1388 Cotton Crop Guide PDF

Organic Cotton
Crop Guide
A manual for practitioners in the tropics

Frank Eyhorn, Saro G. Ratter,
Mahesh Ramakrishnan
2005 Edition
Research Institute of Organic Agriculture
Organic Cotton
Crop Guide
A manual for practitioners in the tropics
Frank Eyhorn, Saro G. Ratter,
Mahesh Ramakrishnan
Organic Cotton Crop Guide 1

Acknowledgment of contributions
The development of this guide is a

collaborative effort to which many people
have contributed. Special thanks go to the
following people and institutions:
� Maikaal bioRe (India) Ltd., especially Rajeev

Baruah, Ritu Baruah and V. Tiwari, who
opened their doors to the research project
and provided all required support and
information.
� The team members of Maikaal bioRe who
worked on this manual from the concept up
to the review. Special thanks go to Shriram
Vishwakarma, Ishwar Patidar, Yogendra
Shrivas, Dharmendra Singh Mandloi, Ashok
Singh Chouhan, Rajeev Verma, Jitendra Vyas,
Dinesh Tripati, and Sukhdev Gir. This manual
is based largely on their experience and
knowledge.
� The Research Team of Maikaal bioRe:
Prashant .V. Tekade, Lokendra Singh
Chouhan, Gajendra Singh Chouhan,
Raghuvir Singh Mandloi.
� Jens Soth (Helvetas) for the review of the
manual and for providing photos.
� Remei AG, Switzerland, for information and
support.
� The Steering Group of the Maikaal Research
Project: Patrick Hohmann (Remei AG), Dr.
Walter Wagner (WWF), Dr. Urs Heierli (msd
consulting), for providing guidance and
feedback.
The Maikaal bioRe Team The Maikaal Research Team
The guide has been developed and produced

within a research project funded by:
� Swiss Agency for Development and
Cooperation (SDC)
� World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF),
Switzerland
2 Organic Cotton Crop Guide

Contents
1 Introduction 4 6 Soil Cultivation and Weed

1.1 About this guide 4 Management 44
1.2 Why organic cotton? 5 6.1 Preparing the field 44
1.3 Growing organic cotton – A system 6.2 Sowing 44
approach 6 6.3 Weed management 45
1.4 Organic standards 7
1.5 Bio-dynamic farming 8 7 Water Management 46
1.6 Inspection and certification 8 7.1 Irrigation in cotton cultivation 46
1.7 Organic cotton and Fair Trade 9 7.2 Water harvesting and saving 46
7.3 Drip irrigation 47
2 Cotton 10
2.1 The importance of cotton 10 8 Harvest and Post-Harvest
2.2 Requirements of the cotton crop 10 Operations 48
2.3 Selecting the right cotton varieties 12 8.1 Quality issues in cotton picking 48
8.2 Storage 48
3 Soil Fertility Management 14 8.3 Processing and trade 48
3.1 Soil properties 14
3.2 The importance of soil organic 9 Farm Economy 50
matter 15 9.1 Managing the whole farm
3.3 Crop rotation – rotation crops 15 organically 50
3.4 Green manures and intercrops 17 9.2 Strategies in cotton production 51
9.3 The economic performance of
4 Crop Nutrition 19 organic cotton 52
4.1 Nutrient requirements 19 9.4 Monitoring the economic
4.2 Uptake of nutrients 20 performance 53
4.3 Application of manures and 9.5 The conversion process 54
fertilizers 21 9.6 The role of women in organic
4.4 Compost 23 cotton production 55
4.5 Organic manures 26
4.6 Natural mineral fertilizers 26 10 Annex 56
4.7 Liquid fertilizers 27 10.1 Glossary 56
4.8 Bio-fertilizers 27 10.2 Frequently Asked Questions,
4.9 Bio-dynamic preparations 28 and some answers 58
10.3 Summary of organic standards
5 Pest and Disease Management 34 requirements relevant for organic
5.1 Keeping your cotton crop healthy 29 cotton farms (based on the EU
5.2 Important cotton pests and their Regulation EEC 2092/91) 59
management 30 10.4 Useful reading and websites 60
5.2.1 Bollworms and other caterpillars 31 10.5 Organic cotton crop calendar in
5.2.2 Sucking pests 33 central India 62
5.2.3 Other pests 35 10.6 Template for keeping crop records 64
5.3 Preventing pests from becoming a
problem 37
5.3.1 Promotion of natural enemies 37
5.3.2 Trap crops 38
5.3.3 Pheromones 38
5.3.4 Removing crop residues 38
5.4 Direct pest management methods 39
5.4.1 Biological control 39
5.4.2 Natural pesticides 39
5.4.3 Mass trapping 42
5.5 Monitoring pests 42
5.6 Seed treatment 43
5.7 Diseases 43

1 Introduction
1.1 About this guide
This guide was developed as part of the research The guide aims to provide useful informati-
project ‘Growing Organic Cotton Under on and guidance to organic cotton farmers and
Groundwater Stress: Lessons from the Maikaal to extension workers involved in organic cot-
bioRe Project’ (project period: 2002–2005). ton production on smallholder farms in the
The Research Institute of Organic Agricul- tropics. According to the authors, there is no
ture (FiBL), Switzerland, implemented this one best ‘package of practices’ for organic cot-
project in collaboration with the International ton farming, as the conditions differ from farm
Water Management Institute (IWMI), India, to farm with specific soils, climatic conditions,
and Maikaal bioRe (India) Ltd. It is funded by production facilities, availability of labour, and
the Swiss Agency for Development and Coope- the individual objectives and skills of the far-
ration (SDC) and the World Wide Fund for Na- mer. Therefore, this manual tries to impart an
ture (WWF), Switzerland. The information do- understanding of an organic farming system
cumented in this guide is based to a large extent and to point out the available management op-
on the experience and know-how of the Maikaal tions. It is meant to provide a sound basis for
bioRe extension team. This was complemented the farmer’s decision making process and shall
by experiences with other cotton projects in In- serve as a source of ideas for improvements. In
dia and in Africa and with information availa- any case, the suitability of the suggested metho-
ble from literature and the Internet. ds in a specific setting needs to be explored on
the respective farms and the methods potenti-
ally need to be adapted and further developed.
The manual can be used for training pur-
poses in combination with the Organic Cot-
ton Training Manual, which contains transpa-
rency slides, recommendations for interactive
training elements, and material for group exer-
cises1.
Although this manual is about cotton, rea-
ders need to keep in mind that cotton is only
one crop grown on an organic farm in rotati-
on (or intercropping) with a number of other
crops. These other crops, like pulses, maize,
sorghum, wheat, chillies, vegetables, and su-
garcane, are also important for cash income,
for home consumption or for fodder purposes.
A more general overview of organic crop pro-
duction is provided by the IFOAM Training
Manual on Organic Agriculture in the Tropics,
complemented by the IFOAM Training Manual
on Organic Agriculture in Arid and Semi-arid
Training of organic cotton farmers in Kirgistan. (Photo: Helvetas) Regions ².
1
Free downloads are available at www.shop.fibl.org
2
See www.ifoam.org or www.shop.fibl.org

1.2 Why organic cotton?
Organic cotton still only occupies a tiny niche human food chain.
of far less than 1% of global cotton production. We also know that
However, the number of farms converting to or- the pesticides spra-
ganic cotton and the number of projects is con- yed on cotton do not
stantly increasing. At present, organic cotton only affect the target
cultivation is reported in the following countries: pest. Beneficial ins-
� Africa: Benin, Burkina Faso, Egypt, Mali, ects and other ani-
Mozambique, Senegal, Tanzania, Togo, mals are killed, too,
Uganda, Zambia, Zimbabwe so that pests that for-
� Asia: China, India, Kyrgyzstan, Pakistan merly were of min-
� South America: Argentina, Brazil, Nicara- or importance now
gua, Paraguay, Peru have become a ma-
� Middle East: Turkey, Israel jor problem (for ex-
� Europe: Greece ample, whitefly and
� USA aphids). In some areas of Andhra Pradesh the
� Australia ground water has become so polluted with che-
micals that people need to buy their drinking
There are a number of reasons to grow cotton water from outside. In addition, many of the
organically. The negative impacts of conventio- farmers and labourers spraying the pesticides
nal cotton farming on the environment and he- face health problems that cause them to miss a
alth are obvious and well known. Some people lot of work and have additional costs for me-
may say: «Why should I care about chemicals dical treatment. There are many cases in India
in cotton growing? We do not eat cotton.” But if where farmers have even died after applying
you look at the fact that around 60% of the cot- chemical pesticides. In the hospital of Waran-
ton weight harvest is cotton seed that is proces- gal, Andhra Pradesh, up to a thousand farmers
sed to edible oil and cattle feed, you realize that per month are treated because of pesticide in- Organic seed cotton
the bigger part of cotton production enters the toxication.
Figure 1: Advantages of
growing cotton organi-
cally, as compared to
conventional farming

In central India, many conventional farmers Market demand for textiles made from organic
have faced a decline in soil fertility over the past cotton mainly exists in Europe, the USA, Cana-
two decades. In some cases the soil got so hard da, Japan and Australia (see Chapter 8.3). Some
that the farmers had to give up groundnut culti- large companies become involved with organic
vation. While cotton yields were on the decline, cotton textiles in order to improve their corpo-
increasing amounts of fertilizers and pesticides rate image with respect to environmental and
were needed to maintain the crop. Declining social accountability. The main reasons for con-
yields and increasing input costs, in combina- sumers to buy textiles made out of organic cot-
tion with the frequent droughts, have left many ton are:
farmers in a debt trap. � To reduce the risk of skin irritation and aller-
When speaking to smallholder organic cot- gies;
ton farmers in developing countries, the follow- � To protect the environment from toxic che-
ing motivations are stated as the most import- micals;
ant ones: � To support sustainable agricultural producti-
� To improve the fertility of the soil (softer soil, on in the country where the cotton is grown;
greater absorption of water, better water hol- � To ensure that the farmers in developing
ding capacity, healthy crops); countries receive a fair price.
� To reduce the production costs and thus the
financial risk; A comparison of the impacts of conventional
� To get a better price for the cotton (organic (‘chemical’) and organic farming on the env-
premium); ironment, health, soil fertility, the cotton mar-
� To get rid of the negative effects of conventio- ket, and the economy on the farm level is de-
nal farming: declining yields, resistance of pests picted in Figure 1.
and diseases, health hazards of chemicals;
� To improve the profitability of the farm in the
long run.
1.3 Growing organic cotton – A system approach
Figure 2: Successful orga-

nic cotton farming with a
system approach
Converting a farm to organic production does farming system that also includes the other
not simply mean replacing chemical fertilizers crops. Instead of troubleshooting, organic far-
and pesticides with organic ones. Organic cot- mers should try to prevent problems and avoid
ton must be grown in a diverse and balanced substitutes to conventional inputs as far as pos-

sible. This requires a thorough understanding 3. Selection of varieties suitable to the condi-
of nutrient and pest management and the abili- tions (soil, availability of irrigation, market
ty to continuously observe and learn. requirements);
To get satisfactory yields and income in or- 4. Appropriate types and amounts of manures
ganic cotton farming it is necessary to adopt at the right time;
a number of integrated measures in a system 5. Timely crop management such as intercultu-
approach, ensuring that the interaction among ral operations, weeding and irrigation;
soil, plants, environment and people is well ba- 6. Careful monitoring of the crop and sufficient
lanced. The ‘ingredients for success’ all need to protection against pests according to the
be applied together (Figure 2): concept of economic threshold level;
1. Suitable measures to improve and maintain 7. Timely and proper picking of the cotton;
soil fertility; 8. Sufficient documentation for inspection and
2. Establishment of crop rotation and crop di- certification;
versity; fostering natural balance; 9. Capacity building and experimenting for
continuous improvement.
1.4 Organic standards

Farmers who wish to sell their produce as ‘orga- tual trust between producers and consumers.
nic’, whether in domestic markets or in export, The consumer wants to be sure that the product
need to be certified as organic. For this they need is really organically produced. The organic far-
to strictly follow the national regulations1 andor- mer also needs to be protected against unfair
ganic standards of the respective target country. competition from other farmers who use the
For organic cotton to be exported to Europe, the term «organic» in a fraudulent way.
European Regulation on Organic Farming (EEC Organic standards define the minimum cri-
2092/912) defines the basic requirements to be teria to be fulfilled (e.g. which fertilizers are not
fulfilled. Other target markets have their own permitted), but not necessarily best practices
standards, e.g. the US (NOP3) and Japan (JAS4). (e.g. how much organic manure should be ap-
A premium price is possible only if there is mu- plied). Important requirements of most organic
Figure 3: Important re-

quirements of organic
standards relevant in
cotton farming
1
For India the standards under the National Program of Organic Production; see www.apeda.com
2
EU regulation; europa.eu.int/eur-lex/en/consleg/main/1991/en_1991R2092_index.html
3
National Organic Program; www.ams.usda.gov/nop/NOP/standards/FullRegTextOnly.html
4
Japanese Agriculture Standard; www.maff.go.jp/soshiki/syokuhin/hinshitu/organic/eng_yuki_175.pdf

standards relevant for cotton farms to be certi- for organic textiles from the harvesting of fibres
fied organic are given in Figure 3. to the labelling of ready-made textiles. It also
A basic summary of organic standards rele- covers processing requirements (e.g. regarding
vant for organic cotton as per the EU regulation toxicity and biodegradability of materials used)
is given in Annex 10.3. and social criteria. The standard is expected to
In 2002, during the International Conference facilitate the certification process and to pro-
on Organic Textiles (Intercot), the development vide end consumers with a credible assurance
of a global organic textile standard was initiated system for organic garments.
by IVN and IMO1. The standard defines criteria
1.5 Bio-dynamic farming

The system of bio-dynamic farming is a special � Bio-dynamic preparations: Certain natural-
type of organic agriculture which fulfils all prin- ly occurring plant and animal materials are
ciples and standards of organic farming but goes combined in specific preparations and ap-
a step further: bio-dynamic farming includes plied in highly diluted form to compost piles,
a spiritual dimension of agriculture. It is foun- to the soil, or directly to the plants. The forces
ded on a holistic and spiritual understanding within these preparations are to organize the
of nature and human beings and builds on the elements within the plants and animals.
research work of the Austrian philosopher Ru- � Cosmic rhythms: The rhythms of the sun,
dolf Steiner in the 1920s2. He developed a new moon, planets, and stars influence the
approach to science which integrates observati- growth of plants. By timing the activities of
on of natural phenomena and spiritual dimen- tillage, sowing and harvesting according to
sions. In the words of Steiner: “Matter is never the bio-dynamic calendar, the farmer can use
without Spirit, and Spirit never without Matter.” this influence to benefit the crops.
Some of the principles of bio-dynamic � Vitality: Besides the physical and chemical
farming are: characteristics, matter has a vital quality that
� The Farm Organism: A farm is considered influences organisms. Thus, bio-dynamic far-
as a whole organism, integrating plants, ani- mers strive for product quality, not just quan-
mals and humans. There should be just the tity.
right number of animals to provide manure
for fertility, and these animals should be fed As far back as 1928 the bio-dynamic movement
from the farm itself. developed the Demeter brand for labelling pro-
ducts from certified bio-dynamic farms3.
1.6 Inspection and certification

At least once a year, an external certifier in-
In order to support farmers in the certificati- spects the functioning of the ICS and re-in-
on process and to reduce costs, farmer groups spects a certain percentage of the farms at ran-
can be organized within an internal control dom (Figure 4). If the external inspection finds
system (ICS). For this, each farmer needs to that the ICS is not functioning properly, for ex-
sign a contract with the organization in which ample because defaulting farmers are not disco-
they declare their commitment to following the vered and excluded from the project, the entire
specific organic standards of the project. The project risks losing its organic certification and
extension workers of the project advise the far- thus the option of selling the cotton and other
mers in organic crop production techniques crops at a premium price. Therefore, internal
and help them with the necessary record-kee- control systems can only function if there is a
ping. Internal inspectors inspect the farms se- spirit of trust and cooperation among the invol-
veral times a year, and an internal certification ved farmers and between the farmers and the
committee decides about sanctions against de- organization responsible for the ICS.
faulting farmers.
1
International Association Natural Textile Industry (IVN), Germany; Institute for Market Ecology (IMO), Switzerland.
2
www.biodynamic.org.uk/FAQ.htm
3
www.demeter.net/

Figure 4: Internal and
external control in an or-
ganic cotton project (ad-
apted from IFOAM)
1.7 Organic cotton and Fair Trade

Fair Trade is a trading partnership that seeks nic and Fair Trade certification. FLO has deve-
greater equity in international trade, particularly loped product-specific Fair Trade standards for
focusing on the rights of marginalized producers cotton production (seed cotton)3. The most im-
and workers in developing countries. Trade rela- portant requirements for smallholder organic
tions are facilitated by a number of Fair Trade or- cotton projects to achieve Fair Trade certificati-
ganisations, most of them being associated with on by FLO can be summarized as follows:
the International Fair Trade Association (IFAT)1. � Smallholders: More than 50% of the volume
Fair Trade Labelling Organizations Internati- must be produced by small producers (not
onal (FLO)2 operates a Fair Trade certification structurally dependent on permanent hired
scheme based on generic and product-specific labour).
standards. Many Fair Trade organizations, ho- � Democratic structure: An organizational
wever, have their own labels and standards. structure is in place that enables control by
Important principles of Fair Trade include: the members and ensures that the use of the
� Transparency and accountability based on Fair Trade premium is democratically deci-
democratic decision-making processes; ded by the members.
� Capacity building to develop producers’ in- � Labour issues: No forced or child labour, sa-
dependence; laries are in line with the official minimum
� Payment of a fair price, usually fixed as a mi- wages, freedom of association and collective
nimum price and a Fair Trade premium; bargaining.
� Gender equity; � Environment: Development of a water manage-
� Safe and healthy working conditions; ment plan in areas of acute water shortage.
� Encouragement of environmental producti- � Trade: Fixed buying commitments at the be-
on practices. ginning of the harvest season, guaranteed
minimum prices and payment of Fair Trade
Fair Trade certification does not require that premium. Pre-financing of up to 60% of the
an operation is organic; it can also be applied contract value, if requested by the seller.
to conventional production. However, some � Commitment to continuous improvements
smallholder cotton projects choose both orga- in all fields (progress requirements).
1
www.ifat.org
2
see www.fairtrade.net
3
see www.fairtrade.net/sites/standards/sp.html

2 Cotton
2.1 The importance of cotton
the livelihood of 17 million people in India de-

pends on cotton farming2. The Indian cotton
textile industry contributes 38% of the coun-
try’s export earnings. In some African countries
like Burkina Faso, Mali, and Benin, cotton plays
an even more dominant role in agricultural ex-
ports.
World market cotton prices fluctuate to a
great degree and have come down considerably
over the last two decades. According to Oxfam
and other NGOs, this is partly due to high farm
subsidies in the US3. By-products of cotton in-
clude the edible oil gained from the seeds, and
the seed cakes and husks are used as fodder and
Cotton bales manure.
Cotton production worldwide uses more
Cotton has been used for producing garments than 20% of all insecticides used in agricul-
for at least 8,000 years. Cotton is the most im- ture4. In many areas, irrigated cotton cultivati-
portant fibre crop with an estimated world pro- on has led to depletion of ground and surface
duction of 23 million tons of fibre (lint) in 2004- water sources. Many conventional cotton far-
051. The three largest producers are China, the mers in developing countries are in a crisis due
USA, and India, followed by Pakistan, the coun- to decreasing soil fertility, increasing producti-
tries of the former USSR, and Brazil. India is on costs, resistant pests, or low cotton prices. In
the third-largest producer of cotton, producing this scenario, an increasing number of farmers
about 12% of the world production, but, due to turn to organic cultivation in order to restore
low productivity, it has the largest area under soil fertility, reduce production costs, or to get
cotton cultivation (ca. 9 million ha). Nowadays, a better price for their certified organic harvest.
2.2 Requirements of the cotton crop
The cotton species (Gossypium) belong to the ging, which causes a reduction in yields (more
Malvaceae family (like okra and hibiscus). Their boll shedding) even when the plant appears to
wild relatives are hardy perennial shrubs with be unaffected. It prefers deep, well-drained so-
hairy leaves and short fibres. Cotton is grown ils with a good nutrient content. The clay-rich
in a wide range of climatic conditions in tem- vertisols (so-called ‘black cotton soils’) are ide-
perate, subtropical and tropical regions of all al. With their long tap roots penetrating up to
the continents. Ideal conditions are in regions three meters in such soils, cotton plants can sus-
with long vegetation periods without frost, high tain short periods of drought. However, cotton
temperature (ideally around 30°C), ample suns- is also grown on less ideal sites with shallow,
hine, and a rather dry climate (Figure 5). It re- sandy soils, both under irrigated and rain-fed
quires a minimum of 500 mm water from rain conditions. This requires adapting the selection
or irrigation between germination and boll for- of varieties and management practices.
mation. Cotton is very sensitive to waterlog-
1
Source: International Cotton Advisory Committee, World Statistics
2
Source: www.tve.org/ho/doc.cfm?aid=604
3
www.oxfam.org/eng/pdfs/pp020925_cotton.pdf
4
Source: www.pan-uk.org/pestnews/pn28/pn28p23.htm

Cottonseeds take about 4 days to germinate
after coming in contact with water. During the
first two weeks, growth of the leaves is slow as it
is mainly the root that grows, penetrating dee-
ply into the soil to ensure water supply. After
this, strong vegetative growth builds up the
leaves and branches, until the first flower buds
emerge. Flowering starts at the first node of the
first fruit-bearing branch and from one node to
another along the branch. Flowers are white/
yellow when they open, turning pink the follo-
wing day. Pollinated flowers take three to four
weeks to reach the final size of the pods, and
another two to three weeks to dry out and open.
Normally only about 1/3 of the flowers deve-
lop bolls, and this rate can drop to 10% when
conditions are unfavourable, as in the case of
drought, waterlogging, cool weather, or heavy
insect infestation. Bud and boll dropping can Development stages of cotton from bud (right) to boll
be caused by both deficiency and excess of nu-
trients, or of moisture. However, the plant can
pick up and compensate for loss of buds or bolls
by prolonging its production of flowers if the
unfavourable conditions last only for short pe-
riods, and if it is not too late in the season.
Figure 5: Requirements of
the cotton crop

2.3 Selecting the right cotton varieties
By far the most widely grown cotton species robust varieties that are resistant to or tolerant
is Gossypium hirsutum, often called Ameri- of pests and produce satisfying yields with me-
can Upland cotton, which is available in a lar- dium manure supply. Some varieties, however,
ge number of hybrid varieties. Some countries combine the advantages of the ‘desi’ varieties
grow Gossypium barbadense (Sea Island cot- (hardy, drought resistant) with those of the hir-
ton), spinning its long fibres into extra-fine gar- situm varieties (high yield, long fibres). These
ments. In India and Pakistan, a number of local varieties could be of great interest, especially for
‘desi’ varieties of G. herbaceum and G. arbore- organic farmers with less irrigation.
um are grown besides the ‘American hybrids’. To select the most suitable varieties, farmers
They are usually more resistant to pests and to should consider the site conditions (soil quality,
drought, but most have a shorter staple length rainfall, availability of irrigation water, etc.) as
and thus fetch lower prices in the market. well as the conditions of the farm (availability of
There are a large number of different cotton manure, possibility for pest management, etc.).
varieties available on the seed market, and re- Where irrigation is a constraint and rainfall is
search stations and seed companies continually erratic, it is preferable to use varieties that re-
release new varieties. Most of them are bred for quire less water (e.g. those with less leaf area).
producing high yields under high-input condi- In addition, farmers need to consider the bu-
tions: fertilizers, pesticides, and irrigation. Or- yers’ requirements concerning staple length and
ganic farmers, however, are more interested in other fibre quality aspects (see Figure 6).
Figure 6: Comparison of
American upland cotton
and Indian ‘desi’ varieties
Identifying suitable cotton varieties for a par- The cotton varieties that are most popular
ticular field requires a great deal of observati- among organic cotton farmers in the Nimar re-
on and experimentation. It can also be useful gion of Madhya Pradesh, India, and their pro-
to talk to extension workers or other farmers perties are listed in Table 1.
about their experience with a certain varie-
ty and its expected yields, water requirements,
resistance to pests, and fibre quality. In some
countries, however, the government authorities
regulate which cotton varieties can be grown.

Variety Suitable sites Staple length Remarks
H-8 Medium soils, little to 25–26 mm Most popular variety; good yields in organic farming; suitable for
medium irrigation available. monsoon sowing; drought tolerant.
H-10 Deep, heavy soils. 26–27 mm Ideal for summer sowing; not suitable for light soils.
JK-4 Medium soils 27–28 mm Resistant to diseases and bollworm; susceptible to sucking pests;
requires less water.
JKH-1 Deep, heavy soils; irrigation. 27–28 mm Good yields in organic farming; ideal for heavy soil; susceptible
to droughts.
Ankoor-09 Medium soils, not for heavy 26–27 mm A short duration crop suitable where a Rabi crop is grown; not
soils. suitable for summer sowing; susceptible to waterlogging.
Ankoor 651 Heavy to medium soils. 27–28 mm Ideal for late-summer sowing and monsoon sowing; suitable for
heavy soils.
New research varieties:
Jawahar Tapti Dry areas, little irrigation. 24–25 mm Hardy; requires less water; resistant to bollworm, but short fibres.
Surabhi Medium to dry areas. 28–32 mm A non-hybrid with long fibres.
Devi Raj Dry areas, little irrigation. 27–28 mm A variety grown in Gujarat.
Table 1: Cotton varieties grown by organic farmers in the Nimar region, Madhya Pradesh, India
Seed issues
Cotton is self-pollinating, but cross-pollina-
tion also occurs; thus, controlled breeding is
necessary to maintain the quality of varieties.
Most of the cultivated cotton varieties are hy-
brids that are propagated by seed companies
and cannot be multiplied without the parent
lines. In India, research stations have also deve-
loped a number of non-hybrids, the seeds of
which can be re-grown for a number of years.
Organic cotton farmers in Mali also use the cot-
ton seeds from their own harvest. Breeding of
varieties specifically suited to organic farming
conditions remains a challenge to be tackled in
coming years.
Testing cotton varieties for organic farming in Kirgistan (Photo: Helvetas)
Bt cotton
In organic agriculture the use of genetically The cultivation of Bt cotton involves higher
modified organisms (GMO) is not allowed. For financial risk, since the seeds are considerably
some years, seed companies have been promo- more expensive and usually the crop is grown
ting genetically engineered ‘Bt cotton’. It con- with high inputs of fertilizers and pesticides
tains genes of the same micro-organism, Ba- against sucking pests. In India, many conven-
cillus thuringiensis, that is used in bio-control tional farmers who tried Bt cotton complained
against a number of insect pests, also by or- about crop failure, due possibly to inappro-
ganic farmers. The Bt cotton plant thus conti- priate varieties, unfavourable climatic condi-
nuously produces an insecticide that is to pre- tions, or adulterated seeds. Despite the benefits
vent bollworms from feeding on it. However, promised by its promoters, growing Bt cotton
bollworms frequently develop resistance, for- seems to be a high-risk strategy.
cing the seed companies to develop new varie- Organic farmers find it more and more dif-
ties of Bt cotton. Also, there is a risk that the ficult to get cottonseed material that is guaran-
development of resistance makes Bt sprays less teed GMO-free. Some certification bodies use
effective, thus harming organic farmers. test stripes to check whether cotton plants con-
tain GMO.

3 Soil Fertility Management
3.1 Soil properties
The best strategy for improving and maintaining the application of compost is particularly im-
soil fertility in cotton primarily depends on the portant for increasing water retention and nu-
soil types present on a farm. Soil types in the trient supply. As these soils are less suitable for
Nimar Region, India, can be broadly grouped intensive production, the variety and crop se-
into light soils (Inceptisol), medium soils (Enti- lection should be adapted accordingly (robust,
sol) and heavy soils (‘black cotton soil’, Vertisol). frugal, and drought-resistant cotton varieties
Their distribution in the landscape mainly de- and rotation crops). Intercropping of more
pends on the profile (see graph below). drought-resistant crops like sorghum, safflower,
Light soils usually have a lower water-retenti- sesame, or castor can help to reduce the risk of
on capacity, and the nutrients are more easily complete crop failure in drought-prone areas.
leached out than in heavy soils. In light soils, Soil cultivation should be shallow and kept to a
minimum in order to avoid soil erosion and en-
hanced decomposition of organic matter.
In deep or heavy soils (e.g. black cotton soil),
intensive production is possible with sufficient
inputs of organic manures, intensive crop rota-
tion, and green manuring. Frequent shallow-so-
il cultivation helps to improve soil aeration and
nutrient supply. It also reduces evaporation and
suppresses weeds. When the cotton crop is well
established (after 6–9 weeks) it is recommen-
ded to apply additional organic manure (e.g.
vermi-compost or oil cakes) and to earth up
ridges in order to accelerate decomposition of
Soils in the Nimar Region, India, usually follow a sequence, with light and manures and to bury weeds. The soil properties
sandy soils on elevations and deep and heavy soils in depressions and river belts and management recommendations for light
and heavy soils are given in Figure 7.
Soil profile in a cotton

field in India Figure 7: Properties and management recommendations for light and heavy soils

3.2 The importance of soil organic matter
Cotton prefers fertile soils with good water hol- they are available to the crop. Last but not least,
ding capacity and sufficient nutrient supply (see organic material feeds and hosts a huge num-
Chapter 2.2). On many farms, the continuous ber of beneficial soil organisms, such as earth
application of chemical fertilizers has led to a worms and microbes, which continuously work
loss of soil fertility. This is mainly due to a lack toward improving soil fertility.
of organic matter – the residues of plant mate- Thus, for getting good, stable yields it is import-
rial and organic manures remaining in the soil. ant that organic farmers ensure a continuous sup-
The application of nitrogen fertilizer accelerates ply of organic material to the soil – not only for cot-
the decomposition of organic matter. ton! The most important source of organic matter
Organic matter has a very crucial significan- are the residues of the crops grown on the field its-
ce for soil fertility improvement (Figure 8). It elf (leaves, stalks, roots etc.). Therefore, balanced
ensures a soft and loose soil with good porosity crop rotation, intercropping, and mulching are the
and thus good infiltration of water. The organic most efficient ways to enhance soil fertility. This is
matter particles act like tiny sponges, thus kee- complemented by the application of farmyard ma-
ping the soil moist for a longer time. Organic nure, compost and organic manures such as oil
matter takes up and releases nutrients so that cakes, press mud, etc. (see Chapter 4.5).
Figure 8: The importance

of organic matter for soil
fertility
3.3 Crop rotation – rotation crops
It is important that organic cotton is grown in

rotation with other crops. This helps to improve
and maintain soil fertility and ensures balanced
nutrient contents in the soil. If cotton is grown
continually on the same field, yields are likely
to decrease. Crop rotation and mixed cropping Wheat grown in the win-
also help prevent build-up of pest populations, ter season (Rabi) after
diseases and weeds. Pests find it more difficult to cotton

move from one host plant Depending on the climatic conditions, the
to another, and they are market situation and the availability of land,
controlled by a number of there are a number of suitable rotation patterns,
beneficial insects hosted with cotton grown every alternate or every third
by the rotation crops or year. Which rotation pattern is the most suitable
intercrops. Crop diversi- one for a particular farm depends on a number of
ty also reduces a farmer’s factors: soil properties, irrigation facilities, crop
risk, making farmers less prices, market access, and – last but not least –
vulnerable to crop fai- the skills and preferences of the farmer. Figure 9
lure and to fluctuating lists some suitable rotation patterns from orga-
prices. Further, it helps nic cotton projects in India and Africa.
prevent a shortage of la-
bour in peak seasons, as
labour requirements are
more evenly distributed
throughout the year.
Pulses and cereals in an
Indian market
Figure 9: Some crop rota-

tion patterns from organic
cotton projects in India
and Africa
On organic farms, cotton should not be grown crops like chillies or vegetables, and after sugar-
in fields where the previous year’s crop also was cane and wheat. Organic farmers in particular
cotton (no ‘cotton after cotton’). The reason is should take care to include pulses in the rotati-
that if cotton is grown year after year in the same on, as they increase the nitrogen content in the
field, the soil nutrients get depleted, pest popu- soil by fixing nitrogen from the air.
lations increase and there is a risk for soil-borne In some places a crop of wheat, pulses or
diseases. At least for one year, but preferably for fodder can be grown after cotton in the win-
two years, another crop should be grown better season. In India, where sufficient irrigation
ween two cotton crops. If very small land hol- is available, farmers usually uproot the cotton
dings force farmers to grow cotton after cotton, crop before the second flush, in order to grow
they should, in any case, use an intercrop (e.g. a wheat or chickpea crop in the ‘Rabi’ season.
moong bean, cow pea, or chick pea, for harve- Growing wheat instead of continuing to har-
sting) or a green manure crop (e.g. sun hemp or vest the cotton is usually more remunerative, as
cow pea, to be cut and ploughed back into the the gains from the wheat crop more than com-
soil before flowering). pensate for the loss in cotton yields and the ad-
Particularly good yields are achieved when ditional production costs. However, sufficient
cotton is grown after pulses (soy bean, chick- availability of irrigation water and of labour are
pea, pigeon pea, groundnut etc.), horticultural important pre-conditions for this.

3.4 Green manures and intercrops
Green manure crops for cotton (mainly pulses trap crop, see Chapter 5.3.2), with 10–15 m
like sun hemp or cow pea, or mixtures conta- distance between the rows in order to reduce
ining pulses and cereals) are usually sown bet- competition through shade. Smaller pulses like
ween the cotton rows after the cotton seedlings moong bean, black gram and cow pea, or small
have emerged. They are cut before or at the time millet varieties, can be grown in-between the
of flowering, and are either used as mulch or in- cotton rows, or between the individual cotton
corporated into the soil. Intercrops like maize plants. Intercrops are usually allowed to mature
or pigeon pea can be grown in rows every few and are cut and used as organic mulch after the
meters, replacing a row of cotton. Sunflower seeds are harvested (Figure 10).
can also be used as an intercrop (an effec-tive
Figure 10: Green manures

(cutting at the time of
flowering) and intercrops
(cutting after harvesting
the seeds) for cotton
Both green manures and intercrops have the On the other hand, green manure and in-
following benefits: tercrops do compete with the cotton crop for
� Distract pests from the cotton crop (especial- water, light and nutrients. Thus, appropriate ti-
ly sucking pests); ming of the sowing and cutting is very import-
� Attract and host beneficial insects; ant in order to get maximum benefit with mini-
� Take up nutrients from the soil which would mum competition.
be lost to the crop; Farmers in Nagpur and Yavatmal, India, have
� Fix nitrogen from the air (pulses and other had good experiences with using the ‘Nagpur
legumes); mixture’ as a green manure, consisting of the seeds
� Make nutrients available to the cotton crop listed in Table 2 (approximate quantity for 1 ha):
when decomposing;
� Build up organic matter (better soil structure,
water retention, overall fertility);
� Suppress weeds;
� Produce mulch that keeps the moisture in the
soil;
� Reduce soil erosion through rain or wind;
� Provide additional yield;
� Can serve as fodder for cattle.

English name Scientific name Hindi name Quantity of seeds (for 1 ha)
Sunhemp (jute) Crotalaria juncea Sun beeja 5 kg
Pearl millet Pennisetum typhoideum Bajra 5 kg
Moong bean Vigna radiata Moong daal 5 kg
Black gram Phaseolus mungo Urid daal 5 kg
Chickpea Cicer spp. Channa 5 kg
Table 2: Composition of the green manure “Nagpur mixture” used for cotton in central India.
The Nagpur seed mixture is sown between the

cotton crop about 2–4 weeks after the germina-
tion of the cotton seedlings, just before the first
intercultural operation. The green manure is
cut (by hand or with a weeder) after approxima-
tely four weeks, when the pulses start flowering.
In India, the most popular intercrops for cot-
ton are moong bean, chick pea (black gram),
cow pea and pigeon pea. Sorghum and maize
are grown as trap crops. To reduce competiti-
on for light, water and nutrients with the cot-
ton crop, the intercrop should only be grown in
every alternate row. The rows are preferably ori-
ented in an east-west direction. Pulses are par-
ticularly suitable green manures and intercrops,
as they fix nitrogen from the air with the help of
beneficial bacteria hosted in root nodules.
Trials on green manures and intercrops
Nodules
Nodules of pulses host nitrogen fixing bacteria
To try out alternative options for green ma-

nures and intercrops, farmers can set up sim-
ple plot trials on their farms. For this, the far-
mer organizes the necessary seed material and
selects a suitable field for the trial. In the field,
the farmer chooses an area in which the soil
is more or less the same. He marks a number
of cotton rows for the intercrop or green ma-
nure, and an equal number of cotton rows of
the same length without intercrop or green
manure as a control plot. The trial plot and the
control plot are harvested separately so that Tri
al plot Control plot
the yields can be compared. The yields and the
value of the intercrop should also be taken into Possible layout of a trial plot and control plot in a cot-
consideration when comparing the new me- ton field.
thod with the previous system.

Crop Nutrition
4.1 Nutrient requirements
Crop rotation and intercropping with legumes, ply (especially of nitrogen) during this phase, it
recycling of crop residues and the application is recommended that a basal dose of well-de-
of farm-produced organic manure (FYM and composed compost or farmyard manure be ap-
compost) need to form the basis of nutrient plied at the start of the growing season, and be
management in organic cotton farming. Orga- complemented with one or two head applica-
nic farmers should not try to copy conventional tions of compost and an organic manure rich
fertilizer application schemes by simply substi- in nitrogen (e.g. oil cakes, poultry manure from
tuting NPK-fertilizers with organic manures. It extensive rearing). Head applications of manure
is very important that above all they preserve should be applied 2–3 weeks before the start of
the nutrients that are already available in the square bud formation, as the nutrients are not
soil and on the farm: prevent soil erosion, use instantly available but only get released once the
all available crop residues and organic wastes, manure decomposes (see Figure 11).
and do not burn crop residues or cow dung. A harvest of 500 kg seed cotton extracts
Like other crops, cotton requires the full ran- approximately 36 kg nitrogen (N), 14 kg phos-
ge of nutrients in a well-balanced compositi- phate (P2O5) and 15 kg potassium (K2O equiva-
on. The cotton plant requires two-thirds (2/3) lents). Parts of these nutrients may be replaced
of these nutrients during the first two months through nitrogen fixation by legumes (N) and
of its growth. To ensure sufficient nutrient sup- through weathering of minerals (P and K).
Figure 11: Nutrient de-

mands of cotton and
timing of manure appli-
cations

4.2 Uptake of nutrients
In organically managed soils, the crops mainly sures to improve overall soil fertility (microbial
depend on the nutrients supplied by minerals activity, structure, moisture retention) are more
and by the organic matter in the soil. These take likely to result in increased yields than merely
up, store and release nutrients (through exchan- applying fertilizers.
ge, weathering, and decomposition). Soil orga- The most widespread nutrient deficiencies
nisms play a vital role in this process and should in tropical cotton fields are in nitrogen, phos-
be supported through careful soil cultivation phorus, sulphur, zinc and boron. Soil tests have
and regular application of organic matter. Mea- their limitations in providing useful informati-
on on nutrient deficiencies, as they only mea-
sure the easily available nutrients. The availabi-
lity of nutrients to the crop, however, depends
on a number of factors such as the activity of
soil micro-organisms, the root system of the
crop, and the water content in the soil.
It is possible that the uptake of nutrients is
hindered by waterlogging (the roots then lack
air) and dryness (there is no nutrient uptake
without water). Excess nitrogen, phosphorus
and potassium also disturb the uptake of certa-
in other nutrients like calcium, magnesium and
micronutrients (Figure 12). In the case of a cot-
ton crop showing deficiency symptoms, it is not
always necessary to apply additional manure or
fertilizers. It may be more efficient to stimulate
microbial activity and to overcome the inhibi-
ting factors, e.g. through soil cultivation, irriga-
tion, and incorporation of biomass.
Phosphorus deficiency symptoms on a cotton leaf
Figure 12: The uptake of

nutrients (represented by
coloured circles) and its
disturbance (red arrows).
K = potassium, Ca = cal-
cium, S = sulphur, B =
boron, Mg = magnesia,
Fe = iron, Zn = zinc, P =
phosphorus, N = nitrogen

Nitrogen immobilization
In the first two months of growth, the cot- residues before ploughing the fields and pre-
ton crop may be short of nitrogen because pare compost out of them. Compost should be
micro-organisms use the nitrogen in the soil kept moist and should be turned at least twi-
for the decomposition of carbon-rich (sturdy) ce so that it decomposes well. It should be ap-
organic material. As a result, the leaves of the plied to the field early in the season so that the
cotton plants look yellowish, growth is stun- decomposition has already started when the
ted and overall crop development is slow. This cotton is sown. At the time of sowing, nitro-
phenomenon known as ‘temporary nitrogen gen-rich manures such as oil cakes can be ap-
immobilization’ may occur when sturdy crop plied to prevent this problem. Oil cakes take
residues or manures (e.g. straw-rich farmyard 1-3 weeks until they release nitrogen through
manure or undecomposed press mud) are pre- decomposition. Soil cultivations (intercultu-
sent in the soil. To decompose this material, ral operations) speed up the decomposition of
microbes require nitrogen, which is not avai- organic matter and thus increase the nutrient
lable to the crop for a certain period of time. supply to the crop.
To avoid this situation, collect the sturdy crop
4.3 Application of manures and fertilizers
Suitable application doses of nutrients in or- 1. Practise crop rotation, and grow leguminous
ganic cotton depend on the soil condition, the crops (e.g. pulses) as intercrops or as green
previous crop, and the expected yield. Table 3 manures;
shows the nutrient quantities recommended for 2. Use all biomass available on the farm (do not
organic cotton for soil of average fertility culti- burn crop residues or cow dung!); mix wood
vated with high-yield varieties. A considerable ash into the compost heap;
portion of the required nutrients, however, can 3. Use whatever biomass is cheaply available
be supplied through decomposing residues of nearby (e.g. weeds, leaves, press mud, agri-
the previous crop, and through nitrogen fixati- cultural processing wastes);
on by leguminous crops. 4. Only then complement with purchased or-
Organic manures like compost and cattle ganic manures (e.g. oil cakes) and natural
dung contain the full range of nutrients inclu- mineral fertilizers (e.g. rock phosphate, gyp-
ding micronutrients in a balanced composition. sum, muriate of potash).
Thus, where organic manures are applied in suf-
ficient quantity, usually there is no deficiency of Approximate nutrient contents of important or-
micronutrients. ganic manures and natural fertilizers (minerals)
Farmers can achieve the desired nutrient in- are given in Figure 13.
put through the following steps (in order of pri-
ority):
Nutrient Quantity per ha Possible sources

Nitrogen (N) 100–120 kg/ha Residues from previous crop, nitrogen fixation through pulses,
compost, vermi-compost, FYM, DOC, liquid manures
Phosphorous (P2O5) 50–60 kg/ha Residues from previous crop, compost, FYM, rock phosphate,
wood ash
Potassium (K2O) 40–50 kg/ha Residues from previous crop, compost, FYM, muriate of
potash, wood ash
Table 3: Recommended nutrient doses in average organic cotton fields, to be adapted to local conditions

Figure 13: Approximate
nutrient contents of im-
portant organic manures
and natural fertilizers
Table 4 proposes a nutrient management plan Caution: A too-high supply of nitrogen-rich

for cotton for achieving the recommended nu- manures can cause:
trient input. However, this should only be a � Strong vegetative growth of cotton (many
rough guideline and needs to be adapted to the leaves instead of bolls);
specific conditions of each farm and field. � Increased shedding of square buds;
� Plants to become more attractive to sucking
pests like aphids, whitefly and jassids;
� Potentially lower yields!
Manure or measure Recommended quantity Comments

(per ha)
Crop rotation Preferably grow cotton on plots where the The cotton crop benefits from the high nutrient level of
previous crop was pulses, chillies, vegetables, the previous crop.
banana, or sugarcane.
Green manure / intercrop If possible, grow leguminous crops (e.g. pulses) as Leguminous crops increase the nitrogen content in the
intercrop or as a green manure. soil by fixing it from the air.
Compost, cow dung or Initial application: 10–13 tons cow dung, or 7–10 Compost and cow dung should be well decomposed.
press mud compost tons compost, or 6–7 tons vermi-compost. The quantity can be reduced if the previous crop was
Top dressing (decomposed compost, together pulse or a horticulture crop, or if pulses are grown as
with DOC): green manure or an intercrop.
 3 weeks after sowing: 1.5–2.5 tons
 10–12 weeks after sowing: 1.5–2.5 tons
De-oiled castor cake Top dressing (mixed with compost): Apply the lower dose if the previous crop was a pulse,
(DOC), or other oil cake  3 weeks after sowing: 150–350 kg or if sufficient compost of good quality was applied
initially.
 10–12 weeks after sowing: 150–350 kg
Rock phosphate 50–70 kg per ha, application together with the Mix into the compost when setting up the heap; do
compost. not apply it directly to the soil. Increase the quantity to
100 kg in case of P-deficiency (soil test).
Muriate of potash Only in case of K-deficiency (soil test): 50–70 kg Usually the potassium (K) present in compost and
per ha. organic manures is sufficient. Add wood ash to the
compost.
Foliar application of Start 4 weeks after germination of the cotton until Strengthens and nourishes the plant, deters pests.
vermi-wash, diluted the first bolls open, every 2 to 3 weeks: one litre For second flush in Rabi season (India), start spraying
biogas slurry or diluted cow urine or vermi-wash in 10 litres water. again in November and December.
cow urine
Table 4: Recommended nutrient management plan for organic cotton

4.4 Compost
Composting is the process of transforming or-
ganic material of plant or animal origin into
high-value organic manure in heaps or pits.
Compared to uncontrolled decomposition
of organic material, decomposition through
composting is faster. It heats up as part of the
process, which results in a product of higher
quality. If compost heaps are properly mainta-
ined, loss of nutrients (especially nitrogen) can
be kept low. Compost provides the crop with
well-balanced ‘food’ and helps to increase the
soil organic-matter content. Compost has both
a long-term and a short-term effect on plant
nutrition as nutrients are continuously released
over a period of time.
There are two general types of composting: Compost heaps in the Maikaal bioRe project, India.
‘continuously fed’ and ‘batch fed’ systems:
� Batch fed systems (all material is set up at
once): During the first few weeks after setting The value of the compost very much depends
up the compost, the material gets very hot. on the material used, and on how well the com-
Weed seeds, diseases and pests are killed as a post is set up and maintained. If the compost is
result of the high temperature. The process is too dry or too wet, a lot of nutrients (especially
fast (within a few weeks), fewer nutrients get nitrogen) get lost and the quality of the compost
lost, and the final material is of high quality. is low. Thus, proper set-up of the compost and
� Continuously fed systems (material is added sufficient turning pays off. The results of nutri-
again and again): These systems do not heat ent analysis done on samples from manure and
up during the composting process. They are compost heaps in the Nimar Region, India, pro-
handy if there is a continuous supply of wa- ve this (Figure 14).
stes (e.g. from cleaning the cow sheds). Ho-
wever, they lack the advantages of the heating
phase and thus decompose less completely.
Vermi-compost heaps are a good example of
a continuously fed system.
Figure 14: Nutrient con-

tents (% dry matter) of
samples of different com-
post and dung heaps col-
lected on organic farms in
the Nimar Region, India

Setting up a compost heap or pit Other material can be added to the heap in or-
Compost heaps are easier to build than pits, but der to improve the quality of the compost:
they also dry out more easily. In pits, however, � Cow dung mixed with water, or biogas slurry
there is a risk of waterlogging during the wet for sprinkling on each layer;
season. During the dry season, when little wa- � Rock phosphate (quantity depending on soil
ter is available, composting in pits may be more condition);
appropriate than heaps since humidity is con- � Wood ash or sugarcane ash (if available);
served better. When setting up a compost heap � Soil.
or pit, the following points should be kept in
mind: For ideal composting , the mixture should con-
� Location: The compost is ideally located near sist of approximately:
the source of the composting material and the � One-third sturdy and bulky material (chopped
fields to which the compost will be applied. twigs, stalks, roots of maize and sorghum etc.);
The site should be shady and near a water � One-third medium-to-fine material rich in
source. Water-logged sites should be avoided. carbon (straw, dry leaves, left-overs from
� Timing: A compost heap should be set up fodder, dry weeds etc.)
when a lot of plant material is available, i.e. � One-third fine material rich in nitrogen (cow
towards the end of the rainy season (fresh dung, dung of other animals, green leaves,
material, weeds) and after the harvest of the kitchen waste etc.)
main crops (crop residues). If the farm does
not supply enough plant material, it may be
collected from outside sources.
� Size: The compost heap should reach a size of
at least 1 cubic metre to allow for the proper
composting process. To allow sufficient aera-
tion it should not be more than 2.5 m wide
and 1.5 m high.
Some materials that can be used for making

compost:
� Crop residues: stalks and roots of cotton,
maize, sorghum, straw etc.;
� Weeds from fields, field borders, fallow lands
etc.;
� Twigs from trees and shrubs, leaves; Layers of different materials in a compost heap
� Fodder residues left by the animals after fee-
ding;
� Cow dung and dung of other animals Steps in preparing compost of good quality (see
(poultry, goat etc.); Figure 15):
� Biogas slurry; 1. Chop coarse material like stalks and twigs.
� Kitchen waste; 2. At the bottom of the heap or pit, put twigs
� Agricultural processing by-products like su- and other coarse materials to allow for good
garcane trash, press mud, husks, cotton dust drainage of excess water.
etc.; 3. Pile up alternate layers of coarse material
� Take care that no plastic gets into the com- (carbon-rich, such as stalks, twigs, dry lea-
post! ves) and material that decomposes quickly
(nitrogen-rich, such as cow dung, green lea-
ves, weeds).
4. In every alternate layer, spread some rock
phosphate and wood ash.
5. Sprinkle the layers of coarse material with
cow dung slurry or biogas slurry.
6. Add thin layers of soil to prevent loss of nitro-
gen, and to inoculate with soil organisms.
7. Cover the heap or pit with a 10-cm thick la-
yer of straw or leaves in the initial stage, and
Compost ingredients: with sacks or plastic sheet in the final stage
stalks, weeds, twigs, cow to prevent potassium and nitrogen being
dung, soil, rock phospha- leached out (during the rainy season) and
te, wood ash and water drying of the heap (during the hot season).

8. The compost should be kept in moist conditi-
on, but not too wet. When we press a handful
of compost the material should stick together,
but no water should come out of it. If the com-
post gets too dry, sprinkle water over it.
9. Thoroughly mix the compost heap or pit by
turning it after 2–3 weeks and again after an-
other 1–2 months.
Figure 15: How to make

good compost
Two to three weeks after building up the com-

post heap, it will have decreased to about half
its original size. This is the right time to turn
it for the first time. After another 1–2 months
the compost heap should be turned a second
time. Turning the compost helps to accelerate
the process, and it is important to getting good
quality manure. It ensures that material from
the outside of the heap can decompose proper-
ly by being put into the centre.
Vermi-compost
Earthworms are very good for transforming Earth worms produce vermi-compost of high quality
dead plant material into excellent manure. In
vermi-compost production, half-decomposed even help plants to get rid of sucking pests like
material and cow dung is continuously added aphids.
to the heap or pit. Thus, there is no heating Earthworms are very sensitive to changes in
phase, which would kill the worms. The excre- moisture and temperature. They need a conti-
ta of the worms have high nutrient levels and nuous supply of food and protection from ants
a growth-promoting effect on plants. During and termites. To remove the compost, let the
this process some experienced farmers prepare top of the heap dry out so that the worms move
‘vermi-wash’: water is sprinkled over the heap to the deeper layers. Though vermi-compost is
or pit, and the excess water is collected in a con- definitely high-quality organic manure, it re-
tainer beneath the heap. The vermi-wash can be quires more labour and continual care compa-
used as a liquid fertilizer and plant tonic. It can red to ordinary composting methods.

4.5 Organic manures
Compost and farmyard manure are important pits should be turned once or twice during
to improve and maintain soil fertility and to this process (see Chapter 4.4).
provide a base supply of nutrients to the crop. � After application in the field, the manure
However, during flowering and boll formation should be incorporated into the soil as soon
cotton has a particularly high nutrient demand as possible in order to prevent gaseous loss of
which usually cannot be fully satisfied with the nitrogen.
available amounts of compost and farmyard
manure (FYM). Thus it is recommended that Adding bedding material in the cattle shed has
additional organic manures be provided du- the following benefits:
ring this phase, like de-oiled cakes (castor cake, � Some of the bedding material serves as cattle
neem cake), poultry manure, goat and sheep feed;
manure, bone meal, food processing wastes, � Nutrient losses are reduced;
press mud compost etc. However, note that ma- � More organic manure can be produced;
nures from intensive rearing (e.g. chicken rea- � The quality of the organic manure is impro-
ring) are not permitted according to most or- ved;
ganic standards. An overview of the nutrient � Pests like stem borers in maize and sorghum
contents of important organic manures is given stalks are destroyed.
in Chapter 4.3, Figure 13.
Cattle grazing on fields after harvest
Handling of cattle manure The transportation and application of farmyard
The handling of the cattle manure during stora- manure or compost to the fields involves quite
ge and application has enormous effects on its a lot of labour. An easy way to apply manure to
quality and value. In particular, large quantities a field is to allow cattle to graze on it after the
of nitrogen can be lost, but other nutrients like harvesting is over. The cattle feed on the crop
phosphorus and potassium can also be leached residues, and at the same time fertilize the field
out. Therefore, the following measures should with their dung. This also helps to kill pests like
be taken: stem borers and bollworms living in stalks and
� At night, cattle should be kept in sheds or on unpicked pods.
places with sufficient bedding material such If the cattle are fed cottonseed oil cakes, an
as straw of maize or sorghum, cotton stalks, important part of the nutrients sold with the
dry leaves, or empty maize cobs to absorb the harvest can be turned back to the soil in form
dung and urine. of manure. This is a good example of recycling,
� The manure should not become too wet or as some of the material exported from the farm
too dry. During storage, the manure heaps with the seed cotton comes back to the farm,
should be protected from rain and sun. serves as fodder for the cows and oxen, and fi-
� It is best to use the manure for composting nally as a fertilizer for the next crop.
together with plant material. The heaps or
4.6 Natural mineral fertilizers

Fertilizers based on minerals of natural origin Muriate of potash is a natural salt containing
(rock phosphate, muriate of potash, gypsum, 60% potassium dioxide (K2O). It should only be
lime etc.) are permitted in organic farming to a applied to the field when there is a deficiency
limited extent, but they should be applied only of potassium in the soil (soil test). High appli-
when the soil is deficient in the respective nu- cation doses can harm the beneficial soil orga-
trient (soil testing), and only in addition to or- nisms.
ganic manures. Oil seed crops such as cotton, soybean and
Rock phosphate and ash should be added to groundnut require a lot of sulphur, which in
the compost when setting up the heap or pit, so some fields can become deficient. In this situati-
that the nutrients get absorbed by the organic on, gypsum (which contains 17–20 % sulphur)
matter. If rock phosphate is applied directly to can be applied to the field at the ratio of 50–100 kg
the fields, a lot of the phosphorus gets lost as it per ha. Lime is mainly applied to acidic soils,
becomes permanently fixed to the mineral par- which are rare in black cotton soil regions.
ticles in the soil.

4.7 Liquid fertilizers
Part of the nutrients needed in the later growth
stages of the crop can be provided by liquid ma-
nures like cow urine, biogas slurry, or fermented
manures. They are sprinkled on the soil, applied
with irrigation water, or diluted and sprayed as
foliar fertilizer. Liquid manures have the advan-
tage that the nutrients are available almost in-
stantly. Thus they can be used to fine-tune nu-
trient supply. Table 5 provides some examples
of liquid manures used by Indian organic cot- ‘Amruth pani’, a liquid fer-
ton farmers. tilizer used in India
Liquid manure Preparation Application

Cow urine Collect cow urine. Mix 1 l of cow urine Spray the mixture on the cotton plants
with 15 l of water. every two to three weeks during boll
formation (40 litres per ha).
Slurry (from cow Take 10–15 kg slurry, tie it in a piece of Mix slurry solution and water 1 : 1 in
dung or biogas) cloth and suspend it in a drum of 100 a spray pump and spray 1 month after
litres water for 10–15 days, so that the sowing, every 2 to 3 weeks, until the
water in the drum turns grey to blackish. first bolls open.
Vermi-wash Collect vermi-wash from vermi-compost Spray the mixture at 2-to-3 week
heaps. Mix one litre of vermi-wash with intervals during boll formation.
ten litres of water.
‘Amruth pani’ Mix 250 g cow ghee (purified butter) One-time application. Apply it 3 weeks
+ 10 kg cow dung + 500 g honey and after sowing, by drenching the soil
dilute it in 200 l of water. near each plant.
‘Jeev amruth’ Mix 15 kg cow dung + 15 l cow urine + Two-time application. Apply 3 weeks
2 kg pulse flour (e.g. of gram or pigeon after sowing, and again after 2 to 3
pea) + 250 g raw sugar (‘jaggery’) and weeks.
dilute it in 200 l of water.
‘Mathka khad’ (Clay Mix 15 kg cow dung + 15 l cow urine + Two-time application. Apply it 3 weeks
pot dung) 250 g black jaggery. Keep for 8 days in after sowing, and again after 2 to 3
an earthen pot (‘mathka’), then dilute in weeks.
200l of water.
‘Charota’ (Cassia Fill a drum with the charota weed. Fill Dilute the liquid 1:1 with water and
tora) it with water and cover the drum with a spray or sprinkle it on the cotton
piece of cloth. Let it ferment for 1 week. leaves.
Table 5: Liquid manure preparations used by organic cotton farmers in India
4.8 Bio-fertilizers
Bio-fertilizers contain beneficial micro-orga- � Rhizobium is a bacterium hosted in the root
nisms that increase the availability of nutrients. nodules of pulses and other leguminous
Usually, organically managed soils that receive crops. It enables the crop to fix nitrogen from
compost and other organic manures already the air (see Figure 16).
contain most of these beneficial microbes. The � Azotobacter and Azospirillum can fix nitro-
application of bio-fertilizers can further increa- gen in a similar manner as Rhizobium, but
se their number and activity. When converting without being associated with the roots of a
a farm from chemical to organic farming, the crop.
application of bio-fertilizers can help to revive � Phosphorus Solubilizing Bacteria (PSB), like
the soil. To find out whether a specific bio-ferti- Pseudomonas, help to make phosphorus that
lizer has a real beneficial effect in the field, far- is bound to the mineral particles in the soil
mers can conduct a simple plot trial, treating available to the crop.
one part of a field while leaving the remaining � Mycorrhiza (VAM) is a beneficial fungus as-
part untreated. sociated with the roots of many plants. It hel-
Some micro-organisms that are commercial- ps them in taking up water and nutrients.
ly sold as bio-fertilizers:

Figure 16: Nitrogen fixa-
tion by leguminous plants
4.9 Bio-dynamic preparations

Bio-dynamic preparations are uniquely fer- burying them in the soil inside a cow horn. Be-
mented natural and organic substances that are fore being applied, very small amounts of these
used to steer humus-forming processes in the prepared substances are dissolved in water and
soil, vitalize plant growth and harmonize life on stirred rigorously for one hour. In this way, the
the holding with that of its immediate and more dynamic effects concentrated in the prepared
distant surroundings1. manure and quartz meal are released into the
There are two groups of bio-dynamic prepa- rhythmically moved water and become effective
rations: spray preparations (BD 500 and 501) for soil and plants.
and compost preparations (see Table 6). BD Compost preparations consist of Nos. 502–
500 consists of cow manure and is sprayed on 507, all of which are made from plant sub-
the soil prior to planting and sowing in order stances and are applied to composts and other
to stimulate healthy root growth. BD 501 con- farm manure. The actual amount of the sub-
sists of ground quartz and is sprayed onto grow- stances used is small. The preparations work
ing plants in order to stabilize plant metabolism ’dynamically‘, regulating and stimulating the
and enhance the qualitative development of the process of growth. Preparations BD 502 to 506
plant. During processing, these preparations are used to prepare a Compost Compound Pre-
are exposed to environmental influences by paration (CCP).
Name of the Purpose Recommended application

preparation
BD 500 For soil 125 g/ha. It is sprinkled on the moist soil before sowing, in the
management evening after 6.00 pm. Before application, the solution is stirred in
water for 60 minutes both clockwise and anticlockwise.
BD 501 For crop 5 g/ha. It is sprayed on the plant at the time of flowering, in the
management morning hours before sunrise. Before application, the solution is
stirred in water for 60 minutes both clockwise and anticlockwise.
CCP For soil 125 g/ha. It is sprinkled on the moist soil before sowing, in the
management evening after 6.00 pm. Before application the solution is stirred in
water for 60 minutes both clockwise and anticlockwise.
Table 6: Bio-dynamic preparations recommended for organic cotton production
1
http://www.biodynamic.org.uk/FAQ.htm

5 Pest and Disease Management
5.1 Keeping your cotton crop healthy
A large number of pests feed on cotton: cater- however, eventually results in the pest problem
pillars (e.g. bollworms), beetles, bugs, aphi- increasing, as the natural enemies of many pests
ds, jassids, whitefly, thrips, mites etc. The he- are decimated. First and foremost, organic cot-
althy cotton plant has some means of defence. ton farming tries to prevent pests from even be-
It compensates for affected shoots and leaves coming a problem. The best way to do this is
through additional growth, and produces sub- to establish a diverse and balanced farm ecosy-
stances that deter insects from feeding on them stem. If possible, varieties that are less suscepti-
(e.g. gossypol). In conventional farming, cotton ble to pest attack should be grown (hairy leaves,
is considered a crop that is highly sensitive to higher gossypol content). An overview of the
pest attack. Large quantities of chemical pesti- preventive measures used to keep a cotton crop
cides like organophosphates and pyrethroids healthy is shown in Figure 17.
are sprayed to keep them under control. This,
Figure 17: Measures used

to keep a cotton crop
healthy
Good soil fertility and balanced nutrition the farm, not growing cotton in fields that had
(through compost and other organic manures) cotton in the previous season.
support plant health. Farmers can optimize Sucking pests (aphids, whitefly and mites)
soil conditions through shallow soil cultivation and some other small pests (especially thrips
and careful, timely irrigation. Diverse cropping and jassids) usually attack plants that are stres-
systems and natural habitats enhance control of sed. Stress can be caused by unbalanced nutri-
pest populations by means of natural enemies, tion (too many or too few nutrients, especially
like birds and beneficial insects. Intercrops like nitrogen). A farmer in central India concludes
pulses and trap crops like sunflower or mai- from his own observations, ‘With high ferti-
ze, distract pests from the cotton plants. Some lizer application, the cotton leaves are getting
pests multiply faster if the same crop is grown soft and sweet.’ Stress can also be caused by wa-
on the same field year after year. It is therefo- ter shortage or waterlogging. Just like humans
re important to rotate the different crops within or animals, plants also have a kind of immune

system, which usually enables them to fight an With these preventive measures properly im-
attack of sucking pests. In stress situations, this plemented, the pest problem in organic cotton
immune system works less effectively. Therefore is surprisingly minor. A certain level of pest
it is important to avoid stress situations for the attack will not significantly reduce the cotton
plant. This primarily means: yield. Below the ‘economic threshold’, the cost
 Neither too little nor too much manure (no and effort to control the pest is higher than the
‘overfeeding’). damage it causes. In this regard, one should take
 Careful irrigation, avoiding dryness and wa- into account both the cost of the pesticide and
terlogging. the labour for fetching water and for spraying.
 Shallow soil cultivation (intercultural opera- As long as pest infestations remain below the
tions) to encourage soil aeration and decom- threshold levels, farmers should wait and see
position of organic matter. whether the natural enemies are able to control
the pests, which would result in negligible da-
mage to the crop.
5.2 Important cotton pests and their management

Knowing the major cotton pests helps farmers apted from PAN’s Pest Management Informa-
to find the right strategy for managing them. tion Service1. For details on the suggested pre-
The following chapters provide a description of ventive measures, please refer to Chapter 5.3.
selected cotton pests relevant for organic cotton The natural pesticides marked with * are descri-
cultivation in the semi-arid regions of central bed in Chapter 5.4.2.
India. The descriptions of the insects are ad-
1
See www.oisat.org

5.2.1 Bollworms and other caterpillars
American bollworm (Heliothis (or Helicoverpa) Pink bollworm (Pectinophora gossypiella)

armigera)
Other names: Hindi: Gulabi elli
Other names: Cotton bollworm; Hindi: Hari elli Significance: Important pest in late-season cotton
Significance: Major pest in cotton Damage: Attacks squares and bolls. The lint gets cut and sta-
Damage: Attacks buds in square stage, flower and boll. ined resulting in yield and quality losses. Damaged bolls are
Natural enemies: Assassin bugs, predatory beetles, ants, la- vulnerable to boll rot fungal infection.
cewing larvae, spiders, parasitic wasps (e.g. Trichogramma), Natural enemies: Assassin bugs, predatory beetles, ants, la-
parasitic flies, praying mantis cewing larvae, spiders, parasitic wasps (e.g. Trichogramma),
Life cycle: The young larva feeds on tender leaves, buds, flo- parasitic flies, praying mantis
wers, and later bores into the bolls. While feeding, its head Life cycle: Larvae burrow into bolls through the lint to feed
and part of the body are inside the boll. They deposit faeces on seeds. They do NOT deposit faeces at the base of the
at the base of the entrance hole. Eggs are pinhead-size and entrance hole. Eggs are very small, slightly elongated, and
yellowish-green in colour. They are found singly laid on the laid at the bottom of the green bolls. Young larvae are tiny,
surface of the leaves. Larvae vary in colour from bright green, white caterpillars with dark brown heads. When mature,
pink and brown, to black, with lighter undersides. Alterna- they are about 12 mm long and have wide transverse pink
ting light and dark bands run lengthwise along their bodies, bands on the back. Pink bollworm adults are small, greyish-
the heads are yellow and the legs are almost black. Mature brown moths.
larvae drop to the ground to burrow into the soil to pupate. Prevention:
Pupae are yellowish-green and turn brown as they mature. � Crop rotation
Adult moths are grey to brown in colour and have dark spots � Trap crops: sunflower, okra, castor
on the front wings. They are active at night and hide in ve- � Hand-picking of damaged capsules
getation during the day. The total development period from � Encourage natural enemies
egg to adult is 34–45 days. � Removing cotton stalks
Prevention: � Cattle grazing after picking is over
� Crop rotation � Pheromone traps, light traps
� Trap crops: sunflower, okra, castor Direct control:
� Hand-picking of infested buds and bolls � Bt spray, NPV spray
� Encourage natural enemies (ladybird beetles, lacewings, � Neem spray*
spiders, hoverfly etc.) � Botanical preparations (ginger, gliricidia, marigold, ‘Top
� Removing cotton stalks Ten’* etc.)
� Cattle grazing after picking is over � Buttermilk spray*
� Pheromone traps, light traps � Trichogramma cards
Direct control: � Garlic-chilli-onion repellent*
� Bt spray, NPV spray � Hand-picking of bollworm
� Neem spray*
� Botanical preparations (ginger, gliricidia, marigold, ‘Top
Ten’* etc.)
� Buttermilk spray*
� Trichogramma cards
� Garlic-chilli-onion repellent*
� Hand-picking of bollworm

Spotted bollworm (Earias vittella) and Cutworm (Agrotis spp.)
Spiny bollworm (Earias insulana)
Other names: Hindi: Podha katne wala keeda
Other names: Hindi: Chitkabri elli (spotted bollworm) Significance: In some fields an important pest.
Significance: Usually not a major problem in organic fields. Damage: Seedlings are often cut off at ground level.
Damage: Wilting of shoots, shedding of buds. Damaged Natural enemies: Parasitic wasps, ground beetle, birds, lace-
bolls do not open well. wing, praying mantis, weaver ant
Natural enemies: Assassin bugs, predatory beetles, ants, la- Life cycle: Cutworm larvae can be found in the soil (up to
cewing larvae, spiders, parasitic wasps (e.g. Trichogramma), a depth of about 5 cm) near the plant host. They always curl
parasitic flies, praying mantis up when disturbed. Cutworms feed only at night. Eggs are
Life cycle: Spotted bollworm larvae bore into the shoot of the tiny, pearl-white, round, and have a ridged surface. The full-
cotton plant and also bore holes into the bolls. Young bolls grown larva is brown or brownish-black with a tinge of oran-
have small holes with excreta inside. Eggs are small, round ge. The pupa is black or brown in colour. The adult has dark
and light blue-green in colour. The larvae are spindle-sha- brown forewings with distinctive black spots and white and
ped, greyish-brown or greenish in colour. The pupa is en- yellow wavy stripes.
closed in a cocoon shaped like an inverted boat. The fore- Prevention:
wings of the adult moth are silvery-green to straw yellow � Early soil cultivation
with three transverse lines of a darker shade. � Apply neem cake or de-oiled castor cake before sowing
Prevention: � Remove weeds in and around fields
� Crop rotation � Encourage birds (spread turmeric-coloured rice, bird per-
� Trap crops: sunflower, okra, castor ches, trees, hedges)
� Hand-picking of damaged capsules � Promote natural enemies (spiders, ground beetles, lace-
� Encourage natural enemies wing, praying mantis)
� Removing cotton stalks � Seed treatment with asafetida
� Cattle grazing after picking is over � Intercrop with coriander (repellent)
� Pheromone traps, light traps Direct control:
Direct control: � Pyrethrum spray*, Derris or thyme spray
� Bt-spray, NPV spray � Cutworm baits with Bacillus thuringiensis
� Neem spray* � Hand picking at night
� Botanical preparations (ginger, gliricidia, marigold, � Bt spray at night
‘Top Ten’* etc.) � Spray solution of asafetida around seedlings
� Buttermilk spray* � Botanical sprays (basil, chilli, neem*, garlic)
� Trichogramma cards � Giant milkweed* (Calotropis procera, Hindi: akaw) ap-
� Garlic-chilli-onion repellent* plied through the irrigation channel
� Hand-picking of bollworm

5.2.2 Sucking pests
Aphids (Aphis gossypii and others) Whitefly (Bemisia tabaci and others)
Other names: Cotton aphid; Hindi: Maho Other names: Hindi: Safed makhi
Significance: Important pest in fields with low population Significance: Becomes an important pest only when nitro-
of natural enemies, high manure application, or water stress. gen level is high.
Damage: Heavy infestation causes crinkling and cupping Damage: Attacks vegetative parts (sucking).
of leaves, defoliation, square and boll shedding, and stunted Natural enemies: Parasitic wasps, lacewing, ladybird beet-
growth. If the infestation is not too high, the plant can com- les, spiders. Predators play a role when densities of whitefly
pensate for the damage. Honeydew excretion causes sticky are low, but cannot cope with high populations.
cotton lint and thus problems with spinning. Life cycle: Whiteflies pierce and suck the sap in the leaves.
Natural enemies: Ladybird beetles, ground beetles, lace- This causes weakening and early wilting of the plant resul-
wings, pirate bugs, parasitic wasps, hoverfly, spiders etc. ting in reduced plant growth. Their feeding may also cau-
Life cycle: The mouths of the aphids are like tiny straws, se yellowing, drying, and premature dropping of leaves that
with which they pierce the plant tissues to feed on plant sap. result in plant death. Like aphids, whitefly produces honey-
Aphids produce large amounts of a sugary liquid waste cal- dews on which the black fungus sooty moulds grow. White-
led honeydew. A fungus, called sooty mold, grows on this fly is the most important carrier of plant viruses that cause
honeydew, turning leaves and branches black. The eggs are diseases. Tiny white or brownish eggs are laid on the under-
very tiny, shiny black, and are found in the crevices of bud, side of leaves. Adults are about 1mm long with two pairs of
stems, and bark of the plant. Winged adults are produced white wings and light yellow bodies.
only when it is necessary for the colony to migrate. Prevention:
Prevention: � Encourage natural enemies (lacewing, lady bird beetles,
� Intercrop of moong, cow pea etc. (trap crops) spiders)
� Avoid heavy manure application � Ensure balanced crop nutrition
� Avoid waterlogging and water shortage � Avoid heavy manure application
� Promote natural enemies (ladybird beetles, lacewing, ho- � Avoid waterlogging and water shortage
verfly, damsel bug, ground beetle, spiders etc.) by provi- � Trap crop Nicotiana (flowering tobacco)
ding habitat and growing flowering plants Direct control:
Direct control: � Neem spray*
� Neem spray* � Yellow sticky traps
� Botanical preparations (chilli, sweet flag, turmeric, tomato � Botanical sprays (garlic, chilli, ginger, gliricidia, onion,
leaves, ginger, gliricidia, marigold, ‘Top Ten’* etc.) marigold etc.)
� Soft soap spray* � Flour spray*
� Cow urine spray � Soft soap spray*
� Flour spray* � Beauvaria bassiana spray
� Garlic-chilli-onion repellent* � Spray of Lantana leaf extract*
� Yellow sticky traps

Cotton stainer (Dysdercus spp.) Spider mites (Tetranychus spp.)
Other names: Red cotton bug, cotton stainer bug; Hindi: Lal Other names: Hindi: Makadi
keeda Significance: Usually a minor pest in organic cotton fields.
Significance: Usually not a major problem in organic fields. Mainly affects water-stressed plants
Damage: Sucks sap from flowers, buds, and bolls. If infesta- Damage: Sucks sap. Infested leaves may turn yellow, dry up,
tion is high the bolls open insufficiently and the lint quality and drop in a few weeks.
is reduced (stains due to fungus infection). Natural enemies: Lacewing, pirate bugs, predatory mites,
Natural enemies: Parasitic wasps, spiders, assassin bugs rove beetles, predatory thrips
Life cycle: Cotton stainers feed both on immature and ma- Life cycle: Generally, mites feed on the undersides of leaves.
ture seeds. When sucking, they transmit fungus on the im- They use their sucking mouthparts to remove plant saps. He-
mature lint and seed, which later stain the lint with typical avy infestation will result in a fine, cobwebby appearance on
yellow colour, hence the name ‘cotton stainers’. Heavy infe- the leaves. The adult is very tiny; it looks like a moving dot.
stations on the seeds affect the crop mass, oil content, ger- Note: Mites are not insects; they are related to spiders.
mination capacity of the seed and marketability of the crop. Prevention:
Eggs are laid in the soil or under plant debris. Nymphs look � Avoid water stress
similar to their adult counterparts but without wings; they � Encourage natural enemies
can only attack seeds in open bolls. The adult cotton stainers Direct control:
are true bugs with piercing and sucking mouthparts; they � Buttermilk spray*
can even suck on seeds in closed bolls. Their colours vary � Coriander seed spray*
from bright red to yellow to orange, depending on the spe- � Flour spray*
cies. � Soft soap spray*
Prevention: � Milk spray (diluted milk with water 1:10)
� Frequent soil cultivation to destroy the eggs (also along � Sulfur spray
field borders)
� Encourage birds (spread turmeric-coloured rice, bird
perches, trees, hedges) and spiders
� Avoid stand-over of cotton
� Clean the cotton seed stores
Direct control:
� Pyrethrum spray*
� Botanical sprays (Neem*, custard apple, garlic bulb, sweet
flag, sweet basil, Derris species)
� Grazing of chickens
� Trapping with cotton seeds or baobab seeds and killing
them on the spot

5.2.3 Other pests
Cotton jassid (Amrasca devastans, A. biguttula) Thrips (Thripidae, various spp.)
Other names: Leafhopper; Hindi: Hara machar Other names: Hindi: Teliya
Significance: Significant damage only if in very high num- Significance: Important pest in some fields.
bers. Damage: Tiny scars on leaves and fruit, stunted growth. Da-
Damage: Attacks vegetative parts (sucking). maged leaves may become papery and distorted.
Natural enemies: Ladybird beetles, lacewings. Jassids are an Natural enemies: Lacewing, pirate bugs
important food source for natural enemies that will contri- Life cycle: Thrips feed by rasping the surface of the leaves
bute to the suppression of bollworms later in the season. and sucking up the released plant sap. The egg is very tiny
Life cycle: Jassids feed on the upper surfaces of leaves, resul- and is impossible to see. The nymph is pale yellow in colour
ting in small white circles. Low levels of damage have little and does not have wings. The pupa has short wing buds that
if any effect on the plant’s growth. Jassid damage typically are not functional. The adult has a small, slender body, yello-
occurs from the lower leaves and progressively moves up to wish to dark brown in colour, with well-pronounced anten-
upper leaves. nae. It can exist in two forms, winged or wingless.
Prevention: Prevention:
� Intercrop of moong, cow pea etc. (trap crops) � Balanced plant nutrition, not too much nitrogen
� Avoid heavy manure application � Avoid water stress (shortage as well as waterlogging
� Avoid waterlogging and water shortage � Trap crops (e.g. sunflower)
� Promote natural enemies (ladybird beetles, lacewing) by � Encourage natural enemies (lacewing, minute pirate bug)
providing habitat and by growing flowering plants Direct control:
Direct control: � Spray of wood ash solution
� Neem spray* � Garlic extract spray
� Botanical preparations (e.g. ‘Top Ten’*) � Neem spray*
� Soft soap spray*
� Flour spray*
� Beauvaria bassiana spray

Grasshoppers (Locusta spp.; Schistocerca gragaria) Termites (various species)
Other names: Locust; Hindi: Tidda, Kasara Other names: Hindi: Demak
Significance: Usually minor pests in organic cotton. Significance: Usually a minor pest in organic cotton.
Damage: Especially affects young plants (leaves and stems). Damage: Attacking the root system.
Prevention: Prevention:
� Soil cultivation to destroy eggs � Crop rotation
� Trap crops � Soil cultivation
� Legume intercrop � Neem cake application
� Frequent irrigation Direct control:
Direct control: � Apply crushed leaves of giant milkweed (Calotropis
� Beauvaria bassiana spray procera) on the soil
� Pyrethrum spray * � Salt (attention: risk of soil salinity)
� Put 10 g asafetida in a muslin cloth and place it in the irri- � Flood irrigation
gation channel.
Root knot nematodes (Meloidogyne spp.)
Other names: Root knot eelworm; Hindi: Sutra krami

Significance: Usually a minor pest.
Damage: Feeds within the root system (forming knots), af-
Photo sources
fecting nutrient uptake and plant growth, especially of seed-
American bollworm Paolo Mazzei
lings. Secondary infection of fungus and bacteria. Pink bollworm Ministério da Agricultura, Brazil /
Prevention: Mississippi State University
� Crop rotation and intercrops Spotted / Spiny bollworm Frank Eyhorn / Cotton SA
� Fallowing Cutworm Clemson University
Aphids Roland Smith / Phillip Roberts
� Intercrop of or mulching with marigold
Whitefly North Carolina IPM Insectcorner
� Soil cultivation, deep ploughing Cotton stainer Cotton SA / Frank Eyhorn
� Remove weeds Spider mites Mississippi State University / Clemson
� Application of well-decomposed compost University
Direct control: Cotton jassid P. Room / Frank Eyhorn
Thrips North Carolina IPM Insectcorner /
� Application of neem cake to the soil
Frank Eyhorn
� Botanical sprays: garlic extract, basil extract, fermented Grasshoppers James Smith
marigold extract Termites Gerald J. Lenhard / Scott Bauer
Nematodes Clemson University

5.3 Preventing pests from 5.3.1 Promotion of natural
becoming a problem enemies
As mentioned in Chapter 5.1, the first step in In a diverse field not treated with pesticides, na-
organic pest management is to support healthy tural enemies help the farmer keep pest attacks
growth of the cotton crop. The second step is to within tolerable levels. Natural enemy popula-
prevent pest populations from building up and tions can be increased in the field by providing
becoming a problem. The preventive measures suitable habitats: intercropping of flowering
described below can help in this. plants, applying mulch, setting up bird perches
etc. Important natural enemies are ladybird
beetles, spiders, lacewings, parasitic wasps, ants
bugs, etc. (Figure 18).
Figure 18: Important na-

tural enemies of some
major cotton pests
Generally speaking, the more plants growing in Insect zoo – who eat‘s whom?
a field, the higher the number of different na- To see how natural enemies work, collect dif-
tural enemies. Intercropping of pulses or other ferent varieties of pests (bollworms, aphids,
crops in cotton is therefore an effective preven- jassids) and their natural enemies (ladybird
tive pest-management strategy. A good example beetles, lace wings, assassin bugs, spiders)
is sunflower: Studies in Tanzania have shown from a cotton field and put them in a glass jar,
that cotton plots intercropped with sunflower together with some twigs of cotton (stuck in
have up to ten times more beneficial ants. These wet cotton wads to keep them fresh). Obser-
ants feed on eggs and caterpillars of the Ameri- ve over 2–3 days which insects are eaten by
can bollworm and can thus reduce the pest po- others, and which survive.
pulation to a great degree.
To attract beneficial insects to the field, gaps
in the rows of cotton seedlings can be re-sown
with flowering plants like sesame, sunflower
and marigold. Leaving a strip of natural vegeta-
tion around the cotton or planting rows of trees
or hedges along the boundaries provides a ha-
bitat for birds and other natural enemies of ins-
ect pests. This can be useful against pests like
bollworms, aphids, whitefly and cotton stainers.
Insect zoo with pests and predators (Source: CAB
International)

5.3.2 Trap crops
Some cotton pests prefer crops like maize, sor- Using sunflower as a trap crop for American
ghum, sunflower, pigeon pea, hibiscus and bollworm has the following advantages compa-
okra (ladyfinger) to cotton. These crops can be red to maize and sorghum:
grown along with cotton as a trap crop, so that � Attractive to the moths for a long period,
the cotton crop is spared. Experience from Tan- especially varieties which produce several
zania shows that sunflower is an efficient trap flowers;
crop for the American bollworm. It is even re- � Encourages cannibalism among the boll-
ported that on sunflower plants bollworms at- worms;
Sunflowers serve as trap tack each other (cannibalism). Sunflower can � Attracts beneficial insects when flowering;
crops and attract bene- be intercropped in cotton in rows every 10 to � The productivity of the sunflower is hardly
ficial insects 15 meters. The sunflower is sown together or affected by the bollworms.
shortly after the cotton so that it starts flowe-
ring when the American bollworm attack be- Maize, sorghum and okra can also be used as
gins. The flowering plant also attracts a number trap crops, but there is some question as to
of beneficial insects and birds. The sunflower whether they might not actually contribute to
seeds provide additional income to the farmers, increased bollworm populations. Some Indian
and the plants can be used as fodder. farmers report that they had good success with
intercropping marigold as a trap crop for Ame-
rican bollworm. Marigold also attracts benefici-
al insects and helps to control nematodes.
5.3.3 Pheromones
Some moths use pheromones to communi-
cate for mating. The male moths can ‘smell’ the
pheromones emitted by females over large di-
stances and thus are able to find them. Synthe-
tic imitations of these pheromones are used in
dispensers that are spread in the field in large
numbers to disturb the insects’ communication
so that egg laying can be prevented. Pheromo-
nes are non-toxic and do not affect beneficial
insects. Each insect species has different phe-
romones. Pheromone dispensers against pink
bollworm and other bollworms are commerci-
ally available.
5.3.4 Removing crop residues

Some cotton pests can survive in cotton stalks
and seeds. Therefore it is important that cotton
be uprooted after the end of the harvest, and re-
moved from the field or buried by ploughing
the field. Cattle grazing after the picking is over
destroys the remaining pests in the unpicked A pheromone trap for pink bollworm
bolls and leaves.

5.4 Direct pest management methods
Only when the first two steps of organic pest Other bio-control methods involve microbes
management – strengthening the crop and pre- and viruses attacking the pests:
ventive measures – are not sufficient to keep � Bt spray: Bt (Bacillus thuringensis) is a micro-
pest populations below the economic threshold, be that is effective against leaf feeding cater-
direct control methods should be used. The me- pillars. Therefore, it is only effective against
thods described below are recommended in or- bollworm in its early stage, before it enters the
ganic cotton production. bolls. Nighttime spraying increases exposure to
Bt, since sunlight breaks it down. Bt prepara-
tions are commercially available in India under
brand names like Dipel, Biolep, Halt-Bt etc.
5.4.1 Biological control � NPV: This virus (nuclear polyhedrosis vi-
rus) attacks American bollworm and causes
Biological control uses living organisms or ger- its death. To multiply the NPV preparation
ms to affect the pests. One prominent example locally, spray NPV on a cotton field, collect
is the use of ‘Trichocards’ containing thousands caterpillars affected by NPV, grind them and
of eggs of the parasitic wasp Trichogramma, a dilute with water.
predator of the American bollworm. The was- � Beauvaria bassiana: This insect-disease–cau-
ps lay their eggs into the eggs of bollworms and sing fungus affects cutworms and budworms.
eventually cause them to die. Similarly, the eggs It works best during periods of high humidi-
of green lacewing can be used against aphids ty. Preparations are commercially available.
and other pests. However, timing of orders, de-
livery and application are crucial. In Uganda, Most bio-control products are only effective
organic cotton farmers rear and promote ants of against a specific pest – for different pests, diffe-
the Acantholepis family for controlling a num- rent species or strains are used.
ber of pests.
5.4.2 Natural pesticides

There are a number of natural pesticides that
can be used in organic cotton cultivation, and
organic farmers continuously try out new ones.
But little scientific research has been done on
the efficiency of most of the locally prepared
formulations. Therefore, farmers are encoura-
ged to do their own experiments and trials to
find out which natural pesticides are most sui-
table for their farms. Below we list some of the
natural pesticides used by farmers in India and
Africa.
Caution: Many natural pesticides also affect
beneficial insect populations and thus should
be used only when really necessary. Some plant
extracts are also toxic to humans and animals
and should be used with care.
Some plants used as botanical pesticides or repellents (marigold, chilli, giant milk-
weed, custard apple)

Neem spray (Azadirachta indica) Botanical mixtures
Ingredients: Neem kernel extract, containing azadirachtin Ingredients: Combinations of extracts from some of the
Target pests: Sucking pests, jassids, bollworms, thrips following plants (scientific and Hindi names given in bra-
Preparation: Farm-made: Pound 30 g neem kernels (that is ckets): castor (Ricinus communis, arandi), thorn apple (Da-
the seed from which the seed coat has been removed) and tura metel, datura), custard apple (Annona squamosa, sita-
mix in 1 litre of water. Leave overnight. The next morning, phal), neem (Azadirachta indica, kaduneem), lantana
filter the solution through a fine cloth and use immediately (Lantana camara, bara masi), sweet potato leaves (Ipomea
for spraying. It should not be further diluted. batata, tameshar besaram) etc.
Commercial formulations like EcoNeem, NeemCare etc.: as Target pests: Various insects that feed on the cotton plant.
per package description. Especially effective against sucking pests.
Remarks: Sprays from neem seed or leaf extract do not kill Preparation: Crushing, adding to a container with water,
the insects directly but reduce their normal activities like fermenting for approx. one week. Or distillation.
feeding, moving and multiplying. Therefore the effect is not Remarks: Some of the plant extracts act as a repellent (e.g.
noticeable until after few days. The main advantage of using garlic, chilli), while others have a toxic effect on insects.
neem is that it is not harmful to most beneficial insects. To
a limited extent, neem’s active substance is also absorbed by
the plants and thus affects the pest when they feed on the ‚Top Ten‘
crop.
In India, commercial formulations of neem-based pesticides Ingredients: Neem leaves (Azadirachta indica, kaduneem),
have an azadirachtin content of between 0.03 to 1.5%. When (0.5 kg); leaves of the following plants (each approx. 200 g):
using a product with a low content, the application rate must custard apple (Annona squamosa, sitaphal), papaya (Carica pa-
be higher to achieve the same effect. High doses of neem oil, paya, papita), giant milkweed (Calotropis procera, ruimandar),
however, may have a negative impact on the crop. Therefore karum tree (Pongamia pinnata, waikaranj), oleander (Nerium
it is advisable to use a formulation with a high azadirachtin indicum, kannher); chaste tree (Vitex negundo, nirgudi), snak-
content made by a manufacturer that has strict quality con- eroot (Aristolochia bracteata, tantani), Indian tinospora (Tinos-
trol. pora cordifolia, gulvel), castor (Ricinus communis, arandi); 0.5
kg cow dung, 0.5 litres cow urine; 20 litres water.
Target pests: All cotton pests, especially bollworms, jassids,
De-oiled neem cake (Azadirachta indica) aphids, whitefly
Preparation: Keep the solution for 30 days for fermentation.
Ingredients: De-oiled cake of neem seeds Use 6 litres stock solution diluted in 500 l water for one ha.
Target pests: Nematodes, cutworms Remarks: Due to the combination of some very toxic plants,
Preparation: Crushing, oil extraction this preparation is likely to have a strong impact on benefici-
Remarks: Applied as manure to each cotton plant. al insects, too, and could even harm those who apply it. Th-
erefore, it should be used with care.
Pyrethrum
Garlic-onion-chilli repellent
Ingredients: Powdered flower heads or liquid extracts of a
daisy-like chrysanthemum (commercially available). Ingredients: 2.5 kg garlic, 2.5 kg onion, 7.5 kg green chilli.
Target pests: Red cotton bug, cutworms, grasshoppers 10 litres water.
Preparation: Commercial preparations: as per package in- Target pests: Bollworm, sucking pests
structions. Preparation: Crush the ingredients and mix in 10 litres wa-
Remarks: Pyrethrum causes immediate paralysis or death ter to prepare a stock solution. Add 500 litres of water to this
to most insects, but also affects beneficial insects. The ac- stock solution for spraying 1 ha.
tive substance in the pyrethrum extract is quickly destroyed Remarks: This repellent does not kill the insects but deters
when exposed to sunlight. pests from the crop.

Giant milkweed Buttermilk spray
(Calotropis procera)
Ingredients: 300 ml buttermilk, in 15 litres water
Ingredients: Leaves and upper part of the giant milkweed Target pests: Bollworms and other caterpillars; spider mites
(Calotropis procera, Hindi: akaw) (also in the chilli crop).
Target pests: Termites, cutworms Preparation: Allow the buttermilk to ferment for 3 to 4 wee-
Preparation: Crush 2 kg of fresh plants, put them into a jute ks. Ideally keep it in a bottle in a straw heap so that the tem-
sack and place it into the irrigation channel when irrigating perature is kept constant. Mix 300 ml of the fermented but-
the cotton field. termilk in 15 litres of water.
Remarks: Repelling effect. Remarks: Mechanism not fully clear.
Lantana leaf extract Flour spray

(Lantana camara)
Ingredients: 2 cups of fine white flour; half cup of soap (sti-
Ingredients: 2.5 litres of lantana leaf extract, diluted in 500 l cker), water
water, for 1 ha Target pests: Aphids, spider mites, thrips, whitefly
Target pests: Whitefly Preparation: Stir the flour into the water. Add the soap and
Preparation: Crush the lantana leaves, add water, prepare an stir again before spraying.
extract, dilute in water.
Remarks: Effect not ensured.
Soft soap spray
Coriander seed spray Ingredients: Soft soap, water
(Coriandrum sativum) Target pests: Aphids, jassids, whitefly, thrips
Preparation: Stir 15 g soft soap into 15 litres water.
Ingredients: 200g coriander seeds, water Remarks: Soft soap sprays also affect beneficial insects and
Target pests: Spider mites should only be used as the last resort.
Preparation: Boil the crushed coriander seeds for 10 minu-
tes in 1 litre water. Dilute with 2 litres of water. Spray early
in the morning.
Remarks: Repelling effect.

5.4.3 Mass trapping
Traps can help reduce the population of certain
pests, especially of moths (the adults of caterpil-
lars). If used at an early stage, they can prevent Light
mass multiplication. There are several types of
traps:
Funnel
� Light traps attract night-active flying pest ins-
ects (6–10 p.m.).
� Sticky traps of yellow colour.
� Pheromone traps attract the male moths that
get stuck in the trap. Round
Traps are especially useful for monitoring pest Gallon Can
populations.
Light trap (for night-active flying pest insects)
5.5 Monitoring pests

A key to successful pest management in cot-
ton is a careful and continuous monitoring of
pest levels in the cotton fields during the criti-
cal growth period (approx. 4 weeks after sowing
up to the second harvest). Monitoring helps to
determine when a pest population reaches the
economic threshold and, therefore, when direct
control measures need to be implemented. For
monitoring, farmers randomly inspect a num-
ber of cotton plants while crossing the field in
diagonals (see the picture from Tanzania).
Table 7 lists economic threshold levels esta-
blished for IPM in conventional farming. They
should be cross-checked with local advisory Scouting for pests while crossing the field in diagonals
services or agricultural research stations to ad- (Source: GTZ IPM-project Shinyanga)
apt them to local conditions.
Pest Economic threshold level

American bollworm (Helicoverpa) 1 larva per 5 plants, or 5–10% damage to bolls, or 15 flared
squares with a hole on 30 plants
Pink bollworm (Pectinophora) 5% rosetted flowers
Spotted bollworm (Earias) 1 larva per 5 plants, or 5–10% damaged shoots or bolls
Cotton leafworm, tobacco caterpillars 2 larvae/10 plants or 3 skeletonized leaves with young larvae
(Spodoptera)
Cotton stainer 2–3 individuals per leaf
Aphids 20% infested plants
Jassids 5–10 insects per plant
Thrips 5–10 nymphs/adults per leaf
Mites 5% infested plants
Whitefly 5% infested plants
Sources: Aventis and Avena; AGREVO; Stoll 2000
Table 7: Threshold levels of important cotton pests
For monitoring American bollworm popula- one step ahead for every inspected plant (upper
tions, farmers in some African cotton projects line) and for every infested bud (lower line). If
use simple pegboards for scouting (Figure 19). 15 flared square buds are found, the economic
They check 30 randomly selected cotton plants threshold is reached and spraying of neem-ba-
for flared square buds (rosette shape, infested sed formulations is recommended.
by bollworms), moving the pegs in the board

Figure 19: Design of a
peg board used for moni-
toring American bollworm
populations
Steps in scouting for American bollworm: � Continue with another plant after every 5–10
� Start scouting 8 weeks after germination un- steps up to the end of the diagonal (then
til the bolls open. It is a continuous process, 15 plants should be examined), moving the
done weekly. markers forward accordingly. Then start with
� Checking is done in 2 diagonals of the cotton the second diagonal from the other corner.
field, starting 5 steps inside the field from one � Continue the procedure until 30 plants have
corner. been inspected; or 15 flared squares are
� Check the cotton plant next to you, counting all found. When the stick for the flared squares
newly opened flared squares (those with chan- reaches the red zone, the economic threshold
ged shape due to bollworm attack; not dropped is reached and spraying of a natural pesticide
squares) on this plant. Move the marker for- is recommended for the same day.
ward in the right part 1 hole per flared square. � Don’t spray when there are less than 15 flared
� After finishing with this plant, move the mar- squares.
ker in the left part 1 hole.
5.6 Seed treatment

Conventionally produced cotton seeds are fre- Fertile soil and balanced crop rotation should
quently treated with chemicals prohibited in or- largely prevent damage by pests and diseases
ganic farming. Thus, organic cotton farmers need caused before and during germination. Where
to ensure that they get untreated seeds (no GMO these preventive measures are not sufficient, a
varieties!), if possible from organic multiplication. number of alternative treatments of seeds can
Organic cotton projects can facilitate the supply be used. Some suggested methods are shown in
of suitable untreated seed material or arrange for Table 8.
their own seed multiplication programme.
Seed Treatment Effect Remarks

Dipping in cow urine Protects seeds from cutworm and As spoilt seeds float up in the cow urine, it
wireworms. Supports good germination also helps to remove damaged seeds.
and development of the initial roots.
Coating with cow dung and termite soil Protects seeds from cutworm and Mix cow dung, termite soil and some water.
(or clay) wireworms. Supports good germination Rub the seeds in this mud until small balls
and development of the initial roots. form, each containing one seed.
Treatment with asafetida (Hindi: hing) Protects seeds and seedlings from Mix 5 g asafetida in 200 ml water and
cutworms. sprinkle on 1 kg cottonseeds. Mix well.
Trichoderma or Bacillus subtilis Prevents root diseases. Suspensions of these beneficial micro-
organisms are commercially available.
Treatment with Azotobacter and Enhances the uptake of nitrogen and Suspensions of these beneficial micro-
phosphorus solubilizing bacteria (PSB) phosphorus. organisms are commercially available.
Bio-dynamic preparations BD 500 and CCP Supports germination. See Chapter 4.9
Table 8: Methods suggested for preventive treatment of cottonseeds
5.7 Diseases
In most of the semi-arid tropical regions, di- by using resistant varieties. Treatment: cow
seases are not a big problem in organic cotton. urine spray.
Diseases that occasionally occur and methods � Root rot and boll rot: Caused by various fun-
for preventing or treating them are given below: gi and bacteria. Treatment: cow urine spray.
� Bacterial blight: Leaves show oily black spots; � Fusarium wilt: Practice crop rotation; remove
stems turn black; defoliation and boll shed- cotton stalks after harvesting. Apply well-de-
ding if infestation is high. Can be prevented composed compost. Avoid infected seeds.

6 Soil Cultivation
and Weed Management
6.1 Preparing the field
In soil and seedbed preparation the same ‘good

farming practices’ should be followed as in con-
ventional farming. Ploughing should be done
before the start of the summer season (March
and April in India), so that insect pests and
weed seeds are exposed to the sun and dry out.
Soil cultivation speeds up the decomposition of
crop residues and compost, thus making nutri-
ents available to the crop. In heavy and medi-
um soils, deep ploughing is recommended eve-
ry few years.
Once the cotton crop has come up and the
first top dressing of organic manure has been ap-
plied (e.g. De-oiled castor cake (DOC) and com-
post), earthing up ridges helps suppress weeds
and reduces evaporation of soil moisture.
Earthing up ridges in organic cotton in Mali (Photo:

Helvetas)
6.2 Sowing
The ideal spacing depends on the soil type and should be dense enough that weeds are shaded
the irrigation facilities. Where soils are light out. In Egypt and other places, organic farmers
and little irrigation water is available, the spa- cultivate cotton on ridges, keeping 20 cm di-
cing can be narrower (e.g. 2x2 feet) than in he- stance within the rows and 70 cm distance bet-
avy soils and well-irrigated land (e.g. 4x4 feet). ween the rows. However, cross-wise intercultu-
The spacing should be such that the mature ral operations with a weeder are not possible in
crop covers the soil completely. The crop stand this system.
Sow the cottonseeds at a depth of 3–5 cm and
cover them with fine soil. This protects the ger-
minating seed so it won’t dry out. Depending
on the seed quality and cost, 2 to 4 seeds are
sown per spot. Re-sow cotton in gaps where the
seeds did not germinate, or the seedlings have
been destroyed, within 2 weeks after emergen-
ce of the young cotton plants. Seeds sown later
will not produce much as they are shaded out
by neighbouring plants. Therefore, it is better
to fill these later gaps with trap crops such as
sunflower, maize or pigeon pea. Ten to twenty
days after emergence, remove weaker seedlings
so that there are only one or two plants in each
spot. If thinning is done too early, the seedlings
could still die off; if it is done too late there is
competition among plants, and chance of root
Marking the seed positions with sticks damage when the seedlings are pulled out.

6.3 Weed management
Most important for successful weed manage- rienced organic cotton farmer to ‘keep on good
ment in cotton are proper crop rotation and terms’ with weeds. To prevent the spreading of
timely soil cultivation. However, this does not weed seeds through compost, it is important
mean that the cotton fields need to be kept free that composts containing weed seeds go th-
of weeds throughout the season. In the initial rough a heat phase, which destroys the seeds
stage of crop growth, weeds take up nutrients (see Chapter 4.4). Surveys in Tanzania have
which otherwise would be lost through lea- shown that timely weeding has a higher impact
ching. These nutrients are returned to the soil on increasing cotton production than fertiliza-
and made available to the cotton crop when the tion or pest control.
weeds are cut and decompose. Once the cotton While weed populations may increase du-
crop has developed a dense stand, weeds usual- ring the conversion period, especially when
ly will remain below a level where they signifi- switching from herbicides to mechanical weed
cantly compete with the main crop. management, weeds do not usually constitute a
Some weeds are important hosts for bene- major problem in organic cotton farming once
ficial insects, or act as trap crops, distracting proper crop rotation is established. Organic far-
pests from the cotton plant. Careful observati- mers in India report that weeding got even less
on of weed populations and the use of shallow laborious after conversion to organic farming as
soil cultivation (hoes, weeders), combined with the soil got softer, which made it easier to pull
selective hand weeding, usually allow the expe- out weeds.
Intercultural operations
with a bullock drawn
weeder

7 Water Management
7.1 Irrigation in cotton cultivation
In many areas, cotton is grown with the help it is time for the next irrigation. During the first
of irrigation from groundwater or surface wa- 6–7 weeks after sowing, irrigation should be
ter (rivers, lakes, tanks). Irrigation can increase moderate in order to avoid too heavy vegetative
cotton yields considerably, but can also lead to growth, and to encourage cotton roots to pe-
the depletion of these freshwater resources and netrate deeply into the soil. For monsoon-sown
to problems owing to soil salinization or water- cotton in India, the first irrigation should not
logging. Organic soil management usually leads be done until August, after the first square buds
to better soil structure and thus to better infil- have formed.
tration of water. Increasing soil organic matter The cotton crop is very sensitive to water-
also improves water retention in the soil and logging, which causes increased boll shedding,
thus allows the crop to better sustain dry peri- thus affecting yields. Waterlogging causes gene-
ods. Therefore, conversion to organic agricul- ral yellowing and stunted growth of the plant. It
ture can help increase the water-use efficiency also reduces the availability of nutrients. Thus,
in cotton cultivation. in fields prone to waterlogging (heavy soil), me-
In irrigated cotton, the application system, asures done to improve soil structure (organic
intensity and timing of irrigation are crucial for matter application) are more relevant than the
good yields and healthy plants. When the cot- application of fertilizers. It is important that
ton leaves start wilting in the morning sun, it furrow irrigation be done quickly (not excee-
is time for irrigation. In India, some farmers ding 4 hours). This can be achieved by shor-
use a local plant called ‘croton’ to indicate water tening the rows.
stress: When the croton plant first starts to wilt,
7.2 Water harvesting and saving
In rain-fed cotton, and in regions with limited logical and economical suitability is doubtful.
availability of irrigation water (i.e. in most se- Active rainwater harvesting through pits or
mi-arid cotton-growing areas), major empha- trenches leading to wells can help to rechar-
sis should be given to increasing the infiltration ge groundwater levels and thus to improve the
of rainwater into the soil and to preserving soil availability of irrigation water.
moisture. For this, the application of compost Where little irrigation water is available, al-
and organic manures is crucial. Shallow soil ternate-furrow irrigation can still help irrigate
cultivation (hoeing) breaks the soil capillaries the crop. If rains fail after the seedlings have
and thus reduces evaporation. Mulching also germinated, it can even be worth it to save them
helps to preserve humidity in the soil. In some through bucket irrigation, plant by plant.
regions, black plastic mulch is used, but its eco-

7.3 Drip irrigation
In India, drip irrigation systems are becoming bour requirements are higher, and intercultu-
increasingly popular for cotton. They enable ral operations become more difficult. Another
farmers to start cotton cultivation before the possible disadvantage of drip systems in orga-
onset of the rainy season, to bridge dry peri- nic cotton is that the decomposition of orga-
ods and to protect at least part of their fields nic manures is slower, as only a small part of
from drought. Drip systems make it possible to the soil gets moist. In organic farming, the de-
grow ‘more crop per drop’ as the water directly composition of organic manures is of particular
reaches the root zones of the plants and less is importance for ensuring a continuous nutrient
lost to infiltration and evaporation. It also dis- supply to the plant.
courages weeds from growing between the cot- Recently, several new low-cost drip systems
ton rows. Fibre quality is also found to be hig- have come on the market (see Figure 20). They
her in drip-irrigated cotton, as it allows better allow farmers to install drip-irrigation systems
fine-tuning of the irrigation water quantity to with lower investment costs, but the cheaper
the plants’ needs. However, investments and la- systems are usually less durable.
Figure 20: Drip, “Easy

drip” and “Pepsee drip”
systems for cotton

8 Harvest and Post-Harvest
Operations
8.1 Quality issues in cotton picking
The quality of the cotton harvest depends on help of a second, smaller picking bag.
the length of the fibre (staple length), on the � Picking delays can cause reduction of fibre
degree of contamination with non-fibre mate- quality, as the opened bolls are exposed to
rial such as leaves or dust, and on the portion dew, dust and honeydew from insects longer.
of fibre damaged by pest or disease infestation. � It is important that no unripe cotton is picked,
Good-quality raw material helps to produce as it will not absorb the dye well enough and
yarns and garments of high quality, and thus thus is priced lower.
eventually contributes to the market success of
the organic cotton project. When cotton buyers A major cost factor in cotton production is the
fix prices, they usually take into consideration labour required for cotton picking. The follo-
the quality of the seed cotton. Measures taken wing suggestions might help to increase the
to improve the quality of the harvest therefore efficiency of cotton picking, and to ensure a
directly pay off for the farmers: high-quality harvest:
� Allow the cotton bolls to fully ripen and open. � Use a long sack so that the weight rests on the
� Pick the cotton after the morning dews have ground;
dried up, so that the cotton is dry and less � Keep the sack permanently open with a ring
prone to fungus when being stored. of flexible wood;
� Pick the cotton into clean cotton cloth mate- � Pick two rows at a time;
rial, never into nylon or other synthetics (fo- � Keep a separate, smaller bag for second-gra-
reign fibres). de cotton.
� Remove leaves, capsules and damaged bolls
from the cotton harvest.
� Keep cotton of lesser quality separate with the
8.2 Storage
If farmers store the harvested cotton before sel-

ling it, they should take care to prevent cont-
amination from dust or chemicals, especially
fertilizers, pesticides, and petroleum. Never use
any storage pest control (e.g. DDT) on the har-
vested cotton!
No foreign fibre material (from clothes, hu-
man hair etc.) shall get into the cotton, as it can
affect the quality of the yarn.
The storage place needs to be clean and dry.
Damp conditions can lead to the growth of
fungus, with significant loss of cotton quality.
When organic harvest is stored in the same fa-
cilities with conventional cotton (e.g. in ginne-
ries), care must be taken to clearly separate the
organic, in-conversion and non-organic pro-
duce, and to avoid any mixing.
An Indian farmer storing cotton in his house

8.3 Processing and trade
Throughout the entire organic cotton proces- tional cotton on the same machinery, it is im-
sing chain, it is important to avoid contamina- portant to clearly separate the cottons and cle-
tion and to separate organic from conventional an the equipment before processing an organic
cotton (Figure 21). As most spinning mills and lot. Some labels and brands have certain restric-
processing entities process organic and conven- tions on which dyes can be used.
Figure 21: The cotton pro-

cessing chain – from field
to consumer
Major markets for organic cotton textiles are

Europe (Germany, Switzerland, UK, and Swe-
den), the USA, and Japan. Initially, most orga-
nic cotton was processed into garments conta-
ining 100% organic cotton fibre. Recently, some
large garment brands have decided to blend a
certain percentage (usually 5–10%) of organic
yarn into their entire range of articles rather
than selling purely organic clothes. This could
increase the demand for organic cotton fibre
considerably. Companies can communicate to
their customers that they support organic cot-
ton farming, which helps them to improve their
corporate image.
A T-shirt made from orga-

nic cotton reaches back to
an organic cotton farmer
in Mali (Photo: Helvetas)

9 Farm Economy
9.1 Managing the whole farm organically
Cotton is grown in rotation with a number of Safflower – an alternative cash crop?

food crops that also need to be managed orga- Safflower (Carthamus tinctorius, in Hindi cal-
nically, if the farm is to be certified. Organic cot- led ‘kusam’) is a crop that can be grown in ro-
ton farmers should make sure to have sufficient tation with cotton well. Though originally it
area under cultivation of other crops, especially was used as a dye, it is now cultivated main-
pulses, to keep the soil fertile and to reduce pest ly for its seed, which is used for extraction of
proliferation (see Chapter 3.3). Diverse crop ro- edible oil, and as feedstuff for birds. With its
tation reduces the farmer’s dependency on fluc- strong taproot it can draw moisture from deep
tuating cotton prices, and helps to spread out in the subsoil, so that the plant can withstand
labour requirements over a longer season. Crop dry conditions. In India, the crop is grown in
diversity also contributes to better food security the ‘Rabi’ or winter season in combination
of the farm family and the region. with crops like wheat and sorghum. Safflower
de cotton. is used as a ‘support’ crop in drought-prone
Organic cotton projects should also cover the cropping systems and can help prevent the
rotation crops with their extension system. If spread of dry land salinity. As a long season
only the cotton cultivation succeeds while the crop, it extracts water from the soil for a lon-
performance of the rotation crops is poor, the ger period than cereal crops.
overall conversion to organic farming might
not be viable. Together with the farmers, or-
ganic cotton projects should therefore deve-
lop suitable crop management methods for the
main rotation crops. If necessary, access to sui-
table inputs for pest and nutrient management
should be facilitated. Technical advice can be
sought from other organic crop guidelines¹, or
from research institutions dealing with the re-
spective crops.
Organic cotton farmers can benefit even
more if they also can manage to find a mar-
ket with a better price for the rotation crops.
Some projects try to organize export links for
Safflower
crops like soy bean, sesame or chilli. However,
in some countries (e.g. India) the potential of
selling the rotation crops with a premium price
is even better on the domestic market. Projects
can facilitate the establishment of market lin-
kages, or even engage in marketing of the pro-
ducts.
1
E.g. Naturland cultivation guidelines for various crops, http://www.naturland.org; ATTRA Organic Field Crops, http://www.attra.org/field.html;
IFOAM Training Manuals, http://www.ifoam.org.

9.2 Strategies in cotton production
Generally, farmers’ income (more accurately: � By increasing and sustaining crop yields
the gross margin) from a crop depends on the through improved soil fertility;
yields, the costs of production, the price gotten � By reducing costs of production (especially
on the market, and the production risk involved for off-farm inputs);
(Figure 22). Thus, there are four ways farmers � By getting a better price for their produce
can earn a better and more sustainable income (organic premium, market access);
through organic production: � By reducing the risks of production (especi-
ally of droughts and pest damage).
Organic farmers get the maximum benefit when

they manage to combine all these approaches.
Figure 22: Ways to

improve farmers’ income
through organic pro-
duction
With organic cotton, it appears that farmers ba- following this strategy basically try to produce
sically follow one of two different strategies to all the inputs on the farm itself (compost, bo-
achieve good profits (Figure 23): The first stra- tanical pesticides, liquid manures etc.) and
tegy (“intensive organic”) aims to achieve high do most farming activities with family labour.
yields through optimum nutrient supply and This low external-input strategy can help to re-
crop care. Farmers following this strategy typi- duce risk in areas of frequent crop loss due to
cally buy organic manures from outside (cow droughts, waterlogging or theft, as farmers need
dung, oil cakes), irrigate their fields intensively to invest less money into the crop. Of course it
and take a number of measures to protect their is not possible to draw a clear line between the
crops. This is a strategy typically followed by two strategies. Still, this basic distinction can
farmers with more resources (larger land hol- help farmers to make their farming more profi-
dings, good irrigation facilities, fertile soils). table, and extension services to adjust their ser-
The second strategy (“low cost, low risk”) tries vices to the requirements of different farmers.
to reduce production costs and the risk of pro-
duction, targeting medium yields. Farmers

Figure 23: Two strategies
for achieving good reve-
nues from organic cotton.
The results of a study conducted in the Maikaal and working the farm only with family labour.
bioRe project in India showed that both strate- Farmer II is a wealthy farmer with good irri-
gies have been successfully implemented by the gation facilities, resources to buy in additional
farmers. Table 9 shows the data for two farmers farmyard manure from other farms and depen-
from this study. Farmer I is a small farmer with dent on hired labour.
little irrigation, buying few inputs from outside
Example farmers FYM/DOC* Production Costs Cotton Yields Profits

(per acre**) (Rs.***) (seed cotton) (incl. premium)
Farmer I: 1.8 t FYM 2,094 Rs. 420 kg 9,825 Rs.
Low-cost, low-risk per acre per acre per acre
Farmer II: 5.3 t FYM 5,849 Rs. 790 kg 22,473 Rs.
Intensive organic 260 kg DOC per acre per acre per acre
* FYM = Farmyard manure, DOC = De-oiled castor seed cake; ** 1 acre = 0.4047 ha; *** 1 US $ = 48 Rs.
Indian Rs. in 2004
Table 9: Examples of two organic farmers, one following a “low-cost, low-risk” strategy (Farmer I), and one an “inten-
sive organic” strategy (Farmer II)
9.3 The economic performance of organic cotton

The yields and profits of organic cotton pro- Further, the results of a comparison depend
duction vary to a great degree among different on the production intensity of the conventio-
farms and different regions, and it is not easy nal and organic farms. Similar to conventional
to make a general statement on how organic farming, organic cotton production can also
cotton production compares with conventional be more or less intensive regarding input use
production in economic terms. Even if the con- and productivity. While conversion to organic
ditions of two farms were to be the same (cli- farming usually means a reduction in intensi-
mate, soil, irrigation sources etc.), the skills and ty (i.e. fewer external inputs, smaller yields), in
practices of the farmers will have a great impact some cases it can also lead to higher intensity
on the result. – with intensive organic nutrient and pest ma-
nagement (Figure 24).

Figure 24: Farming inten-
sities in conventional and
organic cotton produc-
tion. The arrows indicate
typical paths of conver-
sion from conventional to
organic production
Most organic cotton projects in the tropics re- With similar yields, lower production costs
port that after going through a conversion pe- (inputs) and a premium price (usually 10–20%
riod of 2–3 years, the cotton yields on organic over market prices), organic cotton farming can
farms reach roughly the same level as on con- be far more remunerative compared to conven-
ventional farms (20 % lower to 10 % higher tional cotton farming. However, for a compre-
yields). Costs for inputs (plant nutrition and hensive comparison of the performance of or-
pest management) are usually 20 - 80 % lower, ganically and conventionally managed cotton
depending on whether organic manures and farms, the yields and production costs of the in-
pest management items are purchased from tercrops and crops grown in rotation with cot-
outside (e.g. oil cakes, Bt preparations) or are ton also need to be taken into consideration.
produced on the farm itself (e.g. compost, li- It must be kept in mind that this comparison
quid manures, botanical pesticides). While or- is valid for fully converted organic farms. Du-
ganic cotton production usually involves more ring the initial years of organic management,
work in plant nutrient management (prepa- the farm economy looks different (see Chapter
ration of compost, application of organic ma- 9.5).
nures), labour required for spraying and wee-
ding is usually less. Thus, labour costs usually
are about the same in organic and conventional
cotton farming.
9.4 Monitoring the economic performance

Comparing the yields and the profitability in or- � Not all farmers keep records of their inputs
ganic and conventional cotton production is a (manures, pest management items, labour
difficult task because of the following reasons: etc.) and outputs (harvest of cotton and in-
� There are big variations among different tercrops).
farmers (different soils, irrigation sources, � It is difficult to estimate indirect costs (e.g.
equipment etc.). for training, negative health impacts of che-
� The conditions change from year to year (e.g. micals) and benefits (e.g. reduced production
rainfall, prices). risk, food quality).
� The yields of intercrops and rotation crops � Some advantages of the organic production
need to be taken into consideration. system appear only over the long term (soil
� Exact field sizes are sometimes not known, fertility improvement, balanced ecosystem).
and are difficult to measure.

Still, simple maintenance of crop records can
help farmers and projects to get a fairly good
idea of the economic performance of the crops
and farms. Experience from several projects
indicates that record-keeping can lead to im-
proved performance as farmers become more
aware of where they lose and where they gain.
Annex 10.6 provides a template with which far-
mers can easily keep crop records (of cotton
or other crops). It can help them to keep cle-
ar track of inputs, costs, harvests and revenu-
es. With simple calculations, one can compile
yields, total production costs and net profits.
When records are kept over a period of several
years, they provide insight into the changes in
the farm economy, for example during the con-
version period. Thus they can also help the far-
mer to fine-tune and optimize the production
system.
If farmers are organized in a group, these
Extension staff of Maikaal bioRe support a farmer in record keeping crop records provide the organizers with valua-
ble data for planning and monitoring. The data
of all farmers in the project are compiled into a
simple database1. The project’s extension team
can assist the farmers in record-keeping and
help them to calculate the results.
9.5 The conversion process

Probably the most important hurdle for orga- Organic farming is a knowledge-intensive type
nic cotton production is the challenge of get- of production, and thus competent extension
ting through the conversion process. During services play an important role. Especially du-
this phase, most farmers experience a drop in ring the conversion period, it is crucial that far-
yields (10–50%, depending on the level of pre- mers get competent and timely advice. Organic
vious yields and the methods used), while at the cotton projects could consider organizing trai-
same time measures to re-establish soil fertility nings for farmers interested in conversion, in
require additional effort and labour. With pro- which they prepare for the conversion process.
per organic management implemented, yields Rather than only promoting organic farming,
usually recover after 2–3 years, as the soil builds extension staff should openly address the neces-
up organic matter and populations of soil orga- sity of working hard during the conversion pe-
nisms increased. Pest problems are also usually riod and the possible problems to be expected.
higher in the initial years, as the eco-system that Appropriate measures can help to reduce
got disturbed through the continuous applicati- problems encountered during the conversion
on of chemical pesticides first needs to get into process. The initial drop in yields, for example,
balance and populations of beneficial insects can be reduced through sufficient applica-ti-
need to build up. It is also obvious that organic on of organic manures (if necessary brought in
farming requires new skills, and, therefore, trai- from outside the farm). It is also advisable to
ning and experimenting. With increasing expe- intercrop cotton with pulses (e.g. moong bean,
rience, the performance of the farmer will im- cow pea), which supplies nitrogen to the soil
prove, too. and provides additional income. Other success
Conversion to organic farming usually re- factors in the conversion process are listed in
sults in more diversity: in crops grown, in ty- Figure 25.
pes of activities and in the solution of problems.
1
A free template of record forms and a database for managing farm records is available at www.fibl.org/english/cooperation/projects/
organiccotton.php.

Figure 25: Success factors
in the conversion to orga-
nic cotton farming
9.6 The role of women in organic cotton production

Although on many farms, especially in India, participate in training activities and meetings.
most decisions are still taken by men, women Extension services of the project should always
play an important role in organic farming. In give special consideration to gender issues and
India, their traditional responsibilities in cotton also reach out to women. Having female staff on
farming include looking after the animals and the team, and female farmer representatives in
the dung, sowing, weeding, and picking. Men the organization, can help organic cotton pro-
usually are responsible for soil cultivation, ap- jects to achieve these aims.
plication of manures and sprays, and intercul-
tural operations. Shifting to organic farming
can therefore mean a shift in workload bet-
ween men and women: The time needed for
compost preparation and perhaps for weeding
might increase as well, while the time needed
for spraying pesticides usually decreases. Pro-
per plant nutrition, timely weeding and careful
picking, however, are crucial for getting good
results in cotton.
Conversion to organic cotton farming is not
only a question of production techniques; it has
equally important implications for the social
and economic level of the household. Thus the
different perceptions and needs of the family
members should be taken into consideration
when thinking about conversion.
Organic cotton projects should ensure that
women are included in decision-making pro-
cesses, especially concerning the conversion
process. For this, they should be encouraged to
A lady farmer removing weeds in an organic cotton field

in Mali (Photo: Helvetas)

10 Annex
10.1 Glossary
Asafetida A hard resinous gum gained from the roots of a giant perennial fennel
species. It is used as a spice in Indian cuisine, and in medical treatments.
Bio-dynamic agriculture Special type of organic agriculture based on the research work and
philosophy of Rudolf Steiner. It includes the use of plant-based or
animal-based preparations and considers cosmic rhythms.
Border crop Crop grown at the edge of organic fields bordering conventionally
managed fields in order to reduce drift of pesticide sprays.
Certification A process verifying the compliance of farm management with organic
standards; based on inspection of the farm and its documentation.
Conversion The process of changing the farm management from conventional to
organic practices as per the organic standards.
Cotton lint Cotton fibre without seeds.
Crop rotation Sequence of crops grown in a field over several years.
De-oiled cake of castor (DOC) Residues of crushed castor seeds after oil extraction. It is used as an
organic manure rich in nitrogen (4–5%) and phosphorus.
‘Desi’ cotton Indigenous cotton varieties grown on the Indian sub-continent,
belonging to the species Gossypium herbaceum or G. arboretum.
Economic threshold The level of pest infestation below which the damage caused by the
pest is lower than the cost of control efforts.
Extension service A support system for farmers, usually provided by the NGO or company
organizing the organic project. Services may include training, technical
advice, internal control, supply of farm inputs and marketing.
Fair trade certification A certification scheme for trade relations between farmer groups
or estates in developing countries, and ‘Western’ buyers or traders.
Conditions for qualifying are defined in fair trade criteria. Fair trade
projects can, but need not, be organic, and vice versa.
Farmyard manure (FYM) Droppings and beddings of farm animals, usually of cattle.
Ginning Mechanically removing the cotton fibres from its seeds.
Gossypol Gossypol is a yellow pigment produced by the cotton plant, mainly
found in cotton seeds. It protects the cotton plant from insects.
Green manure A crop grown before or between the main crop rows, cut before
maturation and subsequently ploughed in or used as mulch. It provides
nutrients to the main crop through decomposition and helps to build up
humus in the soil.
Gross margin Crop or field output (mainly revenues from sales of crop) minus variable
production costs (seeds, fertilizers, sprays, hired labour etc.).
Intercropping Crop grown between the main crop rows, for harvesting. After
harvesting, it may serve as mulch.
Internal Control System (ICS) An inspection system managed by the project to ensure that farmers
follow the agreed-upon organic standards. For certification, the
functioning of the ICS is evaluated by an external agency.
Integrated Pest Management A combination of chemical and biological control methods, based on the
(IPM) concept of economic thresholds. Pest management in organic farming
uses many biological control methods developed as a part of IPM.
Leguminous crops = legumes (e.g. peas, beans, alfalfa, groundnuts); plants that produce
seeds in pods. Most of them have root nodules containing bacteria that
fix nitrogen from the air.

Micro-irrigation Irrigation systems that apply water directly to the individual crop plants;
especially drip irrigation (through tubes) and micro-sprinkler systems.
Mulch Plant material such as straw, leaves, crop residues, green manure crops,
saw-dust etc. that is spread upon the surface of the soil. A mulch cover
helps protect the soil from erosion and evaporation, nourishes soil life,
increases soil organic matter content and provides nutrients to the crop.
Natural enemies See ‘Predator’.
Nitrogen immobilization Temporary nitrogen shortage in the soil due to decomposition of
organic material that is low in nitrogen. Can be avoided through proper
composting of farmyard manure and crop residues.
Nutrient exchange capacity The ability of soil to take up and release nutrients. Nutrient exchange
capacity is highest with clay particles and soil organic matter.
Organic agriculture (OA) Holistic farming system that avoids the use of synthetic fertilizers and
pesticides. It emphasizes the set-up of a balanced agro-ecosystem and
is based on methods like crop rotation, intercropping, green manures,
organic manures, biological pest control etc. The farm can be certified
organic if the specified organic standards are fully met.
Organic manures Manures derived from animal products or plant residues. They usually
have considerable nitrogen content, and contain most other nutrients
essential for plant growth.
Organic premium Percentage or fixed amount paid for an organic product in addition to
the prevailing market price for non-organic products.
Organic standards Minimum requirements for a farm and its products to be certified
organic. Organic standards are specific to certain regions (e.g. EU-
regulation EEC 2092/91) or private labels (e.g. Naturland, BIO SUISSE).
Pheromone Substance emitted by female insects in order to attract males. Synthetic
pheromones are used to disorient male insects and thus to prevent
mating.
Predator Animal that attacks and feeds on other animals, such as an insect (e.g.
ladybird beetle), bird or spider feeding on pest insects.
Resistance Ability of a crop not to get affected by a disease or pest; or of a pest not
to be affected by a pesticide.
Seed cotton Cotton as it is picked (fibre along with seeds).
Seed treatment Treatment of seeds to protect them against soil- and seed-borne
diseases and pests, and/or to improve germination and initial growth. In
organic farming, seeds treated with synthetic pesticides cannot be used.
Soil organic matter Organic substances in the soil originating from animal and plant residues
in various stages of decomposition and re-formation. Also referred to as
humus.
Staple length Average length of the cotton fibres. An important parameter for defining
the quality and thus the price of the cotton.
Trap crop A crop grown in order to attract pests and to distract them from the
main crop. Pests thus can be destroyed by treating a small area, or by
destroying the trap crop and the pests together.
Vermi-compost Continuously fed compost system in which pre-decomposed organic
material is eaten by large numbers of earthworms. Their faeces are high
in silica and make an organic manure of excellent quality.
Water retention capacity The ability of the soil to retain water and moisture.

10.2 Frequently Asked Questions, and some answers
Topic Questions (Q) and Answers (A) Chapters

Compost quantity Q: How can I produce sufficient compost? 4.4
A: Increase the number of cattle and utilize the dung (avoid burning of dung for fuel
purposes). Use all available biomass in and around the farm for composting. Set
up new compost heaps whenever possible. Encourage other people in the village
to produce compost and buy from them (e.g. community employment schemes).
Complement the compost application with liquid organic manures.
Compost quality Q: What can I do to improve the quality and nutrient content of my compost? 4.4
A: Mix material that is easily decomposable along with material that decomposes
slowly (e.g. crop stalks of cotton, maize, sorghum etc.). Keep the heap moist (not too
dry, not too wet), e.g. by covering it with sacks. In summer, set up the compost in pits
and in the shade. Important: Turn the heap at least twice!
Timing of manure Q: When should I apply the top dressing of DOC and compost to the cotton crop? 4.1
application A: Apply the first dose three weeks after sowing, and a second dose 6 weeks after
sowing, if required.
Slow initial growth Q: What can I do to improve the growth of the cotton crop when it is stagnating? 4.2
A: The growth could stagnate because of temporary immobilization of nitrogen due
to decomposition of organic material low in nitrogen. Proper composting of farmyard
manure and crop residues can help to prevent this problem. Apply organic manures
rich in nitrogen (e.g. DOC) and cultivate the soil in order to accelerate decomposition.
Bud shedding Q: How can I prevent bud shedding (dropping of square buds)? 2.2, 4.1, 7.1
A: Avoid waterlogging! Do not apply too much or too little manure. Cultivate the soil
with a weeder/hoe at the time of bud formation. Some bud shedding occurs naturally,
however, and can’t be avoided.
Crinkling of leaves Q: How can I prevent infestation with aphids and whitefly? 5.1, 5.2.2
A: Avoid waterlogging and drying up of the field! Do not apply too much manure.
Cultivate the soil with a weeder when aphid populations build up. Promote and protect
natural enemies. Grow intercrops (e.g. moong) or trap crops (e.g. sunflower). If aphids
and whitefly exceed the economic threshold, apply neem or other botanical sprays.
Drop in yields Q: How can I prevent yields from dropping initially in the first years of conversion? 4.3, 9.5
A: Ensure sufficient application of good-quality organic manure, especially compost. If
necessary, buy organic manure from outside sources (FYM, press mud, DOC). Apply
organic manures 1–2 weeks earlier than you used to apply chemical fertilizers, as they
need time to decompose and release nutrients.
Step-by-step Q: Can I convert to organic farming step-by-step? 9.5
conversion A: The conversion period for certification starts only when all standard requirements
have been fully met. Before that, it may be advisable to gradually reduce the use of
agro-chemicals and to build up soil fertility, so that there is less of a drop in yields in
the first years of conversion. To gain confidence, farmers can try out organic practices in
a part of their land.
Labour shortage Q: How can I avoid a labour shortage in peak seasons? 9.1
A: Build up good relations with your labourers. Diversify your farm (additional crops,
dairy, compost production) so that labour requirements are spread over the year and
you can provide work on a regular basis throughout the year. Plan well and treat weeds
and pests in a timely manner.
Cotton quality Q: How can I improve the quality of the cotton? 4.1, 8.1
A: Increase the amount of organic manures, especially compost, to improve soil
fertility. Include pulses in the crop rotation. If potassium (K) is deficient in the soil,
apply muriate of potash or wood ash. Spray BD 500 + 501. Ensure proper quality
management in cotton picking and storage.
Irrigation Q: What can I do if I have little irrigation water available? 7.2, 7.3
A: Grow cotton varieties that are tolerant of dry conditions (e.g. local non-hybrids).
Intercrop with drought-tolerant crops (e.g. pulses or safflower) to reduce the risk of
crop failure. Practice water harvesting (trenches, small check dams). Use drip irrigation
systems. Apply mulch and organic matter to increase the water retention capacity of the
soil.
Food crops Q: How can I sell food crops at an organic premium price? 9.1
A: Organize a group with other farmers. Ensure certification of all crops produced on
the farms (e.g. group certification with an internal control system). Identify domestic or
international buyers (e.g. with the help of the Internet). Adopt a quality management
system for ensuring product quality (post-harvest handling, processing).

10.3 Summary of organic standards requirements relevant for
organic cotton farms (based on the EU Regulation EEC
2092/91)
The following is a basic summary of the most ments in simple, non-technical language and
important requirements set out in the standards may serve as a checklist for farmers and exten-
of the EU regulation relevant to organic cotton sion staff. For detailed requirements, please re-
farming. It attempts to describe the require- fer to the original EU regulation1.
Conversion to organic agriculture
 The farm needs to complete the conversion period before products can be sold as ’organic‘. The
conversion period starts with the date of signing the contract with the company implementing the
internal control system. After signing the contract, all the organic standards must be followed strictly.
 After 12 months of conversion, products can be sold with a label “in conversion to organic agriculture”.
Annual crops can be sold as “organic” after 24 months and perennial crops after 36 months.
 The full farm (all fields and all crops) must comply with the organic standards. This includes crops that
are not to be sold as ‘organic’, or that are produced for personal consumption only.
 Partial farm conversion is only possible if the production units, facilities and management of the organic
and the conventional operations are clearly separated (check with your certification body).
Crop production
 Organic seeds and propagation materials have to be used (conventional seeds may be used only if
approved by the certification body). Conventional seedlings and chemically treated seeds are not
allowed.
 For annual crops, farmers must either practice crop rotation or intercropping.
 The farmer shall ensure prevention of soil erosion, soil salinity and water pollution or depletion.
 The use of any genetically modified organisms (GMOs, like Bt cotton) is not allowed. Farmers shall make
sure that seeds and plant material, and organic fertilizers and pesticides are free of GMOs.
 Farmers shall avoid over-manuring of land by keeping appropriate numbers of animals per farm area
and applying appropriate quantities of manure.
Fertilization
 Chemical fertilizers (including urea!) are never allowed. Manures and natural fertilizers brought from
outside the farm shall not contain any chemical fertilizers and shall not come from intensive animal
husbandry.
 Organic manures, bio-fertilizers (rhizobium, acetobacter, mycorrhiza etc.), bio-dynamic preparations and
botanical preparations are allowed.
 Natural mineral fertilizers (rock phosphate, muriate of potash, gypsum etc.) can be used only as a
supplement to organic manures (compost, green manures etc.) if there is an obvious deficiency in the
soil.
Crop protection
 The use of chemical pesticides (including herbicides, growth regulators etc.) is not allowed. Farmer’s
preparations of botanical pesticides from local plants are usually allowed (check with the certification
body). Branded products of natural pesticides must be checked to see if they do contain prohibited
ingredients.
 Allowed products are: bio-pesticides (Bt spray, trichoderma, NPV, pseudomonas etc.), Bordeaux mixture,
natural sulphur, soft soap, and most plant-based products (neem, pyrethrum etc.; but not tobacco).
 If spray equipment from non-organic neighbours is used, these must be cleaned of any residues.
 Farmers must make sure to avoid spray drift from neighbouring fields. If this is a risk, buffer zones or
border crops must be established
( General practice, not explicitly demanded by the EU regulation).
1
http://europa.eu.int/eur-lex/en/consleg/main/1991/en_1991R2092_index.html

10.4 Useful reading and websites
Organic cotton in general Chapter 1: Introduction

� Naturland (2004, 2nd edition): Organic � IFOAM Training Manual for Organic
Farming in the Tropics and Subtropics. Cot- Agriculture, Principles of Organic Agriculture
ton. www.naturland.de (Chapter 2). www.fibl.org/english/publica-
� Myers & Stolton (1998): Organic Cotton. tions/training-manual
From Field to Final Product. Intermediate � Organic standards:
Technology Publications. London. – EU regulation EEC 2092/91: europa.
� P. Ton. (2002). The International Market for eu.int/eur-lex/en/consleg/main/1991/
Organic Cotton and Ecotextiles. Pesticide en_1991R2092_index.html;
Action Network United Kingdom. www. – US regulation: www.ams.usda.gov/nop/
pan-uk.org/Cotton NOP/standards.html;
� ATTRA: Organic Cotton Production. www. – IFOAM norms: www.ifoam.org/standard/
attra.ncat.org norms/cover.html
� Organic Cotton Europe: www.organiccotto- � IFOAM Quality Control Manual: Organic
neurope.net Production in Small Farmers’ Associations,
� Helvetas: Organic cotton. www.organiccot- English/CD Rom. www.ifoam.org
ton.ch � IFOAM Smallholder Group Certification/
� Meena Menon: Organic Cotton – Manual for producer groups. www.ifoam.org
Re-inventing the wheel. Deccan Develop- I-GO Publications
ment Society. www.ddsindia.com � IFOAM Smallholder Group Certification -
Internal Control Systems (ICS). Complete
Organizations dealing with organic cotton Training Curriculum (free download). www.
� Organic Exchange, a platform of the organic ifoam.org I-GO Publications
cotton industry, providing market links and � Fair Trade: The International Fair Trade
information, with a detailed world overview Association (www.ifat.org) and Fairtrade
on organic cotton production. www.orga- Labelling Organizations International (www.
nicexchange.org fairtrade.net)
� The International Organic Cotton Directory:
www.organiccottondirectory.net Chapter 2: Cotton
� The Pesticide Action Network (PAN). � Crop profile of Gossypium hirsutum. www.
The Cotton Project: Moral Fibre. fao.org/ag/agl/aglw/cropwater/ecocotto.htm
www.pan-uk.org/Cotton � Cotton on the Net – Gateway to the World
� Remei AG, Switzerland. Organic cotton pro- of Cotton. www.cotton-net.com
jects Maikaal bioRe (India) and bioRe Tan- � International Cotton Advisory Committee.
zania. www.remei.ch Publications, links, events etc. on conventi-
� Intercot, the International Conference on onal cotton, with some references to organic
Organic Textiles. www.intercot.org cotton. www.icac.org
� Japanese Organic Cotton Association: www. � Australian Cotton Cooperative Research
joca.gr.jp/english Centre. www.cotton.pi.csiro.au/
� Organic Trade Organisation (OTA). www. � Cotton SA, an organization providing infor-
ota.com (search site for cotton) mation on (conventional) cotton for South
� The Swiss NGO Helvetas supports organic Africa, with some reference to organic cot-
cotton projects in Mali, Burkina Faso, Sene- ton. www.cottonsa.org.za
gal and Kyrgyzstan. They also provide infor-
mation about organic cotton. www.helvetas. Chapter 3: Soil Fertility Management
org � IFOAM Training Manual for Organic Agri-
� The Solidaridad-ETC Organic Cotton culture, Soil Fertility (Chapter 3). www.fibl.
Programme India; with information and org/english/publications/training-manual
links on organic cotton. � Brandjes, P., van Dongen, P., et al. (1989):
www.indianorganicproducers.org Green manuring and other forms of soil
� International Competence Centre for Or- improvement in the tropics. Wageningen,
ganic Agriculture, India (ICCOA) provides Agromisa. www.agromisa.org
services for organic cotton production and
for marketing of organic products in India.
www.iccoa.org
� Soil management manual for Australian cot-
ton farmers (SoilPak). Although developed

for conventional farming, it provides some Natural Enemies. Farmer Participatory
useful general information and ideas. www. Training and Research Programme.
agric.nsw.gov.au/reader/6771 Working with Natural Enemies Series. As-
cot, CABI Bioscience. 249 p. plus tables.
Chapter 4: Crop Nutrition www.cabi-bioscience.org
� IFOAM Training Manual for Organic Agri- � PAN Pesticides Database, with detailed in-
culture, Plant Nutrition (Chapter 4). www. formation on (mainly chemical) pesticides.
fibl.org/english/publications/training-ma- www.pesticideinfo.org/Index.html
nual � Cotton South Africa, with some material on
� HDRA: Composting in the Tropics. The (integrated) pest management. www.cotton-
Henry Doubleday Research Association sa.org.za/publications.html
HDRA. 18 p. www.hdra.org.uk/publications/
index.htm Chapter 6: Soil Cultivation and
� Nutripak, A practical guide to (conventio- Weed Management
nal) nutrient management in cotton in Aus- � IFOAM Training Manual for Organic Agri-
tralia. www.cotton.crc.org.au/Publicat/Agro/ culture, Soil Fertility (Chapter 3) and Pest,
Nutrient/NUTRIpak.htm Disease and Weed Management (Chapter
� World Fertilizer Use Manual, ‘Cotton’ 5). www.fibl.org/english/publications/trai-
section. Information on nutrient demand, ning-manual
deficiency symptoms etc. in conventional � HDRA: Weed Control. The Henry Dou-
cotton. www.fertilizer.org/ifa/publicat/html/ bleday Research Association HDRA. 12 p.
pubman/cotton.htm www.hdra.org.uk/publications/index.htm
Chapter 5: Pest and Disease Management Chapter 7: Water Management

� G.A. Mathews (1994): Insect Pests of � IFOAM Training Manual for Organic Agri-
Cotton. CAB International. Wallingford. culture, Water Conservation (Chapter 3.5).
� Online Information Service for Non- www.fibl.org/english/publications/trai-
chemical Pest Management in the Tropics ning-manual
(OISAT). www.oisat.org/home.html � International Water Management Institute
� G. Stoll (2000): Natural Crop Protection in (IWMI). www.iwmi.cgiar.org
the Tropics – Letting Information Come to � Micro-Irrigation Forum.
Life. Magraf Verlag, Hohberg. www.microirrigationforum.com
� Pest Management Guide; ATTRA; especially
Biointensive Integrated Pest Management. Chapter 8: Harvest and Post-Harvest
www.attra.org/pest.html Operations
� IFOAM Training Manual for Organic Agri- � Organic Exchange, a platform of the organic
culture, Pest, Disease and Weed Manage- cotton industry, provides market links and
ment (Chapter 5). www.fibl.org/english/pu- information, with a detailed world overview
blications/training-manual of organic cotton production. www.orga-
� General information on (conventional) nicexchange.org/
pest management in cotton; Australian
Cooperative Cotton Research Centre; cot- Chapter 9: Farm Economy
ton.pi.csiro.au/Publicat/Pest/ � Results and extension tools of the Organic
� Integrated Pest Management (IPM) guide- Cotton Research Project. www.fibl.org/inter-
lines for cotton in the US; University of national/projekte/organiccotton.php
California. � IFOAM Training Manual for Organic
www.ipm.ucdavis.edu/PMG/selectnewpest. Agriculture, Farm Economy (Chapter 7).
cotton.html www.fibl.org/english/publications/trai-
� CABI Bioscience Crop Protection Compen- ning-manual
dium. Includes many documents referring � Clients first – A rapid market appraisal tool
to cotton. www.cabi.org/compendia/cpc/in- kit. Helvetas. www.helvetas.ch
dex.htm
� CABI Bioscience Global Plant Clinic.
http://82.43.123.182/globalplantclinic/index.
htm
� CABI Bioscience, Ed. (2000). Conserving

10.5 Organic cotton crop calendar in central India
The following crop calendar lists the activities be used as a template and source of inspirati-
for organic cotton production as recommended on, while the activities need to be adapted to the
by Maikaal bioRe, India. The crop calendar can prevalent local conditions.
Crop Management and Soil and water management Pest management and crop care
general activities
� Remove crop residues, use for mulching � Plough the fields � By deep ploughing you expose the
and composting � Prepare compost hibernating insect pests, their eggs,
� Plan for the next cropping season: � Turn of compost and manure heaps larvae and pupae in the soil and kill
which crop on which field, which � Build water harvesting structures them
varieties, farm map, farm records (trenches, bunds)
� Organize inputs: seeds of cotton and � Summer cotton: apply FYM, compost.
intercrops, manures from outside,
pest-management products, irrigation
April
facilities
� Visit trainings, study organic farming
� Summer cotton: mark the fields with � Irrigate � Monitor for cutworms
sticks � Apply DOC and compost three weeks � If infested: control cutworms
� Sow cotton in the second week of May after cotton germinates (pyrethrum, hand-picking, baits;
� Sow border crop (at the time of sowing � Build water harvesting structures irrigation with asafetida pouches in the
cotton) � Apply ‘Matka khad’ or ‘Jeev amruth’ irrigation channels)
� Keep records (liquid manures) to summer cotton
May
� Gap fill ten days after sowing � For monsoon cotton: apply compost or
farmyard manure
� Monsoon cotton: mark the fields with � Summer cotton: intercultural operation � Monitor for cutworms and aphids
sticks � Irrigate summer cotton, if necessary � If infested: control cutworms (see
� Do not sow cotton until the third week � Prepare ‘Matka khad’ (liquid manure) above) and aphids (neem, botanical
of June, after sufficient rain has fallen � Spray BD 500 mixture, cow urine, soap)
� Sow intercrop or green manure (up to � Prepare botanical sprays for pest
four weeks after sowing cotton) management
� Summer cotton: weed and fill gaps with � Set up pheromone traps for spotted
June
trap crops bollworm end of June

� Record-keeping
� Weed � Monsoon cotton: apply DOC and � Monitor for aphids and jassids
� Fill gaps with trap crop (sunflower, compost three weeks after cotton � Install light traps and sticky traps for
maize, pigeon pea) germinates monitoring bollworm populations
�Re-sow border crop and intercrop if � Intercultural operations, form irrigation � Set up pheromone traps end of July
germination was insufficient furrows � Use of trichoderma viridae in case of
� Record-keeping � Drain excess water in case of wilting problem due to waterlogging in
waterlogging fields
� If monsoon is delayed, prepare irrigation � Set up sticky boards for monitoring
July
channels and irrigate whitefly, jassids and aphids (end of

July)
� Record keeping � Possibly apply top dressing of DOC and � Monitor for American and spotted
� Weed compost, or with liquid manure bollworm
� Fill gaps with trap crop � Drain excess water in case of � Spray cow urine as a repellent for
waterlogging sucking pest and to enhance the
� Intercultural operations if necessary growth of the plant, or vermi-wash to
� Plough green manure into the soil strengthen plants
� Apply DOC, rock phosphate, bone meal � Spray neem, buttermilk or botanical
and/or compost as top dressing mixtures if bollworms are beyond
� Prepare irrigation channels economic threshold
August
� Distribute Trichocards against bollworm

(August and September)
� Summer cotton: Spray BD 501
� Prepare for picking summer cotton: � Possibly apply top dressing of DOC and � Monitor for American and spotted
prepare bags, clean the storage place, compost, or liquid manure bollworm, and whitefly
prepare registers to keep records of � Intercultural operations if necessary � Spray cow urine or vermi-wash to
cotton picking � Irrigate, if necessary strengthen plants against sucking pests
� Visit other organic farms to learn about � Spray buttermilk or botanical mixtures,
their practices if bollworms are beyond economic
September
threshold
� In case of heavy bollworm infestation:
spray Bt (e.g. Dipel) or NPV
� Monsoon cotton: Spray BD 501

Crop Management and Soil and water management Pest management and crop care
general activities
� Pick cotton and keep records � Possibly apply top dressing of liquid � Monitor for whitefly, spray neem-based
� Sell cotton manure formulations or botanicals if beyond
� Visit other organic farms to learn about � Intercultural operations, if necessary economic threshold
their practices � Irrigate, if necessary (avoid both � Set up pheromone traps for pink
drought and waterlogging!) bollworm
� Build up compost heaps with collected � Prophylactic spray of neem to repel
biomass and weeds bollworms and to delay hatching of
October
eggs
� Spray of cow urine or vermi-wash to
strengthen plants against sucking pests
� Pick cotton and keep records � Possibly apply top dressing of DOC and � Spray Bt (e.g. Dipel) if pink bollworm is
� Sell cotton liquid manure for inducing a second beyond economic threshold
� Sow wheat crop in summer cotton flush � Spray neem formulations if whitefly is
fields, if suitable and sufficient irrigation � Intercultural operations, if necessary beyond economic threshold
� Visit other organic farms to learn about � Irrigate as per necessity (avoid both � Spray botanical mixtures or pyrethrum
their practices drought and waterlogging!) if cotton stainer is beyond economic
November
� Apply compost to wheat fields (Rabi threshold

crop)
� Build up compost heaps with collected
biomass and weeds
� Pick cotton and keep records � Possibly apply top dressing of liquid � Monitor for pink bollworm, whitefly and
� Sell cotton manure cotton stainer (red cotton bug); treat
� Uproot of cotton after last picking � Intercultural operations, if necessary if beyond economic threshold (see
� Sow wheat crop in summer cotton � Irrigate to induce a second flush, if above)
fields, if suitable and sufficient irrigation suitable
� Visit other organic farms to learn about � Apply compost to wheat fields (Rabi
December
their practices crop)

biomass and weeds
� Turn the compost heaps set up earlier
� Pick cotton and keep records � Intercultural operations if necessary � Monitor for whitefly and cotton stainer
� Sell cotton � Irrigate as per necessity (avoid both (red cotton bug), treat if beyond
� Uproot cotton after last picking drought and waterlogging!) economic threshold (see above)
January

biomass, crop residues and weeds
� Turn the compost heaps set up earlier
� Pick cotton and keep records � Build up compost heaps with collected � Monitor for whitefly and cotton stainer
� Sell cotton biomass, crop residues and weeds (red cotton bug), treat if beyond
� Uproot cotton after last picking � Turn the compost heaps set up earlier economic threshold (see above)
February
� Pick cotton and keep records � Build up compost heaps with collected
� Sell cotton biomass, crop residues and weeds
� Uproot cotton after last picking � Turn the compost heaps set up earlier
� Cultivate soil (plough)
March

64
Farmer Name: Gajendra Chouhan Year: 2004 Crop: Cotton Size under crop: 1.2 acre Intercrop: Moong Harvest intercrop: 15 kg
Date Activity Labour Other Expenses (inputs, rent, irrigation etc.) Crop harvest
d/m Name or brief description of the activity Own labour Hired labour Name of the item Quantity Cost Quantity Value
days costs (kg) (Rs) (kg) (Rs)
25/5 Ploughed fields with bullocks 50
6/6 Levelling and cleaning of fields 120
25/6 Cotton seeds sown 2 100 Ankoor-651 2 pkts. 700
5/7 Weeding 5 200
6/7 Gap filling 1 20
13/7 Sowing of moong (intercrop) 2 20 Moong seeds 0.5 kg 50
20/7 Spraying for sucking pest 1 Econeem 100 ml 75
25/7 Manure application 2 20 DOC (3 bags), compost 1ton 555
5/9 Irrigation 2 20 hrs 400
12/9 Spraying for bollworm 60 Dipel 200 ml 280
20/10 Cotton picking 130 65 1,170
2/11 Cotton picking 180 90 1,800
The following sheet is an example of a comple-
ted template with which farmers can easily keep
3/11 Harvesting moong (15 kg) 1

5/11 Irrigation 2 17 hrs 340
12/11 Cotton picking 170 85 1,785
10.6 Template for keeping crop records
24/11 Cotton picking 210 105 2,310

12/12 Cotton picking 130 65 1,170
28/12 Cotton picking 360 180 3,600
30/12 Uprooting of cotton 1 100
Totals: 19 1,870 Totals: ------ 2,400 590 11,835
Organic Cotton Crop Guide

Average labour rate: 30 Rs./day Intercrop value: 300 Rs.
available on www.fibl.org/organiccotton.
Yield 492 kg/acre Total production cost 4,840 Rs. Net profit (incl. own labour) 7‘295 Rs. 6,079 Rs./acre
(Crop harvest/land size) (Own labour days * rate + hired labour costs + expenses) Crop value + intercrop value – total production cost) (divide by land size)
crop records (see Chapter 9.4). The template is

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Organic Cotton

A manual for practitioners in the tropics

Organic Cotton Crop Guide 1

The development of this guide is a

� Maikaal bioRe (India) Ltd., especially Rajeev

The Maikaal bioRe Team The Maikaal Research Team

The guide has been developed and produced

2 Organic Cotton Crop Guide

1 Introduction 4 6 Soil Cultivation and Weed

Organic Cotton Crop Guide 3

1.1 About this guide

4 Organic Cotton Crop Guide

Organic Cotton Crop Guide 5

1.3 Growing organic cotton – A system approach

Figure 2: Successful orga-

6 Organic Cotton Crop Guide

1.4 Organic standards

Figure 3: Important re-

Organic Cotton Crop Guide 7

1.5 Bio-dynamic farming

1.6 Inspection and certification

8 Organic Cotton Crop Guide

1.7 Organic cotton and Fair Trade

Organic Cotton Crop Guide 9

2.1 The importance of cotton

the livelihood of 17 million people in India de-

2.2 Requirements of the cotton crop

10 Organic Cotton Crop Guide

Organic Cotton Crop Guide 11

12 Organic Cotton Crop Guide

Testing cotton varieties for organic farming in Kirgistan (Photo: Helvetas)

Organic Cotton Crop Guide 13

3.1 Soil properties

Soil profile in a cotton

14 Organic Cotton Crop Guide

Figure 8: The importance

3.3 Crop rotation – rotation crops

It is important that organic cotton is grown in

Organic Cotton Crop Guide 15

Figure 9: Some crop rota-

16 Organic Cotton Crop Guide

Figure 10: Green manures

Organic Cotton Crop Guide 17

The Nagpur seed mixture is sown between the

Trials on green manures and intercrops

Nodules of pulses host nitrogen fixing bacteria

To try out alternative options for green ma-

18 Organic Cotton Crop Guide

4.1 Nutrient requirements

Figure 11: Nutrient de-

Organic Cotton Crop Guide 19

Figure 12: The uptake of

20 Organic Cotton Crop Guide

4.3 Application of manures and fertilizers

Nutrient Quantity per ha Possible sources

Organic Cotton Crop Guide 21

Table 4 proposes a nutrient management plan Caution: A too-high supply of nitrogen-rich

Manure or measure Recommended quantity Comments

22 Organic Cotton Crop Guide