Research

Lecture Guide
by
MA. RITA ALINDADA-REARIO, MAT
Subject Teacher
Parts of Research (format for publication)

Title

 The TITLE should summarize the main idea of the paper.

 It should be concise statement of the main topic and should identify the
actual variables on theoretical issues under investigation and the
relationship between them.
Example: “Effect of Transformed Letters on Reading Speed”
“Assessing the Impact of Counseling Supervision on
Counselor Development”
“Causes of Juvenile Delinquency as Perceived by
Echaguenos”
 Should be fully explanatory when standing alone.
 Should avoid words that serve no useful purpose.
 Avoid using abbreviation in a title.
 The recommended length for title is 10 to 15 words.

Abstract

Abstract is a brief, comprehensive summary of the contents of the

article.
A well prepared abstract can be the most important paragraph in your
article. It must be readable, well organized, brief and self-contained.

Introduction

The introduction is not a title of a chapter. It is actually a paragraph side head

which begins chapter 1 of the study. The first word in the introduction should be strong enough
to cause an impact on the reader or stimulate interest in the paper. Statements in this chapter
should signify the importance of the paper through statements supported and substantiated by
references from important researches. The objective of the study is also included in this chapter.

Reports or quotations taken from references should not be more than one-third of a
page.

Research report is an objective report it deals with facts. Although one is permitted to
give a personal opinion, such should also be backed-up by statements from persons of authority
or substantiated by documents or records.
Methodology

Respondents of the Study

Population consists of all the elements under consideration. It is the universe of the
study, and its characteristics are called the “parameters” or the perfect measurement of its
characteristics.
Examples: a. All the 4th year students in the BS Criminology Program/AB Pol Sci
Program
b. All the faculty of CAS

Sample is a small group that you observe from a larger group.

In research, it is usually a practice to take a slice of a big population for several reasons:

1. It is very expensive to get the entire population.

2. It takes a lot of time to reach what is known as the target population.
3. The sampling enables the researcher to do some inferences or generalizations about
the target population. This is a very beautiful experience knowing about the
population from the sample.

Sampling is the process which involves taking a part of the population, making
observations on this representative group, and then generalizing the findings to the
bigger population. It is also referred to as strategies which enable you to pick a subgroup
from a larger group, and then use this subgroup as a basis for making judgments about
the larger group.

Advantages of Sampling

1. It saves time, money, and effort.

2. It is more effective.
3. It is faster, cheaper, and economical.
4. It is more accurate.
5. It gives more comprehensive information.

Steps used in sampling include:

1. Identification of the population

2. Determination of the required sample size
3. Selection of the sample

Sampling size of the Population. To determine the sample size of the population, a
formula by Slovin (1960) is given as follows:

N =___N____
1 ⁺ 𝑁𝑒2
Where:

n = a sample size
 N = population size

e = the margin of error (at .05, minimum)

Error is percentage allowable for non-precision, since a sample is used instead of a

population. This formula is one of the easiest and the most convenient to use in
determining the size of the sample.

Example:
Determining the sample size of a population with 1000 elements with a .05 error
margin.

n = ___N____
1 + Ne2

= 1000
1 + 1000 (.05)2

= 285.7 or 286

Way of deriving a Sample

Probability Sample. A probability sample is one where all elements in the population
frame have an equal chance of being selected. Probability samples are random samples, and
are the best representative samples of the population.

Different Probability Sampling Technique

a. Simple Random Sampling.
In a simple random sampling, every member of the population has an
equal chance of being chosen for the sample, thus having the principle of
equi-probability.
Simple random sampling also has the principle of independence, which
refers to the condition that when one member is selected for the sampling, this
should not affect the chances of the other members getting chosen.

Examples: The Lottery Method or “fishbowl technique”

Table of Random Numbers

Data Gathering Method

Data Gathering Instrument

Questionnaire or otherwise known as survey form. It is referred to as paper and pencil

data-gathering method by letting the subject or respondents complete the questionnaire before
the researcher or his representative. It is an inventory of pieces of information which the
researcher anticipates to gather from a respondent.

Criteria of a Good Questionnaire

1. The language must be clear
2. The content of the question and the period involved must be specific
3. The question should show singleness or purpose
 4. The question must be free from assumptions
5. The question should be free from suggestions
6. The question should have linguistic completeness and grammatical consistency

Statistical Treatment of the Data

This describes the statistical tool utilized in the study.

When reporting inferential statistics, include information about the obtained magnitude or
value of the test, the degrees of freedom, the probability level, and the direction of the effect.
Be sure to include descriptive statistics; where means are reported, always include an
associated measure of variability.
Assume that your reader has professional knowledge of statistics.
Basic assumptions, such as rejecting the null hypothesis, should not be reviewed.
If there is question about the appropriateness of a particular test, be sure to justify the
use of that test.

Discussion of Results
A part of the study wherein the data gathered is presented in table form followed by the
discussion, interpretation and inferences or implication especially with respect to your original
hypothesis.
Similarities and differences between your results and the work of others should clarify
and confirm your conclusions.
Each new statement should contribute to your position and the reader understanding of
the problem.
In general, be guided by the following questions:
- What have I contributed here?
- How has my study helped to resolve the original problem?
- What conclusions and theoretical implications can I draw from my study?

Conclusion

Conclusion is basically the result or outcome of the study. It may lead to the acceptance
or rejection of the hypothesis. It may also reject or support the findings of previous researches.

Recommendation

Recommendation is a statement with purpose; it may be for institutional improvement

and development, curricular improvement or enhancement and it may also lead to further
research study. The recommendation must be based from the result of the study.

Acknowledgement

It is the portion of the paper where the researcher expresses her gratitude to those who
were involved and helped in the study.

REFERENCES

This is the portion of the research work where citations of works from books, journal
articles, or private communications are enumerated.
REFERENCE FORMATS:

In-text references

 Use the author date format to cite references in text.

Example: As Smith (2010) points out……
A recent study (Smith, 2010) shows……..
 For two-author citations, spell out both authors on all occurrences.
 For multiple-author citations (up to five authors) name all authors the first time, then use
et.al.,
Example: first time (Smith, Jones, Pearson, and Sherwin (2010)
second time it is Smith et.al., with a after “al” but no underlining.
 The first time an “et.al” reference is used in a paragraph, give the year, thereafter if the
citation is repeated in the paragraph omit the year.
 For six or more authors, use at al. the first time and give the full citation in references.
 Include page reference after the year, outside the comma.
Example:
The author stated, “The effect disappeared within minutes” (Lopez, 1993, p.311),
but she did not say which effect.
Lopez found that “the effect disappeared within minutes” (p.311)
Notice also that the sentence is capitalized only if presented after a comma, as a
complete sentence.
 If two or more multiple-author references which shorten to the same “et.al”. Forms,
making it ambiguous, give as many author names as necessary to make them distinct,
before et.al.
Example: (Smith, Jones, et.al, 1991) to distinguish it from (Smith, Burke, et.al., 1991)
 If a group is readily identified by its initials, spell it out only the first time.
Example:
“As reported in a government study National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH),
1991), blah blah……and thereafter, “The previously cited study (NIMH), 1991) found that
 If the author is unknown or unspecified, use the first few words of the reference list entry
(usually the title)
Example: (“Study finds,” 1992)
 If citing multiple works by the same author at the same time, arrange dates in order. In
general, use letters after the years to distinguish multiple publications by the same
author in the same year.

Books

Typical book entry-single author

Amheim, R. (1971). Art and visual perception. Berkeley, CA: University of California
Press.
Multiple authors

When a work has between two and six authors, cite all authors. When a work has more than six
authors cite only the last name of the first author followed by “”et. al”

Festinger, L., Rieckhen, H & Schachter, S. (1956) When prophecy fails. Minneapolis:
University Press.

Corporate authorship

Institute of Financial Education (1982). Managing personal funds. Chicago: Midwestern

Publishing.

No author identified

Experimental psychology. (1982) New York: Holt

Citing items in an anthology

Rubenstein, J.P. (1967). The effect of television violence on small children. In B.F. Kane
(ed.), Television and juvenile psychological development (pp. 112-134). New York: American
Psychological Society.

Reprinted or published books

Freud, S. ((1961). The ego and the id. In J. Strachey (Ed. And Trans.). The standard
edition of the complete psychological works of Sigmund Freud (Vol. 19, pp. 3-66). London:
Hogarth Press. Original work published 1923)

Following the entry, enclose “Original work published” in parenthesis, noting the original date.

Citing multivolume works

Wilson, J.G. & Fraser, F.C. (Eds). (1977-1978). Handbook of tetratology. (Vols. 1-4) New
York: Plenum Press

In listing a multivolume work, the publication dates should be inclusive for all volumes. The
volumes should be identified in parenthesis, immediately following the book title. Do not use a
period between the title and the parenthetical information; close the entire title, including the
volume information, with a period.

Citing one book in a series

Cousins, M. (1984). Michel Foucault. Theoretical traditions in the social sciences. New
York: St. Martin’s Press.

The series title should be included immediately following the book title and should not be
underlined.
Edited collections

Higgins, J. (ed). Psychology. New York: Norton.

Citing specific editions of a book

Brockett, O. (1987). History of the theatre (5th ed.) Boston: Allyn and Bacon

Immediately after the book’s title, note the edition information in parentheses (for example, “5th
ed.” Or “rev.ed.” do not use a period between the title and the parenthetical information.

Translated works

Freud, S. (1970) An outline of psychoanalysis. (j. Strachey, Trans.) New York: Norton
(Original work published 940)

The original publication date is the last portion of the entry and should be in parentheses with
the note “Original work published” followed by the date.

JOURNALS

Citing articles in journals with continuous pagination

Passons, W. (1967) Predictive validity of the ACT,SAT, and high school grades for first
semester GPS and freshmen courses.

Educational and Psychological Measurement. 27, 1143-1144

Citing articles in journals with non-continuous pagination

Sawyer, J. (1966). Measurement and prediction, clinical and statistical. Psychological

Bulletin, 66 (3), 178-200

Because pagination begins anew with each issue of this journal, it is necessary to include the
issue number in parentheses after the volume number. Note that there is a comma between the
issue number and page numbers, but no comma between the underlined volume number and
the issue number.

Citing articles in monthly periodicals

Chandler-Crisp, S. (1988, May) “Aerobic writing”: a writing practice model. Writing Lab
Newsletter, pp. 9-11

Citing articles in weekly periodicals

Kauffman, S. (1993, October 18). On films: class consciousness. The New republic. P.
30.
Newspaper articles

Monson, M. (1993, September 16). Urbana firm obstacle to office project. The
Champaign-Urbana News-Gazette. pp1, 8.

No author identified

Clinton puts ‘human face’ on health-care plan (1993, September 16). The New York
Times, p.l.

Reprinted or republished articles

Clark, G. & Zimmeran, E. (1988). Professional roles and activities as models for art
education. In S. Dobbs (Ed.), Research readings for disciplined-based art education. Reston,
VA: NAEA. (Reprinted from Studies in Art Education, 19 (1986 – 34 – 39.)

Following the entry, enclose “Reprinted from” in parentheses, noting the original publication
information. Close with period.

ERIC Documents (Report available from the Education Resources Information Center)

Mead, J.V. (1992). Looking at old photographs: Investigating the teacher tales that
novice teachers bring with them (Report No. NCRTL-RR-92-4). East Lansing, MI: National
Center for……

DISSERTATIONS

Dissertation from microfilm:

Bower,D.L. (1993). Employee assistant programs supervisory referrals: Characteristics

of referring and non referring supervisors. Dissertation Abstracts International, 54 (01), 534B.
(University Microfilms No. AAD93-15947)

Dissertation obtained from the university:

Ross, D.F. (1990). Unconscious transference and mistaken identity: When a witness
misidentifies a familiar but innocent person from a lineup (Doctoral Dissertation, Cornell
University, 1990). Dissertation Abstracts International, 49, Z5055

OTHER MEDIA

Citing interviews

Archer, N. (1993). Interview with Helen Burns, author of Sense and Perception .
Journal of Sensory Studies, 21, 211-216.

In this example, the interview lacks a title, so a description of the interview is given in brackets.
If the interview has a title, include the title (without quotation marks) after the year, and then give
a further description in brackets if necessary.
Unpublished interviews do not need a reference page entry because they are what the
Publication manual of the APA calls “personal communications” and so “do not provide
recoverable data.” Here, the entry consists of the first initial and last name of the interviewee,
the type of communication, and the date of the interview.

(N. Archer, personal interview, October 11, 1993)

Citing films or videotapes

Weir, P.B. (Producer) & Harrison, B.F. (Director), (1992). Levels of consciousness
Videotape Boston, MA. Filmways.

Here, the main people responsible for the videotape are given, with their roles identified in
parentheses after the names. After the title, the medium is identified (here, a videotape). The
distributor’s name and location comprises the last part of the entry.

Citing recordings

McFerrin, Bobby (Vocalist). (1990). Medicine Music Cassette Recording . Hollywood,

CA:EMI-USA.

The name of the speaker, singer or significant contributors are listed at the head of the entry,
last names first. Each name is followed by a description in parentheses of that individual’s
function (in this example, McFerrin is the vocalist), and a period should appear after the final
parenthesis. After listing the date in parentheses followed by a period, underline the title, and
specify in brackets the type of recording (cassette, compact disk, etc.) if a number is necessary
to identify the recording, use parentheses rather than brackets and list the number like this:
(Cassette Recording No. 8745). Conclude the entry with the place of production, and the
distributor’s name.

ELECTRONIC INFORMATION

Citing computer software

Arend, Dominic N. (1993). Choices. Computer program . Champaign. IL: U.S. Army
Corps of Engineers Research laboratory. (CERL Report No. CH7-22510)

The name(s) of the programmers are listed at the head of the entry, last names first, followed by
a…example, the report number) in parentheses at the entry’s conclusion.

Full-Text Database (i.e., book, magazine, or newspaper article or report)

The second date which follows is the date the user accesses the material. In some cases an
item’s data base accession should be included.

Federal Bureau of Investigation. (1998, March). Encryption: Impact on law enforcement.

Washington, D.C.: Publisher, Retrieved from SIRS database (SIRS Government Reporter,
CDROM, Fall 1998 release)
Worldwide web

National Consumers League. (1997) Helping seniors targeted for telemarketing fraud.
Retrieved February 2, 1999 on the World wide Web:
http://www.fraud.org/elderfraud/helpsen.htm

Periodicals article (E-Journal)

Kawasaki, J.L., & Raven, M.R. (1995). Computer-administered surveys in extension.

Journal of Extension, 33 (3), 252-255. Retrieved June 2, 1999 from the World Wide Web:
http://joe.org/joe/index.html

E-Mail or newsgroup posting

Personal communications are not included in reference lists and therefore should be
cited within the text only:

Smith, Fred (‘personal communication,” January 21, 1999)