.1.4.1 Percentage percentage increase of production?

There are various applications in using the term percentage starting 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 3600
= =
from publications (news, magazines, statistics etc.) up to technical 100 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑝𝑎𝑙 3000
matters (efficiency, antenna gain, compression ratio etc.).
3600
𝑝 = 100 ⋅ 3000 = 120 %. The percentage increase is 20 %.
It will be stated for instance how much the percentage of the
production has increased over a specific time period or what
Example: The staff of a company comprises 1500 employees.
percentage of the population is male or female or how much is the
1200 of them are male. How much is the percentage of the female
percentage of efficiency of a motor.
employees?
All this information is based on a ratio. The related numbers are
called principals e.g. the production at a specific time or the 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 300
population or the power output of a motor. These numbers will be set = =
equal to 100 and compared with the percentage values 100 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑝𝑎𝑙 1500
e.g. the production at a different time or the male population or the 300
power input of a motor related to 100. 𝑝 = 100 ∙ = 20%
1500
These fractions with the denominator 100 are called percentage
Example: The power output of a motor is 20 kW and the power
indicated with the symbol %. The symbol is an abbreviation for
input of the motor is 50 kW. How much is the percentage efficiency of
divided by 100.
the motor?

For calculations the following formula will be used:

𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑝 𝑏 𝑏

= ∙ = or 𝑝 = 100
100 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑝𝑎𝑙 100 𝑎 𝑎

Where p = percentage, b = percentage value, a = principal.

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Variance
1.1.4.2 Average Value
Another definition which will be used in connection with average is the
Sometimes it is necessary to calculate the average of numbers, variance which is a criterion indicating how the measurement values
points (e.g. for statistics) or measurement values (e.g. for calibration are distributed or spread around the average. For calculation the
of measurement devices). following formula will be used:
𝑛
For calculations the following formula will be used: 1
𝑣𝑎𝑟(𝑥) = ∑(𝑥𝑖 − 𝑥𝑎 )2
∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑋𝑖 𝑛−1
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑧𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑖=1
𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 (𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒) = , 𝑥𝑎 = Example: For the a.m. five voltages calculate the variance.
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠 𝑛

Whereas:
1
𝑥𝑎 = average, ∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑋𝑖 = totalization value, 𝑛 = number of values. 𝑣𝑎𝑟(𝑥) = ((1.12 − 1.21)2 + (1.24 − 1.21)2 + (1.15 − 1.21)2
4
Example: The following measurement values (voltages) are given. + (1.25 − 1.21)2 + (1.12 − 1.21)2 )𝑉 2
1
𝑈1 = 1.12 𝑉, 𝑈2 = 1.24 𝑉, 𝑈3 = 1.31 𝑉, 𝑈4 = 1.15 𝑉, 𝑈5 = 1.25 𝑉. = ((−0.09)2 + (0.03)2 + (0.10)2 + (−0.06)2 + (0.04)2 )𝑉2
How much is the average? 4

1
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑧𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 ∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑋𝑖 = (0.0242)𝑉2 = 0.00605 𝑉2
𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 (𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒) = , 𝑥𝑎 = 4
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠 𝑛

∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑋𝑖 (1.12 + 1.24 + 1.31 + 1.15 + 1.25)𝑉

𝑥𝑎 = = = 1.21 𝑉
𝑛 5

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1.1.5 Physical Quantities, Standards and Units

Standard Deviation
1.1.5.1 The Role of Quantities and Standards
The standard deviation s is defined as the square root of the variance
and will also be classified as the mean square error of the There are a number of physical quantities whose existence is
measurement values. For calculation the following formula will be apparent by experience. Examples are length, volume, weight, time,
used: speed, etc. In communication, the respective quantities are defined as
long, large, heavy, short or slow, respectively. However, qualifications
𝑠 (𝑥) = √𝑣𝑎𝑟 (𝑥) by adjectives are inexact, depend on individual experience, and often
they are exaggerated for obvious reasons.
Instead of the variance the standard deviation will be used in practice
more often because the dimension of s is the same as the It would be impossible to describe the laws of nature exactly on the
measurement values. basis of adjectival specifications. Exactness in describing natural
events requires exact determination of physical quantities and their
𝑠 (𝑥) = √0.00605 𝑉 = 0.00778 𝑉 exact measurement.

Relative Standard Deviation All measurements consist in determining how many times an
unknown quantity contains some known quantity of the same kind.
The relative standard deviation is defined as the percentage of the Any measurement, therefore, is essentially a comparison between the
standard deviation related to the average. For calculation the unknown magnitude and an accepted standard, and the accepted
following formula will be used: standard is the unit.
For instance, a simple formula for a length quantity specification
standard deviation would be explained to a schoolboy or an engineering apprentice by
𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑑𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = ∙ 100% the following legend:
𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒

𝑠
𝑠𝑟𝑒𝑙 = ∙ 100%
𝑥𝑎

Example: Calculate the relative standard deviation of the a.m.

standard deviation
𝑠 0.00778 𝑉
𝑠𝑟𝑒𝑙 = 𝑥 = 100% = ∙ 100% = 0.643 %
𝑎 1.21 𝑉

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This example makes evident that a precisely defined quantity requires

the specification of a unit and its numerical factor. Thus, the unit is
one of the basic building blocks to express the laws, rules and
regulations of engineering and science.

Note: Never apply engineering formulae without writing the unit

symbols. Without units, physical quantities have no significance.

Depending on the side conditions, a quantity specification may

require completion by an accuracy allowance specification for
measurement or manufacturing purposes. However, these rules are
taught under different subjects of engineering science (e.g.
mathematics, engineering drawing, etc.).

Many of the standard units currently in use had their origin in

prehistoric times. For example, the English sea mile is exactly the
same as the Sumerian geographical mile (3300 to 1800 BC), circle
division into 360° they were acquainted with by the Mesopotamians
(2100 to 538 BC), the 24–hour day by the ancient Egyptians, and the
use of sundials can be traced back to before 35 centuries.

The metric system was first adopted by France by laws and decrees,
between 1795 and 1806. The basic units of the metric system are the
unit of length, the meter and the unit of mass, the kilogram.

Refer to Figure 1.

Figure 1: Prototypes of the Metric System’s Basic Units

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A unit prototype is the tangible representation of a unit standard. It Additionally, there exists an International Organization for
should be borne in mind that a unit standard includes the prototype Standardization (ISO) in Geneva, Switzerland.
and respective papers describing all details of the prototype history
and of the prototype use. In the following, some details of the history of a few metric standards
are given, which show the intentions of the inventors, but also show
Only the descriptive details of a standard enable the proper use of the how standards might be subject to changes, depending on the state
prototype. The case history is required to understand the intentions of of art, particularly on the arts that result in measuring accuracy.
the inventors, should it be necessary, for the provision of prototype
reproductions. In contrast to the current definitions, the historical definitions are
comprehensible to the majority of the people and, partly, the
Prototypes of the original French metric standards are preserved in measures can be reproduced with simple means and satisfactory
the Bureau des Archives in Paris and the international standards at accuracy for the majority of engineering purposes:
the International Bureau of Weights and Measures. The latter is an
institution founded in Paris by an international standardization  The meter was intended to be one ten–millionth of the
committee, mainly by representatives of nations of Central Europe. distance from the north pole to the equator along the meridian
The international committee adopted the metric system in 1875. At line through Paris.
the turn to the 19th century more than 30 nations had adopted the The meter prototype was prepared by engraving two fine lines
metric system. in a bar of 90/10 platinum–iridium alloy at a distance
calculated on the basis of the originally intended value.
All modern nations with considerable trade and scientific institutions Accurate measurements showed that the prototype differs
have administered bureaucratic organisations that maintain national slightly (about 0.023%) from the originally intended value.
standards and control their use. Some of the national standard  The kilogram was intended to be the mass of the amount of
organisations keep certified co–productions of the unit standards in water at its maximum density (3.98 °C) that is contained in a
Paris. Thus, the United States of America have administered the cube that measures one–tenth of a meter on each edge.
National Bureau of Standards in Washington, DC, for instance, where  The kilogram prototype is, also, made of platinum–iridium
the certified copies no. 20 of the meter and the kilogram are alloy. It is a cylinder of 39 mm diameter and 39 mm height.
preserved. Accurate measurements showed that the prototype, also,
differs slightly from the originally intended value, mainly
The legislative power of a state decides on which unit standards shall because the density of the water had not been exactly
be obligatory, permissive or forbidden. Accordingly tight the matter  The capacity unit, litre, was defined as the volume occupied
will be handled by the state’s judicial and executive powers. One of by one kilogram of water under standard conditions.
the major tasks of national standard organisations is to develop rules, Because the kilogram definition was changed to the mass of
standards and standard instruments for calibration and re–calibration the prototype, and the latter turned out to be inaccurate with
of measuring instruments used in science, industry and commerce.

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respect to the originally intended value, the originally defined contrast to the MKSA system, the SI system has been expanded by
liter turned out to be 1.000,028 dm3 units required in thermodynamics, chemistry and optics. Each of the
named science branches needs only one additional unit. Together
1.1.5.2 Basic Units of the SI System with the supplementary units used in mathematics (detail b)), these
are sufficient to describe all fields of science currently known.
Predecessors of the SI system and successors of the metric system
are a) Table of SI units

 the MKS system (meter, kilogram, second system) and Quantity Unit Symbol
 the MKSA system (meter, kilogram, second, ampere system)
Length meter m
which in technical literature may be found under the name
’Giorgi system’. Mass kilogramm kg
Time second s
The use of the MKS system permits solving all problems requiring
units pertaining to mechanics, while the same system, expanded by Electric current ampere A
the ampere unit standard, permits solving electro–technical problems. Thermodynamic temperature* kelvin K
This shows the gradual expansion of the original metric system to Amount of substance mole mol
working tools of science and of different engineering faculties.
Luminous intensity candela cd
The International System of Units, or SI system (Système
International d’Unités), for short, is the latest version of the original *Celsius temperature is expressed in degrees Celsius (symbol =°C).
metric system. The SI system has been accepted in 1960. Nearly half Reproduced from ANSI/IEEE Standard 268 –1992
of the nations have adopted the SI system as obligatory. The rest of
the nations have adopted it as permissive. b) Table of SI supplementary units

The widespread use of the SI system throughout the world has made Quantity Unit Symbol
it the only internationally accepted system of measurements.
Plane angle radian rad
Acceptance will increase, as, nowadays, computers and telephone
have boosted communication enormously. Computerized data of Solid angle steradian sr
universities are available all over the world and almost at the instant
they are put into data banks. Reproduced from ANSI/IEEE Standard 268 –1992
Figure 2 shows a table of the basic units of the SI system (detail a)), Figure 2: SI Units and SI Supplementary Units
giving the quantities, the respective unit names and unit symbols. In

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In the following, the basic units required for mechanics, or the MKS The weight of an object is produced by the pull of the earth, called
system units will be discussed, just to show how definitions have ’gravity’. This pull varies from place to place. For instance, the pull of
changed from the time of metric system invention and how complex a certain mass on the moon is only 1/6th of the pull on the earth. On
the specifications of basic units are in their consequences. the surface of the earth the pull of an object varies a little from place
to place. This is mainly caused by the elliptical form of the earth.
Definition of the Meter
The weight is only equal to the mass, when the mass unit kg is
One meter is the length of the path travelled by light in a vacuum cautiously assigned to it. On earth, the variation in gravity and the
during a time interval of 1/299,792,458th of a second. type of scales used have to be considered. For example, normally,
calculations are made with gravity acceleration of 9.81 m/s2 to
This definition is a prime example of how the definitions of units have determine the pull produced by a mass.
changed and can only be understood by professionals.
Figure 3 shows that this value pertains to the geographical latitude of
Re–definition of the meter does not mean that the meter prototypes 45°. For example, the centre of Botswana is located at a geographical
are obsolete. The metric system definition of the meter being the latitude of 22° (south), approximately, to which a gravitational
distance between the engravings on the prototype still holds true. In acceleration of 9.79 m/s2 would be applicable. Thus, the following
fact, the new definition has been found by carefully measuring the measuring conditions might be applicable:
prototype and by expressing the distance found in wavelengths.
 If a beam balance and properly calibrated weights would be
Definition of the Kilogram used at both locations, there would be no difference
measured, due to the fact that measured mass and standard
The kilogram is the unit of mass; it is equal to the mass of the weights exert the same pull on the arms of the beam balance.
international prototype of the kilogram.  If the same spring balance would be used at both locations,
the apparent weights would differ by 0.3 %, approximately, in
The above definition shows that the definition of the kilogram has not accordance with the difference in gravitation at the different
changed since the time of metric system invention. In everyday latitudes.
language the word ’weight’ is often used when strictly ’mass’ should
be used and ’weighing’ an object is used when its mass is
determined.

The mass is a physical unit, as defined above. It is independent of the

place where the mass of 1 kg is measured; it is always 1 kg. For
instance, an object with a mass of 1 kg on the moon has also a mass
of 1 kg on the earth or anywhere in the space.

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 All objects are attracted to the earth. The greater the mass of
an object, the stronger is the earth’s gravitational pull upon it.

Definition of the Second

The second is the duration of 9,192,631,770 periods of the radiation

corresponding to the transition between the two hyperfine levels of
the ground state of the Cs133 (caesium–133 isotope) atom.

Figure 4 shows part of an atomic clock based on a characteristic

frequency associated with the Cs133 isotope. The assembly is similar
to the type run by the US National Bureau of Standards.

Figure 3: Change of Gravity Due to Position on the Globe

A mass exerts pull or force which can be measured by spring

balances irrespective of being calibrated in kilograms. Therefore, a
spring balance shifted to a different latitude must be re–calibrated,
and for re–calibration, standard weights calibrated in kilograms might
be used.
Mass is a mysterious property which affects the behaviour of an
object in two ways, which will be dealt with in more detail later on. But
there are two things which should be remembered:

 All objects resist attempts to make them go faster, slower, or

in a different direction. The greater the mass of an object, the
greater is its resistance to any change in motion. Figure 4: Part of an Atomic Clock
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An atomic clock running under the conditions specified in the SI The earth’s own rotary axis tumbles periodically during a year (known
standard for the second is supposed to have measurement accuracy as precession) and the tumble centre axis, additionally, is inclined
of one part in ten to the power of twelve. Predecessors of the atomic toward the rotary plane about the sun by a constant degree.
clock, with lower accuracy, had been quartz-controlled clocks and
clocks controlled by a pendulum in vacuum. Smaller time variations are due to erosion of mountains, the s
hifting of continents, the tidal friction, interstellar position changes,
The second was previously defined as a fraction of seasonal and long–term weather changes, including melting ice caps,
1/31,556,925.974,74, related to the solar year 1900. According to the wind speed and wind friction. In fact, experiments involving atomic
given number of seconds in the year, the SI standard atomic clock clocks have revealed that the speed of the earth’s rotation, slowly, but
should be accurate to an allowance of one second within continually decreases. Eventually, a re–definition of the time unit
1012/31,556,925.974,74 = 316,455 years. might be required, if the basic adherence to the cyclic, natural events
is maintained.
The concept of time can be associated with many aspects. Presence, Horologists are the scientists of time measurement, or the designers
past and future are concepts related to the instantaneous awareness of respective measuring devices. These people know several kinds of
of individuals. However to describe events in the past, in the future or time:
the duration of events, time intervals are needed, and the second is
the internationally accepted time interval unit.  Apparent solar time

The solar system gives natural intervals, which count in years, as the This is the non–uniform time experienced by our personal
earth travels in orbit round the sun, and in days, as the earth rotates senses and by our solar system. It is the time measured with a
on its own axis. Smaller intervals are the hour, the minute and the sundial.
second, and these are man–made intervals, which have been
invented a long time ago, in accordance with the progress in time  Sidereal time
measurement precision.
This is a uniform time determined by the observation of fixed
The second is the smallest one of the conventional time interval units. stars.
Irrespective of that, it is based on observance of the solar system, as
described above. Years and days have different lengths. Because of  Mean solar time
this fact, leap years had to be invented. For the same reason, the
second is based on a man–made concept, the mean solar year. This is a uniform time determined by evaluating a fictitious
solar system, which has the ’mean sun’ in the centre, where
The length of the years and days vary for several reasons. The major the earth rotates about the sun at a mean radius, etc. In short,
reasons lie in the facts that the earth’s orbit about the sun is elliptical. this solar system is a mathematically perfect system.

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The mean solar time provided the basis of the second for the former Definition of the Radian
definition dated to 1900. The fixing of the second, and the
construction of the fictitious solar system required long time The radian is the angle subtended at the centre of a circle of radius 1
observations of the real solar system, as well as determination of the m by an arc length 1 m along the circumference. The symbol of the
apparent solar time over a long period and careful evaluation of the radian is ’rad’.
obtained data. Hence, the mean solar time had been developed from
apparent solar time. This exact but little confusing definition is based on simple grounds
and can be given by the following equation 2π rad = 360°. By re–
Since abundant mean solar and sidereal time data are available, the arranging the equivalent of the radian is expressed in the
mean solar time is determined on the basis of the sidereal time. conventional degree unit, 1 rad = 360°/2π = 57.3°, and the equivalent
Sidereal time is easier and more precisely determined by to the right angle, 90° = π/2 rad. Thus, the radian is invented to
observatories, it can be converted to mean solar time by using a measure plane angels. Likewise, the steradian is provided to measure
respective formula, and master clocks can be reset accordingly. solid angles.
Through radio transmission, the time of the master clocks are made
available at remote locations. The range of lengths that scientists need to measure is enormous.
The diameter of the sun is more than one hundred million meters
Conventional navigation is still made by observing the position of the large, yet the diameter of the atoms of which all materials are made
sun. In such cases, and in order to determine own ship’s positions are less than one–thousand–millionth of a meter.
exactly, the difference between apparent solar time and mean solar
time must be considered. Writing respective quantities in full length requires many zeros and
this may be the reason of errors. Apart from that the measuring
This is done by working with almanacs, like the British Nautical exactitude is insinuated by writing full length magnitudes but it does
Almanac or the American Ephimeris and Nautical Almanac, for not really exist for the adopted measuring methods.
instance.
In mathematics large and small numbers are written as decimal
In the SI system, two supplementary base units are defined, the powers, and numbers are reduced to the reasonable size of
radian and the steradian. These units are not very popular and are exactness determined by the applied calculation method.
rarely found in technical literature. The radian is frequently used for
weapon specifications and, therefore, it shall be discussed here. Similar rules can be applied to the specification of numbers required
as multiplicands of units in specifying quantities in accordance with
the SI system and with chosen measuring methods. However, the SI
system, additionally, offers the option of specifying units as multiples
and sub–multiples of units, in the form of decimal prefixes.

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Figure 5 shows a table of the internationally agreed prefixes for the The use of prefixes representing 10 raised to power intervals of 3 are
specification of multiples and sub–multiples of standard units. The especially recommended. Therefore, the use of units with hecto–,
unit prefixes represented by the decimal powers between 1012 and deca–, deci– and centi–prefix are non–preferred units. In applying
10–12 are quite often used in engineering, whereas the prefixes prefixes, it should be remembered that compound prefixes like milli–
exceeding the named range are normally used in special sciences tera are not used, as they are confusing and require re–thinking by a
only. reader or by an audience.
Decimal Factor Prefix
Figure 6 shows a table of multiples and sub–multiples of the
Name Power Name Symbol
previously discussed basic units. The tables include conventional
One million million (billion) 1012 tera T units as a compromise for generally accepted units, like the
9 centimeter, the ton and the hour. In fact, the name of the basic unit
Mega 10 giga G
kilogram includes the agreed prefix ’kilo’. Therefore, the gram is used
One million 106 mega M in conjunction with specifications requiring units smaller than the
kilogram, in order to prevent compound prefixes
One thousand 103 kilo k
One hundred 102 hecto h Note: Decimal prefix symbols and unit symbols are written in one
1 word, i.e. without a space between them.
Ten 10 deca da
Derived units are variations, or combinations of basic units. They
Unity 100 occur when basic units are used in mathematical operations, as
required by applying the laws of engineering and science.
One tenth 10−1 deci d
One hundredth 10−2 centi c Figure 7, details a) and b), show derivnation of the square meter and
−3 of the cubic meter by the examples of application of simple formulae.
One thousandth 10 milli m
Detail c) shows a measuring cylinder calibrated in milliliters and gives
One millionth 10−6 micro 𝜇 the respective instruction for reading the standard. The liter is still an
accepted unit, its equivalent is 1 dm3.
One thousand millionth 10−9 nano n
One million millionth (billionth) 10−12 pico p .
−15 femto f
One thousand million millionth 10
One million million millionth 10−18 atto a

Figure 5: SI Unit Prefixes

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 Mathematics PART 66 – Basic Training
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a) Multiples and sub – multiples of the ’meter’

Unit (short) Equivalent in (standard form)

meters
1 kilometer (km) 1,000 m (103 m)
1 centimeter (cm) 0.01 m (10-2 m)
1 millimeter (mm) 0.001 m (10-3 m)
1 micrometer (μm) 0.000,001 m (10-6 m)

b) Multiples and sub – multiples of the ’kilogram’

Unit (short) Equivalent in (standard form)

kilograms
1 ton (t) = 1,000 kg (103 kg)
1 gram (g) = 0.001 kg (10-3 kg)
1 milligram (mg) = 0.000,001 kg (10-6 kg)
1 microgram (μg) = 0.000,000,001 kg (10-9 kg)

c) Multiples and sub--multiples of the ’second’

Unit (short) Equivalent in (standard form)

kilograms
1 hour (h) = 3.600 s (3,6 ∙ 103 s)
1 millisecond (ms) = 0.001 s (10-3 s)
1 microsecond (μs) = 0.000,001 s (10-6 s)
1 nanosecond (ns) = 0.000,000,001 s (10-9 s)

Figure 6: Multiples and Sub – Multiples of Basic Units

Figure 7: Units of Area and Volume

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Figure 8 shows a table of frequently used derived units. It is By reference to the column ’Equivalent, remark’ the table makes
worthwhile noting that quite a lot of units are named after famous evident that the derived units consist of basic units. The unit names
scientists, for example, the newton, the pascal and the joule. In such after the scientists have been chosen to save the time required for
cases, capital letters are used for the respective symbols, or the specifying all basic unit details. This fact leads directly to the
respective symbol consists of several letters, but starts with a capital necessity of unit conversions.
letter.
1.1.5.3 Unit Conversions

A unit conversion, generally, is made to transform a given unit into a

more convenient unit, or into a legal unit. Unit conversions require the
availability of equivalent values, like 1 N = 1 kg m/s2, as given in
Figure 8, or 1 g = 10-3 kg, as given in Figure 6. These examples show
that unit conversions are required, also, in case only SI system units
are used. In fact, the latter example shows that assigning decimal
prefixes is an act of unit conversion.

There are a number of specific occasions requiring unit conversions:

 Derived units require conversion to basic units to understand

them, or to make them fit in a given formula.
 Frequently, the results of calculations have to be converted to
adapt them to available measuring devices, or, vice versa,
measured data have to be adapted to formulas.
 In the past, a lot of different unit systems have been used, like
the Gaussian system and the English or Imperial System of
Weights and Measures, for instance. Although Great Britain
has adopted the SI system as obligatory, the English System
is still legal in quite a number of states and organizations, for
instance, in the United States of America and in the whole
field of aviation.
 Unit relation equivalents, like the hours in the day, the minute
in the hour and in the plane angle degree, as well as the
second in the hour and in the plane angle minute, are not SI
Figure 8: Table of Derived Units, Examples
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 Mathematics PART 66 – Basic Training
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system sanctioned. These units are subdivided in accordance 1 𝑓𝑡 2 0.092,903 𝑚2

with the sexagesimal notation, an accepted relic from the past. =1  =1
0.092,903 𝑚3 1 𝑓𝑡 2

There have been several attempts to change the civil time and the
144 𝑖𝑛2 0.092,903 𝑚2
plane angle intervals compatible to the decimal system. The plane =1  =1
angle units have been finally changed to the radian. However, all 0.092,903 𝑚2 144 𝑖𝑛2
attempts to change civil time have been rejected and, therefore, it is
frequently necessary to convert SI units to make them Generally, from a given number ’n’ of expressions in a set of
comprehensible in accordance with personal experience. equivalents, the number z0 = n(n–1) of conversion factors can be
obtained, each consisting of a fraction of the value ’1’.
Figure 9 shows the most important equivalents between Imperial and From mathematics it is known that any number in a formula can be
SI systems. The Imperial (or: fps (foot, pound, second)) system has multiplied by the factor ’1’ without changing the value of the product or
been specially developed for mechanics and, therefore, it can be the final result of the formula. Principally the same is done when unit
regarded as the English version of the MKS system. Among the conversions are applied. The unit to be converted is multiplied by the
pressure equivalents the unit lb/in2 (pounds per square inch) has conversion factor of value ’1’, choosing the conversion factor that
been used, instead of the more popular unit symbol ’psi’. permits to cancel the units to be eliminated from the formula. Similar
to mathematics, this does not change the value of a physical quantity,
Note: In writing numerical quantities of derived units, the individual although, normally, the numerical factor and, principally, the name of
numbers, decimal powers, basic unit symbols, and basic units with the unit are changed.
decimal prefix, respectively, must be separated by mathematical
symbols, in order to prevent confusion. In case of products, an empty For instance, to convert 15 ft2 to the respective quantity in SI units,
space may be used, instead of the individual multiplication signs. the conversion factor that contains ft2 as divisor and m2 as dividend is
chosen, which is the second conversion factor of the middle set given
Unit conversions should be made in a mathematically correct above.
procedure, in order to prevent mistakes. The rules are quite simple. In
the initial step, equivalents are converted to conversion factors of the The subsequent procedure is as simple as shown in the following:
value ’1’. For example, applied to the equivalents given for area, the
formulas are: 15 𝑓𝑡 2 0.092, 903 𝑚2
= 15 𝑓𝑡 2 ∙
1 𝑓𝑡 2
1 𝑓𝑡 2 144 𝑖𝑛2
=1  =1 = 15 ∙ 0.092, 903 𝑚2 = 1.393, 545 𝑚2
144 𝑖𝑛2 1 𝑓𝑡 2

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Under normal application conditions, not the complete set of

conversion factors is written down. Instead, the adequate equation is
directly taken from the available equivalent table and inserted into the
formula requiring unit conversion, applying the dividend and divisor
assignation rule.

Note: Never apply engineering formulas without applying the

mathematically correct unit conversion rules. Correct conversion of
units saves a lot of confusion, especially when complex formulas are
applied. In fact, using units properly in applying formulas is a method
to control the correct procedure and the result in the progress of
problem solving.

Figure 9: Important Equivalents Between Imperial and SI

Systems

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Algebra Cat B1 – Module 1

1.2 Algebra Example: 𝑎 + 𝑐 + 𝑑 + 𝑏 = 𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐 + 𝑑

If there is a sum of equal summands, it can be expressed as a

1.2.1 Algebraic Operations ’product’. This product is a concrete number consisting of a real
number factor or coefficient, and of a literal number factor.
1.2.1.1 Arithmetic Operations with Literal Numbers
Example: 𝑎 + 𝑎 + 𝑎 + 𝑎 + 𝑎 = 5 ⋅ 𝑎 = 5𝑎
Literal Numbers
Concrete numbers of the same letter family are added by summing
In a study of numbers and of properties of numbers, it is helpful to use
their coefficients to one factor, while the letter is retained and used as
letters
the second factor.
(Latin or Greek alphabet) to represent numbers. These numbers are
referred to as ’literal numbers’. They make it possible to write
Example: 3𝑎 + 5𝑐 + 7𝑏 + 8𝑐 + 4𝑏 + 15 = 3𝑎 + 11𝑏 +
formulae, mathematical laws and rules in short–hand. Through the
13𝑐 + 15
use of formulae in physics and related fields it is known that a literal
number can be replaced by any real number.
Subtraction
A letter like π that represents a certain fixed number is called a
The algebraic principle for a difference may look like this:
constant. In contrast to that, the letter ’r’ is a variable, if it is chosen to
represent the radius in circle and sphere formulae.
𝑎– 𝑏 = 𝑐
In general, a not exactly defined range of first alphabetic low case
Only concrete numbers with the same letter can be subtracted as in
letters (a, b, c, . . . ; α, β, γ, . . . .) are used in algebra and geometry
the case of addition.
for known quantities. A range of last alphabetic letters is generally
used for unknown quantities (. . . , x, y, z).
Example:
Addition 10𝑎 – 3𝑎 = 7𝑎

5𝑎 – 2𝑏 – 3𝑎 = 2𝑎 – 2𝑏
The algebraic principle for a sum with two summands may read like
this: 9𝑎 + 9𝑏 – 7𝑎 + 3𝑐 – 6𝑏 – 𝑐 = 2𝑎 + 3𝑏 + 2𝑐
𝑎 + 𝑏 = 𝑐
In algebra, the previously used expressions to the left and right of the
The arrangement of the summands is free (associative law), but for a equality sign may be referred to as ’sum’, irrespective of the fact, that
better overview the summands are sorted alphabetically. they contain subtrahends. Subtrahends may be referred to as
’negative summands’.
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 Mathematics PART 66 – Basic Training
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Negative Numbers  The insertion or the removal of bracket enclosure with minus
sign changes the signs of all enclosed summands.
A literal number might be negative or positive. This raises the 𝑎 + 2𝑏 – 𝑐 – 𝑑 + 3𝑒 = (𝑎 + 2𝑏) – (𝑐 + 𝑑 – 3𝑒)
question of how to treat them in the case of positive or negative
operators.  Combining the elements of a polynomial (algebraic sum) in
single groups by means of brackets does not change the
Rules of Subtraction with Negative Numbers value of the polynomial (associative law).
𝑎 + (𝑏 + 𝑐) = (𝑎 + 𝑏) + 𝑐 Associative law
(+𝑎) – (– 𝑏) = 𝑎 + 𝑏
(– 𝑎) – (– 𝑏) = (– 𝑎) + 𝑏 = 𝑏 – 𝑎 Several Brackets

Brackets In a polynomial there can be a few pairs of brackets, inner and outer
ones. Such problems are solved in an inside–out procedure, starting
Brackets are mathematical symbols that express the demand that the with solving the innermost enclosure, and finishing with the outmost
mathematical operation indicated outside must be applied to the total enclosure. For a better discrimination of sets, different types of
bracketed contents. This means that the operations within brackets brackets are used, such as ’{...}’, ’[...]’ and ’(...)’, given in the order of
are performed before the outer ones in order to reduce the effort to a standard inside–out use.
solution.
Example:
The expression 𝑎 ⋅ (𝑏 + 𝑐) means: first add b and c, and then
multiply the sum by a. But the problem 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑏 + 𝑐 means: a has to be 𝑎 – {𝑏 + [2𝑐 – (𝑑 + 4𝑒)]} = 𝑎 – {𝑏 + [2𝑐 – 𝑑 – 4𝑒]}
multiplied by b first and then c is added to the product. 𝑎 – {𝑏 + 2𝑐 – 𝑑– 4𝑒} = 𝑎 – 𝑏 – 2𝑐 + 𝑑 + 4𝑒
Examples Multiplication
 3 ⋅ (5 + 2) = 3 ⋅ 7 = 21
 3 ⋅ 5 + 2 = 15 + 2 = 17 The product of the two numbers a and b can be regarded as the sum
of b summands, which all equal a.
When performing mathematical operations with brackets, the
following rules have to be observed: Example: 𝑎 ∙ 𝑏 = 𝑎 + 𝑎 + 𝑎 +. . .. (b times)

 The insertion or the removal of a bracket enclosure with plus If b is the real number ’5’, then the expression is as follows:
sign has no effect on the signs of its enclosed summands.
(𝑎 + 2𝑏 – 3𝑐) = 𝑎 + (2𝑏 – 3𝑐) = 𝑎 + 2𝑏 – 3𝑐 𝑎 ∙ 5 = 𝑎 + 𝑎 + 𝑎 + 𝑎 + 𝑎

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The multiplication symbol between the coefficient and the literal Example: (𝑎 + 3) ∙ (2𝑏 – 𝑐) = 2𝑎𝑏 + 6𝑏 – 𝑎𝑐 – 3𝑐
number is generally omitted. The coefficient is written before the
literal number. Literal numbers are sorted alphabetically. Multiplication of algebraic sums can be described as the expansion of
bracket expressions.
Literal number factors are multiplied by multiplying first the
coefficients and then the letters. Division

Example: (3 ∙ 𝑎) ∙ (6 ∙ 𝑏) = 18𝑎𝑏 A quotient can be written as a fraction in several forms:

Multiplication of Positive and Negative Numbers 𝑎

𝑎∶ 𝑏 = = 𝑎/𝑏
𝑏
The product of two factors with the same sign is positive.
 (+𝑎) ∙ (+𝑏) = +𝑎𝑏 Rules of Mathematical Operations with Fractions
 (–a) ∙ (–b) = +ab
The rules of operations with fractions are similar to those with real
Factors with different signs result in a product with negative sign. numbers:
 (–a) ∙ (+b) = –ab
 (+a) ∙ (–b) = –ab  Fractions can be reduced.
3𝑎𝑏𝑐
Multiplications with Algebraic Sums 3𝑏
= 𝑎𝑐 (reduced by 3 b)

A number is multiplied by an algebraic sum by multiplying each of the  The numerator and the denominator of a fraction can be
elements of the sum by the number: multiplied by the same factor, not changing its value.

𝑥 (𝑎 + 𝑏 – 𝑐) = 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑥 – 𝑐𝑥 Distributive law 𝑎 𝑎𝑑
𝑏
= 𝑏𝑑 (numerator and denominator multiplied by d)
Example: 3 𝑎 (4𝑏 + 𝑐 – 6𝑑) = 12𝑎𝑏 + 3𝑎𝑐 – 18𝑎𝑑
 Fractions can only be added, if they have got a common
Algebraic sums or polynomials are multiplied by each other by denominator.
multiplying each element of one sum by each element of the other 𝑎𝑐 + 𝑏𝑐 = 𝑎 + 𝑐 𝑏
one:
 Fractions with no common denominator have to be converted
(𝑎 + 𝑏) ∙ (𝑐 + 𝑑) = 𝑎𝑐 + 𝑏𝑐 + 𝑎𝑑 + 𝑏𝑑 into fractions with a common denominator before adding.

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𝑎 𝑐 𝑎𝑑 𝑐𝑏 𝑎𝑑 + 𝑐𝑏  6 = (1 + 1) (2 + 1)
+ = + =
𝑏 𝑑 𝑏𝑑 𝑏𝑑 𝑏𝑑  𝑥 = 7
 𝑥 = 5𝑦
 Fractions are multiplied by multiplying the numerators and the
denominators separately. An algebraic equation contains one or more elements which are not
𝑎 𝑐 𝑎𝑐 known. The characteristic of such an equation is that the known and
∙ =
𝑏 𝑑 𝑏𝑑 unknown elements of the equation are combined by algebraic
operations (addition, multiplication, etc.). An algebraic equation
 Two fractions are divided by multiplying the first fraction with represents a problem that is solved by determining the unknown
the reciprocal value of the second fraction. magnitude.
𝑎 𝑐 𝑎 𝑑 𝑎𝑑
∙ = ∙ =
𝑏 𝑑 𝑏 𝑐 𝑏𝑐 Example: 𝑥– 5 = 4
Division of an Algebraic Sum by a Number x has to be determined in such a way, that 4 equals the difference of
x – 5. If the number 9 is set for x the equation is true. The result is x =
An algebraic sum is divided by a number by dividing each element of 9.
the sum by that number.
54𝑧𝑥 72𝑦𝑧 25
1.2.1.3 Linear Equations with one Variable
Example: (54𝑥𝑧 – 72𝑦𝑧 – 25): 9𝑧 = − − 9𝑧 =
9𝑧 9𝑧
6𝑥 – 8𝑦 –
25 When dealing with equations, instead of the term ’unknown
9𝑧 magnitude’ the term ’variable’ can be used.
1.2.1.2 Algebraic Equations A linear equation with one variable involves real numbers, the equality
symbol and one variable.
Generally, an equation is a statement of two expressions combined
by an equality sign ’=’, stating that their values are equal. In the fields Examples
of engineering and science, equations are used for the description
and computation of technical processes and physical quantities.  𝑥 = –2
 𝑦– 3 = 5
Examples of simple equations are:  2𝑘 + 5 = 10
 3 = 3 The terms ’x’, ’y – 3’, and ’2 k + 5’ are called ’linear expressions’.
 3 = 2 + 1 Linear equations can be written in the general form
 5 = 3 + 2

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𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 = 𝑐 5𝑥 – 10 = 𝑥 + 6 (2)
 Use the addition rule of equations to simplify the equation to
where a, b, and c are real numbers and a is not zero (a ≠ 0). the form ax = b, where a and b are real numbers. The addition
rule of equations means: The same expression can be added
If the variable is replaced by a real number and the equation is true, to both sides of an equation.
then the number is a solution of the equation. For example, 8 is a
solution of 𝑦 – 3 = 5. Example: The equation (2) is simplified by adding +10 to both
sides of the equation in a first step, and by subtracting x in a second
Solving Linear Equations with one Variable step:

In order to find solutions for linear equations with one variable, 5𝑥 – 10 = 𝑥 + 6

different steps are required, such as: 5𝑥 – 10 + 10 = 𝑥 + 6 + 10
5𝑥 = 𝑥 + 16
 Simplify each side of the equation as much as possible by 5𝑥 – 𝑥 = 𝑥 – 𝑥 + 16
combining terms using the distributive, the associative, and 4𝑥 = 16 (3)
the commutative laws to simplify expressions.
 Use the multiplication rule of equations to rewrite the equation
Distributive law: 𝑎 (𝑏 + 𝑐) = 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑎𝑐 to obtain the form x = c, where c is a real number. The
Associative law:  (𝑎 + 𝑏) + 𝑐 = 𝑎 + (𝑏 + 𝑐 multiplication rule of equations means: Both sides of an
 (𝑎𝑏) 𝑐 = 𝑎 (𝑏𝑐) equation can be multiplied by the same non–zero expression.

Commutative law:  𝑎 + 𝑏 = 𝑏 + 𝑎 Example: The equation (3) is rewritten to get the form 𝑥 = 𝑐 by
 𝑎𝑏 = 𝑏𝑎 1
multiplying both sides of the equation by 4.
Example: The equation 2 (𝑥 – 5) + 3𝑥 = 𝑥 + 6 is to be
1
solved. 4𝑥 = 16 ⃒ ∙ ( )
2 (𝑥 – 5) + 3𝑥 = 𝑥 + 6 (1) 4
1 1
4𝑥 ∙ ( ) = 16 ∙ ( )
Therefore the left side of the equation is simplified 4 4
4 16
𝑥=
Using the distributive law [expanding the bracket expression (x – 5)], 4 4
𝑥=4
equation (1) is simplified and rewritten:

2𝑥 – 10 + 3𝑥 = 𝑥 + 6
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 Mathematics PART 66 – Basic Training
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 The solution to the equation must be verified by inserting the

calculated value of the unknown into the original equation. Solving Systems of Equations by the Substitution Method

Example: Equation (4) provides the solution x = 4 to the original Using the substitution method, one of the unknowns is isolated from
equation (1). one equation. The result is inserted in the other equation, which then
provides an equation with one unknown. This equation is solved, and
2 ⋅ (4 – 5) + 3 ⋅ 4 = 4 + 6 the result inserted in one of the equations to determine the second
2 ⋅ (– 1) + 12 = 10 unknown.
10 = 10
Example: Solve the equations obtained by the statements
1.2.1.4 Linear Systems of Equations with Two transformed before:
Variables 𝑥 + 𝑦 = 62 (1)
𝑥 – 𝑦 = 16 (2)
In many practical situations there are problems which involve more
than one unknown quantity. In order to solve a problem with two Solution:
unknowns, it is necessary to write two equations which relate to the
unknown quantity. There are different methods to solve such On both sides of equation (1) the number (–x) is added:
equations.
𝑥 + 𝑦 + (– 𝑥) = 62 + (– 𝑥)
Example: The sum of two numbers is 62. Their difference is 16. 𝑦 = 62 – 𝑥 (3)
Find the numbers. In the first step the statements must be
transformed into two mathematical equations. The two unknown Then y in equation (2) is substituted by the right side of equation (3):
numbers are called x and y. Then the first equation is
𝑥 – (62 – 𝑥) = 16 (4)
𝑥 + 𝑦 = 62, as the sum of the two numbers is 62.
To both sides of equation (4) the number +62 is added:
The second equation is
2𝑥 – 62 + 62 = 16 + 62
𝑥 – 𝑦 = 16, as their difference is 16. 2𝑥 = 78 (5)

These two equations form a system of equations with two variables.

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Solution:
Dividing both sides of equation (5) by 2 gives the value of the first
unknown: In the first step each side of equation (1) is multiplied by the factor –2,
and each side of equation (2) by the factor +1, in order to make the
𝑥 = 39 (6) coefficient of x equal:

To determine the value of the second unknown y, the value of the first 𝑥– 𝑦 = 3 | ⋅ (– 2)
unknown x is inserted in equation (2): 2𝑥 + 2𝑦 = 14 | ⋅ (+1)
– 2𝑥 + 2𝑦 = – 6 (3)
39 – 𝑦 = 16 (7) 2𝑥 + 2𝑦 = 14 (4)
Then the numbers (–16) and (+y) are added to both sides of equation
(7): The resulting equations (3) and (4) are added by adding the left sides
and the right sides of the equations each.
39 – 16 = 𝑦 (8)
𝑦 = 23 (9) (– 2𝑥 + 2𝑦) + (2𝑥 + 2𝑦) = (– 6) + 14
4𝑦 = 8 (5)
The two numbers asked for are 39 and 23.
The equation (5) is divided by 4, in order to get the value of the
Solving Systems of Equations by the Elimination Method unknown y:

Using the elimination method, the equations are transformed to hold 4𝑦 = 8 |:4
equal elements of unknowns which can be eliminated by addition, 𝑦 = 2 (6)
providing a single equation which only contains one unknown. This
remaining unknown is determined and then inserted in the first or The variable y in equation (1) is replaced by its value in (6) to
second equation in order to get the second unknown, as determine the second unknown x:
demonstrated before.
𝑥– 2 = 3
Example: Solve the following system of equations: 𝑥 = 5 (7)

𝑥– 𝑦 = 3 (1) Finally, the proof with equations (1) and (2) using x = 5 and y = 2:
2𝑥 + 2𝑦 = 14 (2)
5– 2 = 3 (8)
2 ⋅ 5 + 2 ⋅ 2 = 14 (9).

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1.2.1.5 Formulas
3
Substituting the values for d = 15 miles (m) and t = 4
hour (h) now the
The solution of many problems depends on the use of a mathematical value of v can be found.
principle or formula in which more than one letter is used to express a
relationship. 𝑑
𝑣 =
In order to find out the relationship of one variable to the other 𝑡
describing a particular process, the variable wanted must be isolated. 15𝑚 15 ∙ 4 ∙ 𝑚 60𝑚 𝑚
𝑣= = = = 20
The conversion of equations (simplifying and rewriting) enables to 3 3 ∙ℎ 3ℎ ℎ
isolate any variable. 4ℎ
Example: A motorist found that on the average it took him 3/4 𝑣 = 20 𝑚𝑝ℎ
hours each day to drive a distance of 15 miles to his job. What was
his average speed? His average speed was 20 miles per hour.

The formula needed for solving the problem is the distance formula

𝑑 = 𝑣 ⋅ 𝑡 1.2.1.6 Functions and Graphs

where d = the distance travelled Mathematics is widely applied to a diverse number of fields, because
v = the rate of speed mathematical expressions clarify problems and suggest methods of
t = the time elapsed. solution. There are many types of mathematical expressions, called
’functions’, which are particularly useful in many applications.
This formula or mathematical sentence means that the driven
distance depends on the time elapsed and the average speed of the A function, also called ’correspondence’, ’map’, ’mapping’, or
motorist. Since the rate of speed is wanted, the formula is solved for ’transformation’, is a relation between two sets of numbers in which
v, which is the unknown or variable in the problem. one element of the second set is assigned to each element of the first
set. A function is given, if for each value of the element of the second
In order to isolate the average speed v, both sides of the equation set a related value of the element of the first set can be calculated or
1 observed.
have to be multiplied by . .
𝑡

1 1
𝑑 ⋅( ) = 𝑣 ⋅ 𝑡 ⋅ ( )
𝑡 𝑡
𝑑
= 𝑣
𝑡
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Considering the movement of a car going from location A to location

B, the travelled distance d depends on the speed v of the car and the
time t elapsed. This is expressed by the formula

𝑑 = 𝑣 ⋅ 𝑡.

Assuming that the speed v is a constant factor, there is one related

value of distance d (element of the first set) assigned to each point of
time t (element of the second set). Thus, the distance d is a function
of time t.

Note: The distance d can also be a function of speed v, if the time t

remains constant.

In mathematics, functions are generally described by the literal

numbers x and y . Using these numbers, y is said to be a function of x
or, in short,

𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥). Figure 1: Cartesian Coordinate System

Letter x is the independent variable and y the dependent variable. It is often helpful to draw graphs of functions. Since two variables are
involved in functions, a graph of a function will require two numbered
As can be seen in the example with the moving car, the distance d axes. Standard planar graphs use two numbered axes which intersect
depends on the speed v and the time t . Thus, v and t are the at right angles at the zero points. The horizontal axis represents the
independent variables whereas d is the dependent variable in this independent variable (usually x, or, in the example, t), while the
function. vertical axis represents the dependent variable (usually y, or, in the
example, d).
Refer to Figure 1.
This background for graphs is referred to as Cartesian Coordinate
System. The horizontal coordinate line, or x–axis, is the abscissa and
the vertical coordinate line, or y–axis, is the ordinate.

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The four regions of the graph are called quadrants I, II, III, and IV, 1.2.2 Mathematical Operations with Logarithms
reading counter-clockwise from the upper right quadrant.
1.2.2.1 Logarithms
Refer to Figure 2.
Logarithm as Inversion of Powers

A power is written as:

𝑏𝑛 = 𝑐

where:

b = base
n = exponent
c = value of power.

If ’n’ and ’c’ are known, but ’b’ is unknown, the solution is a radical:
𝑛
√𝑐 = 𝑏

where:
b = value of the root
Figure 2: Graph of Function y = 1/3 ∙ x n = radicant
c = index.
The point P1, whose coordinate pair of values is 𝑥 = 3 and 𝑦 = 1, is If ’b’ and ’c’ are known, but ’n’ is unknown, the solution is defined to
located three units from the zero point to the right on the horizontal be a logarithmic expression:
number line and one unit vertically upward. This point is labelled P1
(3,1). Likewise, coordinate pair (𝑥 = 6; 𝑦 = 2) is labelled P2 (6,2), log 𝑏 𝑐 = 𝑏
(𝑥 = – 3; 𝑦 = – 1) is labelled P3 (– 3, – 1) and (𝑥 = – 6, 𝑦 = – 2) is
labelled P4 (– 6, – 2). All these pairs of values correspond to the where:
1
function 𝑦 = 3 ⋅ 𝑥. When the points of the graph are linked by lines,
1 b = base
the graph is a representation of the function 𝑦 = 3 ⋅ 𝑥 in the range of n = antilogarithm
x from – 6 to +6. c = value of the logarithm.

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The relationship between powers and logarithms can be seen in

Figure 1. The definition of logarithms implies another important Powers Logarithms
relation between powers and logarithms:
𝒃𝒏 = 𝒄 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒃 𝒄 = 𝒏
log 𝑏 𝑏 𝑛 = 𝑛
24.5 = 22.627 log 2 22.627 = 4.5
This means, if someone wants to evaluate the logarithm of a power, 25.2 = 36.758 log 2 36. 758 = 5.2
and the bases of both power and logarithm are the same, the
exponent of the power is taken as the logarithm. 23.322 = 10 log 2 10 = 3.3222
24.907 = 30 log 2 30 = 4.907
Example:
log 2 16 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔2 24 = 4 24 = 16 log 2 16 =4
 log 2 2 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔2 21 = 1 23 =8 log 2 8 =3
 log10 10,000 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 105 = 5
22 =4 log 2 4 =2
Common Logarithms
21 =2 log 2 2 =1
In the example in Figure 1 some logarithms to the base 10 have been 20 =1 log 2 1 =0
evaluated. As the number 10 is the base of the commonly used
decimal system of numbers, logarithms to the base 10 are called 2−1 = 0,5 log 2 0.5 = −1
’common logarithms’ and are written as: 100 =1 log10 1 = 0
lg 𝑥 = log10 𝑥 101 = 10 log10 10 =1
102 = 100 log10 100 =2
103 = 1.000 log10 1.000 =3
104 = 10.000 log10 10.000 = 4

Figure 1: Powers and Corresponding Logarithms (Examples)

The graph ’lg x’ given in Figure 2 shows that it is very difficult to read
values with sufficient accuracy.

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Figure 2: Graph of f (x) = lg x (Common Logarithm)

The enlarged section shown in Figure 3 allows the logarithm to the

base of 10 in the interval of antilogarithms from 1 to 10 to be read with
more accuracy.

For practical use tables have been issued which give the values of
common logarithms for given antilogarithms. Nowadays scientific
pocket calculators help to determine these values without a table.

Figure 3: Common Logarithm in the Interval 1 to 10

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Calculations with Logarithms Rule of Division

The main purpose of logarithms is to make a lot of calculations easier. Similar to multiplication it can be stated:
They are also used in scientific formulae.
𝑎 10𝑛
There exists a similarity between the rules of calculations with powers =
𝑏 10𝑚
and those of calculations with logarithms.
𝑎
lg ( ) = lg(10𝑛−𝑚 ) = 𝑛 − 𝑚
Rule of Multiplication 𝑏
𝑎
Any number ’a’ and ’b’ may be written as a power of 10, using lg ( ) = lg 𝑎 − lg 𝑏
logarithms as their exponents. Therefore it may be written: 𝑏

𝑎 ⋅ 𝑏 = 10𝑛 ⋅ 10𝑚 Rule of Raising the Power

Using the rule of powers with the same base, the exponents are In this case 𝑎 = 10𝑛 is chosen:
added as follows:
𝑎𝑚 = (10𝑛 )𝑚 = 10𝑛∙𝑚
𝑎 ⋅ 𝑏 = 10𝑛+𝑚 lg( 𝑎𝑚 ) = lg(10𝑛∙𝑚 ) = 𝑛 ∙ 𝑚

Taking the logarithm on both sides of the equation provides

Only ’n’ originates from the number ’a’, therefore resubstitution
lg(𝑎 ∙ 𝑏) = lg (10𝑛+𝑚)
provides the following:
As the number 10 is the base of the common logarithm, the result of
lg( 𝑎𝑚 ) = 𝑚 ∙ lg 𝑎
the right–hand expression is identical with the exponents inside the
brackets, hence:
The number ’m’ may be any number used for powers:
lg(𝑎 ∙ 𝑏) = 𝑛 + 𝑚
 a unit fraction, as in the case of roots
 a mixed fraction, as in the case of combined powers and roots
The literal numbers ’n’ and ’m’ originate from a = 10n and b = 10m.
 a negative specimen of the former, as in the case of reciprocal
Therefore, it can be substituted as follows:
powers.
lg(𝑎 ∙ 𝑏) = lg 𝑎 + lg 𝑏

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The following summary gives all basic mathematical operations 𝑦 = log 102 + lg 1.23456 = 2 + lg 1.23456
performed with the aids of logarithms:
A table of logarithms gives the value 0.09151 for 1.23456. So the
lg( 𝑎 ∙ 𝑏) = lg 𝑎 + lg 𝑏 equation is:
𝑎
lg ( ) = lg 𝑎 − lg 𝑏 𝑦 = 2 + lg 1.23456 = 2 + 0.09151 = 2.09151
𝑏
lg(𝑎𝑚 ) = 𝑚 ∙ lg 𝑎 Example: What is the common logarithm of the value 0.0076543?
𝑛 1
lg √𝑎 = lg 𝑎 𝑏 = lg 0.0076543
𝑛
1 The value of 0.0076543 can be represented as 10−3 ⋅ 7.6543, thus:
lg = − lg 𝑎
𝑎
Refer to Figure 3 again. 𝑏 = lg 10−3 + lg 7.6543

The graph of ’lg x’ that was shown in Figure 3 is in the interval from 1 With lg 10−3 = −3 and lg 7.6543 = 0.88391 the equation can be
to 10 only. Tables of common logarithms also use this interval. But written as follows:
the rules of logarithms make it possible to compute logarithms of
numbers exceeding this interval. 𝑏 = – 3 + 0.88391 = 0.88391 – 3 = – 2.11609

Example: What is the common logarithm of the number 123.456? Thus:

𝑦 = lg 123.456 lg 0.0076543 = – 2.11609

The number 123.456 is 100 times the number 1.23456: Example: The equation ’𝑐 = 123.456 ⋅ 0.0076543’ shall be
solved.
123.456 = 100 ⋅ 1.23456 = 102 ⋅ 1.23456
Known: lg 𝑐 = 𝑙𝑔 123.456 + 𝑙𝑔 – 2.11609
The rule ’lg(𝑎 ⋅ 𝑏) = lg 𝑎 + lg 𝑏 ’ here results in: and lg 𝑐 = 2.09151 – 2.11609 = – 0.02458

𝑦 = lg 123.456 = lg 102 + lg 1.23456 Using a pocket calculator, the antilogarithm is:

The rule ’log10 10𝑥’ or ’lg 10𝑥 ’ gives ’lg 102 = 2’. Now: 𝑐 = 0.94497

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However, using a log table to determine the antilog requires Just like the e–function, the natural logarithm has a lot of applications
reconversion of the negative log into a sum consisting of a positive in many branches of science.
decimal fraction and a whole number, by adding the next highest
whole number to both sides of the logarithmic equation and isolating The rules of common logarithms are also true for natural logarithms.
the logarithm again: In fact they are true for logarithms of any base.

lg 𝑐 = – 0.02458 The logarithmic function of the natural logarithms is shown in Figure

1 + lg 𝑐 = 1 – 0.02458 4. To determine the values of the natural logarithms, tables have
been issued, too. The first table of natural logarithms was issued in
1 + lg 𝑐 = 0.97542 1614 by John Napier (also called Neper) in Edinburgh, Scotland.
Thus the base was called ’Naperian base’.
lg 𝑐 = 0.97542 – 1

The whole number ’–1’ determines the position of the decimal point in
the sequence of the number extracted from the table as antilogarithm.
It is called ’characteristic of the log’.

The positive fraction determines the individual figures of the

antilogarithm. It is called ’mantissa’. The mantissa is the same for a
specific sequence of numbers, e.g. it is the same for the values 0.3, 3,
30, 300 etc.

Calculations using logarithms may seem to be outdated in the age of

pocket calculators and computers, but there are still many problems
in all branches of science that require logarithm and their rules of
operation.

Natural Logarithms

The common logarithm is only one special case of calculation, it is the

logarithm to the base 10. Another specific logarithm takes the
Naperian base ’e = 2.7182818’. It is called the ’natural logarithm’ and
Figure 4: Graph of f (x) = ln x (Natural Logarithm)
is written as follows:
ln 𝑥 = log 𝑒 𝑥

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The natural tables represent natural logarithms in the interval from x = The ratio is called the ’modulus M’ of the natural and common
1 to 10. If the problem arises to determine natural logarithms of logarithm systems. For logarithm ratios of other bases there are
numbers smaller than 1 or greater than 10, then the rules of different moduli. These moduli can be determined by the following
logarithms can help, too. formula:

Example: Determine the natural logarithm of 70. log 𝑎 𝑥

= log 𝑎 𝑏
log 𝑏 𝑥
The number 70 is 7 times 10. The common logarithm of 70 is:

lg 70 = lg 7 + lg 10

In the same way it can be said:

ln 70 = ln 7 + ln 10
The tables will give the following solutions for lg 7, ln 7 and ln 10:

lg 7 = 0.8450980
ln 7 = 1.9459101
ln 10 = 2.3025851
Now the logarithms can be determined in the following way:

lg 70 = 0.8450980 + 1 = 1.8450980
ln 70 = 1.9459101 + 2.3025851 = 4.2484952

The ratio of the natural logarithm to the common logarithm of the

same number (antilogarithm) ’c’ is constant, i.e.:

ln 𝑐
= 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 = 2.3025851 = ln 10
lg 𝑐

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1.2.3.1 Decimal System

1.2.3 Number Systems Since the dawn of civilization man has found it necessary to count,
i.e. to have a method of representing quantities or measures of
Mechanization and automation are increasingly used in production manipulating them to perform functions of
processes. Some typical applications are
 addition
 monitoring the position of a machine tool or a missile by digital  subtraction
means (locating function)  multiplication
 packaging a certain number of items in a box (locating and  division.
counting function).
Not unreasonably, it was found out that fingers provided an excellent
In many laboratory instruments such as physical aid for registering any counting exercise to be done in
somebody’s head. From this the decimal system was developed.
 frequency counters
 timers The decimal system may be expressed fully in mathematical terms by
 digital voltmeters considering the number 147, for example. This is the conventional
shorthand way of expressing a decimal number. The longhand way of
the basic function of counting is carried out. writing the same number is:

Electronics, particularly with the advent of transistors and integrated 1 ⋅ 100 + 4 ⋅ 10 + 7 ⋅ 1

circuits, has revolutionized the techniques in all branches. or 1 ⋅ 102 + 4 ⋅ 101 + 7 ⋅ 100 .

However, electronics in computer systems are only capable of The 10 is known as the base of the system and the indices indicate
distinguishing between the power to which the base is raised. The base and the particular
index to which it is raised are called the ’weight’: that is, the least
 current on and significant weight is 100 which is 1, the next is 101 and so on. The
 current off. numbers by which each weight is multiplied are called ’digits’. In
On the other hand, counters must be able to count up to several practice, only the digits of the system are written, the weights being
millions. In order to solve such tasks, different number systems implied.
instead of the decimal system have been introduced in digital and
computer techniques. Therefore the number 147 has the following meaning:

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1.2.3.2 Other Number Systems

It is obvious that there are other number systems with different bases.
Some examples are:

2 ∙ 82 + 2 ∙ 81 + 6 ∙ 80 = 2268 226 to the base of 8

1 ∙ 53 + 4 ∙ 51 + 2 ∙ 50 = 10425 1042 to the base of 5

or expressed otherwise: 1 ∙ 23 + 1 ∙ 22 + 0 ∙ 21 + 1 ∙ 20 = 11012 1101 to the base of 2

147 = 1 ∙ 102 + 4 ∙ 101 + 7 ∙ 100 = 14710 Number systems comprise only the amount of figures which are equal
to the base:
147 = 1 ∙ 100 + 4 ∙ 10 + 7 ∙ 1 = 14710  base 5: figures 0, 1, 2, 3, 4
 base 2: figures 0, 1
The result is always 147 to the base of 10.  base 16: figures 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B, C, D, E, F

The Binary Number System

The number to the base of 10 consists of maximal 10 different figures:
0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9.
As mentioned before, a computer system can only distinguish
between

 current on and
 current off.

This is the same as high (H) and low (L) or ’1’ and ’0’. Therefore
number systems with the base of 2 are ideal for use in computer
systems.

It is obvious from the example that the digits of the system using a
base of 2 are either ’1’ or ’0’, and this is true for any number
expressed to the base of 2.

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Figure 1 shows numbers expressed to the base of 2 together with however, fall into one of two classes, weighted and unweighted. A
their decimal equivalent numbers. weighted code is one in which a ’1’ bit is allotted different values
depending on its position in the number.
𝟐𝒐 =𝟏 𝟐𝟖 = 𝟐𝟓𝟔 Example: The code shown in Figure 2 is weighted; a ’1’ in the 20
position of the column weight has the value 1, a ’1’ in the 21 position
𝟐𝟏 =𝟐 𝟐𝟗 = 𝟓𝟏𝟐 has the value 2, a ’1’ in the 22 position has the value 4 and so on. The
order of bits in unweighted codes changes in such a way as to make
𝟐𝟐 =𝟒 𝟐𝟏𝟎 = 𝟏. 𝟎𝟐𝟒 this sort of weighting meaningless.
𝟐𝟑 =𝟖 𝟐𝟏𝟏 = 𝟐. 𝟎𝟒𝟖 A system in which binary–type elements are connected together to
𝟒 𝟏𝟐 count to the base of 10 is called a ’binary coded decimal (BCD)
𝟐 = 𝟏𝟔 𝟐 = 𝟒. 𝟎𝟗𝟔
system’. BCD is of major importance since it provides the link
𝟐𝟓 = 𝟑𝟐 𝟐𝟏𝟑 = 𝟖. 𝟏𝟗𝟐 between the counting system used by the machine and that used by
man.
𝟐𝟔 = 𝟔𝟒 𝟐𝟏𝟒 = 𝟏𝟔. 𝟑𝟖𝟒
The table shown in Figure 2 gives an overview of the different number
𝟐𝟕 = 𝟏𝟐𝟖 𝟐𝟏𝟓 = 𝟑𝟐. 𝟕𝟔𝟖 systems. This is a weighted code.

Examples:
Figure 1: Numbers to the Base of 2
 The binary number 1010 has a decimal value of
Numbers expressed to the base of 2 are useful for electronic counting 1 ⋅ 23 + 0 ⋅ 22 + 1 ⋅ 21 + 0 ⋅ 20 = 10
systems because electronic circuits which can be set to one of two
states are made very simple, whereas circuits with more than two  The binary number 0011 has a decimal value of
states, although possible, are much more complex and less reliable. 0 ⋅ 23 + 0 ⋅ 22 + 1 ⋅ 21 + 1 ⋅ 20 = 3
The counting system using a base of two is called the ’binary system’
and each ’1’ or ’0’ is called a ’bit’, which stands for ’binary digit’. The
number of bits in the binary form of the decimal number 147 is eight
and the highest decimal number which can be obtained with eight bits
is 255.

The binary code discussed so far is not the only code which is
expressed in two–state bits. All counting codes with two–state bits,

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Decimal Hexadecimal Weights The Octal Number System

23 22 21 20 With three bits of a binary number a maximum of 8 decimal values

or or or or can be represented. A number system to the base of 8 is designated
8 4 2 1 an ’octal system’. The octal system uses 8 numbers or figures, which
0 0 0 0 0 0 are 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7.
1 1 0 0 0 1
The octal number 3174 has the following meaning:
2 2 0 0 1 0 31758 = 3 ∙ 83 + 1 ∙ 82 + 7 ∙ 81 + 4 ∙ 80 .

3 3 0 0 1 1 Each digit of the octal number can be represented by 3 bits of a

binary number.
4 4 0 1 0 0
5 5 0 1 0 1 Example: 3 1 7 4 (octal)
011 001 111 100 (binary).
6 6 0 1 1 0
The Hexadecimal Number System
7 7 0 1 1 1
With four bits of a binary number a maximum of 16 decimal values
8 8 1 0 0 0
can be represented. A number system to the base of 16 is called a
9 9 1 0 0 1 ’hexadecimal system’.

10 A 1 0 1 0 As mentioned before, a hexadecimal system has 16 different

numbers or figures. There are only 10 numbers in the normal decimal
11 B 1 0 1 1 system and therefore it has been agreed that the letters A to F are
12 C 1 1 0 0 used in hexadecimal systems.

13 D 1 1 0 1 Refer to Figure 3.

14 E 1 1 1 0
15 F 1 1 1 1

Figure 2: Table of the BCD Conversion System

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In computer technique it is common that a single character contains 8

bits which are called one ’word’. To represent one character, e.g. ’Z’,
8 lines within a computer are necessary to transmit this character,
from the keyboard to the monitor for instance.

During transmission of the character the current at the 8 lines is on or

off, e.g.:

line 1 – no current =0
line 2 – current =1
line 3 – no current =0
line 4 – current =1
line 5 – current =1
line 6 – no current =0
ine 7 – current =1
line 8 – no current =0

This bit combination represents the letter ’Z’. In order to simplify this
combination it is divided into two 4–bit groups: 0101 and 1010. The
hexadecimal number for 0101 is ’5’ and for 1010 is ’A’, so the
combination 0101 1010 can simply be expressed as 5A(H), whereby
the letter H is the abbreviation of hexadecimal.

This method is an easy way to minimize a row of binary digits (bits) to

a short row of hexadecimal numbers, eg.:

Decimal: 100,000
Binary: 0001 1000 0110 1010 0000
Hexadecimal 1 8 6 A 0.
Figure 3: Representation of the Letter Z
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1.2.3.3 Mathematical Conversion of Number Systems

In the same way a decimal number can be converted into a
This chapter deals with the conversion of numbers from one type of hexadecimal number. For this purpose the decimal number is divided
number system into another. by the base 16 as often as the solution is 0. The solution of each
division is an integer with a remainder in the range of 0 to 15. The
Conversion of Decimal Numbers into Binary and Hexadecimal remainder is a decimal number and must be converted into a
Numbers hexadecimal expression as shown in Figure 2.
0
Refer to Figure 2 again. The remainder of the first division is the LSB of the solution of the
conversion while the remainder of the last division is the MSB:
The task is to convert the decimal number 33410 into a binary
number. For this purpose the decimal number is divided by the base 2 334 ­ 16 = 20 remainder 14 (LSB)
as often as the solution is 0. The solution of each division is an
integer with a remainder in the range of 0 to 1. 20 ­ 16 =1 remainder 4
1 ­ 16 =0 remainder 1 MSB).
The remainder of the first division is the lowest digit, called ’least
significant bit (LSB)’, of the solution of the conversion while the
remainder of the last division is the highest digit, called ’most The decimal remainder 14 equals the hexadecimal number E as
significant bit (MSB)’: shown in Figure 2, therefore the solution is 14E16.

334 ∶ 2 = 167 remainder 0 (LSB) Conversion of Hexadecimal Numbers into Binary Numbers and
Vice Versa
167 ∶ 2 = 83 remainder 0
83 ∶ 2 = 41 remainder 0 Refer to Figure 2 again.
41 ∶ 2 = 20 remainder 0
The task is to convert the hexadecimal number 3F416 into a binary
20 ∶ 2 = 10 remainder 0 number. The conversion is made digit by digit.
10 ∶ 2 =5 remainder 0
5: 2 =2 remainder 0
2∶ 2 =1 remainder 0
1∶ 2 =0 remainder 0 (MSB).
The solution is (1 0100 1110)2.
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As shown in Figure 2 the hexadecimal number

3 equals 0011
F equals 1111 and
4 equals 0100.

The complete binary conversion therefore is:

0011 1111 01002

or
11 1111 01002.

The task is to convert the binary number 0010 1011 11 002 into a
hexadecimal number. Because a hexadecimal digit can include 4
binary digits the binary number is divided into blocks of 4 digits and
converted block by block.

As shown in Figure 2 the binary digits

0010 equals 216

1011 equals B16
1100 equals C16.

The solution therefore is 2BC16.

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 Mathematics PART 66 – Basic Training
Geometry Cat B1 – Module 1

Graphs are pictorial representations. They require coordinate

1.3 Geometry systems. The most commonly used coordinate system has axes
intersecting at right angles.
1.3.1 Simple Geometry The horizontal axis is referred to as the x–axis or base line. The y–
axis or vertical axis is perpendicular to the x–axis. Any point in the
Originally, geometry meant ’earth measure’; now it means coming to four quadrants is unambiguously defined by an x–value and an y–
conclusions about the measurements and properties of the simplest value
and most universally known figures as triangles, rectangles, circles,
etc., and the relationships of their parts. Polar Coordinate Systems

1.3.1.1 Coordinate Systems

Rectangular Coordinate Systems

Certain technical properties of components are represented on a

polar coordinate system. In this instance, the dependent variable is
plotted as the radius r from the center. In most cases, the
independent variable is represented by the angle α. Polar coordinates
are used, e.g., for light–distribution curves of incandescent lamps and
light–emitting diodes.
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1.3.1.2 Definitions, Terms and Basic Constructions The point is considered to have no length, breadth or thickness, and
is therefore often depicted by two thin crossing lines (symbol ’+’) or as
Points a small circle (symbol ’o’).

A point is used to identify and locate a particular position. To enable the identification of a particular point from a set of points,
points are marked by different capital letters.

Locating a point B in space, Lines

requires a three-dimensional
coordinate system and the
statement of a coordinate Generally, a line is described,
triple, e.g. xA and yA. when a point leaves a trace and
moves without ending in the space.

Locating a point B in space, To locate a line in its full extent, requires a mathematical formula (like
requires a three-dimensional y = f(x)) or some other sort of agreement or reference. Thus, a line is
coordinate system and the sometimes considered an intersection of a surface, e.g. the waterline
statement of a coordinate of a ship. In this case, the line is determined and limited by the
triple, e.g. xB, yB and zB.. intersection of the ship’s outer surface with the sea surface.

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y A straight line is the trace of a point

constantly moving in the same
direction.

x A horizontal line is a straight line that is level with the horizon (eyes of
the observer).
The direction may be given by the order of drawing a line through the
points A and B. A vertical line is a straight line that is perpendicular to the horizon
(eyes of the observer).
If a line is mentioned, it is normally associated with a straight line.
An oblique or inclined line is neither horizontal nor vertical.
A line segment or intercept AB is limited by two points. The length of
a straight line segment is the shortest possible distance between two Two lines are perpendicular, when the angles at which they intersect
points. are all equal. The lines are at right angles. The symbol of
perpendicularity is ’⊥’.
Lines run parallel when they are
continually equidistant. The The following construction procedure permits to bisect a straight line
symbol of parallelism are two segment AB in halves and construct a perpendicular through the
equidistant vertical lines ’⏐⏐’. bisecting point:
 Draw arcs around A and
B with a radius
exceeding half the
distance AB

 Draw CD, the

perpendicular median; E
Lines are often classified with reference to the horizon or according to locates the bisection of
the perception by the observer: AB.

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The following construction procedure permits to find the perpendicular

through a given point A on a straight line: The following construction procedure permits to bisect a given angle
α:
 Draw arcs around A to
locate the equidistant  Draw arcs around the
points B and C on the line vertex V which cut the
angle sides in A and B
 With a radius exceeding
half of BC, draw arcs  Draw arcs around A
around B and C which cut and B which cut in C
in D.
 The line VC is the
 Draw perpendicular AD. bisector and common
side for the adjacent
half angles of α.
The following construction procedure permits to find the perpendicular
from a point A outside a line:
A ray is a straight, directed
 Draw arcs around A to line with a point of origin. The
locate the points B and C lines of two differently
on the given line directed rays form the sides
of an angle, i.e. an angle is
 Draw arcs around B and the difference between two
C which cut in D directions. Their common
origin is the vertex V.
 Drop a perpendicular
onto the line from A
through D The symbol of an angle is’ ’. To enable the identification of a
particular angle from a set of angles, angles are marked by small
Greek letters, e.g. α (Alpha), β (Beta), γ (Gamma), δ (Delta), etc.

Angles

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Geometry Cat B1 – Module 1

A perigon or round angle is

described by turning a ray Obtuse angle for 180°> α
around its origin until it assumes >90°
the original direction. The
Aperigon is subdivided in 360
degrees (360°), each degree in
60 minutes (60’) and each
minute in 60 seconds (60”).

Further classification of angles is made regarding particular fractions

and ranges of the perigon:
Right angle for α= 90°
Reflex angle for 360°> α >180°
Right angles are marked by
a small square–shaped
symbol in the vertex.

Straight angle for α = 180° Acute angle for 90° > α < 0°

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When two differently directed rays cut parallel lines, all intercept ratios  Draw a differently directed
̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
of the parallel lines (𝐴𝑛 𝐵𝑛) are proportional to their respective ratios line a through A
̅̅̅̅̅̅ and ̅̅̅̅̅̅
of the ray intercepts from the vertex (𝐴𝑛𝑉 𝐵𝑛𝑉; intercept theorem
of Thales).  Progressively draw n arcs
with the same radius on
line a, starting with the arc
1st Theorem of Rays around A and using the
same radius
̅̅̅̅̅
𝑉𝐴1 ̅̅̅̅̅
𝑉𝐵1 ̅̅̅̅̅
𝑉𝐴1 ̅̅̅̅̅
𝑉𝐵1
= 𝑜𝑟 =  Draw a line through AnB
̅̅̅̅̅
𝑉𝐴2 𝑉𝐵2 ̅̅̅̅̅ ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝐴1 𝐴2 𝐵1 𝐵2
(A3B)
2nd Theorem of Rays
 Progressively, draw lines
̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝐴 ̅̅̅̅̅ through An-1 (A2) to A1,
1 𝐵1 𝑉𝐴1
= parallel to AnB (A3B); the
̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝐴1 𝐵2 𝑉𝐴2 ̅̅̅̅̅
intersecting points on AB
are the dividers.

Under the given conditions, the inscribed figures are triangles with the The following construction procedure permits to divide a straight line
vertices B2A2V and B1A1V, which are alike in all respects, except for segment AB in a certain ratio n and m; e.g. 2 : 3.
their size and, therefore, they are similar. Opposite to this, two areas
are said to be congruent if they are exactly alike, i.e. except similarity,  Draw differently directed,
they must have the ’same’ size area. parallel lines a and b through
the terminal points A and B
The following construction procedure permits to divide a straight line
segment AB into a given number ’n’ of equal parts (and is a practical  Progressively, draw n arcs
application of the intercept theorem): through one parallel line and
m arcs through the other,
using the same radius

 The line through Am and Bn

cuts AB in the dividing
point.

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A perimeter is described, when Volume

a trace leaves a point A on a
plane and returns to its original A volume (formula symbol
place, without further touching ’V’) is covered, and a new
or crossing its own trace. The dimension added, if a plane
perimeter inscribes an area A1 (A) moves sideways to its
(formula symbol A) which, in reference plane (x;y).
mathematics, is to be Volumes occupy three-
considered a plane surface dimensional spaces and
and requires a square measure require a cube measure for
for determining its magnitude. the determination
of their magnitude.

Several other manipulations would also cover or inscribe a volume,

Area e.g. rotation of a curve around an outside axis or projections of an
outside point onto the perimeter of an area.
An area, also, is covered or inscribed by
Rules for determining and constructing the surface and occupied
 the tracing and shifting (projection) of a line segment (A2) space of volumes and solid bodies are the subject of stereometry or
 the rotation of a line segment around a point (A3) ’solid geometry’.
 the connection of the limiting points of two line segments (A4).
1.3.1.3 Plane Geometry
Rules for determining and constructing areas and geometric figures
are the subject of ’plane geometry’. Circles

A circle is the trace of a point in a plane, which lies at a constant

distance (the radius) from a fixed point (the centre).

Figure 1 gives the vocabulary and main formulas of circles.

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Triangles

A triangle is formed by the direct connection of three points.

Figures 2 to 4 give the vocabulary and classification details of

triangles.

Figure 1: Vocabulary and Formulas of Circles

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Figure 2: Vocabulary and Classification Details of Triangles (1) Figure 3: Vocabulary and Classification Details of Triangles (2)

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Figure 4: Vocabulary and Classification Details of Triangles (3)

Figures 5 to 7 give the main rules and formulas for the calculation and
construction of triangles, without applying the trigonometric formulas.

Figure 5: Rules and Formulas of Triangles (1)

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Figure 7: Rules and Formulas of Triangles (3)

Polygons

A polygon plane is a geometric figure with ’n’ sides and an equal

number of vertices, where ’n’ is any whole number greater than 2.

Figures 8 to 11 give the vocabulary and classification details of

polygons.

Figure 6: Rules and Formulas of Triangles (2)

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Figure 8: Vocabulary and Classification Details of Polygons (1) Figure 9: Vocabulary and Classification Details of Polygons (2)
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of Polygons (3)

Figure 11: Vocabulary and Classification Details of Polygons (4)

Figures 12 to 14 give the rules and formulas of polygons.

Figure 10: Vocabulary and Classification Details of Polygons (3)

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Figure 12: Rules and Formulas of Polygons (1) Figure 13: Rules and Formulas of Polygons (2)
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Procedure:

1. Draw horizontal and vertical axes, and the circumcircle and

mark the points 0, A and B.

2. Draw an inclined line through A, divide it into n + 1 equal

spaces, starting in A and finding points 1 to (n + 1).

3. Draw lines through (n + 1) and (n – 3), parallel to nB, finding C

and D.

4. Draw an arc about 0 with radius 0D, finding E.

5. Draw a line through E and D, finding F in the lower

intersection of the circumcircle.

6. Distance CF is the length ’a’ of the side of a regular polygon.

Figure 14: Rules and Formulas of Polygons (3)

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1.3.1.4 Deduction of Mathematical Triangle Theorems Theorem of Pythagoras

Theorem of Euklid Refer to Figure 16.

Refer to Figure 15.

Figure 15: Euklid’s Theorem Figure 16: Pythagoras’ Theorem

In a rectangular triangle the square above one of the short sides has In a rectangular triangle the area sums of the short sides squares are
the same area as the rectangle formed of the hypotenuse and the equal to the area of the hypotenuse square:
hypotenuse segment close to the corresponding side. The following
theorem applies: 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 = 𝑐 2

𝑎2 = 𝑐 ∙ 𝑝, 𝑏 2 = 𝑐 ∙ 𝑞 (1)
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In a rectangular triangle the square above the height has the same
Proof: Using (1) follows: area as the rectangle formed of the short sides segments.

𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 = 𝑐 ∙ 𝑝 + 𝑐 ∙ 𝑞 = 𝑐(𝑝 + 𝑞) = 𝑐 2 (2) ℎ2 = 𝑝 ∙ 𝑞 (3)

Theorem of Euklid (Height Theorem) Proof: Using (1) and (2) follows:

Refer to Figure 17. 𝑎2 = ℎ2 + 𝑝2 , ℎ2 = 𝑎2 − 𝑝2

ℎ2 = 𝑐 ∙ 𝑝 − 𝑝2 = 𝑝(𝑐 − 𝑝) = 𝑝𝑞

Figure 17: Euklid’s (Height) Theorem

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Refer to Figure 18. Example: The height h and the area A in a equilateral triangle
with the side a as shown in detail b) is calculated as follows:

𝑎2 3 𝑎
ℎ2 = 𝑎2 − = 𝑎2 , ℎ = √3
4 4 2

𝑎 𝑎 𝑎 𝑎2
𝐴=ℎ∙ = √3 ∙ = √3
2 2 2 4

Note: Some of the area values are easy to understand according to

the given figures and formulas. It is not always necessary to proof the
given formulas, because as a mechanician it is important to know
where the formulas can be looked up and a mechanician must be
able to get values which can be used for practical work. Some of the
deduction process is part of higher maths courses at university level,
which are beyond the level of this course.

Figure 18: Calculation Examples (1)

Example: The diagonal of a square (Figure, 18 detail a)) with the

side a is calculated as follows:

𝑑
𝑑2 = 𝑎2 + 𝑎2 = 2𝑎2 , 𝑑 = 𝑎 ∙ √2, 𝑎 = √2
2
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Proof:
Refer to Figure 19.
The hexagon comprises six equilateral triangles, according to the
Pythagoras’ theorem

𝑎 2 ℎ 2 𝑎2 ℎ2
𝑟𝑒2 = (2 ) + (2 ) , 𝑟𝑒2 = 4
+ 4
,𝑎 = 𝑟𝑒

𝑎2 ℎ2
𝑎2 = + , 4𝑎2 = 𝑎2 + ℎ2
4 4
ℎ
3𝑎2 = ℎ2 , ℎ2 = √3𝑎2 , ℎ = √3𝑎, 𝑎=
√3
The area of one equilateral triangle is

𝑎 ℎ 1
𝐴1 = ∙ = 𝑎ℎ
2 2 4

The area of six equilateral triangle is

𝑎ℎ 3 ℎ
𝐴 = 6𝐴1 = 6 ( ) = 𝑎ℎ, 𝑎=
4 2 √3

3 ℎ 3 3 √3
𝐴 = ℎ∙ = ℎ2 ∙ = ℎ2 ∙ ∙
2 √3 2√3 2√3 √3

ℎ2
𝐴= ∙ √3
2
Figure 19: Calculation Examples (2)

Example: This figure shows a hexagon. Calculate the height and

the area formula of this polygon.

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1.3.1.5 Solid Geometry

Exact determination of volume and surface area of solids by

mathematical rules is restricted to those bodies which may be exactly
measured.

Having three dimensions, solids require much more formulas for their
determination as plane areas do. Even engineers and surveyors
consult their notebook of formulas. Therefore, the following rules are
restricted to those formulas, which permit deriving 90% of the
formulas of solids from the rules of plane geometry by reasoning and
basic rules.

Cube and rectangular cuboid

Refer to Figure 20.

Figure 20: Cube and Rectangular Cuboid

Cubes and rectangular cuboids belongs to the group of polyhedrons.

A cube has eight rectangular corners, twelve edges of equal length
and is limited of six equal squares.

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A rectangular cuboid has eight rectangular corners (same as the

cube), twelve edges, four out of it are parallel and have the same For a cube as a special case of a rectangular cuboid (a = b = c) the
length. It is limited of three pairs of congruent rectangles which are diagonals of the face and the body are as follows:
laying in parallel planes. The cube can be seen as the special case of
a rectangular cuboid. 𝑓1 = 𝑓2 = 𝑓3 = 𝑓 = √𝑎2 + 𝑎2 = √2𝑎2 = 𝑎√𝑎
The volume of a rectangular cuboid is 𝑑 = √𝑎2 + 𝑎2 + 𝑎2 = √3𝑎2 = 𝑎 √𝑎
𝑉 = 𝑎 ∙ 𝑏 ∙ 𝑐
Prisms
The volume of a cube is
Refer to Figure 21.
𝑎 = 𝑏 = 𝑐, 𝑉 = 𝑎 ∙ 𝑎 ∙ 𝑎 = 𝑎3
Prisms are solids whose ends and all plane parallel cross–sections
It will be differentiated between diagonals of the face or of the body. are congruent polygons, and whose sides are rectangles or
The rectangular cuboid has twelve diagonals of the face, whereas parallelograms
four diagonals are of the same length and four body diagonals are of
the same length. The volume ’V’ of a prism is the product of its base area ’Ab’ multiplied
by its height ’h’ (detail a)):
All diagonal lengths can be calculated as hypotenuses of rectangular
triangles by the Pythagoras’ theorem. 𝐴 = 𝐴𝑏 ∙ ℎ

If a, b, c are the three edges of the rectangular cuboid the diagonals Their total surface area is the sum of the base area Ab, the cover
of the face f 1, f 2, f 3 are as follows: area Ac = Ab and the sum of lateral areas ∑ 𝐴𝑙𝑛 = 𝑃 ∙ ℎ:

𝑓1 = √𝑎3 + 𝑏 2 , 𝑓2 = √𝑎2 + 𝑐 2 , 𝑓3 = √𝑏 2 + 𝑐 2 𝐴 = 2𝐴𝑏 + ∑ 𝐴𝑙𝑛 = 2𝐴𝑏 + 𝑃 ∙ ℎ

The body diagonal d can be determined as hypotenuse in rectangular where P stands for the perimeter.
triangles, the other sides are formed out of one face diagonal and a
third edge respectively, the one which will not be used for the
calculation of the face diagonal:

𝑑 = √𝑓12 + 𝑐 2 = √𝑓22 + 𝑏 2 = √𝑓32 + 𝑎3 = √𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 + 𝑐 2

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These formulas hold true, regardless of whether the prism

 is straight, with relative perpendicular top and base area and

rectangular lateral sides (detail a), LH side)
 is oblique, with lateral sides of the shape of parallelograms
(detail b), RH side)
 originates from a concave polygon, as in the case of the I–
shape based prism (detail b))
 originates from a polygon with an infinite number of vertices ’n’
and infinitely small lateral surfaces, as in the case of the
cylinder (detail b)).

Figure 21: Vocabulary of Main Solid Body Types (Prisms)

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Pyramids

Refer to Figure 22.

A pyramid is laterally limited by a number of triangular faces Al joined

to each other around a vertex, and a polygon base (detail a)).

The volume ’V’ of a pyramid is the product of its base area Ab

multiplied by one third of its altitude ’h’:

𝐴𝑏 ∙ ℎ
𝑉=
3

The total surface area is the sum of the base area Ab and the lateral
areas ∑ 𝐴𝑙𝑛 :

𝐴 = 𝐴𝑏 + ∑ 𝐴𝑙𝑛
For parallel–truncated pyramids (detail b), RH side) slightly different
formulas must be used:

ℎ
𝑉= (𝐴 + 𝐴𝑐 + √𝐴𝑏 ∙ 𝐴𝑐 )
3 𝑏
𝐴 = 𝐴𝑏 + 𝐴𝑐 + ∑ 𝐴𝑙𝑛

where Ac is the cover area again and Aln the sum of all lateral
surfaces.

Figure 22: Vocabulary of Main Solid Body Types (Pyramids)

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Oblique–Truncated Prisms

Refer to Figure 23.

To calculate the volume of oblique–truncated prisms (detail e)), all

mentioned formulas may be used if the height ’h’ is replaced by the
medium height ’hg’.

Generally, the medium height is identical with the ’perpendicular’

distance from the centre of gravity ’G’ of the cover plane to the base
plane and may be found by calculating the medium height relative to
a known axis of symmetry.

In case of the square–based prism, the axes of symmetry are the

diagonals and

ℎ1 + ℎ3 ℎ2 + ℎ4
ℎ𝑔 = =
2 2
In case of the oblique–truncated cylinder the formula is:

ℎ𝑚𝑎𝑥 + ℎ𝑚𝑖𝑛
ℎ𝑔 =
2

Figure 23: Vocabulary of Main Solid Body Types (Oblique-

Truncated Prisms)

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This rule may be applied to all prisms with central symmetrical cross– 1.3.2 Plane Trigonometry
section, e.g. the rectangle, the I–shape, and all regular polygons with
even number vertices. The term ’trigonometry’ is derived from the following three Greek
words:
In the case of the triangle–based prism, the centre of gravity is found
by using the formula tri = three
gonia = corner or angle
ℎ1 + ℎ2 + ℎ3 metron = measure.
ℎ𝑔 =
3
Basically, trigonometry is concerned with the measurement and
In case of the compound–based prism, the planes of the oblique cut relationships of the parts of a triangle. These parts are the three sides
are a rectangle A1 and a triangle A2. The total volume may be and the three angles of a triangle. The relations between the sides
calculated by calculating the individual prisms, using the respective and the angles are more definitely and concretely expressed in
base areas and heights hg1 and hg2, or by calculating the total base numerical form making use of geometrical principles. Thus, for
area and the common centre of gravity hg. The latter lies somewhere example, the width of a river can be measured without crossing it, the
on a straight line G1 G2 and may be extracted from the following height of a tree or mountain without climbing either, the length of an
equation of balance: island without setting a foot on it, or the length of a planned tunnel
through a mountain.
ℎ𝑔1 𝐴1 + ℎ𝑔2 𝐴2 = ℎ𝑔 (𝐴1 + 𝐴2 )
1.3.2.1 Right Triangle Trigonometry
ℎ𝑔1 𝐴1 + ℎ𝑔2 𝐴2
ℎ𝑔 = The depicted triangles V, A,
𝐴1 + 𝐴2 B and V, A’, B’ are similar
and therefore the following
ℎ4 + ℎ5 ℎ + ℎ + ℎ3 ratios are equal:
𝐴1 + 1 32 𝐴2
ℎ𝑔 = 2
𝐴1 + 𝐴2 𝐴𝐵 ̅̅̅̅̅̅
̅̅̅̅ 𝐴′ 𝐵′
= ′
̅̅̅̅
𝐵𝑉 𝐵 𝑉

Such equations of balance may be used to find the distance to the 𝑂𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒
=
centre of gravity of any plane that may be subdivided into planes with 𝐻𝑦𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒
known gravity centre distance.

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 Mathematics PART 66 – Basic Training
Geometry Cat B1 – Module 1

Apparently, this ratio is constant for all similar, right–angled triangles The above formulas are known as the basic trigonometric functions.
having an angle alpha of the same magnitude. The values of the sine, the cosine, the tangent and the cotangent for
angles between 0° to 90° can be obtained from tables or from a
The ratio of opposite side length to hypotenuse length is a function pocket calculator. Tables or pocket calculators are also used to find
with the specific name ’sine of alpha’ or, simply, ’sine alpha’ and is the angles for given values of sine, cosine, etc.
written as sin α :
Anyone of the previously discussed trigonometric functions refers to
𝑂𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑂𝑠 two sides and one angle of the right triangle. If two of the three details
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼 = = are known, the third one can be calculated.
𝐻𝑦𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝐻𝑦

The ’opposite side’ is the one opposing the given angle. In the figure The formulas make it possible to determine all details of a right
shown before lines AB and A’B’ are sides opposite the angle α. The triangle when either
hypotenuse is the side opposite to the right angle. In the right triangle
it is the longest side.  two sides of it, or
 one side and one angle of it
In a similar manner the cosine function of acute angles alpha can be
derived: are known, due to the fact that one of the three angles is known to be
a right one, and the sum of the vertices angles is 180°. Surveyors
𝐴𝑑𝑗𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 As make use of this knowledge.
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼 = =
𝐻𝑦𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝐻𝑦

The ’adjacent side’ is the side next to the angle, excluding the
hypotenuse. VA and VA’ are the adjacent sides to α.

Tangent and cotangent of the angle α are defined as the ratio of

opposite side to adjacent side and vice versa.

Opposite side 𝑂𝑠
tan 𝛼 = =
Adjacent side 𝐴𝑠

𝐴𝑑𝑗𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝐴𝑠
cos ∝ = =
𝑂𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑂𝑠

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 Mathematics PART 66 – Basic Training
Geometry Cat B1 – Module 1

Example: 120 m from the base of a tree its top was sighted as
forming 38° with the ground. Find the height of the tree.
1.3.2.2 Trigonometric Functions

Fundamental Identities

Refer to Figure 1.

Given: α = 38°, adjacent side = 120 m

Find: opposite side Os
Formula: tan Os = As ⋅ tan α
𝑂𝑠 = 120 𝑚 ⋅ 0.7812 = 93.75 𝑚

Figure 1: Values Represented by the Unit Circle Image

A unit circle is a circle with a radius of ’1’. If such a circle is used to

show right triangles and if reference is made to the ’1’–side then the
value of the trigonometric function becomes identical to the respective
side of the triangle. This is demonstrated in detail by the following
series of equations:

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 Mathematics PART 66 – Basic Training
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𝑂𝑠 𝑂𝑠 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 ∝ + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 ∝ = 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 sin ∝ = tan ∝ ∙ cos 𝛼

sin 𝛼 = = = 𝑂𝑠
𝐻𝑦 1
𝑡𝑎𝑛2 ∝ + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 ∝ + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 ∝ = 1
𝐴𝑠 𝐴𝑠
cos ∝ = = = 𝐴𝑠
𝐻𝑦 1 cos2 ∝ (𝑡𝑎𝑛2 ∝ +1) = 1
𝑂𝑠 𝑂𝑠
tan ∝= = = 𝑂𝑠 1
𝐴𝑠 1 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 ∝ = −1
𝐴𝑠 𝐴𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 ∝
cot ∝= = = 𝐴𝑠
𝑂𝑠 1
1
tan ∝ = ± √ 2 − 1
𝑐𝑜𝑠 ∝
Additionally, the unit circle shows that its arc and its subtended angle
α are proportional:

∝ 𝜋∝ ∝
𝑎𝑟𝑐 𝛼 = 2 𝜋 𝑟 = ° ⋅ 1 = 𝜋
360 ° 180 180°

Further on, three basic identities can be derived from the unit circle:

𝑠𝑖𝑛2 ∝ + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 ∝ = 1 Trigonometric Pythagorean Theorem

sin ∝
tan ∝ =
cos ∝
cos ∝
cot ∝ =
sin ∝

Further identities can be derived from the basic identities by

combining the three equations.

Example: If only cos α is known, and the tan α has to be

calculated, then a formula for tan α can be developed in the following
way:

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 Mathematics PART 66 – Basic Training
Geometry Cat B1 – Module 1

Graphs of Trigonometric Functions In the example there are obviously two solutions for tan α, i.e. the
solution is bivalent and as result there exist two respective angles.
Refer to Figure 2. The same thing will happen if the Pythagorean Theorem is used for
the calculation of tan α.

In order to find out which of the solutions is practicable, the graphs of

the individual trigonometric functions have to be investigated. To this
end, the unit circle is placed in the coordinates of a plane with its
centre in the origin of the coordinates.

Using Cartesian coordinates as a reference frame for plotting a graph

with y and x as variables, requires the definition of the trigonometric
functions in the following way:

𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥
𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥
𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥
𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝑥
The Cartesian coordinates in combination with the unit circle
illustrates that the position of the ’1–side’ or radius becomes the
independent variable x or angle argument:

 The original position (detail a)), with x = 0, coincides with the

direction of the positive x–axis of the graph. Any function value
y determined for this position would be plotted on the y–axis,
i.e. at x = 0.

 If the ’1–side’ is turned from x = 0 in counter–clockwise

direction, x is increased. The represented angles are said to
be ’mathematically positive’. Any function value y, determined
Figure 2: Development of the Trigonometric Graphs (1) by movement in the positive range, is plotted in the positive
range of the x–axis.
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 Mathematics PART 66 – Basic Training
Geometry Cat B1 – Module 1

 Turning the reference line from x = 0 in clockwise direction, x

is decreased and moved in negative direction and the The significant angles
conditions for plotting must be applied to the negative side of
the x–axis.  ∝1 = 0°
 ∝2 = 90°
Note, that the value of x is identical with the previously defined arc of
the respective angle α in the unit circle. In order to convert a given  ∝3 = 180°
angle α (in degrees) into its equivalent arc measure x in radian S (with
no dimension) and vice versa, the following ratio is used:  ∝4 = 270°
 ∝5 = 360°
𝑥 2𝜋
=
𝛼 360°
provide equally significant angles in radians:
𝛼
𝑥 = 2𝜋 ⋅ ∝1 ∙2𝜋 0° ∙2𝜋
360°  𝑥1 = = =0
360° 360°
360°
𝛼 = 𝑥 ⋅ ∝2 ∙2𝜋 90° ∙2𝜋 𝜋
2𝜋  𝑥2 = = =
360° 360° 2
where 2π is the angle of the full unit circle, which equals the angle of ∝3 ∙2𝜋 180° ∙2𝜋
360° in conventional degrees.  𝑥3 = = =𝜋
360° 360°
∝4 ∙2𝜋 270° ∙2𝜋 3
Example: 𝑥 = 1 radian, find α in degrees of the 360° perigon.  𝑥4 = = = 𝜋
360° 360° 2
360° 1 ∙ 360° ∝3 ∙2𝜋 360° ∙2𝜋
𝛼 = 𝑥 ⋅
2𝜋
=
2𝜋
= 57.29578°  𝑥5 = = = 2𝜋
360° 360°
The value of the sine for different values x may be found within the
Cartesian coordinates by the projection of the arc end of x onto the
ordinate (detail b)). Thus, for the points A, B, C and D results

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 Mathematics PART 66 – Basic Training
Geometry Cat B1 – Module 1

These rules apply to all trigonometric functions and show that all
𝑦𝐴 = sin 𝑥𝐴 trigonometric functions are ’periodic’ or ’cyclic’, with one period from 0
to 2π or 360°, respectively.
𝑦𝐵 = sin 𝑥𝐵
𝑦𝐶 = sin 𝑥𝐶 Additionally it may be said that for the sine function 𝑦𝐴 = 𝑦𝐴 ”, and
that 𝑦𝐴 only differs from 𝑦𝐴 and 𝑦𝐴 ” by its negative sign.
𝑦𝐷 = sin 𝑥𝐷
Refer to Figure 3.
For the individual quadrants one may stipulate the following general
course of the sine function:

 In quadrant I, the values of y start with y = 0 and gradually rise

to y = 1 at x = π/2
 In quadrant II, the values of y start with y = 1 at x = π /2 and
gradually decrease to y = 0 at x = π

 In quadrant III, the values of y start with y = 0 at x = π and,

further on, decrease to y = – 1 at x = 3 π/2

 In quadrant IV, the values of y start with y = –1 at x = 3 π/2

and gradually increase again to y = 0 at x = 2 π.

If x is increased beyond 2 π or 360°, another cycle will be started.

The sine values for ∝2 > 360° are the same as for the respective
angles ∝1 = ∝2 – 360° (𝑥1 = 𝑥2 − 2𝜋), i.e.

𝑠𝑖𝑛 ∝2 = sin(𝛼1 + 360°)

𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥2 = sin(𝑥1 + 2𝜋), or in general form
𝑠𝑖𝑛 ∝𝑛 = sin(∝1 + (𝑛 − 1) ∙ 360°) and
sin 𝑥𝑛 = sin(𝑥1 + 2𝜋 (𝑛 − 1)), where n is any natural number.

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 Mathematics PART 66 – Basic Training
Geometry Cat B1 – Module 1

Different values of y for the cosine function may be found by the

projection of the arc ends onto the horizontal axis (detail a)). In order
to enable the transfer of the y values directly into the graph, the
horizontal axis is denoted by y. Note, that the reference axis for x
remains unchanged by this manipulation.

The conditions for determining the tangent function values are shown
in detail b). The values for determining tend to infinity when the angle
tends to 90°. The tangent for the right angle is not defined.

The values y of the tangent function undergo the following

characteristic changes:

 In quadrant I, y starts with y = 0, gradually increasing to y = 1

at x = π/4. Afterwards, y rises progressively, and reaches
infinitely high values, the closer x comes toward π/2

 In quadrant II, y starts with very low values, increases sharply

towards y = 1 at x = 3 π/4, then increases moderately towards
y = 0 at x = π

 In quadrant III, there are the same conditions as in quadrant I

= In quadrant IV, there are the same conditions as in quadrant
II.

Figure 4 shows the graphs of the sine and the cosine function in the
range of –π to 2π. By comparing the curves, a lot of identities may be
derived again.

Figure 3: Development of the Trigonometric Graphs (2)

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 Mathematics PART 66 – Basic Training
Geometry Cat B1 – Module 1

The sine curve shows central symmetry to point (0;0) and the cosine
𝜋
curve to ( ;0), therefore
2

𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 = − 𝑠𝑖𝑛(− 𝑥)
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 = − cos(𝜋 − 𝑥)

Figure 5 shows the graphs of the tangent and the cotangent function
in the range of –π to 2π. The characteristics of the curves are
repeated in intervals of π; therefore

Figure 4: Graphs of the Sine and Cosine Function

In the first place, the cosine curve in quadrant I has the same course
as the sine in quadrant II. The cosine advances the sine by a quarter
𝜋
period = . Therefore
2
𝜋
cos 𝑥 = sin ( + 𝑥)
2
𝜋
sin 𝑥 = cos (𝑥 − )
2

The sine values are symmetric to the vertical line in x = , and the
cosine values to the y–axis in x = 0; therefore

𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜋 − 𝑥)
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠(− 𝑥) Figure 5: Graphs of the Tangent and Cotangent Function

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 Mathematics PART 66 – Basic Training
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𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛(𝑥 + 𝑛𝜋 )
𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝑥 = 𝑐𝑜𝑡(𝑥 + 𝑛𝜋 )
1.3.2.3 Oblique Triangles
Axial symmetry between tangent curve and cotangent curve exists for
𝜋
the vertical line in 𝑥 = 4, therefore
1.3.2.3 Oblique Triangles
𝜋
𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥 = cot ( 2 − 𝑥) Any acute triangle may be subdivided into right–angled triangles by
dropping the perpendicular from a vertex onto its opposite side.
𝜋
𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝑥 = tan ( − 𝑥)
2

Central symmetry exists for the tangent curve in (0;0) and for the
𝜋
cotangent curve in ( ;0), therefore
2

tan 𝑥 = – tan (– 𝑥)
cot 𝑥 = – 𝑐𝑜𝑡 (𝜋– 𝑥)

In the example, the following conditions apply:

𝑂𝑠 ℎ𝑐
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼 = = ; ℎ𝑐 = 𝑏 ∙ sin 𝛼
𝐻𝑦 𝑏

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 Mathematics PART 66 – Basic Training
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𝑂𝑠 ℎ𝑐
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛽 = = ; ℎ𝑐 = 𝑏 ∙ sin 𝛽
𝐻𝑦 𝑎

Setting up a ratio of the altitudes provides

ℎ𝑐 𝑎 ∙ sin 𝛽
= =1
ℎ𝑐 𝑏 ∙ sin 𝛼

By transposing the following formula is obtained:

𝑎 𝑏
=
sin ∝ sin 𝛽

Proceeding in the same manner in the case of an obtuse triangle Remember 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝜋 – 𝑥) and, therefore
provides the same result:
𝑎 𝑏
ℎ𝑐 = 𝑏 ∙ sin 𝛼 =
sin ∝ sin 𝛽
ℎ𝑐 = 𝑎 ∙ sin(180° − 𝛽) = 𝑎 ∙ sin 𝛽

Similar ratios involving c and sin γ provide:

𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
= = The law of sines
sin∝ sin 𝛽 sin 𝛾

The ’law of sines’ makes it possible to calculate unknown details of

triangles when at least one side of the triangle and its opposite angle
are known and additionally, either another side or another angle.

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 Mathematics PART 66 – Basic Training
Geometry Cat B1 – Module 1

In the following a formula permits to calculate the unknown details of 𝑐 2 = 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 − 2𝑎𝑏 ∙ cos 𝛾
a triangle when two sides and the angle in their vertex or three sides
However, these formulas need not be learned by heart, as they are
are given. It can be derived by means of the details marked in the
obtained through cyclic exchange of side and angle designations.
following triangle.
The law of cosines always provides a definite, unambiguous result.
This does not apply to the law of sines in the depicted special case.

In the given case, a, b and α are of equal magnitude, but the size of
𝑎2 = ℎ𝑐2 + 𝑞 2 ℎ𝑐 = 𝑏 ∙ sin 𝛼 the triangles, and especially the sides c are different. By dropping the
perpendicular onto 𝑐2 it becomes obvious, that 𝛽2 = 180° − 𝛽1 The
𝑎2 = 𝑏 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 ∝ + 𝑞 2 𝑞 =𝑐−𝑝 sines of both angles are equal due to the equality of the values
sin(180° − 𝛽1 ) = sin 𝛽1 , which is the reason for the ambivalent result.
𝑎2 = 𝑏 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 ∝ +𝑐 2 − 2𝑐𝑝 + 𝑝2 𝑝 = 𝑏 ∙ cos 𝛼

𝑎2 = 𝑏 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 ∝ + 𝑐 2 − 2𝑏𝑐 ∙ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ∝ +𝑏 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 ∝ Therefore, each task requiring the law of sines for its solution, must
be investigated for its ambiguity. The ambiguous case has the
𝑎2 = 𝑏 2 (𝑠𝑖𝑛2 ∝ +𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝛼) + 𝑐 2 − 2𝑏𝑐 following characteristics:
∙ cos 𝛼 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛼 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝛼 = 1
 The given angle is smaller than 90° (∡< 90°).
𝒂 𝟐 𝟐 𝟐
= 𝒃 + 𝒄 − 𝟐𝒃𝒄 ∙ 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜶 The law of cosines  The side opposite to the given angle is smaller than the
adjacent side (Os < As).
In a similar manner the following formulas can be developed:
In the case of true ambiguity, the solutions are found by considering
2 2 2
𝑏 = 𝑎 + 𝑐 − 2𝑎𝑐 ∙ cos 𝛽 both angles opposite to the adjacent side (𝑥 and 𝜋 – 𝑥).

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