Parenting Ecologica

PARENTING
An Ecological Perspective
Second Edition
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PARENTING
Second Edition
Edited by
Tom Luster
Michigan State University
Lynn Okagaki
Purdue University
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Parenting : an ecological perspective / edited by Tom Luster and Lynn Okagaki.—

2nd ed.
p. cm. — (Monographs in parenting)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-8058--4806-1 (alk. paper)
ISBN 0-8058-4807-X (alk. paper)
1. Parenting. 2. Social ecology. I. Luster, Tom. II. Okagaki, Lynn.
III. Monographs in parenting series.
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Contents
Series Foreword: Monographs in Parenting ix

Marc H. Bornstein, Series Editor
Introduction xi
Tom Luster and Lynn Okagaki
I CHARACTERISTICS OF THE PARENTS
1 Parents’ Social Cognitions and Their Parenting Behaviors 3

Lynn Okagaki and Gary E. Bingham
2 Developmental Origins of Parenting: Personality

and Relationship Factors 35
Joan Vondra, Helen Bittmann Sysko, and Jay Belsky
3 Adolescent Mothers and Their Children:

An Ecological Perspective 73
Tom Luster and Julie Laser Haddow
4 Fathers: Cultural and Ecological Perspectives 103

Ross D. Parke, Jessica Dennis, Mary L. Flyr, Kristie L. Morris,
Melinda S. Leidy, and Thomas J. Schofield
vii
viii CONTENTS
II CHARACTERISTICS OF THE CHILD
5 The Effects of Child Characteristics on Parenting 147

Katherine Hildebrandt Karraker and Priscilla K. Coleman
6 Parenting Children with Developmental Disabilities 177

Robert M. Hodapp and Tran M. Ly
III CONTEXTUAL INFLUENCES ON PARENTING
7 Parenting and the Marital Relationship 205

Frank D. Fincham and Julie H. Hall
8 Parenting and Personal Social Networks 235

Moncrieff Cochran and Susan K. Walker
9 The Long Arm of the Job Revisited: Parenting

in Dual-Earner Families 275
Ann C. Crouter and Susan M. McHale
10 Neighborhood and Community Influences on Parenting 297

James Garbarino, Catherine P. Bradshaw,
and Kathleen Kostelny
11 Socioeconomic Status, Ethnicity, and Parenting 319

Birgit Leyendecker, Robin L. Harwood, Lisa Comparini,
and Alev Yalçinkaya
12 Searches for What Works in Parenting Interventions 343

Douglas R. Powell
IV PARENTAL BEHAVIOR AND CHILDREN’S DEVELOPMENT
13 Research on Parental Socialization of Child Outcomes:

Current Controversies and Future Directions 377
Lynn Okagaki and Tom Luster
About the Authors 403
Author Index 411
Subject Index 435

Series Foreword
Monographs in Parenting
Parenting is fundamental to the survival and success of the human race. Ev-
eryone who has ever lived has had parents, and most adults in the world be-
come parents. Opinions about parenting abound, but surprisingly little
solid scientific information or considered reflection exists about parenting.
Monographs in Parenting intends to redress this imbalance. The chief aim of
this series is to provide a forum for extended and integrated treatments of
fundamental and challenging contemporary topics in parenting. Each vol-
ume treats a different perspective on parenting and is self-contained, yet
the series as a whole endeavors to enhance and interrelate studies in
parenting by bringing shared perspectives to bear on a variety of concerns
prominent in parenting theory, research, and application. As a conse-
quence of its structure and scope, Monographs in Parenting will appeal, indi-
vidually or as a group, to scientists, professionals, and parents alike. Re-
flecting the nature and intent of this series, contributing authors are drawn
from a broad spectrum of the humanities and sciences—anthropology to
zoology—with representational emphasis placed on authorities actively
contributing to the contemporary literature in parenting.
Parenting is a job whose primary object of attention and action is the
child—children do not and cannot grow up as solitary individuals—but
parenting is also a status in the life course with consequences for parents
themselves. In this forum, parenting is defined by all of children’s principal
caregivers and their many modes of caregiving. Monographs in Parenting en-
compass these central themes in parenting.
ix
x SERIES FOREWORD
WHO PARENTS?
Biological and adoptive mothers, fathers, single-parents, divorced and re-

married parents can be children’s principal caregivers, but when siblings,
grandparents, and nonfamilial caregivers mind children their parenting is
pertinent as well.
WHOM DO PARENTS PARENT?
Parents parent infants, toddlers, children in middle-childhood, and ado-

lescents, but special populations of children include multiple births, pre-
term, ill, developmentally delayed or talented, and aggressive or with-
drawn children.
THE SCOPE OF PARENTING
Parenting includes genetic endowment and direct effects of experience

that manifest themselves through parents’ beliefs and behaviors; parent-
ing’s indirect influences take place through parents’ relationships with
each other and their connections to community networks; the positive and
negative effects of parenting are both topics of concern.
FACTORS THAT AFFECT PARENTING
Evolution and history; biology and ethology; family configuration; formal

and informal support systems, community ties, and work; social, educa-
tional, legal, medical, and governmental institutions; economic class, de-
signed and natural ecology, and culture—as well as children themselves—
each helps to define parenting.
THE NATURE, STRUCTURE, AND MEANING

OF PARENTING
Parenting is pleasures, privileges, and profits as well as frustrations, fears,

and failures. Contemporary parenting studies are diversified, pluralistic,
and specialized. This fragmented state needs counterforce in an arena that
allows the extended in-depth exploration of cardinal topics in parenting.
Monographs in Parenting vigorously pursues that goal.
—Marc H. Bornstein
Series Editor
Introduction
Tom Luster
Lynn Okagaki
Parenting: An Ecological Perspective was created to answer questions such as:

Why do parents differ markedly in the ways in which they care for their chil-
dren? What factors contribute to individual differences in parenting behav-
ior? The framework used for addressing these questions is the ecological
perspective developed by our mentor and friend, Urie Bronfenbrenner.
Bronfenbrenner (1979, 2000) recognized that children’s development is
influenced by the interactions that they have over time with the people, ob-
jects, and symbols in their immediate environment; he referred to these as
proximal processes. Of particular importance are the increasingly complex
and reciprocal interactions that occur between children and their parents
as children develop. Both the enduring and emotional nature of the rela-
tionship between a parent and a child make it a powerful force in the devel-
opment of both parties. When asked about his views on what children need
most to develop optimally, on various occasions Bronfenbrenner re-
sponded that what children need more than anything else is someone who
is crazy about the child (Hamilton & Luster, 2003). Typically the people
who have the strongest emotional attachment to the child are his or her
parents.
Although parents typically share strong feelings of love and concern for
their children, they differ in the ways they approach the task of caring for
their children. Bronfenbrenner recognized that the proximal processes
that occur in the home and other settings depend on characteristics of the
child that reflect both genetic predispositions and the child’s history of ex-
xi
xii INTRODUCTION
periences up to that point in time. Proximal processes are also influenced

by the unique characteristics of the parents and other individuals who inter-
act with the child; characteristics of the parents, such as their personality,
childrearing beliefs, educational background, and psychological well-
being, affect parents’ day-to-day interactions with their children and how
the relationships with their children evolve. In addition to the characteris-
tics of child and the parent, the interactions between the child and parent
are influenced by the context in which the relationship is occurring. The
context includes aspects of the immediate setting such as other relation-
ships in the household, including the parent’s relationship with a spouse or
partner. The parent’s relationships with other members of their social net-
works, including relatives and friends, are also important. Network mem-
bers provide informational, instrumental (e.g., child care), and emotional
support for parents; they can also be sources of stress and take time away
from child care activities. Other contexts also influence parent–child inter-
actions; these include the parents’ work place and the neighborhood con-
text. These other settings may influence parents’ values and childrearing
beliefs, their concerns for their children, and their perceptions of the op-
portunities available to their children. The transactions that occur in the
home environment and other important setting are also influenced by so-
cioeconomic status, ethnicity, and culture. In addition, parenting behavior
is influenced by parent education and family support programs designed to
enhance the quality of care that parents provide. Clearly, many factors play
a role in the way parents care for their children.
Drawing on the work of Bronfenbrenner, Jay Belsky (1984) developed
an influential model on the determinants of parenting. Belsky identified
three main determinants of parental behavior: (a) the personality and per-
sonal resources of the parent; (b) characteristics of the child; and (c) con-
textual sources of stress and support. In addition, the developmental his-
tory of the parents, including all of their experiences prior to becoming a
parent, was viewed as an important influence on the parents’ personality
and personal resources. The organization of this volume is based on Bel-
sky’s conceptual model. The first part of the book focuses on the character-
istics of the parent. In the first chapter, Okagaki and Bingham summarize
the research on parents’ social cognitions—beliefs, attitudes, perceptions,
attributions, and expectations. They review studies that have focused on
why parents differ in their social cognitions and the relation between par-
ents’ ideas about children and caregiving and their behavior. This is fol-
lowed by Vondra, Sysko, and Belsky’s chapter on the personality and devel-
opmental history of the parent. This chapter examines the relation
between the Big Five personality factors and parenting behavior. It also ex-
plores reasons for continuity and discontinuity between patterns of
parenting across generations. Why do some people who experienced poor
INTRODUCTION xiii
parenting as children manage to provide very supportive care for their chil-
dren while others with similar backgrounds struggle in their parenting
role? Chapter 3 focuses on adolescent mothers and their children. Al-
though intuitively it seems reasonable that age and maturity are important
influences on parental behavior, Luster and Haddow conclude that other
factors are likely to be more important influences on how they parent than
their age; these factors include who becomes an adolescent parent and the
context in which adolescent mothers care for their children. A fourth char-
acteristic of the parent that is likely to influence behavior is the parent’s
gender. To date, much of the research on parenting has focused on mater-
nal behavior. However, in recent decades there has been growing interest
in the parenting behavior of fathers. In Chapter 4, Parke, Dennis, Flyr, Mor-
ris, Leidy, and Schofield review this research on fathers.
The second part of the book examines characteristics of the children.
Karraker and Coleman provide a comprehensive overview of research on
how children and parents influence each other’s behavior over time. How
parents respond to their children is likely to depend on the children’s age,
temperament, gender, and other factors. Some children have special needs
which require parents to adjust their practices to accommodate these
needs. Hodapp and Ly summarize research on parents with special needs
children in Chapter 6.
The third part of the book focuses on contextual influences on the par-
ent–child relationships. In Chapter 7, Fincham and Hall focus on the mari-
tal relationship. This is followed by Cochran and Walker’s review of re-
search on social networks. Chapter 9 explores the world of work; Crouter
and McHale discuss links between parents’ experiences in the workplace
and their behavior in the home. Garbarino, Bradshaw and Kostelny con-
sider the many ways in which neighborhoods influence children directly
and indirectly via their parents; risks and assets vary by neighborhood and
parents adjust their parenting strategies based on their perceptions of their
neighborhood characteristics. In Chapter 11, Leyendecker, Harwood,
Comparini and Yalç2nkaya consider the unique and combined influences
of socioeconomic status and ethnicity. In many communities, programs
have been designed to influence parenting behavior and ultimately the de-
velopment of their children. Powell reviews the literature on these interven-
tion programs in Chapter 12, noting both the effects of these programs and
changes in the questions that have been addressed by evaluators of these
programs.
The first edition of this book was published more than a decade ago.
Since that time, there has been a plethora of research on parenting prac-
tices, and these new findings are incorporated into each of the chapters of
the second edition of the book. In addition, new chapters were added to
each of the three parts of the book. Part I was expanded to include a chap-
xiv INTRODUCTION
ter on fathers. A chapter on special needs children was added to Part II.
Part III includes new chapters on socioeconomic status and ethnicity, and
parenting education programs. These additional chapters make the book a
more comprehensive resource for scholars and students interested in why
parents do what they do.
The final chapter differs from the earlier chapters in that it considers the
extent to which parents influence the development of their children. During
the past decade, several scholars have raised questions about much influence
parents have on their children’s development; they have also questioned the
methods that have been used to examine parental influences on children’s
development. Parenting research has been criticized by researchers who em-
ploy behavioral genetics designs to study human development (Scarr, 1992;
Rowe, 1994). These critics point out that studies of parents and their biologi-
cal children make it difficult to disentangle the effects of nature and nurture.
Another critic, Harris (1998), proposed that over the long run, peers have a
more enduring effect on children’s personality development than parents.
In the final chapter, we discuss the concerns and the evidence of those who
have been critical of socialization researchers. We also summarize some of
the evidence and counter-arguments put forth by parenting researchers in
response to these criticisms. The last chapter was written primarily for stu-
dents who are not familiar with these debates. It is intended to help them un-
derstand why scholars have reached differing conclusions about the role that
parents play in children’s development.
Having been influenced by Bronfenbrenner’s work, we recognize that
children’s development is influenced by myriad factors including genetic
endowment, peers, and parents. Proximal processes that occur in the home
are among the most important influences on children’s development. For
this reason we believe that it is essential to understand factors influencing
experiences in the home. Which factors influence the way parents interact
with their children, structure the home environment, and help their chil-
dren understand the world beyond the home? This book summarizes the
latest research on parenting, with each chapter providing a look at one im-
portant influence and the linkages among the various factors. An ecologi-
cal perspective draws attention to the fact that the lives of parents and chil-
dren are intertwined, and that understanding influences on parents is
important for understanding the experiences of children.
REFERENCES
Belsky, J. (1984). The determinants of parenting: A process model. Child Development, 55,
83–96.
Bronfenbrenner, U. (1979). The ecology of human development: Experiments by nature and design.
Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
INTRODUCTION xv
Bronfenbrenner, U. (2000). Ecological systems theory. In A. E. Kazdin (Ed.), Encyclopedia of

psychology (Vol. 3, pp. 129–133). New York: Oxford University Press.
Hamilton, S., & Luster, T. (2003). Urie Bronfenbrenner. In J. R. Miller, R. M. Lerner, L. B.
Schiamberg, & P. M. Anderson (Eds.), The encyclopedia of human ecology (pp. 84–89). Santa
Barbara, CA: ABC-Clio.
Harris, J. R. (1998). The nurture assumption: Why children turn out the way they do. New York: The
Free Press.
Luster, T., & Okagaki, L. (1993). Parenting: An ecological perspective (1st ed.). Mahwah, NJ: Law-
rence Erlbaum Associates.
Scarr, S. (1992). Developmental theories for the 1990’s: Development and individual differ-
ences. Child Development, 63, 1–19.
Rowe, D. (1994). The limits of family influence: Genes, experiences, and behavior. New York: Guilford
Press.
I
CHARACTERISTICS
OF THE PARENTS
1
Parents’ Social Cognitions

and Their Parenting Behaviors
Lynn Okagaki
Purdue University
Gary E. Bingham
Washington State University
INTRODUCTION
In this chapter we examine parents’ social cognitions—beliefs, attitudes,

perceptions, attributions, and expectations—from two perspectives. In the
first section, we ask questions about the origins of parents’ social cogni-
tions. What influences the development of parents’ social cognitions? How
do they develop over time? We look at parental social cognition as a focus of
study and consider the ways in which it emerges as a function of parents’ so-
cial context. As others have argued (e.g., Goodnow & Collins, 1990; Sigel &
McGillicuddy-De Lisi, 2002), the study of parents’ social cognitions is im-
portant in and of itself. They constitute an important aspect of adult cogni-
tive development. In the first edition of this book, Okagaki and Divecha
(1993) reviewed research describing contextual factors thought to influ-
ence the development of parents’ social cognitions following Bronfen-
brenner’s (1979) ecological approach to the study of human development.
For this edition, we limit our discussion to macrosystemic influences on par-
ents’ social cognitions and consider the ways in which broad contextual fac-
tors may shape beliefs, attitudes, perceptions, attributions, and expecta-
tions relevant to childrearing and parent–child relationships. In the second
section of this chapter, we review research on the relation between parents’
social cognitions and their childrearing behaviors. Many have argued that
parents’ social cognitions influence their behaviors and, in turn, children’s
developmental outcomes (e.g., Goodnow, 2002; Holden & Buck, 2002). We
3
4 OKAGAKI AND BINGHAM
consider the evidence that supports these claims. In the final section, we
conclude with our perspectives on developments in research on parental
social cognition that have the potential to move the field forward.
CONTEXTUAL INFLUENCES ON PARENTS’ SOCIAL

COGNITIONS
Before we examine contextual influences on parents’ social cognitions, we

want to define the types of social cognitions that have been the focus of
studies on parenting. An important change in research on parents over the
last decade is that the developmental researchers who have been interested
in parents’ social cognitions have drawn more heavily on research from so-
cial and cognitive psychology and become more sophisticated in their un-
derstanding of social cognition. In earlier studies, many researchers used
the term beliefs interchangeably with other social cognitions, such as atti-
tudes or attributions. This broad usage contributed to Goodnow and Col-
lins’ (1990) adoption of the term parent cognitions to highlight the distinc-
tions among beliefs, attitudes, and attributions and to emphasize that they
are interrelated phenomena.
To the extent possible, we separately consider parents’ beliefs, attitudes,
perceptions, attributions, and expectations in this chapter. Oftentimes, in
the existing research, items included on a scale reflect a mixture of social
cognitions (e.g., beliefs and attitudes), and it is not possible to consider
them separately (Holden & Buck, 2002). Parental beliefs are ideas or
knowledge that parents consider to be factual or true (McGillicuddy-De Lisi
& Sigel, 1995; Sigel, 1985). Research on parental beliefs has encompassed
parents’ ideas about many aspects of parenting, such as childrearing strate-
gies, child development, parent–child relationships, and children’s sibling
relationships. Attitudes build on beliefs by adding an evaluative dimen-
sion—a negative or positive valence—to ideas about the target entity or atti-
tude object (Holden & Buck, 2002). For example, researchers have exam-
ined parents’ attitudes toward the importance of child obedience and the
use of corporal punishment (Danso, Hunsberger, & Pratt, 1997; Holden,
Thompson, Zambarano, & Marshall, 1997; Jambunathan, Burts, & Pierce,
2000). Perceptions are a type of belief. They are ideas about the attributes,
characteristics, and behaviors that an individual develops about a particular
person or social group (Fiske & Taylor, 1991). In the parenting literature,
most of the attention has focused on parents’ perceptions of children’s
characteristics (e.g., temperament) and their perceptions of their own
childrearing ability (i.e., parental self-efficacy). Attributions build on per-
ceptions by assigning or inferring a cause or intention to the observed char-
1. PARENTS’ SOCIAL COGNITIONS 5
acteristics or actions of an individual (Bugental & Happaney, 2002). Re-

search on parental attributions has primarily been conducted in the
context of understanding child abuse. Finally, parental goals and expecta-
tions are the outcomes that parents hope to achieve when they interact with
or socialize their child—the behaviors and traits they want their child to de-
velop (Hastings & Grusec, 1998). Parents’ goals include long-term goals
that represent the type of person parents want their child to become, as
well as the immediate goals that emerge in the context of daily interactions
with the child (e.g., wanting the child to hurry up and get dressed so he
does not miss the school bus; Dix, 1992).
Substantial research documents cultural and social class variation in par-
ents’ social cognitions (e.g., Bornstein et al., 1996; Harkness & Super, 1996;
Harwood, Schoelmerich, & Schulze, 2000). Across these broad social con-
texts, differences have been reported in (a) parents’ beliefs about child-
rearing (e.g., Okagaki & Frensch, 1998), (b) attitudes about parental con-
trol and discipline (e.g., Chen et al., 1998; Gershoff, Miller, & Holden,
1999; Gorman, 1998), (c) perceptions of their own efficacy as parents and
of their children (e.g., Bornstein et al., 1998; Cote & Bornstein, 2003), (d)
attributions (e.g., Hess, Chih-Mei, & McDevitt, 1987) and (e) expectations
for children’s behavior (e.g., Hao & Bornstead-Bruns, 1998; Harwood,
1992). In this section, we highlight a few examples of research on cultural
and social class variation in parents’ social cognitions particularly emphasiz-
ing studies that have attempted to link cultural differences in parenting to
differences in general cultural values or have described parenting in non-
Western cultures within a broader psychological context that is appropriate
to that culture.
Parental Beliefs
A fundamental parental belief has to do with what it means to be a parent.

What is the proper role of a parent? Cultural groups vary in the ways in
which they understand the role and responsibilities of parents. Much of the
research on cultural variation in parents’ social cognitions focused on par-
ents’ informal or folk theories about parenting. For example, Chao (1994)
has examined mothers’ beliefs about childrearing and what it means to be a
good parent. In a study of immigrant Chinese mothers and third-gener-
ation or higher European American mothers in the United States, Chao ob-
served differences in the ways in which mothers defined their roles. For ex-
ample, in contrast to European American mothers, Chinese immigrant
mothers believed that young children should only be cared for by their
mothers or by some other family member. Also in contrast to European
American mothers, the Chinese immigrant mothers placed a strong em-
phasis on training and teaching children. Being a good mother meant that
one started training the child as soon as the child was ready to learn. Chi-
nese immigrant mothers expressed the belief that the primary way in which
mothers express their love to their child is by helping the child succeed, es-
pecially in school. The ideas expressed by the Chinese immigrant mothers
reflect what Chao (1994, 1996, 2000) described as the Chinese concept of
training a child (chiao shun). Similar to the Western concept of parenting
style, training is comprised of beliefs about parental demandingness and re-
sponsiveness to the child. The demandingness dimension of training em-
phasizes “a continuous monitoring and guidance of children” (Chao, 2000,
p. 234). Unlike parenting style, however, the demandingness dimension in
training a child does not include restricting or dominating the child. The
responsiveness dimension of training emphasizes parental involvement and
support, but does not include overt demonstrations of the parent’s affec-
tion for the child (e.g., praising or hugging the child). Thus, the concept of
training a child is similar to the Western understanding of parenting style,
but distinct in important ways and reflects a Chinese conceptualization of
parenting.
Another view of what it means to be a parent comes from Native Ameri-
can communities. Among many Native American nations, the role of the
parent is defined in ways that are distinct from Western models of parent-
ing. For example, in some Native American nations, caring and nurturing
children is a shared responsibility that extends beyond the biological par-
ents to members of the extended family and members of the community.
Primary responsibility for the discipline of the child may be given to grand-
parents, aunts, or uncles (Machamer & Gruber, 1998). Tribal elders may
have a formal role on matters regarding the care of the child ( Joe &
Malach, 1992). To be a parent does not mean that one has sole authority
for making decisions about the child.
The majority of research on ethnic and cultural variation in parenting in
the United States has relied on Western psychological traditions and has
not situated parenting by specific ethnic groups within their own cultural
traditions (e.g., Dornbusch, Ritter, Leiderman, Roberts, & Faleigh, 1987;
Okagaki & Sternberg, 1991; Steinberg, Dornbusch, & Brown, 1992; Stein-
berg, Mounts, Lamborn, & Dornbusch, 1991). Chao’s work (1994, 2000)
on examining immigrant Chinese mothers’ beliefs about parenting from
the Chinese concept of training illustrates development in research on cul-
tural variation in parenting—understanding parenting within the psycho-
logical context of the target culture, rather than using Western psychologi-
cal theories as the framework. More research in this vein—connecting
parents’ social cognitions to broader cultural values within specific cultural
contexts—is needed to increase our understanding of the role of culture in
shaping parental cognitions.
Parental Attitudes
Many studies of cultural variation in parents’ attitudes have compared par-

ents from Western and Eastern Hemispheres (e.g., parents from the United
States and China) in an attempt to examine differences associated with the
broader cultural values of individualism and collectivism. For example,
Chen and colleagues (1998) compared European Canadian mothers’ and
Chinese mothers’ attitudes toward their child’s responses to novel situa-
tions. In this instance, the attitudes of Canadian parents of European origin
who traditionally hold a more individualistic orientation that values inde-
pendence were compared with those of Chinese parents who traditionally
value mutual interdependence.
In any group of infants or toddlers, variation in responses to novelty exists.
Some children are relatively relaxed when confronted with an unfamiliar sit-
uation and show few indications of distress. Other children react to novel ob-
jects and situations with high anxiety and try to remain close to their mother
or other primary caregiver. They do not readily explore novel objects or eas-
ily interact with unfamiliar people. These actions are indicators of behavioral
inhibition. In this study (Chen et al., 1998), the researchers observed that
Chinese mothers and European Canadian mothers had quite distinct atti-
tudes toward behavioral inhibition. In Chinese families, mothers viewed be-
havioral inhibition in toddlers as a positive trait. Behavioral inhibition was
positively associated with maternal acceptance of the child and maternal be-
lief in encouraging children’s achievement. In contrast, in Canadian fami-
lies, behavioral inhibition was negatively associated with maternal acceptance
and encouragement of children’s achievement. Among Chinese families,
children who displayed higher levels of behavioral inhibition had mothers
who were less likely to believe that physical punishment is the best way to dis-
cipline the child and who were less likely to feel angry toward the child. How-
ever, maternal punishment orientation was positively correlated with behav-
ioral inhibition in Canadian families (i.e., mothers whose children displayed
higher levels of behavioral inhibition were more likely to believe that physical
punishment was the best discipline strategy). In short, behavioral inhibition
was associated with positive attitudes in Chinese mothers and negative atti-
tudes in Canadian mothers. Although these attitudes toward behavioral inhi-
bition are quite opposite from each other, each one is consistent with the
broader values of its culture.
Within the context of identifying specific cultural influences on parent-
ing, religion has been posited to be a source of attitudes and beliefs related
to childrearing. To date, the majority of research on parental social cog-
nitions and religion has focused on parents’ attitudes and beliefs about dis-
cipline (e.g., Bartkowski & Ellison, 1995; Danso, Hunsberger, & Pratt,
1997). For example, Gershoff and colleagues (1999) examined parents’ at-
titudes toward corporal punishment in mainline Protestant, conservative

Protestant, and Roman Catholic parents as well as parents who identified
themselves as unaffiliated with a religious group. Consistent with findings
from other studies, conservative Protestant parents were more likely to be-
lieve that corporal punishment was an effective childrearing strategy and
had more positive attitudes toward the use of corporal punishment. Ellison
and colleagues have argued that belief in the utility of corporal punishment
reflects specific religious beliefs held by conservative Protestants—beliefs in
the sinfulness of human nature, in the need for punishing sins, and in the
Bible as an infallible guide for parenting practices (Bartkowski & Ellison,
1995; Ellison & Sherkat, 1993).
As in research on the variation in parents’ beliefs across cultural groups,
research on the variation in parents’ attitudes across groups needs to ex-
plicitly test hypothesized links between general beliefs and values and spe-
cific parenting attitudes. For example, researchers might explicitly measure
collectivism and individualism as well as parents’ attitudes toward behav-
ioral inhibition to determine if observed differences in parents’ attitudes
toward behavioral inhibition are, in fact, related to differences in parents’
attitudes about collectivism and individualism. Similarly researchers might
explicitly measure parents’ religious beliefs and assess the degree to which
belief in specific religious tenets is associated with parents’ attitudes toward
specific disciplinary practices within religious groups as well as across
groups. Such studies would move the field beyond mere speculations that it
is these broader cultural beliefs and values that lead to differences in paren-
tal attitudes.
Parental Perceptions
Less research has examined cultural differences in parents’ perceptions.

However, like parents’ beliefs and attitudes, parents’ perceptions about
their own parenting abilities (i.e., parenting efficacy) does appear to vary
across cultural groups. Parents in some cultures express less confidence in
their childrearing skills on average than do parents in other groups (Born-
stein et al., 1996; Bornstein et al., 1998). For example, although Italian and
Japanese mothers described themselves as being as willing, or more willing,
to invest time and effort into their parenting than did mothers from the
other nations, they expressed less confidence in their childrearing skills as
compared to mothers in Argentina, Belgium, France, Israel, and the
United States.
Not surprisingly, parents’ perceptions of their parental efficacy also var-
ies by childrearing strategy. Parents are more confident in their abilities to
enact some childrearing skills relative to other childrearing strategies. For
example, Perozynski and Kramer (1999) found that mothers of young chil-
dren were more confident than fathers in their ability to use strategies that
involved reasoning or talking to the child. In contrast, fathers reported
greater confidence than mothers in their ability to use strategies that used
directives (e.g., “Stop fighting!”) or the threat of force.
Parental Attributions
Cultural values appear to be an important factor to consider when examin-

ing parents’ attributions about children’s positive and negative behaviors
(Chiang, Barrett, & Nunez, 2000) and attributions about children’s aca-
demic achievement (Hess et al., 1987). For example, several studies have
documented that Asian parents (e.g., parents from Japan, Taiwan, and the
People’s Republic of China) and Asian American parents (e.g., U.S. or Ca-
nadian parents of Asian descent) as compared to European American par-
ents attribute the effort the child directs toward school work to be a more
important contributor to the child’s academic success (e.g., Hess et al.,
1987; Okagaki & Sternberg, 1991; Stevenson & Lee, 1990).
Cultural variation also exists in parents’ attributions about successful
parenting. In a study of mothers of 20-month-old children, mothers from
Argentina, Belgium, Italy, Israel, Japan, and the United States identified
causal factors contributing to successes and failures in seven parenting
tasks. For example, mothers were asked if being able to successfully comfort
their child when he or she cries was due to their parenting ability (e.g., “I
am good at this”), effort (e.g., “I have tried hard”), mood (e.g., “I am in a
good mood”), task difficulty (e.g., “This is easy to do”), or a child character-
istic (e.g., “My child makes this easy to do”). The degree to which mothers
attributed success to specific factors varied across nations. Japanese mothers,
for example, were less likely than mothers from all other nations to attribute
success to their own ability and more likely to indicate that, when they were
successful, it was because of the child’s behavior (Bornstein et al., 1998).
Parental Goals and Expectations
Much of the research on cultural variation in parents’ social cognitions has

addressed differences in parents’ goals and expectations for their children.
Similar to research on parents’ attitudes discussed previously, research on
parents’ expectations has been framed within the context of broader cultural
values (Bornstein et al., 1998; Goodnow, 1995; Papoušek & Papoušek, 1995).
For example, as previously noted, many Western societies encourage inde-
pendence, self-reliance, and individual achievement among their children
(Spence, 1985; Triandis, 1995; Triandis, Bontempo, Villareal, Asai, & Lucca,
1988). In contrast, in many Asian and Latin American cultures, interdepend-
ence, cooperation, and collaboration are widely held values (Harrison, Wil-
son, Pine, Chan, & Buriel, 1990). Differences in these general cultural values
or expectations for members of communities are associated with differences
in the socialization goals and strategies which parents adopt for their chil-
dren (Harwood, 1992; Ogbu, 1981). As LeVine (1988) observed, differences
in parental goals and expectations arise, in part, because societies have differ-
ent expectations for the adult members of their communities.
Harwood’s (1992) comparison of Puerto Rican and European American
mothers’ goals and expectations for their young children illustrates cul-
tural differences in expectations. As compared to Puerto Rican mothers
from lower-class families, European American mothers from both lower-
and middle-class families were more likely to focus on socialization goals
that related to personal development (e.g., self-confidence, independence,
development of talents and abilities) and self-control (e.g., restraining one-
self from being greedy, aggressive or selfish). For the middle-class Euro-
pean American mothers, 35% of the responses emphasized some aspect of
personal development. In contrast, the Puerto Rican mothers were more
likely to talk about characteristics that focused on being respectful (e.g., be
polite, obedient) and loving (e.g., be friendly, get along with others).
Nearly 40% of the characteristics spontaneously mentioned by the Puerto
Rican mothers were related to respectfulness. In contrast, less than 3% of
the traits mentioned by the middle-class European American mothers fell
into this category. Thus, mothers’ long-term goals for their children dif-
fered across cultural groups, and these differences appear to reflect general
cultural orientations toward individuals and relationships. Although Har-
wood did not measure general cultural values in her study, her data are
consistent with the notion that general cultural values are translated by par-
ents into specific socialization goals for their children.
Substantial attention in the parenting literature has also focused on vari-
ation in parents’ developmental expectations that are associated with dif-
ferences in social class or socioeconomic status (SES). Early research on the
relation between social class and childrearing identified variation in par-
ents’ beliefs about the role of parents and in their expectations and goals
for their children as a function of social class differences (e.g., Kohn, 1963,
1969, 1979; Kohn & Schooler, 1983; Miller, Schooler, Kohn, & Hiller,
1979). Kohn hypothesized that social class differences in paternal goals and
expectations for children were related to differences in the requirements
and expectations fathers needed to meet to succeed in their jobs (Kohn &
Schooler, 1983).
Research by Crouter (1984) supports Kohn’s hypothesis. Through ex-
tensive interviews Crouter found that parents who worked in more partici-
pative environments (e.g., where team meetings are used to discuss issues
and to problem solve) emphasized the importance of cooperation among
family members at home and even adopted some of the strategies used at
work, such as team meetings, to achieve more collaboration and coopera-

tion among their children. Research by Greenberger, O’Neil, and Nagel
(1994) further supports these findings. In their study, parental work com-
plexity (e.g., level of supervising or negotiating) and work challenge (e.g.,
variation and self-direction in work) predicted mothers’ and fathers’ re-
ports of the importance of firm but flexible control in their parenting.
Other research on social class variation in parents’ goals has found that
higher-SES mothers generally give earlier age estimates for children’s at-
tainment of developmental milestones than lower-SES mothers (e.g., Mans-
bach & Greenbaum, 1999; von der Lippe, 1999). For example, in a study of
Israeli parents of 6-month-old children, parents from middle- to high-SES
backgrounds expected their infant to reach cognitive developmental mile-
stones at earlier ages than did low-SES parents (Mansbach & Greenbaum,
1999). In a study of Filipino mothers of preschool-age children, mothers es-
timated the age at which their child would acquire cognitive, psychosocial,
and perceptual–motor skills (Williams, Williams, Lopez, & Tayko, 2000). As
compared to mothers with lower educational attainment, mothers with
higher educational attainment had higher expectations for children’s cog-
nitive and psychosocial development (e.g., emotional maturity, independ-
ence).
Parents’ developmental expectations have also been found to vary across
cultural groups (e.g., Rose, Dalakas, & Kropp, 2002; Schulze, Harwood, &
Schoelmerich, 2001). For example, middle-class European American and
Puerto Rican mothers of 1-year-olds differed in expectations regarding the
age at which infants were typically expected to drink from a cup and use
utensils on their own (Schulze et al., 2001). These differences in maternal
developmental expectations have been linked to differences in cultural val-
ues emphasizing individualistic or collectivistic orientations (Schulze, Har-
wood, Schoelmerich, & Leyendecker, 2002). However, despite the ob-
served differences in developmental expectations across cultural groups, it
should be noted that considerable variation in parents’ expectations has
been found to exist within cultural groups (Harwood, Handwerker, Schoel-
merich, & Leyendecker, 2001; Schulze et al., 2002). In fact, some have ar-
gued that differences in parents’ expectations are more attributable to SES
differences within a culture than differences across cultural groups (Hoff,
Laursen, & Tardif, 2002).
Finally, much of the research on parents’ goals and expectations has fo-
cused on goals related to school achievement. Several researchers have ar-
gued that cultural differences in expectations for children’s school achieve-
ment, along with general beliefs about the value and role of education,
contribute to cross-national differences in children’s school achievement.
For example, in a series of multinational studies, Stevenson and his col-
leagues found that Chinese and Japanese mothers set higher expectations
for their child’s school performance as compared to American mothers

(e.g., Chen & Uttal, 1988; Stevenson, Chen, & Lee, 1993; Stevenson & Lee,
1990; Stevenson, Lee, & Stigler, 1986). These differences in parents’ expec-
tations have been attributed to differences in broader cultural values and
beliefs. For example, Chen and Uttal (1988) posited that Chinese parents
set high expectations for their children’s intellectual performance because
of the high value placed on education both historically and in contempo-
rary China, the cultural emphasis on self-improvement, and the strong cul-
tural belief in human malleability.
According to Ho (1994), Confucian ethics emphasizing obligation to
others rather than individual rights have provided a foundation for par-
ent–child relationships in China, Japan, and Korea and find expression in
parent–child relationships through the notion of filial piety.
Among the filial precepts are: obeying and honoring one’s parents, providing
for the material and mental well-being of one’s aged parents, performing the
ceremonial duties of ancestral worship, taking care to avoid harm to one’s
body, ensuring the continuity of the family line, and in general conducting
oneself so as to bring honor and not disgrace to the family name. (p. 287)
These underlying values may be reflected in parents’ ideas about what it

means to be a good parent and what constitutes a good or virtuous child.
One interpretation of Asian parents’ high expectations is that the expecta-
tions emerge from the belief that good parents will expect their children to
obey and gain honor for the family.
Within the United States, similar differences are found across ethnic
groups. For instance, in a study of Asian American, Latino, and European
American families with fourth- and fifth-grade children (Okagaki &
Frensch, 1998), Asian American parents had higher expectations for their
child’s educational attainment as compared to other parents. Of course,
differences in parents’ expectations may reflect differences in children’s
prior performance (e.g., Entwisle & Hayduk, 1978; Seginer, 1983). A hier-
archical regression in which the previous year’s grades and parents’ percep-
tions of their child’s ability were used to partial out differences in actual
and perceived school performance still resulted in ethnic group differences
in parents’ expectations for their child’s school attainment. This finding
supports the hypothesis that differences in parental expectations are not
simply a response to children’s prior achievements, but may reflect differ-
ences in broader cultural values.
To understand parents’ goals and expectations, we need to consider
more than what parents would ideally like to happen. We can learn about
parents’ goals by examining what they set as minimum expectations for
their children. In their study of Asian American, European American, and
Latino parents, Okagaki and Frensch (1998) asked parents to indicate how
much education they ideally wanted their child to attain; how much educa-
tion they expected their child to receive; and the minimum amount of edu-
cation they would allow their child to receive before the child could termi-
nate his or her education. In all three conditions, Asian American parents
had higher expectations than Latino and European American parents.
Asian American parents ideally wanted their child to earn a graduate or
professional degree. They expected their child to receive a college degree,
and the minimum education that would satisfy the parents was a college de-
gree. In contrast, European American parents ideally wanted their child to
obtain a college degree, expected their child to receive some college educa-
tion, and minimally required their child to graduate from high school. Par-
ents’ expectations for the grades the child received followed a similar pat-
tern. Although all parents indicated that they would be pleased if their
child received an A, Asian American parents were less satisfied if their child
received a B or a C than Latino or European American parents were. In a
related study of high-achieving and low-achieving (as determined by school
achievement test scores) children of Mexican descent (Okagaki, Frensch, &
Gordon, 1995), parents of both high-achieving and low-achieving children
valued education, wanted their children to obtain good educations, and
held similar expectations for the amount of schooling they expected their
children to obtain. Parents of high-achieving and low-achieving children,
however, differed in the minimum educational attainment level that they
set for their children and in their responses to grades of Cs and Ds. Parents
of high achievers set a higher minimum boundary for their children’s
grades and educational attainment. Although about half of the parents in
each group wanted their child at least to complete college, of those who
would be satisfied with less than a college degree, the parents of high
achievers were more likely to want their child to complete at least some col-
lege or vocational training after high school. Parents of high achievers were
also less satisfied with Cs and Ds than were parents of low achievers. Again,
difference in parents’ responses to grades may reflect children’s prior per-
formance. However, when only the responses of parents who reported that
their children normally received As and Bs were examined, parents of low
achievers were still more likely to be satisfied with Cs and Ds than parents of
high achievers. In short, parents’ expectations are multifaceted. They are,
at least, comprised of parents’ ideals, parents’ realistic assessments of what
might happen, and what Goodnow (2002) has called the “bottom line”—
that is, the minimum acceptable performance.
Summary
In this section, we have described ways in which parents’ social cognitions

vary across social contexts. Although the field has described variation in
parents’ social cognitions across groups, the research is limited in three im-
portant ways. First, although researchers have posited that differences in

broad cultural values or orientation lead to differences in specific parental
social cognitions, by and large researchers have not specifically measured
those broad cultural values (e.g., collectivistic and individualistic perspec-
tives) and examined the relations between those values and measures of
parents’ social cognitions. Second, when Western psychologists have exam-
ined parents’ social cognitions across cultural groups, they generally have
done so using a Western psychological model rather than attempting to in-
corporate constructs based on appropriate non-Western psychological the-
ories. As a result, we are prone to misunderstanding the social cognitions of
parents from other cultural groups. Third, because the research is corre-
lational and cross-sectional, it does not demonstrate that social context in-
fluences parents’ social cognitions. Establishing a causal link between con-
textual influences and parents’ social cognitions is particularly important
given previous research and theory suggesting the possibility that parents’
behaviors may influence their parenting beliefs.
PARENTS’ SOCIAL COGNITIONS

AND THEIR CHILDREARING BEHAVIORS
Developmental researchers have primarily examined parents’ social cogni-

tions because they have been hypothesized to be the underlying force di-
recting parents’ childrearing strategies and behaviors (Sigel & McGilli-
cuddy-De Lisi, 2002). Whereas most of the other chapters in this volume
consider the influence that factors outside of the parent have on parental
behaviors, this chapter—like Vondra, Sysko, and Belsky’s (chap. 2, this vol-
ume) discussion of the relations between personality and childrearing—is a
consideration of the relations between characteristics of parents and their
childrearing behaviors. In this section, we examine research exploring the
relations between parents’ social cognitions and their behaviors.
Parental Beliefs and Behaviors
A number of research studies document the relation between various par-

ents’ beliefs and their self-reported or observed childrearing behaviors
(e.g., DeBarysche, 1995; Kinlaw, Kurtz-Costes, & Goldman-Fraser, 2001;
Stevens, 1984). For example, the degree to which mothers believe that chil-
dren’s development can be facilitated by their social environment is posi-
tively correlated with the amount and type of language that mothers use
during mother–child interactions (Donahue, Pearl, & Herzog, 1997). In
this study, mothers who more strongly believed that the social environment
played an important role in children’s development were more likely to use
questions (e.g., requiring the child to think about categories or relation-

ships), as opposed to other forms of communication, to help focus their
child’s attention on important details of a picture while completing a refer-
ential communication task. Other research has demonstrated that moth-
ers’ and fathers’ beliefs about the importance of teaching children mathe-
matics are positively correlated with parents’ self-reports of engaging in
mathematics-related activities with their child (e.g., encouraging the child
to count; Musun-Miller & Blevins-Knabe, 1998).
Although correlations have been obtained between parents’ beliefs and
their behaviors, it is not necessarily clear how to interpret these findings. In
many studies, the correlations between parents’ beliefs and behaviors have
been relatively weak (r < .30) or nonsignificant, particularly when measured
over time (Coleman & Karraker, 2003; Mantizicopoulos, 1997; Sigel &
McGillicuddy-De Lisi, 2002). In other studies, the correlation between par-
ents’ beliefs and behaviors may be a methodological artifact resulting when
parents’ self-reports are used to measure both parents’ beliefs and their
behaviors. One problem inherent in a self-report approach to measuring
parents’ ideas about children and their behaviors toward children is that it
may overestimate the relation between the variables being studied. This
may occur as a result of parents’ failure to adequately report their actual
practices (Goodnow, 2002). Parents may, knowingly or unknowingly, re-
port what they believe to be ideal parenting practices, which may be more
strongly correlated with their beliefs about parenting. A second problem in
interpreting correlations based on parents’ self-report of beliefs and behav-
iors is that correlations between two measures are always stronger when a
single source reports on both measures than correlations between meas-
ures originating from different sources (i.e., shared method variance; Mil-
ler, 1987).
The strength of the correlation between parents’ beliefs and behaviors de-
pends, in part, on the closeness of the match between the content of the be-
liefs and the type of behavior that is measured. A study by Sigel (1992) pro-
vides an illustration of the possible effects of shared method variance and of
the degree of congruence between the content of the beliefs and the type of
observed behavior. Sigel examined relations between parents’ beliefs and
their behaviors using multiple methodologies. During a semistructured in-
terview, fathers and mothers responded to vignettes designed to tap their
ideas about how children learn in four knowledge domains: physical knowl-
edge (dealing with space, time, and distance), social knowledge (knowledge
of social rules), moral knowledge (dealing with right-and-wrong issues, such
as cheating), and understanding of self (awareness of inner feelings and
emotional states). Parents’ responses were coded into four categories: (1)
children learn by thinking and reasoning through problems, (2) children
learn through direct instruction, (3) children learn through positive feed-
back and reinforcement, and (4) children learn through negative feedback
and punishment. Parents were also asked to describe how they would help
their child learn or solve the problems presented in the vignettes, and these
responses were coded in a similar fashion. Finally, parents were observed
helping their child learn how to tie a knot. Their behaviors were coded to re-
flect the type of teaching strategy they used by indicating the degree to which
the parent required the child to think through the problem himself. Behav-
iors were coded as (a) high cognitive demands (i.e., requiring the child to
think abstractly and consider alternatives), (b) low demands (i.e., requiring
the child to answer focused, concrete questions that require minimal repre-
sentational thinking), or (c) structuring (i.e., facilitating or defining the task
for the child to help move the task along).
In Sigel’s study (1992), parents’ beliefs about how children learn were
related to their descriptions of what they would do if they were helping
their child solve the same problems posed in the vignettes. As expected,
mothers who believed that children learn by thinking through problems
themselves were more likely to report strategies that involved asking ques-
tions that required children to think abstractly and consider alternative so-
lutions and were less likely to report giving children explicit instructions for
solving the problem (r = .72 and r = −.60, respectively). On the other hand,
mothers who believed that children learn through direct instruction were
less likely to report that they would ask questions to help their child think
through the problem and more likely to report giving explicit instructions
(r = −.60 and r = .56, respectively). The degree to which fathers believed
that children learn by thinking through problems on their own was posi-
tively correlated with fathers’ reports of asking questions (r = .77); but the
degree to which fathers believed that children learn through direct instruc-
tion was not related to fathers’ reported use of this strategy. Meanwhile, fa-
thers’ beliefs about direct instruction were negatively related to their re-
ported use of distancing strategies (r = −.37). In general, the correlations
between beliefs and self-reported behaviors were moderately strong.
Examinations of the relation between parents’ reported beliefs and
their observed parenting behaviors revealed weaker associations. First, the
degrees to which mothers and fathers believed that children learn by
thinking through problems were unrelated to the frequency with which
they asked their child questions during the knot-tying task. However, the
degree to which fathers believed that children learn through direct in-
struction was negatively correlated with the degree to which fathers asked
questions that required their child to think through the problem (r =
–.34). The degree to which mothers believed that children learn through
direct instruction was positively related to how they talked to their child
about the steps that were necessary to complete the task (i.e., structured
the task for the child; r = .27).
The difference in the strength of the correlations between self-reported

beliefs and self-reported behaviors and between self-reported beliefs and
observed behaviors illustrates, first, that correlations tend to be stronger
when the measurement method is similar (i.e., shared method variance).
Second, the difference may reflect the lack of correspondence in the type
of problem used in the observed parent–child interaction (i.e., the knot-
tying task) and the types of problems used to elicit parents’ beliefs about
children’s cognitive development (e.g., physical, social, moral, and emo-
tional knowledge). As Sigel (1992) observed, parenting strategies may be
context sensitive. The same vignettes were used to elicit parents’ beliefs and
their self-reported behaviors. However, the knot-tying task used for observ-
ing parents’ teaching behaviors was entirely different in content and struc-
ture to the vignettes.
In contrast to Sigel’s study, the following study provides an example of a
closer match between the content of the beliefs and the observed child-
rearing behavior, and stronger correlations were obtained. DeBaryshe
(1995) examined the relation between mothers’ early literacy beliefs (e.g.,
mothers’ beliefs about the importance of reading to young children, their
role as educator, and the importance of making reading a fun experience
for the child) and the frequency of mothers’ questions and mother–child
conversations during joint book reading interactions. A moderately strong
correlation was obtained between mothers’ early literacy beliefs and the
quality of mother–child joint book reading interactions (r = .48). Given
these findings, one explanation for variation in the strength of belief–be-
havior correlations is the degree to which the content of the belief being
measured matches the nature of the observed parenting behavior.
Parental Attitudes and Behavior
Much of the research on the relations between parents’ attitudes and their
behaviors has focused either on parenting style (e.g., Daggett, O’Brien,
Zanolli, & Peyton, 2000; Gorman, 1998; Holden & Miller, 1999) or the qual-
ity of the home environment (e.g., Benasich & Brooks-Gunn, 1996; Iverson
& Segal, 1992; Kochanska, Kuczynski, & Radke-Yarrow, 1989). For example,
Benasich and Brooks-Gunn (1996) found that maternal childrearing atti-
tudes were positively related to the quality of the home environment, as
measured by the Home Observation Measurement of the Environment.
In a study of Puerto Rican mothers and their preschool-age child, moth-
ers’ attitudes toward authoritative parenting behaviors (e.g., encouraging
child to talk about feelings) and authoritarian parenting behaviors (e.g.,
parents should control parenting) were correlated with mothers’ behaviors
during a mother–child teaching task (Vargas & Busch-Rossnagel, 2003).
Mothers were asked to teach their child how to build two Tinkertoy models.
The frequencies with which mothers asked questions, gave direct instruc-
tions, praised, scolded or showed verbal disapproval, modeled or demon-
strated what to do, were physically affectionate, and used physical control
were coded. Significant, but weak, correlations were obtained between
mothers’ childrearing attitudes and their teaching behaviors. The degree
to which mothers endorsed authoritative childrearing beliefs was positively
correlated with asking questions and praising their child during the teach-
ing task. However, there was no correlation between authoritarian
childrearing attitudes and parenting behaviors.
Parental Perceptions and Behavior
Although researchers for decades have recognized that both parents and
their children are active agents in the socialization process, only recently
have examinations of parenting behavior begun to seriously consider po-
tential influences of the child on parents’ behaviors (Grusec, Goodnow, &
Kuczynski, 2000). One mechanism by which children may influence their
parents’ behaviors is through parents’ perceptions of children’s character-
istics and behaviors. For example, previous research has linked parents’
perceptions of difficult temperaments (Dadds, 1987), discipline problems
(Bates, Bayles, Bennet, Ridge, & Brown, 1991; Nix et al., 1999), and inatten-
tiveness or impulsivity (Russell, 1997) to childrearing behavior and the
quality of the parent–child relationship.
Parents appear to adapt their childrearing strategies to account for their
perceptions of their child’s abilities or special needs. In families with typi-
cally developing children, researchers have examined the ways in which
childrearing changes according to the developmental needs of the child.
For example, Cicognani and Zani (1998) found that parents of adolescents
often adopt a more flexible parenting style in order to cope with their per-
ceptions of their child’s changing developmental needs. Research on chil-
dren with special needs has linked parents’ perceptions of children’s ability
to family functioning (Blacher, Nihira, & Meyers, 1987) and childrearing
behaviors (Marks & Dollahite, 2001).
One limitation of the research examining the relations between parents’
perceptions of their child to their childrearing behavior is that most of it is
correlational and limited to data collected at one point in time. Few studies
have examined whether parents’ perceptions of children’s abilities or char-
acteristics are related to subsequent parental behavior. A notable exception
is a study of the relation between parents’ perceptions of their child’s shy-
ness and their subsequent parenting style (Rubin, Nelson, Hastings, &
Asendorpf, 1999). At 2 years of age, children’s behavioral inhibition was ob-
served in a laboratory setting and mothers’ and fathers’ ratings of child shy-
ness and their own parenting style were collected via self-report. At 4 years
of age, mothers and fathers completed additional self-report measures of
child shyness and parenting style.
Mothers’ and fathers’ perceptions of their child’s early shyness at age 2
directly predicted their reports of parenting behaviors that encouraged
child independence 2 years later. Mothers and fathers who perceived their
child as being shy at age 2 were less likely to encourage the child’s inde-
pendent behavior at age 4. However, the relation between early shyness and
self-reported parenting practices was not replicated when observers’ ratings
of child shyness at age 2 were substituted for parents’ reports of shyness in
the analysis. These data are consistent with the hypothesis that it appears to
be parents’ perceptions of their young child’s temperament, rather than
the child’s observed level of inhibition, that directly influences parents’
self-reported behaviors over time (Rubin et al., 1999).
Because parents’ perceptions of child temperament and their child-
rearing behaviors were both assessed using self-report measures, the ob-
tained relations may be a methodological artifact (i.e., shared method vari-
ance). The researchers, however, argued that by using structural equation
modeling, they were able to control for shared method variance better than
with other types of analyses and therefore have stronger support for par-
ents’ perceptions mediating the relation between child’s characteristics
and parent’s behaviors.
Perception of parental efficacy has also been posited to influence parent-
ing behaviors (e.g., Coleman & Karraker, 1998). For example, mothers and
fathers who were more confident about their ability to use specific parent-
ing strategies have been found to be more likely to use those strategies
when managing conflict between their children (Perozynski & Kramer,
1999). Mothers who felt more confident in their ability to perform control
strategies (e.g., threatening to punish children) were more likely to use
these strategies. Mothers were more likely to use a passive nonintervention
approach (e.g., ignored the conflict, let the children work out conflict)
when they believed that this was an effective strategy for managing sibling
conflicts and when they believed that they could effectively use this tech-
nique. The results for fathers were not as straightforward. Fathers’ percep-
tions of their ability to use control strategies or passive nonintervention
strategies were not related to their use of these strategies. Rather, the only
relation that emerged was between fathers’ use of control strategies and
their perception of their inability to implement child-centered strategies.
Fathers who viewed child-centered strategies as an effective way to resolve
sibling conflict but who doubted their ability to use such strategies were
more likely to use control strategies, rather than child-centered strategies,
during the observed sibling conflicts.
Parental Attributions and Behavior
Much of the research on parental attributions has focused on understand-

ing the attributions of parents who are at risk for abusing their children
(Bugental & Happaney, 2002; Coplan, Hastings, Lagace-Seguin, & Moul-
ton, 2002). For example, Dadds, Mullins, McAllister, and Atkinson (2003)
examined the relation between maternal attributions about children’s be-
havior, reported parenting practices, and observed mother–child interac-
tions in a study of mothers and their preschool-age child. Two groups of
mothers were included in this study, mothers who were at risk for abusing
their child—defined as those having children with behavioral problems—
and mothers of typically developing children. Mothers were videotaped in-
teracting with their children in a laboratory setting and then interviewed re-
garding their emotions and attributions while watching videotaped interac-
tions of themselves and their child.
Dadds and colleagues (2003) found that the two groups of mothers dif-
fered in their attributions and reported parenting behaviors. Upon viewing
the videotape segments, mothers at risk for abusing their child were more
likely to attribute their child’s positive behaviors to external causes (e.g.,
the child was happy because of all the toys), reported being less happy
about their child’s behavior, and reported that they would use more coer-
cive strategies (e.g., threaten or enact physical punishment) in response to
the child’s behaviors than mothers of typically developing children. In con-
trast, mothers of typically developing children were more likely to attribute
positive behaviors to internal characteristics of the child (e.g., child’s per-
sonality). Examinations of the relation between the attributions of at-risk
mothers and their self-reported parenting behaviors revealed that mothers’
attributions predicted behavior in ambiguous situations (e.g., child’s be-
havior is neither overtly positive or negative) only. In these settings, the
more the mother attributed ambiguous child behavior to internal factors
and saw the child as naughty, the more likely the mother was to report a co-
ercive parenting response. This finding suggests that at-risk mothers appear
to attribute negative intentions to rather innocent or ambiguous child be-
havior and as a result are more likely to respond with more coercive
parenting strategies. Although Dadds and colleagues (2003) found no rela-
tion between parenting attributions and actual parenting behavior, other
research suggests that parents’ attributions play an important role in par-
ents’ disciplinary practices.
In an experiment with 44 middle-class, European American mothers of
2-year-old children, Slep and O’Leary (1998) provided evidence of a causal
relation between maternal attributions and actual parenting behavior. Dur-
ing the first laboratory visit, mothers completed questionnaires and a short
interview. Before the second visit, mothers were randomly assigned to one
of two groups—the child-responsible group or the child-not-responsible

group. During the second visit, mothers in the child-responsible group
were taught that children were responsible for their own behaviors and that
they misbehave to get their way and attract attention. Mothers in the not-
responsible group were told that children’s misbehavior is generally unin-
tentional—young children, for example, lack the developmental maturity
or have not yet developed self-control skills to handle situations. Mothers
were then observed while they played with their child and as they helped
their child clean up after the activity. After the play period, mothers were
shown two short videotaped segments of this interaction and were asked
questions regarding their emotional state and indirect and direct
attributional assessments of their child.
No differences on outcome measures existed between mothers in the
child-not-responsible and child-responsible groups before participation in
the experiment. After the experimental intervention, mothers in the child-
responsible condition attributed higher levels of control and more negative
intentions to their child in response to their child’s misbehavior than did
mothers in the child-not-responsible group—indicating that the experi-
mental manipulation worked to change mothers’ beliefs about the reasons
for children’s misbehavior. More important, observers blind to the experi-
mental condition judged the child-responsible mothers as being harsher
and displaying more anger when they disciplined their child than mothers
in the child-not-responsible condition. These data provide evidence that
parents’ attributions can affect their behaviors.
Parental Expectations and Behaviors
Intuitively one would expect parents’ goals and expectations for their child
to be related to parents’ childrearing behaviors. Relatively little research,
however, has directly assessed the relation between parents’ goals and ex-
pectations and their behaviors. In a series of studies, Hastings and Grusec
(1998) tested the hypothesis that parents’ goals are related to their self-
reported disciplinary strategies. In one of these studies, mothers and fa-
thers were presented with a series of vignettes describing parent–child
interactions (e.g., behaving badly in a grocery store, wanting to watch televi-
sion before chores are completed) and were asked what they would do in
each situation. Parents were then given a pregenerated list of goals and
were asked to rate how important each goal was in the context of each vi-
gnette. The goals reflected the degree to which parents (a) wanted their
child to obey and comply with their requests within a specific situation, (b)
wanted to teach their child important values, and (c) wanted to develop
and maintain a close parent–child relationship. As hypothesized, parents
who focused on obedience and compliance were more likely to report us-
ing coercive strategies and less likely to use reasoning or responsive

parenting strategies. On the other hand, parents who emphasized teaching
broad values were less likely to use control tactics. A limitation to this study,
of course, is that there was no measure of parents’ actual behaviors, and the
significant correlations between self-reported beliefs and behaviors may be
due to shared method variance.
One reason for not finding strong relations between parents’ goals and
their behaviors is that parents’ hopes and expectations may not be accom-
panied by an accurate knowledge of how to make them achievable (e.g.,
Okagaki, Frensch, & Gordon, 1995). Such a gap may be more likely to oc-
cur when parents want their children to obtain a goal that lies outside their
usual routines and the tacit knowledge of their social group (Goodnow,
2002). For example, in their study of African American and European
American first- and second-grade students’ reading and math achievement,
Alexander and Entwisle (1988) found that over time African American
mothers’ expectations for their child’s reading and math achievement were
less in tune with children’s actual attainment than those of European
American mothers. When reporting academic expectations, African Ameri-
can mothers failed to attend to indications of child preparedness, previous
test performance, and maturity. Alexander and Entwisle (1988) argued that
although the African American mothers highly valued schooling, they ap-
peared to lack the experience, knowledge base, and personal resources for
effective academic follow-through.
Summary
In this section, we examined the relation between parents’ social cognitions

and their parenting behaviors. In general, the research reviewed to this
point shows low to moderate correlations between parents’ beliefs, atti-
tudes, perceptions, attributions, and expectations and their parenting be-
havior. A major limitation of many studies is their correlational nature. The
Slep and O’Leary (1998) study is the notable exception to correlational
studies of the relations between parents’ social cognitions and behaviors.
The ability to understand and establish a causal connection between par-
ents’ social cognitions and parenting behaviors has important implications
for parenting intervention and education programs. As parenting interven-
tions seek to change parents’ behaviors, one mechanism by which this may
occur is through parents’ cognitions. Consequently, if an intervention pro-
gram can change parents’ beliefs, one could then look for a corresponding
change in parenting behavior. Studies like that of Slep and O’Leary are of
significance because they give evidence that parents’ beliefs can be manipu-
lated to some degree and this manipulation does, in fact, influence parent-
ing behaviors. More research that seeks to causally connect parenting be-
liefs and behaviors in this manner is necessary next step.
MOVING FORWARD IN RESEARCH ON PARENTS’

SOCIAL COGNITIONS
In the past decade, researchers have begun to take a more complex view of
parents’ social cognitions and use more sophisticated approaches to exam-
ine the relations between parents’ social cognitions and their childrearing
behaviors. In this final section, we discuss new research developments and
highlight the types of changes that we believe will move the field forward.
Complexity of Parents’ Social Cognitions
Parents’ social cognitions and their relations to parenting behaviors are

more complex than researchers initially acknowledged, whether one stud-
ies parents’ beliefs, attitudes, perceptions, attributions, or expectations.
One of the most obvious ways in which the complexity of parents’ social
cognitions emerges and subsequently complicates identifying the relations
between social cognitions and parenting behaviors has to do with the rela-
tions among parents’ social cognitions. Current theorists (e.g., McGilli-
cuddy-De Lisi & Sigel, 1995; Sigel & McGillicuddy-De Lisi, 2002) posit that
parents’ social cognitions do not function as separate, distinct factors that
have a one-to-one effect on childrearing behaviors. Rather, social cogni-
tions are thought to be interrelated such that some social cognitions may
act together to potentially direct a childrearing behavior or one might
moderate the effect of another on a specific behavior.
Brody, Flor, and Gibson (1999) found this to be the case in their study of
African American families. In this study, mothers’ perceptions of adequate
family finances and their parental efficacy and their developmental goals
were interrelated. When mothers perceived family resources to be more ad-
equate, mothers were more likely to perceive their parenting as being effi-
cacious. Parental efficacy was, in turn, related to mothers’ goals for their
child. The degree to which mothers perceived themselves as being effective
parents was correlated with the degree to which mothers set higher expec-
tations for their child.
Second, researchers have begun to consider the ways in which parents’
social cognitions develop over time—to recognize that parents’ social cog-
nitions are not static. Researchers have suggested that when individuals first
become parents, their beliefs and attitudes about childrearing are largely a
function of their childhood experiences with their own parents (Daggett et
al., 2000). After parents begin to accumulate experiences with their own
child, with the success or failure of childrearing strategies, and with unan-
ticipated parenting situations, they may refine their initial beliefs and ac-
quire new ideas and attitudes related to childrearing. Goodnow (2002) has
hypothesized that it is during transitions in parenthood (e.g., when one
first becomes a parent, when the child becomes an adolescent, when the ad-
olescent becomes a young adult and leaves the home) that parents are most
open to new ideas about parenting and to advice from others.
In a study of first-time mothers-to-be, Scott and Hill (2001) examined
mothers’ beliefs prior to and 6 months after the birth of the infant. Among
other findings, after 6 months of parenting, the mothers were less likely to
believe that infants’ behavior should be controlled by parents and more
likely to believe that nurturing behaviors (e.g., showing love and affection
toward child) were important. In addition, mothers’ attitudes toward
breastfeeding were less positive after the birth than prior to the birth. This
finding suggests mothers may have preferred to breastfeed their infant, but
that interaction with their infant or the experience of breastfeeding itself
contributed to a change in these attitudes. It may simply have been that
mothers’ initial conceptions of breastfeeding their infant were unrealistic
and romanticized and that after the experience of breastfeeding their in-
fant, their attitudes toward breastfeeding were based on a more realistic un-
derstanding of what it entails.
Another illustration of change and development in parents’ social cog-
nitions comes from a study of mothers’ attitudes toward corporal punish-
ment (Holden et al., 1997). Researchers asked mothers of a 3-year-old child
questions about their attitudes toward corporal punishment and if their at-
titude was the same as it had been before they were parents. Because the
data were retrospective, the evidence for change is weaker than in the previ-
ous study, but nonetheless interesting. About two thirds of the mothers re-
ported that their attitudes towards spanking had changed since they had
become a parent. About half of these mothers indicated that they went
from having a positive attitude toward spanking to being against spanking.
The other half changed from being against spanking to becoming more
positive toward it. Almost all of the mothers (87%) who reported develop-
ing a more positive attitude toward spanking indicated that experiences
with their child had led to the change in attitude. For example, mothers re-
ported they began to use spanking as a disciplinary strategy because they
needed to use a stronger response to get their child’s attention or they per-
ceived their child as being very independent and determined such that the
child needed a strong disciplinary strategy in order for the parent to gain
some control over the child. Among those mothers who became less in fa-
vor of spanking, the majority (65%) reported that something about the
child led them to change their attitude. For example, mothers indicated
that they did not think that spanking worked with their child or the child
responded so negatively to being spanked that the mother was motivated to

try other methods of discipline.
A third way in which researchers have begun to recognize the complexity
of parents’ social cognitions and their relations to parents’ behaviors is by
attending to the congruence between the content of the social cognition
and the type of behavior being measured. Haight, Parke, and Black (1997),
for example, examined parents’ beliefs about children’s pretend play and a
play session involving the parents with their child. In this study, parents
were observed playing with their child at 24, 30, and 36 months of age and
were interviewed about their preferred type of parent–child interaction
(e.g., pretend, rough and tumble, and book reading) and their beliefs
about the developmental significance of such activities. The results reveal
that mothers’ beliefs about the importance of pretend play in promoting
their child’s development and ratings of the importance of parental partici-
pation in this type of play predicted the proportion of parent–child play
time spent in pretend play (r = .34 and r = .36, respectively). Although the
correlations between beliefs and behaviors for mothers were modest, when
compared to previous findings suggesting weak or no relation between
mothers’ beliefs and behaviors, they appear to support the assertion that
examining the congruence between the content of the social cognition and
the type of behavior being measured is important.
Methodological Developments
Over a decade ago, developmental researchers were challenged to utilize

work by social and cognitive psychologists in order to forward our under-
standing of parents’ social cognitions (e.g., Goodnow, 1988; Goodnow &
Collins, 1990; Holden & Edwards, 1989). To date, our progress has not
taken advantage of many innovative approaches from other psychological
sciences, and exhortations to strengthen the methodologies used by par-
enting researchers continue (e.g., Goodnow, 2002; Holden & Buck, 2002).
Data on parents’ social cognitions, for example, have generally been ob-
tained through self-report questionnaires. Much empirical evidence has ac-
cumulated documenting the pitfalls to creating good items and good in-
struments for obtaining reliable, valid, and interpretable data (e.g., see
Schwarz, 1999). Inconsistent results across studies may result, in part, from
the use of different instruments and a lack of attention, for instance, to how
rating scales, reference periods, question format, and surrounding ques-
tions can affect parents’ responses.
Social and cognitive psychologists have used experimental paradigms to
determine the effects of social cognitions on the ways in which individuals
process information, make decisions, and behave. Using priming tech-
niques, social psychologists have determined, for example, that stereotypes
about an individual’s social group can affect performance in domains that

are important to the individual’s self-concept—a phenomenon that Steele
has labeled stereotype-threat (Steele, 1997). Evoking negative stereotypes in
experimental settings has been shown to lower math performances of
women (Spencer, Steele, & Quinn, 1999) and of European American men
(where the negative stereotype was a comparison to Asian students; Aron-
son et al., 1999). General stereotypes about fathers’ ineptness with infants,
for instance, might affect fathers’ caregiving behaviors with their infant.
Social psychologists have long known that preexisting social cognitions
about a person or situation affect the way in which individuals process new
information relevant to that person or situation (Fiske & Taylor, 1991). Ini-
tially, when people are in the process of developing beliefs, perceptions,
and attitudes about a person—a schema of that person—they are open to
new information. Over time, however, that schema or view of the person be-
comes established, and anomalous information tends to be disregarded or
made to fit with the existing view. For example, in experimental conditions
using priming techniques, evoking positive or negative attitudes about a
person diminishes an individual’s ability to perceive change in that person
(Fazio, Ledbetter, & Towles-Schwen, 2000). Consider the parent who has
been struggling to encourage his adolescent son to behave more responsi-
bly, to act more maturely, and to conform to what the father sees as being
more conventional ways of presenting oneself in public. If the father’s con-
ception or schema of his son is set, is the father less likely to notice and sup-
port the small changes in the son’s behavior as the son moves toward adult-
hood?
Finally, we consider work on implicit social cognition. Greenwald and
Banaji (1995) have applied an implicit memory or implicit cognition model
to understanding social cognition. Implicit memory refers to instances in
which the memory of an experience is not accessible to the individual at the
level of conscious recall of the experience, but it affects performance. One
hypothesis for explaining the lack of consistent, strong correlations be-
tween self-report of social cognitions and observed behaviors is that social
cognitions may affect behavior at a subconscious level—that is, when indi-
viduals cannot directly recall or are not consciously aware of drawing on
those social cognitions to inform their behavior. In experimental studies,
for example, when people judge individuals who are physically attractive
and unattractive, they generally attribute more positive characteristics to
and rate more favorably the work of those who are attractive (e.g., Eagly,
Ashmore, Makhijani, & Longo, 1991). However, those who are making
these judgments are not consciously aware that their judgments are influ-
enced by their stereotypes of attractive and unattractive people—that they
are affected by implicit social cognitions. The previous examples of stereo-
type threat and of instances in which preexisting schemas interfere with the
processing of anomalous data are also consistent with an implicit social cog-
nition framework. Greenwald and Banaji suggest that social cognitions may
generally be expressed in behavior through an implicit mode. Research on
implicit social cognitions and parenting behaviors may result in stronger
and more consistent relations between the two.
CONCLUSION
In this chapter we have considered the development and maintenance of

parents’ social cognitions with a specific focus on how these cognitions are
related to parenting behavior. Our examination of research on parents’ so-
cial cognitions is in three areas. First, we considered how ecological factors
serve as a source for the development of parents’ social cognitions. Given the
limitations of space in this chapter, we focused our discussion on macro-level
factors, culture and SES, that appear to impact the development and mainte-
nance of parents’ social cognitions. Our review suggests that parents’ ideas
appear to be related to broader cultural values. However, our knowledge of
the role that culture and SES play in the formation of beliefs is limited. Few
studies have specifically measured these broader cultural values and explic-
itly correlated them with measures of parents’ social cognitions. Researchers
have also relied too heavily on Western psychological perspectives and theo-
ries when studying non-Western cultures. Finally, given the correlational and
cross-sectional nature of the majority of research on parents’ social cog-
nitions, our understanding of actual causal influences on the development
and maintenance of parents’ social cognitions is limited.
Second, we considered research that connects parents’ social cognitions
to their parenting behaviors. One overarching theme of this research is
that, although parents’ social cognitions have been linked with parenting
behavior, the majority of these links are weak. Further, research on parents’
social cognitions and behaviors has generally failed to verify a causal rela-
tion between the two. Another limitation of current belief–behavior re-
search is the way in which parents’ social cognitions are measured (e.g.,
mixing different types of social cognitions into a single scale, low reliability
of scales). Much research relies on parents’ reports to measure both social
cognitions and behaviors, which may inflate the relation between the two.
Third, progress is being made in better conceptualization and measure-
ment of parents’ social cognitions. Promising methodologies and theoreti-
cal perspectives have emerged from social cognitive research. These ap-
proaches should prove useful in helping us gain a better understanding of
the interrelated nature of parents’ social cognitions, as well as a clearer pic-
ture of the degree to which social cognitions connect to parenting behav-
iors, particularly over time.
Identifying the relations among parents’ social cognitions, and between

social cognitions and childrearing behaviors, may provide keys to under-
standing what drives parenting behaviors. Theoretically this type of work
also addresses the broader psychological questions of how different social
cognitions are related to each other and how competing (or related) social
cognitions may affect a specific behavior. Pragmatically a better under-
standing of the relation between social cognitions and behavior should
strengthen our ability to develop effective parent intervention programs.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We would like to thank Tom Luster and Marc Bornstein for their helpful
editorial comments with previous drafts of this manuscript.
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2
Developmental Origins
of Parenting: Personality
and Relationship Factors
Joan Vondra
University of Pittsburgh
Helen Bittmann Sysko

Mercy Behavioral Health
Pittsburgh, PA
Jay Belsky
Birkbeck University of London
INTRODUCTION
The premise and starting point for this, and probably any, discussion of
parenting is a simple one. Individual differences in parenting depend on
who the parent is, first, as an individual psychological agent and, second, as a
partner in close relationships. All the intrinsic qualities that shape an individ-
ual’s psychological functioning—his or her personality and temperament,
physical and mental health, intelligence, maturity, gender, physical attrac-
tiveness and so on—will also shape what kind of partner he or she is in close
relationships. These same qualities will also influence what kind of partner
he or she chooses for close relationships, as well as the quality of the relation-
ship the two co-create. Every close relationship, in turn, has important effects
on the Psychological well-being and functioning of each partner.
These points have several implications for a discussion of the develop-
mental origins of parenting. First, there is an inherent confound in any ex
post facto investigation of parenting: Psychological functioning and rela-
tionship functioning are inextricably interconnected. One cannot take the
“person” out of the parent any more than one can separate the “person”
from the relationship in which he or she is a partner. This is as true of a par-
ent in a parent–child relationship as it is of a parent in his or her adult inti-
35
36 VONDRA, SYSKO, BELSKY
mate relationships. Therefore, when we choose to discuss personality at

one point, relationship history at another, and developmental and experi-
ential effects at still another, the distinction is, in many ways, an artificial
one. Every association studied between past or current parent psychological
functioning, relationship behavior, relationship quality, and child function-
ing reflects some of the same key psychological differences between people,
as well as differences in how their relationships are played out.
Second, it would be presumptuous to consider only experiential factors
that contribute to individual differences in parenting. Obviously, both indi-
vidual and relationship functioning, and even the effects on the individual
of relationship functioning, have a greater or lesser basis in parent physiol-
ogy and genetic inheritance (Reiss & Neiderhiser, 2000). Associations and
group differences that are reported and discussed in this chapter should al-
ways be viewed from the lens of biology and genetics as well as that of social-
ization and experience. An even-tempered individual who responds to cry-
ing infants and squabbling siblings with calmness and equanimity, is more
likely to be a spouse who doesn’t fly off the handle in the face of some irrita-
ble criticism by his or her partner. This may be an adult with more consis-
tency in ambient levels of hormones across the day ( Jacklin, 1989) which is,
in turn, a product of genetic predisposition, a generally calm and relaxed
home environment when growing up, selection of a reasonably well-
adjusted partner, current family circumstances, and so forth. It seems quite
clear from recent research that one’s physiology (and therefore psychologi-
cal functioning) reflects current environment as well as genetics and past
experience (Reiss & Neiderhiser, 2000).
We begin our analysis with a summary of evidence suggesting that per-
sonality characteristics and relationship attributes contribute to individual
differences in parenting. We also discuss hypothesized processes of influ-
ence linking personality and relationships with parenting functioning. We
then examine theoretical and research models of the impact of develop-
mental history on individual and dyadic functioning in adulthood. We at-
tempt to highlight work that elaborates both conditions of continuity and
discontinuity across generations and over time. It is worth noting that evi-
dence for either inoculating or cataclysmic effects of early parenting—
when within the normal range—is sparse. Instead, the interplay of genes,
physiology, and experience continually shapes and reshapes the develop-
ing individual, even as familiar patterns of functioning often re-emerge, but
also re-form over time.
PERSONALITY AND PARENTING
Some two decades ago, Belsky proposed a model of the determinants of

parenting that assigns to personality a central role in filtering sociocon-
2. DEVELOPMENTAL ORIGINS OF PARENTING 37
textual influences on parenting (Belsky, 1984; Belsky & Vondra, 1985). In

essence, he argued that the impact of marriage, work, social support, and
developmental history on parenting are, in part, mediated through their ef-
fects on individual psychological functioning. For example, a conflicted
marital relationship may alter parental (and child) functioning directly, as
when disagreement about childrearing interferes with effective child guid-
ance. But much of the impact may be expressed through changes in paren-
tal psychological functioning. Increased parental distress, irritability, and
depression resulting from marital conflict may lead to impatience, inconsis-
tency, and/or emotional unavailability as a parent. In the long run, experi-
ences of victimization, emotional coercion, powerlessness in a relationship,
and a host of other emotional lessons may alter how a parent understands
and adapts in relationships, even reshaping how he or she relates to his or
her children over time. In the earlier edition of this volume (Vondra &
Belsky, 1993), we devoted the section on personality and parenting to three
general topics: parental psychological differentiation, negative affectivity,
and psychological impairment. In this edition, we focus more exclusively
on personality characteristics as they are conceptualized within the Big Five
factor model of personality, described below. This is not to deny the critical
influence of psychological health and maturity on parenting. Work based
on clinical samples of depressed mothers (Carter et al., 2001; Murray &
Cooper, 1997; Radke-Yarrow, 1998), parents battling alcoholism (Eiden,
Chavez, & Leonard, 1999; Whipple, Fitzgerald, & Zucker, 1995; Zucker &
Gomberg, 1986) and drug use (Beckwith, Howard, Espinosa, & Tyler, 1999;
Burns, Chethik, Burns, & Clark, 1997; Dunn et al., 2001), and parents with
other forms of mental illness (Hipwell, Goossens, Melhuish, & Kumar,
2000) continues to demonstrate associations between chronicity and sever-
ity of psychological disturbance and impairment in parental caregiving.
Those forms of mental illness that most interfere with parent attentional
and emotional responsiveness to their children appear most disruptive to
their capacity to provide supportive care. Likewise, psychological maturity
or immaturity, intelligence, and level of empathy—qualities broadly cap-
tured within the construct of psychological differentiation—are also fairly con-
sistently implicated in correlational studies of parenting differences (Mc-
Groder, 2000; van Bakel & Riksen-Walraven, 2002).
Across the continuum from psychological differentiation and maturity
to psychological disturbance and mental illness, the story line is similar. As
personal psychological resources increase, so does a parent’s ability to take
the perspective of the child, avoid attributing negative intent to child trans-
gressions, and provide sensitive care. Parent personality and adjustment
are, in some sense, the most proximal determinants of parenting. Thus,
parent psychological functioning is arguably the linchpin for a host of con-
textual factors that affect parenting.
We choose in this edition to focus more exclusively on variation in major

characteristics of personality that have been identified through studies of
nonclinical populations. Thus, we shift our lens away from the health/pa-
thology dimension of psychological functioning to the personality dimen-
sion. However, in both cases, it is important to think in terms of bi-direc-
tional influence. That is, both psychological health and personality shape
and are shaped by a person’s physiology (e.g., neural reactivity and regula-
tion), as well as by his or her choices: whether to stay on or leave school,
what jobs to pursue and how to behave in the workplace, which friends and
intimates to select and how to contribute to those relationships, whether or
not to plan for pregnancy, and so forth. To varying degrees, a person
chooses and alters his or her context, but the experiences that ensue then
alter the person (e.g., Kim, Conger, Elder, & Lorenz, 2003).
In this section, we describe major facets of adult personality and their
connections to parenting. We organize discussion of personality and
parenting around these core dimensions of personality, then consider psy-
chological mechanisms that may account for how personality comes to be
related to parenting.
The Big Five Model of Personality
Despite early interest by psychoanalytically oriented investigators in paren-

tal personality characteristics and their effects on parenting behavior, the
study of these issues was interrupted by important shifts within the field of
personality psychology during the 1970s and into the 1980s (see Caspi,
1998, for review). A major contribution to the re-emergence of personality
as an important area of inquiry came from acknowledging and embracing
The Big Five factor model of personality, which did much to organize a
rather disparate area of inquiry. The Big Five factors—neuroticism, extra-
version, openness to experience, agreeableness, and conscientiousness—
were identified first by Tupes and Christal (1961), who found through fac-
tor analytic techniques that long lists of personality variables compiled by
Cattell (1943, 1945) could be reduced to five broad-band personality fac-
tors. This five-factor structure has since been replicated in diverse samples
and across numerous raters, including self, peers, and clinicians ( John &
Srivastava, 1999).
Neuroticism. Neuroticism reflects adjustment versus emotional instabil-

ity, and measures of neuroticism identify individuals prone to psychological
distress, unrealistic ideas, excessive cravings or urges, and maladaptive cop-
ing responses. A person scoring high on this trait worries a lot, is nervous,
emotional, insecure, and feels inadequate, whereas a person scoring low is
calm, relaxed, unemotional, hardy, secure and self-satisfied. Because factor
analytic studies indicate that indices of the negative emotions of anxiety,

hostility and depression all load on a single factor (Costa & McCrae,
1992)—whether measured as states or traits—some prefer to use the term
negative affectivity rather than neuroticism (Tellegen, Watson, & Clark,
1999; Watson & Clark, 1984). The important point is less what this trait is
called than what this trait reflects. And the fact that it reflects the proclivity
or disposition to experience anxiety and hostility as well as depression
raises important questions about all the work carried out on depression and
mothering in the field of developmental psychology over the past two dec-
ades. One is forced to wonder whether studies in which only depressive
symptoms are measured report data pertaining only to depression and
mothering or, instead, capture negative affectivity more generally, includ-
ing anxiety and hostility. Until these other negative-emotion facets of neu-
roticism are examined in studies (of normal and clinical samples) that also
include measures of depressive symptoms or even diagnoses of clinical de-
pression, it will be impossible to address this issue.
The fact that the empirical literature is the way it is means that much of
the work to be considered in this section deals with depressive symptoma-
tology. But we restrict ourselves here to research dealing with depressive
symptoms measured as a continuous variable in nonclinical samples because
it is highly likely that higher and lower scores on measured depression also
reflect higher and lower scores, respectively, on the broader construct of
neuroticism/negative affectivity. We begin with investigations focused on
parents of infants and proceed developmentally from that point forward.
During the infancy period, (maternal) depression has been the facet of
neuroticism receiving the most empirical attention. Although the evidence
is not always consistent, there is repeated indication, even in nonclinical
samples, that mothers experiencing more symptoms of depression provide
less sensitive care to their infants. This was the case in the work of the
NICHD Early Child Care Research Network (1999), in which depressive
symptoms and sensitivity were repeatedly measured in a sample of more
than 1,000 mothers across the first three years of their child’s life. Similarly,
Crockenberg (1987) reported in a study of teenage mothers that those re-
porting more psychological distress engaged in simple custodial and un-
stimulating care of their infants more often than other mothers. And when
Zaslow and associates (1985) examined relations between mothers feeling
“blue” on eight or more days since the birth of their 4-month-old children
and maternal behavior, they observed that increased sadness predicted less
smiling at, less speaking with, and less touching of the infant. In addition to
undermining active involvement with the infant, negative affectivity may
also promote negative and intrusive maternal behavior, as Diener and col-
leagues’ (1995; Goldstein, Diener, & Mangelsdorf, 1996) correlational data
on adolescent Latino mothers and infants suggested.
During the preschool and middle-childhood years similar results obtain.

In one investigation of rural African-American and European-American
families, for example, high levels of emotional distress (i.e., anxiety, depres-
sion, irritability) among mothers were related to low levels of positive
parenting (e.g., hugs, praise) and high levels of negative parenting (e.g.,
threats, slaps, derogatory statements) during the course of structured par-
ent–child interactions, and also to strong endorsement of authoritarian
childrearing values (Conger et al., 1984). When Zelkowitz (1982) studied
low-income African-American and European-American mothers of 5- to 7-
year-olds, she further observed that high levels of anxiety and depression
predicted high expectations for immediate compliance on the part of the
child, but inconsistency in following up when the child did not comply. Fur-
thermore, high levels of psychological distress were associated with more
hostile and dominating behavior, less reliance on reasoning and loss of
privileges when disciplining the child, and more intensive demands for the
child’s involvement in household maintenance (Longfellow, Zelkowitz, &
Saunders, 1982).
During the teenage years, neuroticism or negative affectivity continues
to be associated with problematic parenting. For example, Gondoli and
Silverberg (1997) reported that mothers who experienced emotional dis-
tress (i.e., depression, anxiety, low self-efficacy) were less accepting of their
teen’s behavior during problem solving discussions and were less suppor-
tive of the youth’s psychological autonomy than other mothers. In an analy-
sis of almost 1,000 mothers and fathers of 10- to 17-year-olds interviewed as
part of a national survey, Voydanoff and Donnelly (1998) found that feel-
ing sad, blue, tense, tired, and overwhelmed was related to parents not par-
ticipating in activities with their children, though such negative affectivity
proved unrelated to parental monitoring. In a series of studies, Conger and
associates (1992, 1993, 1995; Simons, Beaman, Conger, & Chao, 1993) in-
vestigated family interaction patterns in a large sample of Iowa farm fami-
lies and posited both direct and indirect effects of negative affectivity on
maternal and paternal behavior. Depressive symptoms predicted more
harsh and inconsistent discipline on the part of both mothers and fathers
(Conger, Patterson, & Ge, 1995; Simons et al., 1993) and less nurturant be-
havior by both parents when interacting with sons (Conger et al., 1992),
though not daughters (Conger et al., 1993). Furthermore, for both moth-
ers and fathers and sons and daughters, elevated levels of parental depres-
sive symptoms predicted increased marital conflict and, thereby, lower
levels of nurturant parenting (Conger et al., 1992, 1993). Such indirect
pathways of possible influence of parental psychological functioning on
their parenting are consistent with Belsky’s (1984) process model of the de-
terminants of parenting. Finally, Brody and associates (2002) showed that
higher levels of depressive symptoms (in concert with lower levels of opti-
mism and self-esteem) predict less involved/vigilant parenting and lower

quality mother–teen discussions in their short-term longitudinal study of
150 African-American families living in single-parent families in the rural
South.
In sum, whether one considers research on infants, toddlers, preschool-
ers, school-age children, or adolescents, there is repeated evidence that
high levels of depressive symptoms—even in nonclinical samples—and of
other facets of neuroticism, including anxiety and irritability/hostility, are
related to less competent parenting. This statistical effect can take the form
of less active and involved parenting, as well as more negative, intrusive,
and overcontrolling parenting.
Extraversion. Extraversion reflects the quantity and intensity of inter-

personal interaction, activity level, need for stimulation and capacity for joy
that characterize individuals. A person scoring high on extraversion is con-
sidered sociable, active, talkative, person-oriented, optimistic, fun loving,
and affectionate, whereas a low scoring individual is reserved, sober, un-
exuberant, aloof, task oriented, retiring, and quiet. One might anticipate,
on the basis of this description, that extraverted individuals might function
better as parents than less extraverted parents, if only because parenting is
a social task involving another, though dependent, person. On the other
hand, one might imagine that high levels of extraversion and especially of
sociability predispose one to be interested in more adult social exchange
than is often experienced by a parent, particularly one who remains home
all day with children.
Although the database is by no means extensive, in general the evidence is
supportive of the first prediction, namely that of a positive association be-
tween extraversion and sensitive, responsive, emotionally engaged, and stim-
ulating parenting. Levy-Shiff and Israelashvilli (1988) found that Israeli men
scoring high on extraversion showed more positive affect and engaged in
more toy play and teaching with their 9-month-olds in their homes than men
scoring low on extraversion. Mangelsdorf and her colleagues (1990) de-
tected similar personality-parenting associations when studying mothers of 9-
month-olds. Belsky, Crnic, and Woodworth (1995) replicated both sets of
results during the course of naturalistic home observations with mother, fa-
ther, and their 15- and 21-month-old toddlers, finding that mothers and fa-
thers alike who were more extraverted expressed more positive affect toward
their children and were more sensitive and cognitively stimulating when ob-
served at home. Finally, in a study of mothers, fathers, and their children up
to 8 years of age, more extraverted parents reported engaging in more posi-
tive supportive parenting, such as displaying positive affection and encourag-
ing independence (Losoya, Callor, Rowe, & Goldsmith, 1997). Apparently,
the link between extraversion and positive parenting is not restricted to the
infant–toddler period. To date, however, there are no studies linking this

personality trait with parenting during the adolescent years.
Agreeableness. Agreeableness reflects one’s interpersonal orientation

along a continuum from compassion to antagonism in thoughts, feelings,
and actions. A person scoring high on this trait is soft-hearted, good-
natured, trusting, helpful, forgiving, gullible, and straightforward, whereas
a person scoring low is cynical, rude, suspicious, uncooperative, vengeful,
ruthless, irritable, and manipulative. Clearly, the prediction regarding par-
enting is that more agreeable individuals would make better parents—at
least from the child’s perspective. As it turns out, only four studies have ex-
amined the relation between this particular personality trait and parenting,
two of which have been noted. In the aforementioned toddler work by
Belsky et al. (1995), higher levels of agreeableness predicted greater mater-
nal (but not paternal) positive affect and sensitivity and lower levels of neg-
ative affect and intrusive–overcontrolling behavior. Consistent with these
findings, Losoya et al. (1997) found in their study of parents with children
as old as 8 that agreeableness was positively associated with supportive
parenting and inversely associated with negatively controlling parenting.
Kochanska, Clark, and Goldman (1997) observed that lower levels of agree-
ableness were related to more power-assertive and less responsive parenting
in their study of toddlers, although in other work by the same research
team, only the agreeableness–responsiveness association was replicated
(Clark, Kochanska, & Ready, 2000). Thus, preliminary evidence shows
some consistency with the hypothesis advanced.
Openness to Experience. The person who is open to experience tends to

enjoy new experiences, has broad interests, and is very imaginative; in con-
trast, a person scoring low on this trait is down-to-earth, practical, tradi-
tional, and pretty much set in his ways. Predictions from this trait to
parenting are less straightforward than was the case with respect to the
other Big Five traits considered to this point. Only two investigations of
parenting have explored openness to experience, with one showing that Is-
raeli fathers who were more open to experience engaged in more physical
caregiving of their infants than fathers less open to experience (Levy-Shiff
& Israelashvilli, 1988), perhaps because the father role itself is a new experi-
ence worth exploring for these kinds of men. The other study found that
openness was related to more supportive parenting among mothers and fa-
thers alike (Losoya et al., 1997).
Conscientiousness. Conscientiousness reflects the extent to which a per-

son is organized and has high standards, always striving to achieve his or her
goals. An individual who scores low on conscientiousness is easygoing, not
very organized, somewhat careless, and not especially planful. Once again,
it is not exactly clear how this trait should relate to parental behavior, as it
seems possible that, however attractive high conscientious may appear—es-
pecially to an employer—it could prove too demanding to a child. At the
same time, disorder and chaos, in contrast to organization, are typically not
in children’s best interests, so one could imagine low levels of conscien-
tiousness also predicting parental behavior that might not be especially sup-
portive of children’s functioning. The aforementioned study by Losoya et
al. (1997) that examined this trait in relation to the childrearing attitudes
and practices of mothers and fathers with children under 8 years of age
found conscientiousness to be positively related to supportive parenting
and inversely related to negative, controlling parenting. Clark and associ-
ates (2000) chronicled similar relations when looking at mothers of tod-
dlers, finding that more conscientious mothers are more responsive and
less power assertive than less conscientious mothers. However limited, the
evidence to date suggests that conscientiousness and positive parenting go
together.
Processes Linking Personality and Parenting
This brief examination of research on personality and parenting suggests

that, if one could choose one’s parents, the most beneficial choice would be
parents who are low in neuroticism, high in extraversion and agreeable-
ness, and perhaps high in openness to experience and conscientiousness.
These individuals seem more supportive, sensitive, responsive, and intellec-
tually stimulating, apparently irrespective of the child’s age. But it is one
thing to observe, as we have, that a parent’s personality is predictive of his
or her parenting, and quite another to understand the mechanisms respon-
sible for this relation. Two possibilities have received some limited atten-
tion in the literature, but deserve more. The first involves attributions, the
second, mood and emotion.
There is increasing appreciation in developmental research that attribu-
tions play an important role in close relationship processes, including those
in the parent–child relationship (MacKinnon-Lewis, Castellino, Brody, &
Fincham, 2001). Models of social cognition that have been advanced in the
marital, developmental, and social psychology literatures (e.g., Bradbury &
Fincham, 1990; Dix, Ruble, & Zambarano, 1989; Dodge, 1986) have been
applied to the study of parenting (e.g., Nix et al., 1999). For example, par-
ents who think their child is whining because he is tired are inclined to re-
spond to the child in a manner quite different (i.e., sensitively) than when
they believe the child is trying to manipulate them. Bugental and Shennum
(1984) showed that mothers with more dysfunctional attributional styles re-
sponded to children in ways that maintained or enhanced difficult behav-
ior, a finding that was experimentally reproduced by Slep and O’Leary

(1998), who manipulated parent attributions in a challenging situation.
Johnston and Patenaude (1994) found that parents were more likely to re-
gard oppositional–defiant child behavior as under the child’s control than
inattentive–overreactive behavior, and this accounted for why the former
evoked more negative parental reactions than the latter.
The fact that such attributions predict much the same parenting behav-
ior that personality characteristics predict raises the possibility that one
means by which personality shapes parenting is via attributions: Person-
ality→Attributions→Parenting. Is it the case, for example, that neurotic
rather than agreeable parents are most likely to attribute negative intent to
their young children’s negative affect and behavior? If so, does this dy-
namic account for why these personality traits predict parenting in the ways
they do?
Because attributions themselves are linked to emotion, it is reasonable to
wonder further about the role that emotion plays in mediating effects of
personality on parenting. After all, in the aforementioned study by Slep
and O’Leary (1998), manipulating mothers’ attributions affected the de-
gree to which they felt angry at their children. Emotion is central to the per-
sonality traits of neuroticism (negative affectivity) and extraversion (some-
times viewed as positive affectivity).
Two studies to date have examined the mediating role of emotion in ac-
counting for personality–parenting relations. In a German investigation of
almost 300 families with 8- to 14-year-old sons, Engfer and Schneewind
(1982) showed, via path analysis, that maternal irritability and nervousness
(i.e., neuroticism) were statistically linked to harsh punishment of their
children via mother’s proneness to anger. Belsky and his colleagues (1995)
tested and found correlational results consistent with an affect-specific proc-
ess—whereby personality could potentially affect mood and, thereby, par-
enting—in their home-observational study of families with toddler sons.
Whereas extraversion, with its emphasis on the experience of positive emo-
tions, predicted mothers’ expressions of positive but not negative affect to-
ward their toddlers, neuroticism, with its emphasis on the experience of
negative emotions, predicted mothers’ expressions of negative but not posi-
tive affect. In light of these results and those concerning attributions, it
seems appropriate to encourage further work examining the potential me-
diating role of attributions and emotionality in accounting for some per-
sonality–parenting linkages, including the proposition that Personality→
Emotions→Attributions→Parenting.
Interestingly, attributions and emotions are at the very core of the con-
struct of “internal working models” that Bowlby (1969/1982) proposed to
understand how infants and children come to experience and internalize
attachment relationships with primary caregivers. Internal working models
are a developmental construct because they are conceived in constructivist

terms, shaping what is perceived and interpreted, but also changing in re-
sponse to what is experienced—literally over the life span. They are proving
a useful tool for understanding how personality and relationship experi-
ences might interface across development, particularly around parenting
(e.g., Cassidy & Berlin, 1994; Cassidy & Kobak, 1988).
We turn now to consider close relationship functioning in adulthood
and how it relates both to personality and to parenting. We argue that
parenting is an adult’s contribution to the close relationship he or she co-
creates with his or her child, but that all of an adult’s close relationships
have relevance and meaning for each other. We return to the concepts of
personality and the attachment internal working model when we invoke
the latter as a developmental mechanism to link early and continuing social
experiences with the style of relationships an adult establishes, whether
with other adults or with his or her own children.
QUALITY OF CLOSE RELATIONSHIPS
Probably in much the same way that personality—and psychological func-

tioning more broadly—appear to play a role in parenting and, conse-
quently, in the nature and style of the parent–child relationship, personal-
ity and psychological functioning affect both how parents relate to other
social partners and what kind of relationship emerges. In this section, we
consider the many ways in which adult psychological, social, and parental
functioning interface.
Personality and Relationship Quality
Correlational data indicate a solid link between individual and relationship

functioning in adulthood. Distressed or dissatisfying marriages, for exam-
ple, tend to involve relatively more distressed or less well-adjusted individu-
als (Kim & Mckenry, 2002; O’Leary, Christian, & Mendell, 1994). As early as
the 1930s, research on the self-descriptions of spouses in happy and un-
happy marriages established this (Terman, 1938). Happily married women
appeared to possess “kindly attitudes toward others” and “expected kindly
attitudes in return,” were “cooperative,” “self-assured,” and “optimistic,”
whereas unhappily married women were emotionally tense, moody, aggres-
sive, irritable, and egocentric (Terman, 1938, pp. 145–146). Within a nor-
mative adult sample, Beach and O’Leary (1993) reported that a subset of
“chronically dysphoric” marital partners were especially likely to report an
increase in depressive symptoms that accompanied downward shifts in early
marital adjustment. But individual and marital adjustment tend to covary
across all levels of functioning (Gotlib, Lewinsohn, & Seeley, 1998; Sarason,
Sarason, & Gurung, 1997).
What is very much unclear in these correlational data is the direction of
effects. Do anxious, depressed, defended, and angry individuals select part-
ners and create relationships that reflect these personality characteristics,
or do distressed, conflicted, and abusive relationships create less agreeable
and more troubled partners? We feel comfortable in arguing that the proc-
ess of influence undoubtedly works in both directions. Long-range longitu-
dinal data suggest that this is the case, at least among clinical populations.
Back in 1966, Robins (see also Robins, 1986) reported that children with
greater antisocial behavior in childhood were more likely in adulthood to
be unemployed, lack social support, experience rejection by friends and
have repeated marital break-ups. Similar findings were documented by
Champion, Goodall, and Rutter in 1995. Bardone and her colleagues
(1996) found that adolescent girls with conduct disorder and, to a lesser ex-
tent, those with depression left school earlier, were more likely to be cohab-
iting with a partner, to have cohabited with multiple partners, to have be-
come pregnant, and to report violence in their relationship by age 21 than
comparison girls without mental illness (and presumably the family circum-
stances that accompany it). Comparable findings have been reported by
Kessler, David, and Kendler (1997) and by Gotlib and colleagues (1998),
who reported earlier and less satisfying marriages among individuals with a
history of adolescent depression. Quality of close relationships in adult-
hood, in other words, is predicted by psychological adjustment in child-
hood and adolescence.
Perhaps even more compelling for the Personality→Relationship path is
the association between childhood problems and selection of a teenage or
adult partner with various mental health problems. Quinton, Rutter, and
their colleagues (Quinton, Pickles, Maughan, & Rutter, 1993; Rutter,
Quinton, & Hill, 1990) found that children removed from their homes as a
result of problems in parenting were more likely than their peers to have a
partner in adulthood with mental health problems or a criminal history.
Referring specifically to depression, Petersen et al. (1993, p. 161) observed
that, “once in a depressed trajectory in development, an individual be-
comes more likely to stay on this course because of the tendency to both
alienate and withdraw from the very social supports that can minimize neg-
ative effects.” Rutter (2000) argued that this observation is applicable in
general to individuals with psychopathology.
However, when an individual with problems or at high risk of problems
during youth manages to select a better-adjusted partner and co-create a
more supportive relationship, he or she demonstrates better than expected
psychosocial functioning in adulthood, suggesting the opposite causal
path: Relationships→Personality and Personal Adjustment. Laub and col-
leagues (Laub, Nagin, & Sampson, 1998) found this true of adults with a
criminal history, and Quinton and Rutter (Quinton & Rutter, 1988; Rutter,
Quinton, & Hill, 1990) documented such life course changes in their sam-
ple of urban, low-income women and men who had been institutionalized
as children due to parenting breakdown in their families. As Rutter (2000)
pointed out, “experiences that people bring about through their own ac-
tions can nevertheless constitute a major risk or protective influence on
their subsequent behavior” (p. 391). The extent to which these actions can
be attributed to genetic inheritance should not, however, be underesti-
mated.
Even studies of parenting interventions testify to a relationship self-selection
effect. In reviewing social support interventions for families in need,
Thompson and Ontai (2000; see also Gomby, Culross, & Behrman, 1999;
Reichman & McLanahan, 2001) discussed the pervasive problem of lack of
participation, lack of engagement, and attrition in all kinds of interven-
tions—including home visitation—when parents are stressed, depressed,
defended, addicted, or otherwise troubled (e.g., DePanfilis & Zuravin,
2002; Gaudin, Wodarski, Arkinson, & Avery, 1990–1991). A parent who has
problematic relationships with children, partners, parents, and/or friends
is especially likely to have problems developing a relationship—therapeutic
or otherwise—with service providers. Without engagement and alliance,
the intervention is unlikely even to take place, let alone be effective (Frai-
berg, 1980; Krupnick et al., 1996).
Conversely, intervention efficacy appears to be concentrated among
those parents who, to a large extent, self-select themselves into the group of
better attending, more involved, and more responsive participants (Gomby
et al., 1999; Thompson & Ontai, 2000) and/or when the intervention in-
volves frequent home visiting sustained for at least a year or more (i.e., with
those parents who have chosen not to drop out), using highly trained home
visitors with low turnover rates (who are presumably more effective in
building therapeutic relationships with less adjusted parents; Brooks-Gunn,
2001). In other words, the link between service intensity and client im-
provement (e.g., Erickson Warfield et al., 2000; Reichman & McLanahan,
2001) may be as much or more a product of client adjustment and motiva-
tion (choosing or being able to participate more fully in the intervention)
than of service efficacy. Better adjusted adults tend to provide better quality
parenting and to make better use of parenting interventions.
Among nonclinical populations, well-adjusted adults tend to have and
perceive supportive relationships both within and outside their homes
(Blum & Mehrabian, 1999; Contreras et al., 1999). But supportive relation-
ships may also foster greater adjustment in those who experience them
(Collins, Dunkel-Schetter, Lobel, & Scrimshaw, 1993; Sarason et al., 1997).
Bost and her colleagues (2002) interviewed rural, working class, European-
American couples four times over their transition to parenthood. Those

husbands and wives who reported relatively more satisfaction with their
friends prenatally and at three months postpartum reported fewer symp-
toms of depression. This association tended to increase in strength over
time from birth through age 2. A similar pattern was observed between sat-
isfaction with one’s spouse and depressive symptoms, with the association
also increasing in strength over the first two years of parenthood. Appar-
ently, as adjustment to a first child unfolds, feelings of support from partner
and friends become more closely bound to feeling good about oneself and
one’s experience.
Relationship Quality and Parenting
If the quality of marital or other close relationships is linked with psychologi-

cal functioning, and psychological functioning is linked to quality of parental
care, it should come as no surprise that marital and social network support
are also associated with individual differences in parenting (cf. Cochran &
Walker, chap. 8, this volume). Among a sample of 62 low-income, African-
American mothers, Burchinal, Follmer, and Bryant (1996) found no effects
of a home visiting program on quality of home environment or maternal in-
teraction, but consistent associations of the latter with social network size.
Mothers reporting larger social networks had more developmentally sup-
portive homes across early childhood (6 months to 4½ years) and were
warmer, more involved, and less directive with their 1½-year-olds.
The associations between mothers’ naturally occurring social support
and their parenting raise several different causal possibilities. First, the
same person with the same psychological functioning is a partner in both
kinds of relationships. One would expect that parents who listen to, share
with, and trust their spouses and friends would generally show greater re-
spect for, involvement in, and patience with their children. At the same
time, one arguably becomes more effective in dealing with emotionally de-
manding situations like parenting when personal and situational needs are
met through a supportive close relationship. Still, the parent who believes
in him or herself, feels deserving of love, has an understanding of relation-
ships as mutually supportive, and holds a belief in his or her own ability to
make personal changes, is probably more likely to leave unsatisfactory rela-
tionships, help create positive relationships, and express greater satisfac-
tion with supportive relationships.
Does research demonstrate the specific kinds of developmental links
among beliefs, social skills, relationship models, social relationships, and
parenting that are argued above? We have already reviewed some of the
simple (zero order) correlations between personality factors, marital rela-
tions, and quality of caregiving. However, only experimental and quasi-
experimental studies begin to demonstrate causal connections and to rule

out connections that are incidental to the key causal influences. Fortu-
nately, a small body of such research, along with a large number of gener-
ally supportive correlational investigations, does exist. This research consid-
ers the significance of developmental history for adult functioning most
relevant to parenting.
THE ROLE OF DEVELOPMENTAL HISTORY
Development History and Adult Psychological Functioning
In this section, we use two areas of research—the developmental origins of

depression and of aggression—to illustrate links researchers are uncover-
ing from developmental history to adult psychological functioning. The in-
creasing emphasis in both areas is on likely mechanisms connecting early
experiences with adult behavior and adjustment. Both highlight the poten-
tial importance of cognitive processes and their accompanying emotional
responses within the Genetic Risk + Environmental Stress + Poor Parenting
link to emerging psychopathology.
Origins of Depression. Beginning in the 1940s with studies by Spitz

(1945, 1946; see also Skodak & Skeels, 1949), who documented features of
a depressive syndrome (termed hospitalism) in infants who had been sepa-
rated from their mothers and institutionalized, there have been numerous
efforts to link experiences of interpersonal loss in childhood and adoles-
cence with later depression and other dysfunction in adulthood (Frommer
& O’Shea, 1973; Harris, Brown, & Bifulco, 1986, 1990). When loss is accom-
panied, as it often is, by poor alternative caregiving, children are consider-
ably more likely to evidence psychological problems in subsequent develop-
ment (Rutter, 1999). According to psychoanalytic—and, later, attachment
principles—such loss can produce intense and unresolved anxiety, guilt,
and anger (see Hesse & Main, 1999, 2000; Main & Hesse, 1990). Without
open communication and psychological processing (Kobak, 1999), these
negative reactions are believed to make an individual emotionally vulnera-
ble to similar feelings later in development in the face of perceived loss,
lack of caring, or perhaps simply major psychological transitions such as be-
coming a parent. Vulnerability to depressive symptoms and a tendency to
experience strong negative emotions, it should be recalled, represent core
features of negative affectivity, and key personality factors associated with
parenting. Thus, evidence to suggest that early experiences contribute to
adult negative affectivity is pertinent to understanding the developmental
origins of parenting behavior.
Experimental evidence supports the notion that a key mechanism un-

derlying and/or exacerbating depressive episodes is negative attributions
(“It’s my fault Tom had that dreadful accident”), negative thoughts (“He’s
just never going to be the same again”), and the ensuing connection to neg-
ative emotions. Cognitive behavior therapy designed to prevent depression
(Clarke et al., 1995; Gillham, Reivich, Jaycox, & Seligman, 1995; Muñoz et
al., 1995) decreases self-reported depressive symptoms. These interventions
help participants understand connections between thoughts and feelings,
generate alternative explanations for negative events, use evidence to select
the best-fitting explanation, and gain skill in coping with conflict and solv-
ing problems. Research indicates that positive intervention effects of cogni-
tive behavior therapy are mediated by a decrease in participants’ negative
thoughts (Cardemil, Reivich, & Seligman, 2002) and/or attributional or ex-
planatory style (Gilham et al., 1995). In other words, the same mechanisms
proposed for linking the Big Five personality characteristics to parenting—
parental attributions and emotions—have also proven valuable as a way to
understand and alter the psychological dynamics underlying depression.
Recent research is further clarifying and enriching this model of envi-
ronmental stress. It appears that those children and adolescents most likely
to respond to loss (or other major negative life events, parental psycho-
pathology, or troubled family relationships) with adult mental illness are
those already at genetic risk for psychopathology. For example, a research
team headed by Cadoret (Cadoret et al., 1995, 1996) found that both adult
depression and adult substance abuse were linked to serious problems in
adoptive homes (in this case, parental psychopathology) only among those
adopted children who had alcoholism documented in their birth parents.
Adoption or twin studies have also established that connections between
family conflict and/or negative life events and later schizophrenia (Tienari
et al., 1985, 1994), alcohol abuse (Cloninger et al., 1981, 1996), and depres-
sion (Silberg et al., 2001) primarily exist or are notably stronger when there
is a genetic background of psychopathology (as assessed in the biological
parents). In other words, two individuals with the same genes (i.e., identical
twins) show different rates of adult psychopathology if only one is exposed
to severe or chronic stress. Likewise, the same problematic home experi-
ences appear to provoke psychopathology only in those individuals (or sib-
lings) with a genetic vulnerability to mental illness.
Noting the critical qualifying role of genetic vulnerability need not, how-
ever invalidate developmental models that propose a Life Stress/Poor
Parenting→Cognitive or Emotional Dysfunction→Adult Psychopathology
path of causality. For those at genetic risk, stress—probably especially in the
context of poor parenting—may exacerbate the tendency toward pessimism,
self-blame, helplessness, and hopelessness that appears to trigger (and, in
part, defines) episodes of depression (Cardemil et al., 2002; Muñoz et al.,
1995; Seligman, Schulman, DeRubeis, & Hollon, 1999). Normative variation

in neuroticism and clinical levels of depression and anxiety, as we have seen,
appear to undermine effective parenting across all developmental periods.
Thus, genetic transmission, modeling of maladaptive cognitive/emotional
responses, and less nurturant, responsive, and consistent care place children
of depressed parents at higher risk for problems of their own in both psycho-
logical and interpersonal (e.g., parenting) adjustment.
Origins of Aggression. A comparable model of Poor Parenting and Envi-

ronmental Stress→Cognitive/Emotional Dysfunction→Later Aggression/
Conduct Problems has been developed in the study of serious aggressive be-
havior. The linkages begin with genetic inheritance. Both twin (e.g., Eaves et
al., 1997; Edelbrock, Rende, Plomin, & Thompson, 1995) and adoption stud-
ies (e.g., Deater-Deckard & Plomin, 1999; Van den Oord, Boomsma, &
Verhulst, 1994) have established moderate to substantial genetic variation in
externalizing (i.e., acting out and aggressive) behavior problems. At the
same time, frightened or frightening behavior by caregivers—probably in the
context of spousal conflict and aggression (Cummings & Davies, 2002) or
parent–child aggression (Crittenden, 1999; Youngblade & Belsky, 1990)—
has been linked and may lead to disorganized attachment in toddlerhood
(see Lyons-Ruth & Jacobvitz, 1999). Disorganized attachment, in turn, is one
of many risk factors for externalizing and other behavior problems (see van
IJzendoorn, Schuengel, & Bakermans-Kranenburg, 1999).
The kind of hostile, physically punitive parenting associated in maltreat-
ment samples with attachment disorganization is also linked directly to dis-
ruptive, aggressive problems in the child, particularly those problems show-
ing early onset (Patterson & Yoerger, 1997). Campbell and her colleagues
(1996) used a laboratory clean-up task with about 100 mothers of preschool
boys who were or were not identified as having symptoms of Attention Defi-
cit Disorder by their preschool teachers. Those mothers who showed
greater negative affect and intrusive control during the clean-up task at age
4 described their sons as having more externalizing problems both concur-
rently and subsequently at ages 6 and 9. Negative maternal interaction sta-
tistically mediated the association between a variety of maternal-reported
stressors (marital dissatisfaction, negative life events, and maternal depres-
sive symptoms) and boys’ acting out behavior problems.
Both the presence of negative parenting practices (Campbell, Shaw, &
Gilliom, 2000) and the absence of a warm, close relationship between par-
ent(s) and child (Stattin & Kerr, 2000) predict externalizing problems, but
this is especially true among multi-risk families where parental mental
health problems and family ecological risk are high, such as in maltreating
families. It seems likely, once again, that genetic vulnerability interacts with
parenting problems and family stress to create longstanding problems with
aggression. Twin and adoption studies underscore the dual contribution of

genetic susceptibility and family environment (Eley, Lichtenstein, & Ste-
venson, 1999; van den Oord et al., 1994).
Interestingly again, in light of the hypothesized role of parent attribu-
tions and emotions in relating personality to parenting, maternal hostile at-
tributions about children’s ambiguous problem behavior appear to provide
part of the context for the harsh discipline and hostility that is, in turn, asso-
ciated with child externalizing behavior. Using a community sample of 277,
mostly European-American families of varying socioeconomic status, Nix
and his colleagues (1999) found shared variance between maternal hostile
attributions to ambiguous child behavior vignettes and children’s acting-
out behavior (as rated by teachers and peers) over the transition to school.
Much of this variance could be accounted for by mothers’ harsh discipline
practices (see also MacKinnon-Lewis et al., 1992). Children may, in fact,
model both hostile parental attributions and parental aggression; they may
be provoked more often to aggression as a result of hostile attributions;
and/or they may inherit dispositional tendencies toward greater hostility in
their thought processes and behavior.
Recent research has been devoted to documenting some of the dis-
torted perceptions and attributions of aggressive children and adoles-
cents. Dodge (1985, 1986; Crick & Dodge, 1994) provided the conceptual
basis and initial empirical support for expecting aggressive children to
have inaccurate perceptions about and hostile attributions in ambiguous
social situations. In a meta-analytic review of studies on aggression and
hostile attributions in community and clinical samples, Orobio de Castro
and his colleagues (2002) found a robust association between the two.
Older children (ages 8 to 12), more aggressive children, and those who
had been rejected by peers showed the strongest links between hostile at-
tributions and aggressive behavior. The connection to peer rejection ap-
pears to be an important one. Aggression not only predicts peer rejection
(Coie, 2004), but when the two co-occur, the likelihood of long-term con-
duct problems and maladjustment is particularly high (Bierman & Wargo,
1995; Dodge et al., 2003).
Externalizing behavior shows a fair degree of stability, especially among
the subset of children with early onset of these problems (i.e., those with
disorganized attachment and harsh parenting experiences), accumulating
adjustment problems over time, school failure, and delinquency by early
adolescence (Stattin & Magnusson, 1996). It is associated not only with con-
duct problems and criminality in adulthood, but also substance depend-
ence. For girls, continuing conduct problems are also associated with
school failure, early pregnancy, unstable relationships, and partner aggres-
sion (Bardone et al., 1996). The significance for later problems in parent-
ing is obvious. Indeed, these cases of long-term externalizing/conduct
problems probably represent one pathway for the intergenerational trans-

mission of child abuse and neglect.
In the next section, we consider more direct evidence that experiences
in the family of origin help explain individual differences in parenting,
bearing in mind two points. First is that the impact of those experiences de-
pends upon a person’s genetic vulnerabilities, protective factors, and char-
acteristics (Kim-Cohen, Moffitt, Caspi, & Taylor, 2004). If one is not prone
to panic, for example, successfully negotiated crisis experiences can even
have a competence-enhancing effect. But among individuals who react with
overwhelming emotion, crises may promote dysregulation and dysfunction.
A second point is recognizing that experiences after childhood can play a
marked role in determining how neatly early experiences map onto later
parenting. In general, expecting simple connections between developmen-
tal history and styles of parenting is wishful thinking; more complicated
connections have emerged in research that tests specific developmental
processes leading to particular kinds of parenting outcomes.
Developmental History and Parenting
Child Maltreatment. The desire to link experiences in the family of ori-

gin to parent–child relationships in adulthood is much apparent in the
field of child maltreatment. In their efforts to understand the etiology of
child abuse and neglect, researchers examined the incidence of maltreat-
ment and other instances of parenting breakdown in abusive parents’ own
childhoods (e.g., Hanson, Lipovsky, & Saunders, 1994; Milner & Chilam-
kurti, 1991; Muller, Hunter, & Stollak, 1995). Results suggest that abusive
and neglectful mothers are unable to mobilize what few resources they have
in support of their child’s development until their own history of attach-
ment disturbances is acknowledged and addressed (Cicchetti & Toth, 1995;
Fraiberg, 1980; Lieberman & Zeanah, 1999). Although the associations are
by no means perfect (Kaufman & Zigler, 1993), there is ample evidence
that a high proportion of parents who maltreat and/or have a child re-
moved from their care have experienced disturbances and disruptions in
relations with their own parents, without necessarily having suffered the
form of maltreatment they themselves perpetrate.
There are enough methodological limitations in these studies, however,
to argue that a history of parent–child relationship dysfunction is a key risk
factor, rather than a necessary and sufficient cause, in the etiology of mal-
treatment. When combined with other risk factors such as troubled adult
relationships, lack of education, teen pregnancy, poverty, and life event
stress, the probability of child maltreatment increases substantially (Na-
tional Research Council, 1993).
Perhaps just as informative have been studies of adults with a history of

child maltreatment who (up to the time of the study) fail to reenact child vic-
timization in the next generation. A good relationship with the non-
maltreating parent or a parent surrogate, opportunities at home or at school
to demonstrate competence, talent, and/or leadership that, in turn, attracts
supportive relationships, psychotherapy, and/or a better adjusted, long-term
intimate partner have all been implicated as potential change factors in a his-
tory of child maltreatment (Egeland, Jacobvitz, & Sroufe, 1988; Rutter &
Quinton, 1984). In other words, the maltreatment literature suggests that de-
velopmental history may set the stage for parenting in the next generation,
but intervening events can change the scenery, sometimes dramatically.
Fathering. A still emerging field of research investigating the role of de-

velopmental history in shaping later parenting is work on fatherhood (see
Parke, chap. 4, this volume). The potential influence of the father–child re-
lationship should not, however, be examined in isolation of the family con-
text in which it functions. Dynamics of the marriage, extended kinship rela-
tionships, and other parent–child and sibling relationships together shape
how a child comes to experience his or her relationship with each parent.
Elder and his colleagues (Elder, Caspi, & Downey, 1986; Elder, Liker, &
Cross, 1984) used unique longitudinal data sets originating just prior to the
Great Depression to document intergenerational connections between
family income loss, irritable and arbitrary behavior by fathers, and problem
behavior and relationships in the next generation. Intergenerational (but
still correlational) data on both fathers (Elder, Nguyen, & Caspi, 1985) and
mothers (Caspi & Elder, 1988) showed that quarrelsome, irritable children
tended to become irritable, explosive adults with conflicted marriages. Par-
ticularly in the context of economic stress, these adults tended to parent in
arbitrary, overreactive, and rejecting ways, which was, in turn, associated
with behavior problems in the next generation.
More recently, using a sample of struggling farm families from Iowa,
Conger and Elder demonstrated that serious economic pressures were
linked to depression and demoralization of both parents, which in turn
predicted marital conflict and also irritable, less skillful parenting, sibling
conflict and, ultimately, more depressive symptoms, aggression, and drink-
ing by offspring in the middle school years (Conger et al., 1991, 1992; El-
der, Conger, Foster, & Ardelt, 1992; Skinner, Elder, & Conger, 1992). The
link from economic problems to adolescent distress was strongest for fa-
thers’, rather than mothers’, negativity in the family (Elder et al., 1992).
Summary. Using the two examples of child maltreatment and father-

ing, it is apparent that research on parenting has had some success in high-
lighting links between experiences in the family of origin and characteris-
tics and functioning in the next generation of adults and, more specifically,
parents. A consistent theme in this research is that parent personality and
quality of relationships may play key roles as mechanisms of transmission.
We conclude this chapter with discussion about how this may transpire.
SPECIFYING DEVELOPMENTAL PROCESS
In the remainder of the chapter we elaborate and extend the empirical and
conceptual ideas raised about the developmental origins of parenting, with
an emphasis on understanding: (a) the processes by which developmental
history shapes both personality and patterns of relationship—and thereby
parenting—and (b) the conditions under which both continuity and dis-
continuity are predicted and documented. To do this, we consider two im-
portant research directions: first, studies about the development of psycho-
logical and interpersonal functioning in childhood, with an emphasis on
the notion of an internal working model of attachment, and second, studies
about continuity and discontinuity of functioning into adulthood.
Development of Psychological Functioning in Childhood
Attachment theory advances the concept of internal working models—af-

fect-laden mental representations of self, others, and relationships.
Bowlby (1980) proposed that internal working models are derived from
early social experiences and that they function (mostly outside of con-
scious awareness) to direct attention (e.g., toward or away from separa-
tions with loved ones), alter emotional experience (e.g., heighten or sup-
press feelings of vulnerability), and organize memory (e.g., integrate or
split off comforting and distressing memories of a caregiver). These ef-
fects on attention, emotional experience, and memory are, in turn, be-
lieved to shape attributions about oneself (e.g., as vulnerable or impervi-
ous to being hurt), guide interpersonal behavior (e.g., seeking out or
avoiding those who are hurtful), and alter the interpretation of social ex-
perience (e.g., interpreting a slap as appropriate punishment or abuse).
Like personality factors, internal working models are believed to alter be-
havior by shaping attributions and affect (as well as attentional processes).
There is obvious conceptual interface between personality and attach-
ment models, although attachment models consider individual differ-
ences along a more circumscribed dimension than do, for example, the
Big Five personality factors. In this section, we consider developmental
findings of relevance to adult personality and psychological functioning
drawn from literature on child and adult attachment.
Meta-analysis of the many studies examining associations between at-

tachment security in toddlerhood and functioning in early to middle child-
hood indicates that although there are discernible patterns of prediction
(Thompson, 1996), the patterns are not necessarily those initially hypothe-
sized, nor are they necessarily replicated across laboratories (Cohen, 1999;
Thompson, 1999). Some of the themes that emerge from these studies are
that (a) attachment security and both current and subsequent emotion regu-
lation often (but certainly not always) share some common variance (Cas-
sidy & Berlin, 1994; Vondra et al., 2001), (b) attachment security can pre-
dict competence in other social relationships, though effect sizes are small to
moderate (see Schneider, Atkinson, & Tardif, 2001, for a meta-analysis),
(c) patterns of attachment correspond with, and occasionally forecast,
some differences in self-concept and social cognition (Cassidy, Kirsh, Scolton, &
Parke, 1996; Laible & Thompson, 1998; Verschueren, Marcoen, & Schoefs,
1996), and (d) among those at ecological risk due to poverty, parental
psychopathology, negative life events, and so forth, attachment disorganiza-
tion helps identify those children most likely to show behavior problems over
time (Lyons-Ruth & Jacobvitz, 1999; van IJzendoorn et al., 1999).
These data offer a route for theorizing about developmental processes
that underlie parenting. They do so by helping to build a bridge between
attachment security, its psychological correlates in childhood, and adult
psychological and interpersonal functioning. Increasingly, studies are ex-
amining how children and adolescents evidencing different working mod-
els of attachment appear to differentially shape their own experience in
ways likely to affect later psychosocial adjustment. Two illustrative studies
give a flavor of the work being done to identify the mechanisms by which at-
tachment working models have their hypothesized effects.
Using a sample of three-year-olds, Belsky, Spritz, and Crnic (1996) found
that children classified as secure in attachment at age 1 showed better recall
of positive events in a puppet show, whereas those classified as insecure
showed better recall of negative events. These data are consistent with
Bowlby’s argument that working models alter what kinds of affective infor-
mation one notices. In the realm of social attributions, Cassidy and her col-
leagues (Cassidy et al., 1996) reported that children whose attachment ap-
peared secure in kindergarten and first grade tended to assume that
characters were not trying to cause problems in stories about negative peer
experiences. Those children judged insecure, in contrast, were more likely
to infer hostile intentions from the same characters.
These data suggest that attachment insecurity is, or can be, associated
with both a bias to focus on negative affective events (as in neuroticism)
and a bias to make hostile attributions in problem situations when a per-
son’s motivations are not clear (as in lack of agreeableness). Recall that
both cognitive biases have been described earlier in the developmental ori-
gins of depression and aggression, as well as in the Big Five personality

factors. It should not come as a surprise, therefore, that attachment insecu-
rity—more specifically, disorganized (or, in childhood, controlling) attach-
ment—is associated with a greater number of behavior problems through-
out childhood (see Lyons-Ruth & Jacobvitz, 1999, for a review). Attachment
disorganization has been associated with both internalizing (anxiety, de-
pression, social withdrawal) and externalizing (aggression, noncompli-
ance, peer provocation) problems.
One caveat in nearly all correlational studies of attachment and develop-
ment is the possibility that genetic or physiological factors play a significant
role in the tendency (a) to display various components of attachment/rela-
tionship security, (b) to score higher or lower on correlated indices of
psychosocial functioning, and even (c) to exhibit more or less stable pat-
terns of security and adjustment over time. In adolescence, particularly, ge-
netic effects generally account for more than half the covariation between
parent–child (and other family) relationships and adolescent adjustment
(Reiss, Neiderhiser, Hetherington, & Plomin, 2000).
Genetic studies focusing on specific patterns of attachment are equivo-
cal (van IJzendoorn et al., 2000; Lakatos et al., 2000). Perhaps we are best
informed at present by the hundreds of studies conducted on mother–in-
fant relationship styles in Rhesus monkeys (see Suomi, 1999, for a review),
the latter of which offer “compelling parallels . . . to each of the major hu-
man attachment types” (Suomi, 1999, p. 188). Intergenerational studies of
Rhesus monkey mothers and their offspring suggest that (a) maternal tem-
perament observed from infancy, (b) style of mother’s relationship with
her own mother in her infancy, and (c) offspring temperament all contrib-
ute to Rhesus mother–infant attachment. Genetic transmission, in other
words, need not occur through relationship functioning directly, but
through temperamental characteristics that alter both the quality and expe-
rience of maternal care.
Regardless of the relative contribution of genes and experience, the in-
ternal working model construct—and personality more generally—works
as a developmental mechanism for links from childhood psychological
functioning to parenting in adulthood only if there is evidence that both
continuity and lawful discontinuity take place across development. Such ev-
idence is beginning to emerge, although it is clear that the working model
construct can account for only a part of the developmental process that un-
derlies the development of relationship functioning and parenting. A wider
lens that incorporates physiological and genetic factors, the ecological con-
texts of development, and attachment experiences, begins to capture the
complexity that is involved. In the next section, we take the attachment con-
struct and its implications for parenting into the longitudinal framework of
development.
CONDITIONS OF CONTINUITY AND DISCONTINUITY
Continuity, change, and the conditions under which each is likely to prevail
have received considerable attention within the attachment arena. An in-
ternal working model, after all, is a working model that should not neces-
sarily demonstrate stability over time, but should come to reflect new expe-
riences, particularly when those experiences involve strong emotion and/
or are repeated. Bowlby (1973) argued that working models would evolve
and respond to experience. Although much of the research on this topic in-
volves a considerable degree of inference, recent work helps articulate how
and when early working models might demonstrate continuity over time
and thus correlate with later patterns of functioning, including personality
and parenting.
Stability of Attachment
Attachment security can be surprisingly stable across childhood (90% from

ages 1 to 6 years; Wartner et al., 1994; see Thompson, 1996, for a review of
early studies). However, it is just as common to find stability rates that vary
between 46% and 68% just within the second year of life (Belsky, Campbell,
Cohn, & Moore, 1996; Mangelsdorf et al., 1990; Rauh, Ziegenhain, Muller,
& Wijnroks, 2000; Vondra, Hommerding, & Shaw, 1999). Thus, even quite
early, there appears to be a substantial amount of change in indices of a
child’s internal working model of attachment.
Associations between change in security and the presence of stressful
family circumstances or events are a relatively consistent finding. Maternal
psychological functioning (Egeland & Farber, 1984; Vondra et al., 1999),
quality of caregiving (Rauh et al., 2000; Vaughn, Egeland, Sroufe, & Waters,
1979), and birth of a younger sibling (Teti et al., 1996; Touris, Kromelow, &
Harding, 1995) have all been linked to changes in childhood attachment.
Some of the changes in attachment security from infancy to late adoles-
cence have also been linked to intervening experiences (Hamilton, 2000;
Weinfield, Sroufe, & Egeland, 2000; Zimmerman, Fremmer-Bombik,
Spangler, & Grossman, 1997) such as severe illness or loss of a parent
through death or divorce (Cox & Owen, 1993; Lewis, Feiring, & Rosenthal,
2000; Waters et al., 2000). Experience, it appears, may lead a child or ado-
lescent to conclude that close relationships are more or less reliable and en-
during than previously understood.
Interventions for Attachment
Even more compelling as an argument for the role of experience—in par-

ticular, caregiving experience—in maintaining or altering the attachment
working model are the handful of intervention studies that have, overall,
documented moderate effects of therapy on maternal sensitivity and mod-

est (less consistent) effects on early attachment security (see van IJzen-
doorn, Juffer, & Duyvesteyn, 1995, for a meta-analysis and Lieberman &
Zeanah, 1999, for a review).
Dozier (Dozier, Stovall, Albus, & Bates, 2001; Dozier, Albus, Fisher, &
Sepulveda, 2002) spearheaded critical research and theory on both devel-
opmental psychopathology among foster children and interventions to as-
sist foster parents in developing healthy attachments with infants removed
from their biological parent(s). Foster infants, she noted, are particularly
likely to show behavioral dysregulation and to form disorganized attach-
ment relationships with nonnurturing foster parents. However, preliminary
evidence suggests not only that some foster parents (those with secure
working models themselves; Dozier et al., 2001) can become more effective
in caring for these often difficult-to-nurture infants, but also that the infants
themselves then show more secure behaviors toward their foster parent(s)
and more typical patterns of self-regulation.
Toth and her colleagues (Cicchetti, Toth, & Rogosch, 1999; Toth et al.,
2002) have been able to demonstrate changes in both infant attachment se-
curity and child representations of self and mother in their program of in-
tervention for maltreated children and their caregivers, using parent–child
psychotherapy. In the second of two intervention studies (the first, with de-
pressed mothers), Toth and her colleagues (2002) assessed the effects of
approximately one year of parent–child psychotherapy or psychoeduca-
tional home visits, versus standard community services only, provided to
mothers of preschool-aged children with a documented history of maltreat-
ment within the family. Baseline (age 4) and outcome (age 5) representa-
tions of self, mother, and their relationship were assessed using narrative
story stems with the study children. Parent–child psychotherapy (see Frai-
berg, 1980; Lieberman, Silverman, & Pawl, 2000) was most effective in
reducing maladaptive child representations of self and mother and increas-
ing positive representations of mother and expectations of the mother–
child relationship.
Interestingly, the psychoeducational home visits, which adopted an eco-
logically informed, but didactic approach to intervention (i.e., “How can we
help improve your financial/social/residential situation?”), proved no
more effective than (and added no substantial improvement on) standard
community services. As noted earlier, psychoeducational and social support
home visiting approaches have, in general, not proven particularly effective
in making lasting changes in quality of parenting (Gomby et al., 1999;
Lieberman & Pawl, 1988; Thompson & Ontai, 2000). If attachment-focused
parent–child psychotherapy proves more effective, it suggests the need to
target a troubled parent’s working model of attachment and self to foster
long-term change within the mother–child relationship.
Summary
In summary, the effects of a troubled and/or problematic childhood on

parenting appear to depend on opportunities to rework poor relationship
experiences. When children have alternative relationship models available
to them and/or can participate in a supportive relationship amidst child-
hood stressors and crises, when adolescents and young adults can rework
relationship issues by their long-term involvement with a caring and sup-
portive individual, when adults are able to select mentally healthy partners
and build and maintain constructive relationships over time, the relation-
ships they subsequently create with their own children need not mirror the
hardships of their upbringing.
It becomes moot, at this stage, to argue how much personality or psycho-
logical adjustment versus supportive relationships contribute to parental
outcomes; the two are inextricably linked. As Bowlby (1973) argued in his
attachment work and Sullivan (1953) argued in his clinical work, individu-
als define themselves very much in terms of their interpersonal relation-
ships. Relationships (attachment working models) that are conflicted, inse-
cure, and/or troubled not only undermine individual well-being, but also
undermine positive conceptions about oneself (or reinforce negative
ones). Individuals with adjustment or personality problems usually exhibit
greater than average difficulties developing and maintaining supportive re-
lationships. The two combined are clearly proximal determinants of care-
giving and the quality of parental care.
To the extent that both personality and relationship problems appear to
be set in motion on developmental trajectories that begin in infancy and
childhood (not to mention in a genotype that shapes experiences even be-
fore birth and in changing rhythms across the life span), they represent im-
portant process variables for understanding how developmental history is
played out in later parenting. And to the degree that both personality and
relationship functioning demonstrate malleability on the basis of later ex-
periences, they represent key mechanisms for understanding how contex-
tual factors shape parenting as well. If we are to gain a full understanding of
the determinants of parenting, it is obvious that both constructs—personal-
ity/psychological adjustment and supportive relationships—and both
kinds of dynamics—influences of developmental history and of ecological
context—must be taken into account.
CONCLUSIONS
We have summarized data in this chapter attesting to the significance of

genes and of both early and continuing experiences for development, in-
cluding individual differences in parenting. By no means, however, have we
argued for simple linkages, either from genes to personality/behavior, or

from childhood to adulthood. Genetic inheritance, combined with early
and contemporaneous experiences within the family, help to select and
shape a child’s experiences in school, with peers, and ultimately, in adult
relationships. They do so through the medium of social and psychological
competence and adjustment. But in no case can one assume a simple main
effects model. Whether the childhood legacy is documented maltreatment,
institutionalization, or unconditional love, intervening experiences hold
the power to deflect early developmental trajectories. Process-oriented em-
pirical work on parenting that considers the interplay of individual, rela-
tional, and environmental factors brings us closer to understanding the
mechanisms underlying both developmental continuity and discontinuity.
We conclude this discussion with recognition of the rapprochement that
has been emerging between clinical and empirical efforts to understand
adult functioning and, in particular, individual differences in caregiving.
The analysis we have undertaken in this chapter is predicated on advances
that have been made in applying clinical theory to research settings, provid-
ing greater specification of developmental process within clinical theory,
using tools that quantify—or at least classify—clinical constructs, and
adopting research designs that more effectively capture genetic influence
and developmental change. As a result, empirical support for clinical con-
structs and mechanisms has grown, but at the same time research in this
area has gained a notable measure of depth and relevance. The conse-
quence of each has been better understanding of both the factors and the
processes involved in the evolution of differences in parental care.
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3
Adolescent Mothers
and Their Children:
Tom Luster
Julie Laser Haddow

University of Denver
INTRODUCTION
During the 1990s, there was a decline in the birthrate among adolescent fe-
males in the United States. The number of births per 1,000 females ages 15
to 19 was 42.9 in 2002 compared to 62.1 per 1,000 in 1991 (Child Trends,
2003). A number of factors contributed to this decline in the birthrate. The
percentage of high school students who were sexually active decreased
(Centers for Disease Control, 2001), and the use of contraception generally
increased (Terry & Manlove, 2000). In addition, longer-term forms of birth
control, such as Depo Provera and the birth control patch, became avail-
able.
Although fewer teens are becoming parents, there were still 431,988
births to adolescents in the U.S. in 2002 (Child Trends, 2003). Moreover,
the birthrate to adolescents in the U.S. continues to be much higher than it
is in most other developed countries (Child Trends, 2001). Countries with
very low birthrates (e.g., Japan, Italy, Spain) have fewer than 10 births per
1,000 teenage females. Teens in the U.S. are less likely to use contraception
consistently than teens in most other developed countries, and that is the
primary reason why other developed countries have lower birthrates
among teens than the U.S. (Alan Guttmacher Institute, 2002).
During the past several decades, numerous studies have been conducted
to determine the antecedents of early childbearing and the effects of early
childbearing on the adolescents and their children. Other studies focused
73
74 LUSTER AND HADDOW
on factors that influence the way in which adolescents parent their chil-
dren. In this chapter, we summarize the results of some of the key studies in
these areas. The chapter is divided into four parts. In the first section, we
examine factors associated with early sexual activity and childbearing. In
what ways do adolescents who become mothers differ from adolescents who
do not? It is important to consider selection factors when discussing the
outcomes of adolescent mothers and their children, and when examining
the parenting practices of adolescent mothers. The second section focuses
on the outcomes of adolescent mothers in areas such as education and in-
come. In this section, we review research that has addressed two related
questions: (a) How do adolescent mothers differ from peers who delay
childbearing on these outcomes? and (b) To what extent are these out-
comes due to early childbearing, and to what extent can they be explained
by selection factors? In the third section, we consider the consequences of
early childbearing for the children. The questions of interest are: (a) How
do the children of adolescent mothers fare compared to children born to
older mothers? and (b) What factors contribute to successful outcomes
among children born to adolescent mothers? The fourth section examines
research concerned with individual differences in parenting practices
among adolescents mothers. Some adolescent mothers provide very sup-
portive environments for their children, while other mothers provide less
optimal environments. Based on Belsky’s (1984) model of the determi-
nants of parenting, the influences on parenting of interest to us include
characteristics of the young mothers, contextual sources of stress and sup-
port, and characteristics of their children. We are especially interested in
adolescent mothers who are functioning well in their role as parents.
Knowledge about why they adapt successfully to the challenges of early par-
enthood should be useful to those who design programs for adolescent
mothers and their children.
FACTORS ASSOCIATED WITH EARLY CHILDBEARING
Adolescent mothers are diverse. They come from all racial, ethnic, and in-
come groups. There are adolescent mothers who are National Merit Schol-
ars and others who are in special education classes. Some adolescent moth-
ers are well adjusted, and others are troubled or depressed. Because of this
diversity, it is important not to stereotype adolescent mothers. On the other
hand, we must also recognize that adolescent mothers are not representa-
tive of adolescent females in the population. For example, birthrates differ
by race. The birthrate in the United States in 2001 was highest for Latina
adolescents (84 per 1,000), followed by African American (74 per 1,000)
and Non-Hispanic Whites (30 per 1,000) (Child Trends, 2003). In this sec-
3. ADOLESCENT MOTHERS 75
tion of the chapter, we examine factors associated with becoming an adoles-

cent mother. In general, these studies show that adolescents who become
parents are more likely than their peers to come from relatively disadvan-
taged circumstances (e.g., low-income families and impoverished neighbor-
hoods), experience a variety of risk factors (e.g., sexual abuse) and have
limited internal (e.g., educational aptitude) and external assets (e.g., par-
ents who closely monitor their activities; appealing options in the area of
education and employment) (Hotz, McElroy, & Sanders, 1997; Luker,
1991; Small & Luster, 1994; Manlove et al., 2002; Miller, 2002; Moore,
Miller, Glie, & Morrison, 1995; Musick, 1993).
Comparisons of adolescents who become parents and those who do not
show that the two groups differ, on average, on several characteristics. Ado-
lescents who are struggling in school, score low on tests of educational apti-
tude, or who have dropped out of school are at risk for early childbearing
(Hotz et al., 1997; Jaffee, Caspi, Moffitt, Belsky, & Silva, 2001; Moore,
Miller, Glie, & Morrison, 1995; Rauch-Elnekave, 1994). Those who become
adolescent parents are more likely than their peers to have a history of sex-
ual abuse, to abuse alcohol and other drugs, and to engage in other prob-
lematic behaviors (Butler & Burton, 1990; Boyer & Fine, 1992; Luster &
Small, 1997; Moore et al., 1995; Musick, 1993). Conduct disorders in child-
hood are also predictive of teenage pregnancy (Kessler et al., 1997; Kovacs,
Krol, & Voti, 1994; Miller-Johnson et al., 1999; Zoccolillo, Meyers, & Assiter,
1997; Zoccolillo & Rogers, 1991). This is not to suggest that most adoles-
cent mothers have these characteristics; these characteristics are just found
more often in adolescent mothers than in the overall population of adoles-
cent females.
Similarly, on average, adolescent mothers differ from their peers in terms
of family background characteristics. A disproportionate number of teenage
mothers live in single-parent households, in families living below the poverty
line, with parents who obtained low levels of education, and with mothers
who had their first children as teenagers (Hotz et al., 1997; Kahn & Ander-
son, 1992; Luker, 1991). In our longitudinal study in Flint, Michigan, we
were also struck by how many of the adolescent mothers had troubled rela-
tionships with their parents (Luster, 1998). Although the problems may have
been due, at least in part, to having an infant as a teenager or the normal
conflicts that adolescents have as they push for independence, many of the
adolescents reported long-standing relationship problems with their parents
or between their parents. Another possible family influence on adolescent
parenthood is the behavior of older siblings; it increases the risk of early
pregnancy among the younger adolescent siblings when older siblings have
their first children as teenagers (East & Jacobson, 2001).
Adolescents who become mothers are also more likely to come from im-
poverished neighborhoods and to attend schools where rates of adolescent
pregnancies are high (Brewster, 1994; Musick, 1993). Adolescents may be

less likely to postpone having children if the future they envision for them-
selves does not include opportunities for postsecondary educations and
high paying jobs. The future they envision for themselves may be strongly
influenced by what they observe about the lives of those who live in their
neighborhoods and communities.
Adolescents may also be influenced by the behavior of their peers and
partners. Some researchers have proposed a social contagion model of ado-
lescent sexuality with peers strongly influencing the sexual attitudes and be-
havior of adolescents (Rodgers & Rowe, 1993). In addition, early parent-
hood may seem more appealing if friends gain status and attention from
having a baby. Male partners may also pressure adolescents into having a
child early.
Looking across numerous studies on factors related to early childbear-
ing, Moore and her colleagues (1995) concluded, “Perhaps the clearest
conclusion that can be drawn across the myriad of studies examined is that
the youth most at risk for becoming parents during their teen years are
those least well-situated to raise a healthy, well-adjusted and high achieving
child” (p. 148). These selection factors also have implications for the life-
course outcomes of adolescent mothers.
OUTCOMES FOR ADOLESCENT MOTHERS
Given what is known about selection factors that are associated with becom-
ing a teenage parent, it is not surprising that adolescent mothers tend to fare
less well than their peers on a variety of life-course outcomes. For example,
adolescent mothers are less likely than women who delay having children to
finish high school or obtain a GED (Hotz et al., 1997; Klepinger, Lundberg,
& Plotnick, 1995). By age 30, 61% of women who had their first child by age
18 had a high school diploma or GED compared with 91% of women who
did not have a child during their teen years (Hotz et al., 1997). Researchers
have been trying to determine if early childbearing is the reason why adoles-
cent mothers obtain lower level of education or if the lower level of educa-
tion is due to characteristics of the young mothers (e.g., low academic apti-
tude) or family background characteristics (e.g., low parental education,
poverty). Many approaches have been used to tease apart the influence of
early childbearing and selection factors on educational attainment.
One approach is to control for characteristics of the women and their
families in the analysis when examining the relation between early child-
bearing and educational attainment. Klepinger and his colleagues (1995)
used this approach and found that having a child before age 20 reduced
the level of education attained by almost three years for Whites, Blacks, and
Hispanics at age 25. The variables they controlled included such things as
parental education, parental divorce, and attending religious services.
Some researchers have argued that it is difficult to control statistically for
all relevant background characteristics and have used other creative ap-
proaches to address this issue. Hotz and his colleagues (1997) compared fe-
males who had their first child before age 18 with females who became
pregnant before age 18 but had a miscarriage and, therefore did not have
their first child until later; on average, those who had a miscarriage had
their first children three to four years later than the teenage mothers.
Given that both groups had become pregnant as teenagers, the researchers
concluded that females who had miscarriages as teenagers provided an
ideal comparison group for teenage mothers. The two groups were not
likely to differ markedly in terms of family background characteristics and
other factors associated with becoming pregnant at an early age. Hotz
found that teen mothers were much less likely than those who had miscar-
riages to receive a standard high school diploma (41% vs. 61%), but they
were more likely to obtain a GED (23% vs. 2%). Overall there was no effect
of early childbearing on obtaining a high school level education if high
school diplomas and GEDs are treated as equivalent.
By age 30, the annual earnings of women who had their first children be-
fore age 18 is only 58% of the annual earnings of all other women who de-
layed having children (Hotz et al., 1997). The earnings gap is due both to
the lower wages teenage mothers earn and the fewer hours that they work
per year. Once again researchers have tried to determine if the earnings
gap is due to early childbearing per se or selection factors associated with
early childbearing. Hotz and colleagues compared the annual earnings of
teenage mothers and women who had miscarriages prior to age 18. The an-
nual earnings of both groups were low, but those who had their first births
before age 18 earned significantly more from their mid 20s through mid
30s than those who had miscarriages. Hotz and his colleagues explained
this surprising finding by noting that both groups of women ended up in
jobs that did not require special educational credentials; job skills were ac-
quired on the job and higher compensation was obtained through the ac-
quisition of these skills and through continuity on the job. Women who
completed their childbearing in their early 20s had an advantage over
women from similar backgrounds who had children later; the women who
had miscarriages delayed their entry into the labor force or moved in and
out of jobs as they had their children during their 20s.
Geronimus and Korenman (1992) also used a creative approach to dis-
entangle the effects of early childbearing and selection factors on socioeco-
nomic status outcomes. Utilizing three national data sets, they compared
women who had their first children during their teenage years with their
sisters who had their children after their teen years; the sisters were about
five years older, on average, than the teenage mothers when they had their
first child. Presumably the sisters have similar family background character-
istics and exposure to other risk factors such as substandard schools or
neighborhoods with high concentrations of impoverished families. As ex-
pected, differences in family income, family income-to-needs ratio, and
poverty rates were less pronounced when the sisters were compared than
when a cross section of early childbearers and women who delayed child-
bearing were compared and family background characteristics were statisti-
cally controlled. (This was true for two out of three national data sets; for
the Panel Study of Income Dynamics, differences between the sisters were
comparable to differences between early and later childbearers in the cross-
sectional sample.) What differences there were between the sisters in their
family income-to-needs ratio could be explained by the higher level of edu-
cation obtained by the sister who delayed childbearing and by the fact that
the later childbearers were more likely to be married at the time that family
income was measured.
The studies by Hotz et al. (1997) and Geronimus and Korenman (1992)
indicate that simple comparisons (i.e., those that do not control for selec-
tion factors) of teenage mothers and females who delay childbearing until
their 20s tend to overestimate the effects of early childbearing per se on
outcomes such as educational attainment, income, and poverty status. Nev-
ertheless, whatever the cause of the disadvantage, the fact remains that chil-
dren of teenage mothers are more likely than other children to be raised by
parents with low educational levels and low levels of income.
Another outcome of interest is the marital status of the young mothers.
Approximately four out of five teen births are nonmarital (Child Trends,
2003); among women of all ages in the US, about one third of births are
nonmarital. Thus, children of teenage mothers are more likely than other
children to live with a never-married mother for at least part of their lives.
Hotz et al. (1997) compared teenage mothers and women who had miscar-
riages during their teen years on the percentage of time spent as a single
mothers from age 14 to 30. Teenage mothers spent more time as single
mothers during those years than those who had miscarriages as teens and
had their children three to four years later on average. Part of the concern
about teenage parenthood results from the knowledge that a dispropor-
tionate number of their children grow up in homes without their fathers.
Moreover, among adolescent mothers who marry the fathers, divorce rates
tend to be high (Furstenberg, Brooks-Gunn, & Morgan, 1987).
In addition to interest in the marital status of adolescent mothers, there
is growing interest in the quality of relationships they have with their male
partners or spouses. Leadbeater and Way (2001) conducted one of the few
studies of domestic violence among adolescent mothers in their sample
from New York City. They interviewed the mothers six years after their chil-
dren were born and asked about physical abuse, sexual abuse, and control-
ling behavior by male partners (e.g., telling them when they could leave the
house). Of the 93 young mothers in the sample, 41% had experienced
abuse by a male partner. Another 31% had experienced or were currently
involved in relationships with male partners that were viewed primarily as
negative and conflicted. Only 28% described their former or current rela-
tionships as positive or neutral. Mothers who were abused by their partners
experienced more depressive symptoms and were more likely to be self-
critical than mothers involved in positive relationships with their partners.
They also tended to change residences more frequently than other mothers
over the six years of the study. Maternal depressive symptoms and frequent
changes in residence were associated with more problem behaviors in chil-
dren at age 6.
Some studies have compared adolescent mothers and older mothers
(i.e., 20 or older) on measures of depression or other indicators of psycho-
logical well-being. Several studies have shown that adolescent mothers ex-
hibit more depressive symptoms than mothers who are older, but often
these comparison are made without controlling for possible confounding
variables (Osofsky, Hann, & Peebles, 1993). Whitman, Borkowski, Keogh,
and Weed (2001) assessed depression levels in their sample at three and
five years after the children were born. Approximately 10% of their sample
exhibited moderate to severe levels of depression at each assessment and
another quarter of the sample experienced mild depression levels. The ad-
olescent mothers also had self-esteem scores that were low relative to ado-
lescents in the general population. Given the troubled histories of some ad-
olescent mothers and the challenges of their current circumstances, it is
not surprising that some adolescent mothers exhibit signs of psychological
distress.
However, the young age of the mother may be less important for predict-
ing depression in later years than her marital status and background char-
acteristics. Using data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth
(NLSY), Kalil and Kunz (2002) found that women who had their first chil-
dren as teenagers had higher depression scores at ages 27 to 28 than
women who had their first child at age 20 or later. However, the effect of
age at first birth was reduced to nonsignificance when marital status at the
time of the birth was controlled. Mothers who were unmarried had more
depressive symptoms in young adulthood than mothers who were married.
Further analyses suggested that prebirth individual and family characteris-
tics (i.e., selection factors) were stronger predictors of depressive symptoms
in young adulthood than either marital status or age at first birth. Women
with more depressive symptoms were more likely to have lived with a stepfa-
ther at age 14 and to have scored low on the Armed Forces Qualification
Test (AFQT), a measure of educational aptitude.
To summarize, research shows that adolescent mothers are more likely

than mothers in the general population to achieve lower levels of education,
have low paying jobs, and to be single parents. Thus a disproportionate num-
ber of their children live in poverty and experience the risks associated with
poverty. However, it is also clear that these outcomes cannot be completely
explained by early childbearing per se; characteristics of the teens who be-
come parents and of their contexts (family, neighborhood) contribute to
these outcomes as well. The research also shows that adolescent mothers are
diverse. Some young mothers achieve high levels of education, obtain good
jobs, enjoy high levels of support from their partners and their parents, and
live in safe neighborhoods with the infrastructure to support young families
(e.g., day care, medical services, parks, good schools).
OUTCOMES FOR CHILDREN BORN

TO ADOLESCENT MOTHERS
As teenage mothers are quite diverse in their competencies, environmental

context, level of social support, and intellectual abilities, their children are
also wide-ranging in their level of functioning. There has been keen inter-
est in following these children as they develop. Many longitudinal studies
have monitored these children as they negotiated important developmen-
tal milestones (Furstenberg et al., 1987; Jaffee, Caspi, Moffitt, Belsky, &
Silva, 2001; Leadbeater & Way, 2001; Luster, Bates, Fitzgerald, Vandenbelt,
& Key, 2000; Moore, Morrison, & Greene, 1997; Seitz & Apfel, 1993; Whit-
man, Borkowski, Keogh, & Weed, 2001). In this section, we summarize the
findings from these longitudinal studies and other key studies.
Although there are different life scenarios for each of these children,
some common issues for children born to adolescent mothers have emerged
from the data. Many researchers have found that these children achieve
lower scores in assessments of cognition, social development, emotional de-
velopment, and language proficiency as compared to children born to adult
mothers (Furstenberg et al., 1987; Jaffee et al., 2001; Luster et al., 2000;
Moore & Brooks-Gunn, 2002; Moore et al., 1997; Whitman et al., 2001).
Developmental Assessments
Although most infants born to adolescent mothers are healthy at birth, de-
velopmental delays become notable shortly thereafter for a disproportion-
ate number of these children (Whitman et al., 2001). At 1 year of age, chil-
dren born to adolescent mothers made fewer vocalizations than infants of
adult mothers (Culp, Osofsky, & O’Brien, 1996). Children of adolescent
mothers also had lower scores on receptive language assessments than their
peers born to adult mothers in the Notre Dame longitudinal study (Whit-
man et al., 2001). At 3 years of age, nearly three fourths of the children
born to adolescent mothers in the Notre Dame study experienced delays in
one domain of development, and nearly one half of the children had delays
in two domains of development.
Academic Difficulties
Investigators have found that these developmental delays extend past the
earliest years of life. It has been noted that children born to adolescent
mothers are at risk for low school readiness (Furstenberg et al., 1987;
Luster et al., 2000). This is a troublesome finding because school readiness
is predictive of academic outcomes in elementary school, as well as educa-
tional attainment in adulthood (Luster & McAdoo, 1996).
Academic difficulties continue for many children born to adolescent
mothers throughout their school years (Furstenberg et al., 1987; Whitman
et al., 2001). Furthermore, high rates of special education placement have
been documented for these students (Furstenberg et al., 1987; Whitman et
al., 2001). By adolescence, nearly fifty percent of children born to adoles-
cent mothers who participated in the Baltimore Longitudinal Project had
repeated a school grade (Furstenberg et al., 1987). Not surprisingly, low ed-
ucational aspirations have also been found in these youth (Furstenberg et
al., 1987). Thus, school achievement is an area of concern for children
born to adolescent mothers.
There are both selection factors and environmental factors that predis-
pose the children born to adolescent mothers to do less well in school than
their peers born to adult mothers ( Jaffee et al., 2001). Levine, Pollack, and
Comfort (2001) found that most of the relation between early childbearing
and academic and behavioral outcomes of children born to adolescent
mothers can be explained by individual and family background factors of
the adolescent mother. Adolescent mothers who participated in Whitman
and colleagues’ (2001) Notre Dame study had an average full scale IQ of
87, well below 100, the average IQ score for the population. Low intellec-
tual ability on the part of the mothers was predictive of poor school perform-
ance by the children.
It has also been documented that many of children born to adolescent
mothers did not grow up in enriched environments in which they were be-
ing stimulated by adult interaction and had developmentally appropriate
toys and activities (Dubow & Luster, 1990; Moore et al., 1997; Whitman et
al., 2001). In addition, Whitman and his colleagues (2001) found that chil-
dren born to adolescent mothers were more likely than their peers born to
adult mothers to exhibit insecure attachment, which may reduce their
problem-solving ability by undermining their ability to self-regulate (Bor-
kowski & Dukewich, 1996). Low maternal intellectual ability, the quantity
and quality of their interaction with adults, rates of insecure attachment,
and unstimulating environments may be some of the underlying reasons
why the children born to adolescent mothers have more academic prob-
lems than children born to adult mothers.
Behavior Problems
Higher levels of internalizing problems have also been documented in chil-

dren born to adolescent mothers relative to those born to adult mothers
(Moore et al., 1997; Whitman et al., 2001). Internalizing problems are turn-
ing feelings of frustration, embarrassment, and anger inwardly upon oneself
in the form of depression, low self-esteem, helplessness, or self-loathing.
In addition, many children born to adolescent mothers have exhibited
behavior problems at home or at school (Dubow & Luster, 1990; Fursten-
berg et al., 1987; Levine et al., 2001; Moore et al., 1997; Seitz & Apfel, 1993;
Whitman et al., 2001). When they reach their teen years, the offspring of
adolescent mothers have higher rates of delinquency than those born to
adult mothers (Furstenberg et al., 1987; Grogger, 1997; Jaffee et al., 2001).
Similarly, higher rates of incarceration have been found in children born to
adolescent mothers (Grogger, 1997). However, Nagin, Pogarsky, and Far-
rington (1997) found that higher rates of criminality in the offspring of ad-
olescent mothers were explained by such factors as paternal criminal be-
havior, poor or neglectful parenting, poor role modeling, and diminished
resources. Nagin, Pogarsky, and Farrington (1997) concluded that “early
childbearing is not a cause of subsequent problem behavior but rather a
marker for a set of behaviors and social forces that give rise to adverse con-
sequences for the life chances of children” (p. 147).
Child Outcomes: The Importance of Selection

Factors Versus Young Maternal Age
Children of adolescent mothers perform less well than children born to

older mothers on a variety of indicators including measures of receptive vo-
cabulary, achievement, and behavior problems. Much like the studies that
have compared the outcomes of adolescent and older mothers (e.g., in-
come and education), some researchers have tried to determine if the poor
outcomes observed in children born to adolescent mothers are largely due
to the young age of the mother or selection factors, such as the family back-
ground characteristics of the teens who become mothers. Adapting the ap-
proach that Geronimus and her colleagues used to study the effects of early
childbearing on the outcomes of the mothers, some researchers have com-

pared the children born to adolescent mothers with the children born to
the sisters of adolescent mothers who had their first child after their teen
years (Geronimus, Korenman, & Hillemeier, 1994; Turley, 2003). In this
approach, cousins are compared so that the family background characteris-
tics of their mothers are similar.
Using data from the NLSY, Geronimus, Korenman, and Hillemeier
(1994) found that children born to the teenage mothers did not fare any
worse than their cousins on measures that assessed outcomes in the area of
receptive vocabulary, academic achievement, verbal memory and behavior
problems. In contrast, more conventional analyses that compared children
born to teenage mothers and children born to older mothers while control-
ling for family background characteristics suggested that children of teen-
age mothers generally fared somewhat worse than comparison children.
Geronimus and her colleagues argued that their comparison of cousins
controls for family background characteristics more comprehensively, in-
cluding characteristics that are not measured and controlled in more tradi-
tional analyses. Based on these analyses, they concluded “. . . our findings
suggest that the heightened risk of poor performance on developmental in-
dicators may be common to children of disadvantaged mothers in general,
not peculiar to those with teenage mothers” (p. 604).
In a similar study by Turley (2003) comparing the performance of first
cousins with more recent waves of NLSY data, there was not a significant ef-
fect of maternal age at first birth on math achievement, vocabulary, or be-
havior problems; however, there was an effect of maternal age at first birth
on reading. Turley also reran the analysis limiting the sample to children
born to sisters who began childbearing at least five years apart, and the re-
sults were the same. Maternal age at first birth was also unrelated to how
children’s scores on the NLSY measures (e.g., achievement test scores)
changed from the first assessment to the last assessment (a span of 2 to 12
years). Overall, these results support the view that the poor outcomes for
the children can be largely explained by selection factors rather than the
mother’s age when the children were born.
Jaffee, Caspi, Moffitt, Belsky, and Silva (2001) used data from a 20-year
longitudinal study in Dunedin, New Zealand to examine the effects of early
childbearing on four outcomes measured when the children ranged in age
from 15 to 21. The outcomes were: (1) early school leaving, (2) unemploy-
ment, (3) early parenthood, and (4) violent offending. Children born to
teenage mothers showed poorer outcomes on each of these four measures
than children born to mothers who did not have their first child as a teen-
ager. Next, the investigators attempted to determine the extent to which
the poorer outcomes could be explained by social selection factors and the
extent to which they could be explained by the social circumstances in

which the children were reared. Variables identified as social selection vari-
ables included maternal IQ, maternal reading ability, school certification,
maternal conviction history and paternal conviction history. Several family
variables were used as indicators of social circumstances including several
measures of parent–child interaction, SES, household composition, and
residential instability.
The results showed that both selection factors and social circumstances
explain the poorer outcomes of children born to adolescent mothers. Ma-
ternal characteristics, such as low IQ scores or poor reading ability, ac-
counted for approximately 18% of the effect of teen childbearing on chil-
dren’s outcomes. On average, family circumstances accounted for about
21% of the teen childbearing effect on the outcomes after controlling for
maternal characteristics; the unique effect of family circumstances was
smallest for unemployment (12%) and largest for early school leaving
(32%). Jaffee and her colleagues concluded that both selection factors and
family circumstances that result from early childbearing explain the poorer
outcomes observed in children of adolescent mothers.
The findings regarding child outcomes are similar to the findings re-
garding the outcomes for the mothers. There is a strong association be-
tween early childbearing and child outcomes when there are no controls
for other factors. When there are controls for social selection factors, the
relation between early childbearing and child outcomes is greatly reduced
and in some cases is no longer significant. However, for some outcomes, se-
lection factors do not fully account for the relation between early childbear-
ing and child outcomes. It is also noteworthy that later-born children of
mothers who had their first children as adolescents have outcomes that are
similar to those of their siblings who were born when the mothers were still
teenagers ( Jaffee et al., 2001; Moore, Morrison, & Greene, 1997; Turley,
2003). Whatever is accounting for the poorer outcomes of first-born chil-
dren of adolescent mothers seems to be having the same effect on their
later-born children, who are born when these mothers are in their 20s.
Victims of Child Abuse
Research has also demonstrated that children of adolescent mothers are at

greater risk for becoming victims of child abuse (Bolton, 1990; Goerge &
Lee, 1997; McCullough & Scherman, 1998; Whitman et al., 2001) and have
higher rates of foster care placement than children of adult mothers
(Goerge & Lee, 1997). This higher rate of child abuse has been partially at-
tributed to adolescent mothers’ lack of child development knowledge, im-
mature interaction styles between mother and child, and reliance on puni-
tive physical discipline for child misbehaviors (Whitman et al., 2001).
Intergenerational Adolescent Parenting
Being a child of an adolescent mother is predictive of early sexual experi-

ence and becoming an adolescent parent (Furstenberg et al., 1987; Have-
man, Wolfe, & Peterson, 1997; Jaffee et al., 2001; Levine et al., 2001).
Therefore, adolescent parenthood is a recurring pattern for some families
(Moore & Brooks-Gunn, 2002).
Resilient Teen Mothers
Although the outcomes for some children of adolescent mothers seem

bleak, many of these children are competent, high achievers and well-
adjusted. It is useful to study these thriving offspring to investigate factors
that promote resilient children. In addition, it is useful to explore factors
that contribute to resilience among adolescent mothers and linkages be-
tween the development of the mothers and children.
Based on their longitudinal study, Werner (1990, 1994) and Werner and
Smith (1989, 1992, 2001) discuss protective characteristics of the adoles-
cent mothers that are associated with positive outcomes in their children.
These protective factors included: strong attachment to the infant, positive
interactions between mother and infant, feelings of responsibility and flexi-
bility on the part of the mother, post-secondary education of the mother, a
supportive partner, fewer subsequent children, and social support from
family and friends. Werner and Smith also acknowledged that the out-
comes of the young mothers improved with the passage of time; typically
the adolescent mothers’ situation (e.g., financial security) improved in
their thirties and forties.
Furstenberg and colleagues (1987) found that the most economically
successful adolescent mothers limited further childbearing and were moti-
vated to continue their education and to become self-supported. However,
the strongest predictor of mother’s involvement with welfare by partici-
pants in the Baltimore study was the educational attainment of the mater-
nal grandparents; teen mothers who had parents who had more education
spent less time on welfare. Moore and Brooks-Gunn (2002) concluded that
the factors predicting positive functioning for adolescent mothers were be-
ing on grade level at the time of pregnancy, having a parent with at least a
tenth-grade education, attending a school for pregnant teens, having fu-
ture educational aspirations, and finishing high school. They defined posi-
tive functioning as a family income of $25,000 or more, lack of involvement
with welfare for over a year, and having fewer than three children.
Leadbeater and Way (2001) found some recurring themes in their inter-
views with resilient inner-city adolescent mothers. Regarding the family of
origin of these mothers, they often stated that they had been reared in strict
and disciplined homes, had family members who valued education and
who were positive role models. Many successful adolescent mothers ac-
knowledged that support by family members had been provided condition-
ally, with an understanding that the parents had clear expectations for the
young mothers. Frequently, these mothers’ internal characteristics in-
cluded an optimistic attitude, autonomy, tenacity, and a strong desire to
succeed. Leadbeater and Way also found that these young women often
had access to and support for post-secondary education.
The psychological well-being of the mother has a profound effect on the
parenting of the child (Belsky, 1984). Maternal depression has been associ-
ated with problematic child behaviors and continued dependence on wel-
fare (Almgren, Yamashiro, & Ferguson, 2002). Crockenberg (1988) found
that higher levels of maternal social support increased both feelings of ma-
ternal self-esteem and positive parenting of her child. Furthermore, high
maternal self-esteem has been found to be predictive of children’s social
competence (Hubbs-Tait, Osofsky, Hann, & Culp, 1994). Similarly, it has
been reported that adolescent mother’s parenting skills are related to her
self-esteem (Hurlbut, Culp, & Jambunathan, 1997). In sum, the evidence
suggests that greater maternal psychological well-being contributes to posi-
tive outcomes for her child.
Resilient Mothers and Children
Whitman and colleagues (2001) separated adolescent mothers and chil-

dren into four categories: resilient mothers with resilient children, vulnera-
ble mothers with resilient children, resilient mothers with vulnerable chil-
dren, and vulnerable mothers with vulnerable children. Maternal resiliency
was defined as graduation from or currently enrolled in high school, cur-
rent employment, higher self-esteem scores and lower scores on inventories
of depression and anxiety. Resilience in the children was defined as average
intellectual functioning, average adaptive behaviors, and nonclinical levels
of behavioral problems. Overall, children were two times more likely to be
resilient, if their mothers were resilient.
Eighteen percent of the Notre Dame Project sample was categorized as
resilient mothers with resilient children. These mothers were characterized
as “more cognitively ready for their maternal roles” (p. 185). This included
meeting the child’s needs with greater empathy and listening to the child.
These mothers also were more openly affectionate to their children. Fur-
thermore, these mothers were more aware of the appropriate developmen-
tal milestones than other young mothers. The young women were more
accepting of their children and more involved in their daily care. A sup-
portive partner was often present in the lives of the mother and the child.
These mothers also reported that their children had easy temperaments.
Academically, the young women had more education than any of the other
subgroups and were more likely to be at grade level. This group of adoles-
cent mothers was also characterized as being socially competent and high
in self-esteem.
Resilient mothers with vulnerable children accounted for nearly 20% of
the Notre Dame Project sample. In general, this subgroup of mothers had
high academic attainment and good social competence. However, this sub-
group differed from the previous subgroup in their ability to transition to
the role of mother, and the level of emotional support that they received
from their partners. The investigators reported that the mothers of this sub-
group were either less able or less willing to perform the role of mother.
Many were unaware of the developmental needs of their children and were
not child-centered in their focus. Most adolescent mothers in this group
also had conflicted or nonexistent relationships with the child’s father.
Vulnerable mothers with resilient children comprised nearly 14% of the
overall sample. Vulnerable mothers tended to be younger, to have com-
pleted less education, and were less likely to be at grade level. Many of these
mothers also had difficulty accepting their maternal role and often had lit-
tle child development knowledge. The vulnerable mothers who had resil-
ient children often reported positive relationships with the child’s father.
Interestingly, the children of this subgroup spent the greatest amount of
time in their grandparents’ care; these resilient children had surrogates to
provide for them.
The remaining 50% of the mother–child dyads of the Notre Dame Proj-
ect were categorized as vulnerable mothers and vulnerable children.
Resilient Children Born to Teen Mothers
In our longitudinal study in Flint, we separated our sample of children

born to adolescent women into quartiles based on their receptive vocabu-
lary scores at age 54 months, and compared the experiences of the children
who had scored in the highest quartile with those of children in the bottom
quartile (Luster et al., 2000). The most successful children had experi-
enced much more supportive care throughout the duration of the study,
were frequently read to, had mothers who had higher academic attainment
and who were more likely to be employed, were living with a father or fa-
ther figure as well as their mother, were the only child in the family, and
had maternal grandmothers who had completed high school. Further-
more, when these children were in first grade, high scores on achievement
tests were related to authoritative parenting practices (Vandenbelt, Luster,
& Bates, 2001). In particular, children who performed better on first grade
achievement tests had mothers who were child centered, read to them,
demonstrated warmth, limit-setting, and praise, and communicated effec-

tively about household rules during the preschool years.
Summary of Results Regarding Resilience
Some common themes emerge in studies focusing on relatively successful

adolescent mothers and their children. Adolescent mothers who are more
cognitively and emotionally prepared to parent make better parents.
Knowledge of child development and parenting techniques that show both
warmth and concern for the child’s feelings but also limit-setting and logi-
cal consequences for misbehavior are predictive of successful outcomes in
children of adolescent mothers. Likewise, maximizing educational attain-
ment for the adolescent mothers is beneficial for them, as well as their chil-
dren. Moreover, limiting further childbearing is associated with positive
outcomes for both the mothers and their children.
The father of the child has the opportunity to be a positive role model in
the life of the child, as well as a source of support for the mother. Further-
more, accessing formal as well as informal sources of social support is im-
portant for young mothers. Various types of support can influence their ed-
ucational advancement, career paths, parenting information, emotional
well-being, and parenting practices.
FACTORS RELATED TO INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES

IN THE PARENTING PRACTICES OF ADOLESCENT
MOTHERS
Adolescent mothers, like older mothers, differ markedly in their parenting

practices. Some young mothers provide excellent care for their children
whereas others abuse or neglect their children. Most provide care that is
somewhere between those two extremes. Many researchers have been inter-
ested in factors that are related to individual differences in the quality of
care that adolescent mothers provide their children.
Theories regarding the determinants of parenting have focused on in-
fluences in three domains: (1) characteristics of the parent; (2) characteris-
tics of the child; and (3) contextual sources of stress and support (Belsky,
1984; Schellenbach, Whitman, & Borkowski, 1992). The developmental his-
tory of the teen, which refers the experiences she had in the years prior to
the time that she became a parent, is also viewed as an important influence
on parenting. In the following sections, we will review research that has ex-
amined potential influences on parenting in each of those categories. It is
important to keep in mind that nearly all of these studies used correlational
designs; these studies determine what factors are associated with the par-
enting practices of young mothers, but cannot determine if the relations

are causal. Therefore, caution must be used in drawing conclusions about
the determinants of parenting practices.
Characteristics of the Parent
Several studies have focused on individual differences among adolescent

mothers in their levels of depression, cognitive readiness for parenting, and
educational attainment or intellectual competence. Of these three charac-
teristics, the characteristic of the mothers that has been studied most fre-
quently is depressive symptoms. As expected, the results from these studies
show that mothers with more depressive symptoms tend to provide less sup-
portive care for their children. In studies of adolescent mothers, higher lev-
els of depressive symptoms are associated with child neglect (Zuravin &
DiBlasio, 1996), fewer contingent responses in free-play interactions (Lead-
beater, Bishop, & Raver, 1996), more negative feeding interactions with in-
fants (Panzarine, Slater, & Sharps, 1995), lower levels of sensitivity (Cassidy,
Zoccolillo, & Hughes, 1996), less positive mother–infant interaction (Whit-
man et al., 2001), and lower levels of maternal involvement (Reis & Herz,
1987). In our research, depressive symptoms were predictive of home visi-
tors’ ratings of the adolescents’ parenting behavior; the ratings of parent-
ing behavior were completed after the home visitors had worked with the
young mothers for more than four years (Luster, 1998).
A second characteristic of the young mothers that has been examined is
cognitive readiness for parenting (Schellenbach et al., 1992). Cognitive
readiness includes childrearing beliefs, attitudes, and knowledge of child
development. Although parents may not always act in accordance with their
beliefs and knowledge, it is reasonable to expect that parents’ ideas exert
some influence on how they care for their children. Evidence from several
studies is consistent with that expectation. Early studies showed that moth-
ers with punitive attitudes tended to provide less supportive home environ-
ments for their infants, as measured with the HOME inventory (Luster &
Rhoades, 1989; Reis & Herz, 1987). Mothers who worried about spoiling
their infants by being affectionate and responsive also tended to have lower
HOME scores (Luster & Rhoades, 1989). Higher HOME scores were associ-
ated with beliefs that it was important to provide verbal stimulation to in-
fants and that infants should be given considerable leeway in exploring
their environments. In another study, mothers with responsive attitudes ex-
hibited more smiling and eye contact with their infants but responsive atti-
tudes were not related to how quickly the mothers responded to their cry-
ing infants (Crockenberg, 1987b).
One limitation of the early studies was that beliefs and behaviors were
measured at the same time. Although most researchers have presumed that
beliefs influence behavior, cognitive dissonance (Festinger, 1957) and self-

perception theorists (Bem, 1972) argue that behavior may also influence
beliefs. Parents may change their beliefs so that they are in accord with
their behaviors. To address the temporal ordering problem, we measured
adolescents’ beliefs before their children were born and related their be-
liefs to subsequent parenting behaviors (Luster, 1998). We measured pre-
natal beliefs with the Adult–Adolescent Parenting Inventory (AAPI; Bavo-
lek, 1984) which assesses beliefs in four domains that may influence
whether or not the mother engages in abusive behavior (i.e., empathy, cor-
poral punishment, role reversal, and inappropriate expectations). More fa-
vorable scores on the AAPI were associated with higher HOME scores at 36
months (Chen, 1997) and more favorable ratings of parenting by home visi-
tors at 54 months (Luster, 1998). These results were consistent with the
view that beliefs influence behavior.
Sommer and her colleagues (1993) constructed a measure they called
cognitive readiness for parenting that included the four AAPI subscales, a
40-item measures of child development knowledge, and other items to
measures attitudes regarding authoritarianism, nurturance, rejection, and
independence. Cognitive readiness scores assessed during the prenatal pe-
riod were predictive of individual differences in parenting by adolescent
mothers six months after their children were born; mothers who were more
cognitively prepared displayed a more competent interactional style than
their peers who received lower cognitive readiness scores. However, the re-
lation between cognitive readiness and maternal behavior was not signifi-
cant when IQ , SES, race, and education were controlled. This study dem-
onstrates the need for further studies that examine the relation between
parental beliefs and behavior while controlling for other factors.
The final characteristic of adolescent mothers that has been widely stud-
ied is educational attainment or intellectual competence. With regard to
educational attainment, one hypothesis is that young mothers who are
competent in the classroom are likely to be relatively competent in caring
for their children. An alternative hypothesis is that young mothers who fo-
cus their time and energy on school may do so at the expense of their chil-
dren. They may spend less time with them and be less attuned to their
needs. Studying the relation between educational attainment and parent-
ing is difficult with adolescent mothers because many mothers are still go-
ing to school when their parenting is being assessed. Because of this, we ex-
amined the relation between educational attainment when the mothers
were approximately 20 years old and measures of caregiving behavior as-
sessed in various ways throughout our study. Our findings were consistent
with the first hypothesis that young mothers who went farther in school also
tended to receive higher scores on measures of parenting. We also found
that mothers who repeated a grade in school prior to having their first child
were rated as less supportive caregivers by home visitors (Luster, 1998). Un-
fortunately, we did not have a measure of IQ , so we could not determine if
educational attainment was predictive of parenting when intellectual ability
was controlled.
Zuravin and DiBlasio (1996) found that adolescent mothers who ne-
glected their children achieved lower levels of education than adolescents
mothers who did not neglect their children. However educational attain-
ment was unrelated to whether or not the child had been physically abused.
The lack of association between maternal education and physical abuse
may be due to the fact that the mothers were often not the perpetrators of
the abuse. The perpetrators were sometimes fathers, boyfriends, baby-
sitters, or unidentified people.
Whitman and colleagues (2001) assessed the intelligence of the young
mothers in their study with the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale–Revised
(WAIS–R). The mothers who scored higher on the vocabulary and block
design subtests of the WAIS–R received more favorable scores on video-
taped interactions with their children. Similarly, in a sample of African
American mothers, most of whom were adolescents when their children
were born, mothers with low scores on the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test
(PPVT) were more likely to exhibit problematic parenting while working
with their preschoolers on puzzles (Wakschlag, Chase-Lansdale, & Brooks-
Gunn, 1996). However, mothers’ educational attainment was not a signifi-
cant predictor of parenting when PPVT scores and other background char-
acteristics were controlled.
Looking across studies, the findings are consistent with the view that ma-
ternal cognitive competence is associated with more supportive caregiving
practices. However, more research is needed to determine the processes in-
volved, if indeed there is a causal relation. Maternal intellectual ability
could have a direct effect on parenting given that parenting involves a fair
amount of problem solving, especially with uncommunicative infants.
Brighter or better educated mothers may also value education more and
work harder to promote the intellectual growth of their children than
mothers who struggled in school. Alternatively intellectual ability could af-
fect parenting or the home environment indirectly via family income or
poverty status.
Characteristics of the Children
Although it is generally accepted that children and parents influence each

other, there has been far less attention paid to the role that child character-
istics play in the care they receive in the adolescent parenting literature. It
seems reasonable to expect that infants who are relatively difficult to care
for will, on average, elicit less supportive parenting. However, evidence to
support this hypothesis is limited. The child characteristics that have been
examined most include difficult temperament and low birth weight.
Some studies have found that irritable or difficult babies elicit less sup-
portive caregiving than their easier peers (e.g., Luster, 1998), but other
studies report no relation between the two variables (e.g., Hess, Papas, &
Black, 2002). Inconsistent results have also been found in studies of older
mothers (Crockenberg, 1986). As Crockenberg explained, the effect of in-
fant temperament on parenting may depend on characteristics of the
mother (e.g., patience, her interpretation of the behavior) or contextual
factors (e.g., level of support the mother receives or other stressors she is
dealing with). Thus, simple correlations between temperament and parent-
ing measures may not be very informative. We are likely to learn more by
examining the goodness-of-fit between the infant and parent characteristics
(Lerner, 1993) while considering the influence of other contextual factors,
such as other stressors and the mother’s level of social support.
Low birth weight and the health of the infant have been the focus of re-
searchers’ attention even less often than temperament. Two early studies
reported that preterm and low birth weight infants were at greater risk for
poor parenting by adolescent mothers during the newborn period (Field,
1980; Wise & Grossman, 1980). In our longitudinal study, we found that low
birth weight was associated with lower HOME scores when the infants were
12 months old, but was unrelated to subsequent measures of the home envi-
ronment. We speculated that low birth weight infants may be more difficult
to care for than their peers early in life, but differences in behavior may
largely disappear if there are no lingering medical complications.
Contextual Sources of Stress and Support
Being a parent is a demanding task at any age. Parenting as an adolescent is

especially difficult given the other developmental tasks that adolescents are
dealing with, such as going to school, starting jobs, establishing an identity,
and developing relationships with partners and peers. Being an adolescent
parent is even more difficult than usual for young mothers who are dealing
with other stressors and/or have limited support from parents or partners.
Stressors that may directly influence their children or indirectly influence
children via parenting include poverty, unsafe neighborhoods, and domes-
tic violence.
Poverty. Poverty is likely to affect adolescent mothers and their chil-

dren in many ways. One way in which poverty affects family is the toll that it
takes on parents’ psychological well-being (McLoyd, 1990). Chronic stress
can cause some parents to be irritable, depressed, or too preoccupied to be
child-centered. Poverty has been linked to lower HOME scores (Luster &
Dubow, 1990) and neglect (Zuravin & DiBlasio, 1996). A precarious finan-
cial situation is also associated with frequent changes of residence which
can be problematic for children, especially when they reach school age
(Bates, Luster, & Vandenbelt, 2003). Most adolescents have difficulty mak-
ing ends meet if they must depend on income from their typically low-
paying jobs. Therefore, much depends on the financial support they re-
ceive from their parents or partners. In many cases, the father of the baby
or their current partner have low incomes and provide limited financial
support.
Neighborhood Characteristics. Families in poverty face many challenges,

but neighborhood poverty rates may also be important (Duncan, Brooks-
Gunn, & Klebanov, 1994). Unfortunately, there is very little research on ad-
olescent mothers that has explored this potential influence. In our re-
search, poverty rates at the census tract level were correlated with measures
of parenting during the preschool years (Bates, Luster, & Vandenbelt,
2003). Home visitors also rated the neighborhoods of the young mothers in
terms of safety and overall quality of life at various points in the longitudi-
nal study. Young mothers who lived in unsafe neighborhoods and those
rated low in quality of life tended to score low on various measures of
caregiving that we used (Luster, 1998). Further research is needed to deter-
mine if there is an effect of neighborhood quality on caregiving when char-
acteristics of the mother and poverty status are controlled.
Domestic Violence. Another area in need of further study is the effect of

domestic violence on adolescent mothers and their children. As noted ear-
lier, Leadbeater and Way (2001) found that mothers who were abused by
their partners had considerably higher scores on a measure of depressive
ymptoms than mothers who had more positive relationships with their
partners. They also scored high on a measure of stressful life events and
tended to be self-critical. The children tended to have more behavior prob-
lems if the mother exhibited depressive symptoms and had high stressful
life events scores. In qualitative interviews with our home visitors, we also
found that some of the children who were having the greatest difficulties in
first grade had mothers who were in abusive relationships (Luster, Bates,
Vandenbelt, & Nievar, 2004). Further research is needed to determine if
maternal parenting behavior mediates the relation between domestic vio-
lence exposure and child outcomes or if the effect of domestic violence on
children’s behavior is largely a direct effect.
Social Support. How well adolescents deal with the challenges of parent-
ing and the other stressors they face is likely to depend on their personal
strengths and the amount of support that they receive from others. Several
studies have examined the relation between the social support young moth-
ers receive from their families and the parenting they provide. These stud-
ies have produced mixed results with some studies showing that mothers
with higher levels of support providing more supportive care for their chil-
dren and other studies showing no relation between perceived support and
caregiving. In some cases, the lack of relationship between social support
and parenting may be due to the fact that the mothers who are having the
greatest difficulty adjusting to parenting are receiving the most support
from their families; the support is being offered by family members in re-
sponse to a perceived need on the part of the mother (Barratt, Roach, Mor-
gan, & Colbert, 1996). In these instances, social support may be helpful to
the mothers receiving it, but they would not necessarily receive high marks
on measures of parenting when compared to other adolescent mothers.
Moreover, in some cases support from family members has a direct effect
on the child rather than being mediated by the caregiving of the adolescent
mothers. Some of the children in our study who were doing very well in first
grade had been cared for primarily by their grandparents for most of their
lives (Luster et al., 2004).
The other key person in the young mother’s social network is likely to be
the father of the child or current partner. Potentially the male partner
could influence the mother and child by providing financial support for
the family, emotional support for the mother, and care for the child. How-
ever, there is surprisingly limited research on the relation between level of
support from the male partner and maternal caregiving or child outcomes.
The studies that have been done have produced mixed results with some
showing level of partner support having a positive effect on maternal
parenting at least some of the time (Unger & Wandersman, 1985) and oth-
ers reporting no relation (Voight, Hans, & Bernstein, 1996). The impor-
tance of support from the male partner may depend on other factors such
as how much support the mother is receiving from her family or on her own
developmental history (Crockenberg, 1987b; Quinton & Rutter, 1988).
Developmental History
The developmental history of a teen can influence parenting in a number

of ways. Experiences in the years before the adolescent gave birth could in-
fluence characteristics of the mother such as her psychological well-being,
values, childrearing beliefs, level of education, and sense of self-efficacy.
For example, adolescents with a history of abuse experience more depres-
sive symptoms (Stevens-Simon & McAnarney, 1994). In addition, the way
that adolescent mothers were parented could influence the way they care
for their children. In some cases, young mothers may use some of the same
practices that were used in their family of origin, and in other cases, they
may make a conscious choice to do things differently (e.g., be less harsh

when disciplining their children). Certainly adolescent mothers who expe-
rienced poor parenting in the family of origin will not inevitably follow the
same path. However, it may be difficult to provide optimal care for children
if abusive or neglectful parenting is all that the young mothers have experi-
enced.
Unfortunately, there is relatively little research on the developmental
history of young mothers, in part because it is a difficult topic to study. De-
velopmental history encompasses many things and the aspects of develop-
mental history that may be important for one adolescent may be less impor-
tant for another. Moreover, studies of adolescent mothers typically begin
around the time that the first child is born; therefore, measures of develop-
mental history are likely to be retrospective which raises questions about
the validity of the measures.
A few studies have examined the developmental history of adolescent
mothers who were involved with Child Protective Services (CPS) because
their children were abused or neglected. Mothers who neglected their chil-
dren were more likely than other adolescent mothers to have experienced
frequent changes in the caregivers they lived with while growing up. Adoles-
cent mothers who had children who were physically abused were more
likely to have had mothers with emotional problems while growing up
(Zuravin & DiBlasio, 1996). Spieker and her colleagues (1996) found that
mothers with a history of sexual abuse were more likely to have preschool
children involved in CPS than mothers without a history of sexual abuse.
Boyer and Fine (1992) reported similar findings.
Ward and Carlson (1995) examined the relation between adolescent
mothers’ relationships in the family of origin and how they related to their
infants. Young mothers who were rated as having more secure relationships
with their families tended to be more sensitive in their interactions with
their infants, and their infants were more likely to be rated as securely at-
tached in Ainsworth’s Strange Situation procedure at 15 months. Crocken-
berg (1987) assessed teenage mothers’ recollections of their relationships
with their parents. Mothers who experienced rejection in the family of ori-
gin tended to be more angry and punitive with their toddlers than mothers
with more favorable experiences during childhood. However, the link be-
tween poor parenting in one generation and poor parenting in the next
was not found if the adolescent mother was in a supportive relationship
with a male partner.
When the children in our study were 54 months old, we asked the young
mothers if they could name someone who had been a strong, positive role
model for them. We were interested in whether or not they identified their
mothers as role models. We found that those who selected their mothers re-
ceived more favorable parenting ratings from the home visitors than those
who selected someone else or no one at all (Luster, 1998). We also asked
them about their relationship history with men. Our interest in this topic was
due to the advocates’ report that many of these young mothers had been in
abusive, controlling, or exploitive relations with men since childhood. Young
mothers who reported having more positive relationships with men also
tended to receive higher parenting ratings from the home visitors. Although
these questions did not focus solely on the period before the focal child was
born, the findings suggest that the relationship history of adolescent mothers
is relevant for understanding their approach to parenting.
CONCLUSIONS
This chapter is divided into four parts. The first section is concerned with
factors related to becoming an adolescent mother. The research shows
that early parenthood occurs in all demographic groups in the U.S., but
higher birth rates are found among teens who struggle in school, come
from low-income or multi-problem families, live in neighborhoods with
high concentrations of poverty, and are exposed to other risk factors.
Teens are less likely to become parents if their vision of their future in-
cludes going to school beyond high school and establishing a career be-
fore having children.
In the second section, we examined the impact of early childbearing on
the life course of the mother. Adolescent mothers are more likely than
peers who delay having children to: achieve low levels of education, live in
poverty, exhibit depressive symptoms, and rear their children as single par-
ents. At one time it was thought that these outcomes were largely the conse-
quence of early childbearing, and the research still suggests that early child-
bearing affects the life course of the mothers and their children. However,
recent research has considered the effect of selection factors on these out-
comes, and has contributed to a more balanced view about the combined
influence of selection factors and the effects of early childbearing on the
life-course outcomes of the mother.
In the third section, we focus on the children of adolescent mothers.
Given selection factors and the context in which many of these children are
being reared, it is not surprising that children of adolescents fare less well
than other children in various developmental domains. However, many
children of adolescent mothers are competent and well-adjusted. Typically
these children have received supportive care from their mothers and/or
other caregivers such as fathers and grandparents that set them on a posi-
tive developmental trajectory during the early years of life. Many of their
mothers are intelligent, child-centered individuals who are determined to
create a better life for their children.
Adolescent mothers, like older mothers, differ markedly in the way that
they parent their children. In the final section, we examined factors related
to individual differences in the caregiving practice of young mothers.
Correlational studies show that differences in caregiving are related to
characteristics of the young mothers, characteristics of the children, and
the context in which the relationship is evolving. The experiences of the
young mothers prior to the time that they have children also influence pa-
rental behavior.
The research that we have reviewed shows that much has been learned
about adolescent mothers and their children since the first edition of this
book was published a decade ago (Luster & Okagaki, 1993). Given the con-
tinuing interest in this topic, we expect the next decade of research to add
considerably to our understanding of these families. Insights gained from
these efforts are likely to be useful to those who work directly with young
mothers and their children, program planners, and policymakers.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Our research on adolescent mothers and their children was supported by

grants from the Mott Children’s Health Center in Flint, Michigan, and the
Spencer Foundation. Support for preparing this chapter was provided to
the first author by the Michigan Agricultural Experiment Station.
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4
Fathers: Cultural and Ecological

Perspectives
Ross D. Parke
Jessica Dennis
Mary L. Flyr
Kristie L. Morris
Melinda S. Leidy
Thomas J. Schofield
University of California, Riverside
For decades parenting was typically operationalized as mothering. A variety

of factors contributed to this narrow definition of parenting including as-
sumptions about the critical caregiving role of mothers, the presumed inade-
quacy and disinterest of fathers in caregiving activities, and at least histori-
cally, the relatively greater breadwinner role assumed by fathers. Much has
changed since Lamb (1975) made his famous pronouncement that fathers
were the “forgotten contributors to child development” (p. 245). In this cen-
tury, fathers are clearly recognized as central players in the family and are no
longer relegated to the socialization sidelines. The goal of this chapter is to
highlight the father’s parenting role and to examine the determinants and
consequences of fathers’ roles in the family for children, for mothers and for
fathers themselves. Since this topic covers a relatively vast terrain, a caveat is
in order. Our review will be selective with the goals being to highlight both
major advances and remaining puzzles and problems that still confront this
relatively recent domain. For comprehensive overviews of this topic, a variety
of recent chapters and books are available (Coltrane, 1996; Lamb, 2004;
Parke, 1996, 2002; Parke & Brott, 1999; Tamis-LeMonda & Cabrera, 2002).
INTRODUCTION: GUIDING ASSUMPTIONS
Several assumptions guide this chapter. First and most critical is our as-
sumption that the nature of the father–child relationship is best under-
103
104 PARKE ET AL.
stood in terms of a family systems perspective. Just as mothering cannot be

fully appreciated as an independent subsystem, fathers can only be fully un-
derstood as part of the family system as well (Cox & Paley, 1997; Parke,
2004). Therefore, to understand fathers, the complimentary family subsys-
tems of the mother–child relationship, the sib–sib relationship, and the
marital relationship need to be considered. Second, and consistent with a
family systems viewpoint, mothers, fathers, and children influence one an-
other both directly and indirectly (Parke, Power, & Gottman, 1979; Parke,
1996). For example, a father’s harsh disciplinary tactics directed toward his
child may lead to compensatory protective behavior by the mother toward
the child. Alternatively, marital conflict may alter the level of co-parental
cooperation that in turn may modify the father–child relationship (Cum-
mings & O’Reilly, 1997). Third, different levels of analysis—individual,
dyadic and family level—are needed to fully appreciate the father’s role.
Fourth, fathers as members of families are embedded in a variety of formal
and informal social systems, such as extended families and work-related
institutions. Fifth, culture shapes fathering and it is critical to recognize
similarities and differences across fathers of various cultural backgrounds.
Although much of our knowledge about fathers is based on European-
American samples, recent work from other cultures, as well as intra-cultural
variations in our own culture, is serving as a corrective to our assumptions
about the universality of fathering processes. Our focus on cultural factors
is consistent with the ecological theme of the volume that recognizes the
embeddedness of fathers in a variety of ecological subsystems from the fam-
ily to the wider society and culture. Finally, in light of the clear links be-
tween research and policy, it is important to offer policy guidelines that
may aid in altering fathers’ level of involvement in families.
Do Mothers and Fathers Play Distinctive Roles

in the Family?
There is clear evidence that mothers and fathers contribute through differ-
ent pathways to their children’s development. Perhaps the most well estab-
lished difference between parents of different genders is their relative in-
vestment in play and caregiving. Fathers participate less than mothers in
caregiving but spend a greater percentage of the time available for interac-
tion in play activities than mothers do. In the U.S. Kotelchuck (1976) found
that fathers spent a greater percentage of their time with their infants in
play (37.5%) than mothers did (25.8%), although in absolute terms moth-
ers spent more time than fathers in play with their children. Similar find-
ings have been reported from a longitudinal investigation of parent–infant
interaction in England (Richards, Dunn, & Antonis, 1977). At both 30 and
60 weeks of age, playing with their infants was the most common activity of
4. FATHERS 105
fathers, and over 90% of the fathers played regularly with their infants.
Lamb (1977) observed interactions among mother, father, and infant in
their homes at 7 to 8 months and again at 12 to 13 months. Marked differ-
ences emerged in the reasons that fathers and mothers pick up infants. Fa-
thers were more likely to hold the babies simply to play with them, whereas
mothers were far more likely to hold them for caregiving purposes. It is not
only the quantity of time in play that discriminates between mother and fa-
ther involvement in infancy; the quality of play activity does so as well.
Power and Parke (1982) observed mothers and fathers interacting with
their 8-month-old infants in a laboratory playroom. Fathers played more
bouncing and lifting games, especially with boys, than mothers. In contrast,
mothers played more watching games in which a toy is presented and made
salient by moving or shaking it. Observations of father–and mother–infant
interactions in unstructured home contexts with older infants reveals simi-
lar mother–father differences in play style (Clarke-Stewart, 1980; Lamb,
1977).
Nor are these effects evident only in infancy. MacDonald and Parke
(1984), in an observational study of the play interaction patterns between
mothers, fathers, and 3- and 4-year-olds, found that fathers engaged in
more physical play with their children than mothers, while mothers en-
gaged in more object-mediated play than fathers. However, according to
MacDonald and Parke (1986), the father’s distinctive role as physical play
partner changes with age. Physical play was highest between fathers and 2-
year-olds, and between 2 and 10 years of age there was a decreased likeli-
hood that fathers engaged their children physically.
In spite of the decline in physical play across age, fathers are still more
often physical play partners than mothers. In an Australian study of parents
and their 6- to 7-year-old children (Russell & Russell, 1987), fathers were
more involved in physical/outdoor play interactions and fixing things
around the house and garden than mothers. In contrast, mothers were
more actively involved in caregiving and household tasks and in school
work. Mothers were also involved in more reading, playing with toys, and
helping with arts and crafts.
In all studies reviewed, a reasonably consistent pattern emerges: Fathers
are tactile and physical, and mothers tend to be verbal, didactic, and toy-
mediated in their play. Clearly, infants and young children experience a
qualitatively different stimulatory pattern from their fathers and mothers.
Is There a Universal Father Play Style?
Some cross-cultural studies support the generality of this pattern of mother–

father differences in play style. Parents in England and Australia show simi-
lar sex differences (Russell & Russell, 1987; Smith & Daglish, 1977). How-
106 PARKE ET AL.
ever, other evidence suggests that this pattern of mother–father differences

in play style may be, in part, culture bound. Specifically, neither in Sweden
(Lamb et al., 1982) nor among Israeli kibbutz families (Sagi, 1982; Sagi et
al., 1985) were there clear sex-of-parent differences in the tendency to en-
gage in play or in the types of play initiated.
Similarly, Chinese Malaysian, Taiwanese, and Thai mothers and fathers
reported that they rarely engage in physical play with their children (Sun &
Roopnarine, 1996). Among middle-class Indian families in New Delhi, fa-
thers and mothers are more likely to display affection than to play with in-
fants while holding them. Although mothers engaged in more object-
mediated play than fathers, there were no other differences in the play
styles of mothers and fathers. Most interesting was the finding that the fre-
quency of rough physical play was very low—less than once per hour
(Roopnarine, Hooper, Ahmeduzzaman, & Pollack, 1981). Observations of
Aka pygmies of Central Africa (Hewlett, 1991) are consistent with this pat-
tern. In this culture, mothers and fathers rarely, if ever, engage in physical
play in spite of plenty of close physical contact. In other cultures, such as It-
aly, it is neither mothers nor fathers, but other women in the extended fam-
ily or within the community who are likely to play physically with infants
(New & Benigni, 1987).
Whether these distinctively female and male play styles are due to cul-
tural influences or biological factors, remains a puzzle for future research-
ers to solve. However, the fact that male monkeys show the same rough-and-
tumble physical style of play as human fathers suggests that we cannot ig-
nore a possible biological component in play styles of mothers and fathers
(Parke & Suomi, 1981; Lovejoy & Wallen, 1988). Moreover, male monkeys
tend to respond more positively to bids for rough and tumble play than do
females (Meany, Stewart, & Beatty, 1985). Together, these threads of the
puzzle suggest that predisposing biological differences between females
and males may play a role in the play patterns of mothers and fathers
(Maccoby, 1998). At the same time, the cross-cultural data clearly under-
score the ways in which cultural and environmental contexts shape play pat-
terns of mothers and fathers and remind us of the high degree of plasticity
of human social behaviors.
Involvement by Mothers and Fathers With Children
It is not only stylistic differences in interaction patterns that differentiate

mothers and fathers; the amount of involvement distinguishes opposite-
gender parents as well. The most influential conceptualization of types of
involvement was offered by Lamb and his colleagues (Lamb, 1987; Lamb,
Pleck, & Levine, 1985), who suggested three components: interaction,
availability, and responsibility.
4. FATHERS 107
Interaction refers to the father’s direct contact with his child through care-
giving and shared activities. Availability is a related concept concerning the fa-
ther’s potential availability for interaction, by virtue of being present or acces-
sible to the child whether or not direct interaction is occurring. Responsibility
refers to the role the father takes in ascertaining that the child is taken care of
and arranging for resources to be available for the child. (Lamb, Pleck,
Charnov, & Levine, 1987, p. 125)
As several previous authors (e.g., Palkovitz, 2002; Parke, 2000) found, the
focus of research on fathers has been primarily on face-to-face parent–child
interaction. To a large degree this emphasis reflects the common assump-
tion that parental influence takes place directly through face-to-face con-
tact or indirectly through the impact of the interaction on another family
member. Similarly, the availability issue has been addressed, but largely
through the research on father absence which is a consequence of either di-
vorce or unwed parenthood (Mott, 1994; Garfinkel, McLanahan, Meyer, &
Seltzer, 1998). Less is known about the determinants or consequences of
availability of fathers among residential fathers. Only recently have re-
searchers and theorists begun to recognize the managerial function of par-
ents (Lamb et al.’s responsibility notion) and to appreciate the impact of vari-
ations in how this managerial function influences the child’s development
(Parke & O’Neil, 2000). By managerial, we refer to the way in which parents
organize and arrange the child’s home environment and set limits on the
range of the home setting to which the child has access and the opportuni-
ties for social contact with playmates and socializing agents outside the fam-
ily. The managerial role may be just as important as the parent’s role as
stimulator, because the amount of time that children spend interacting
with the inanimate environment far exceeds their social interaction time
(White, Kaban, Shapiro, & Attonucci, 1976).
It is important to distinguish among domains of involvement, since fa-
thers and mothers vary in their distribution of time across different child
and household activities. Several distinctions have been made in the prior
literature including personal care activities, involvement in play, leisure
and affiliative activities with children (Beitel & Parke, 1998; Radin, 1993).
More recently Yeung, Sandberg, Davis-Kean, and Hofferth (2001) ex-
panded the domain list to include not just personal care and play but
achievement-related activities (i.e., homework, reading), household activi-
ties (i.e., housework, shopping), social activities (i.e., conversation, social
events) and other activities, and examined how the determinants of in-
volvement in these domains vary across fathers. Finally, recent estimates of
father involvement have usefully distinguished between weekdays and
weekends since both the types of activities and levels of father involvement
vary as a function of the time period being assessed (Yeung et al., 2001).
108 PARKE ET AL.
In spite of current shifts in cultural attitudes concerning the appropri-

ateness and desirability of shared roles and equal levels of participation in
routine caregiving and interaction for mothers and fathers, the shifts to-
ward parity are small, but nonetheless real. In a recent review, Pleck and
Masciadrelli (2004) cited a range of studies which document that father in-
volvement has increased, albeit slowly. For example, Robinson (1988) com-
pared levels of child care by fathers in a small American city in 1966 and
1988 and found an increase. Employed fathers’ time with children in-
creased from 1.21 to 1.53 hours per week. This trend appears to be continu-
ing. As Pleck (1997) noted: “Averaging across studies from the 1980s and
1990s, fathers’ proportional engagement is somewhat over two-fifths of
mothers’ (43.5%) and their accessibility is two-thirds of mothers (65.6%)”
(p. 71). These figures are higher than reports from the 1970s and early
1980s, which averaged one third for proportional engagement and one half
for accessibility. Moreover, more recent work overcomes limitations of the
small and unrepresentative samples used in earlier studies. Sandberg and
Hofferth (2001) used a nationally representative sample of children in two
parent families in the United States in 1997. The sample included children
aged 0–12 and therefore allowed an assessment of the nature of paternal in-
volvement across different developmental periods. Finally, by collecting the
data in 1997, the study permitted a comparison of father involvement in the
1960s and 1980s and the late 1990s to determine if there had been a histori-
cal shift in level of father involvement. Sandberg and Hofferth (2001)
found that the relative time fathers in intact families were directly engaged
with children was 67% of the time that mothers were involved on weekdays
and 87% of mothers’ engagement on weekends. Accessibility showed simi-
lar shifts across time and, in accord with earlier estimates (Pleck, 1997),
were higher than levels of engagement. Finally Sandberg and Hofferth
(2001) found relatively few differences in level of father involvement (en-
gagement or accessibility) as a function of ethnicity (African American, Eu-
ropean American and Latin American). In a related study, Bianchi (2000)
compared 1965–66 and 1998 levels of father involvement and found that
fathers’ engagement and accessibility increased.
Cross-cultural evidence supports these trends as well. Studies in Canada,
Finland, the Netherlands, and Norway found increases in the last two dec-
ades in father engagement as well (Pleck & Masciadrelli, 2004). These
trends are less clear for paternal responsibility but some evidence suggests a
modest shift toward greater responsibility. One survey of men’s childcare
responsibility found that the percentage of children whose fathers cared
for them during their mothers’ work hours rose from 15% in 1985 to 20%
in 1991 (O’Connell, 1993). Other evidence supports this picture. For ex-
ample, the NICHD Early Child Care Research Network (1997) found that
4. FATHERS 109
fathers function as the primary caregivers about 23% of the time. Pleck and
Masciadrelli (2004) noted:
Fathers were the primary care arrangement (23%) as often as child care cen-
ters and preschools combined (24%), as often as family day care homes
(23%), and more often than grandparents (16%). The fact that fathers are
the primary caregivers during mothers’ working hours in more than one out
of five dual-career families with preschool children suggests that a much
higher proportion of fathers have significant childcare responsibility than is
usually thought. Some estimate that fathers’ involvement in all aspects of
child care, not just during their wives’ working hours, is nearly a third of the
total child-care by U.S. dual-career couples in the 1990s. (p. 242)
Although more mothers are entering the work force, current occupational
arrangements still mean that the vast majority of fathers have less opportu-
nity for interaction with their children than mothers.
Differences Across Development
These patterns of relative involvement of mothers and fathers are evident

in infancy and continue into middle childhood and adolescence (Collins &
Russell, 1991). In a study of middle childhood (6- to 7-year-olds), Russell
and Russell (1987) found that Australian mothers were available to chil-
dren 54.7 hours/week compared to 34.6 hours/week for fathers. Mothers
also spent more time alone with children (22.6 hours/week) than did fa-
thers (2.4 hours/week). However, when both parents and children were to-
gether, mothers and fathers initiated interactions with children with equal
frequency and children’s initiations toward each parent were similar. Ado-
lescents spend less time with their parents than younger children and less
time alone with their father than with their mother (Larson & Richards,
1994). Montemayer (1982), in a study of 15- to 16-year-olds, reported that
more than twice as much time was spent with mother alone than with father
alone each day. Similar findings were reported for 14- to 18-year-olds by
Montemayer and Brownlee (1987). In summary, mothers and fathers
clearly differ in terms of their degree of involvement with their offspring
from infancy through adolescence.
Although the relative difference in mother and father involvement is not
markedly different across development, the absolute level of father involve-
ment decreases as the child develops, and the types of activities in which fa-
thers and children interact also vary across development. In the Yeung et al.
(2001) survey, for example, in the case of infants and toddlers (aged 0–2)
fathers interact directly or are accessible to their children for approxi-
110 PARKE ET AL.
mately 3 hours a day. By ages 9 to 12, the level of involvement has decreased
to 2 hours, 15 minutes. Activities vary across age as well. Time in personal
care with fathers (either interaction or accessibility) drops from one hour
per day for infants to 30 minutes for 9–12-year-olds. Play/companionship
activities with fathers are more common among infants and toddlers (44
minutes/day) than at later ages (23 minutes for 9–12-year-olds). While in-
door games and toy play as well as outdoor activities and sports decrease,
T.V. and video watching increases across age. Achievement-related activi-
ties which include reading, educational play, and studying increases from 7
to 27 minutes from toddlerhood to pre-adolescence. The pattern is similar
on weekends but the absolute amount of time in which fathers are either in-
volved or accessible nearly doubles. Not unexpected is the rise in house-
hold activities (i.e., shopping) and social activities (i.e., religious services)
on weekends for fathers and their children. As the Yeung et al. study clearly
underscores, both age and type of activity need to be considered in descrip-
tions of father involvement.
DETERMINANTS OF FATHER INVOLVEMENT
The importance of examining the determinants of father involvement stems

from the view that the paternal role is less culturally scripted and determined
than the maternal role and few clear role models for defining fatherhood ex-
ist (Daly, 1995; Marsiglio, 1993). It is assumed that a multi-factor approach to
father involvement is necessary because a variety of factors determines the
degree of father involvement with children. It is useful to distinguish individ-
ual, familial and societal levels of analysis in assessing the determinants of fa-
ther involvement (Doherty, Kouneski, & Erikson, 1998; Parke, 1996). This
structure is consistent with the ecological model that underlies the theme of
the volume and our approach to the issue of fatherhood.
Biological Factors in Paternal Behavior
It has long been recognized that females undergo a variety of hormonal

changes during pregnancy and childbirth which may facilitate maternal be-
havior. Rosenblatt (2002), using the rat as an experimental model, showed
that hormonal changes elicited maternal behavior, and other studies show
similar effects for human mothers (Fleming, Ruble, Krieger, & Wong,
1997). It was long assumed that hormones play an unimportant role in pa-
ternal behavior because exposure to rat pups increases paternal activity
without any changes in hormone levels (Fleming & Li, 2002). More recent
evidence has challenged the assumption that hormonal levels are unimpor-
4. FATHERS 111
tant determinants of paternal behavior by examining this issue in species

other than the rat, which is not a natural paternal species. In naturally
paternal species, such as candid species that constitute less than 10% of
mammalian species (Storey, Walsh, Quinton, & Wynne-Edwards, 2000), re-
searchers have found that males experience hormonal changes including
increases in prolactin and decreases in testosterone prior to the onset of pa-
rental behavior and during infant contact (Rosenblatt, 2002; Fleming & Li,
2002). Human fathers, too, undergo hormonal changes during pregnancy
and childbirth. Storey et al. (2000) found that men experienced significant
pre, peri, and postnatal changes in each of these hormones—prolactin,
cortisol, and testosterone—a pattern of results which was similar to the
women in their study. Specifically, prolactin levels were higher for both
men and women in the late prenatal period than in the early prenatal pe-
riod, and cortisol levels increased just before and decreased in the post-
natal period for both men and women. Testosterone levels were lower in
the early postnatal period, which corresponds to the first opportunity for
interaction with their infants. Hormonal levels and changes were linked
with a variety of social stimuli as well. Men with lower testosterone held test
baby dolls longer and were more responsive to infant cues (crying) than
men with higher testosterone. Men who reported a greater drop in testos-
terone also reported more pregnancy or couvade symptoms. Together
these findings suggest that lower testosterone in the postnatal period may
increase paternal responsiveness, in part by reducing competitive non-
nurturing behavior (Storey et al., 2000). Similarly, prolactin levels were
higher in men showing greater responsiveness to infant cries and in men
reporting more couvades symptoms during pregnancy. Finally, Storey et al.
(2000) argue that the “cortisol increases in late pregnancy and during labor
may help new fathers focus on and become attached to their newborns” (p.
91). Men’s changes in hormonal levels are linked not only with baby cries
and the time in the pregnancy birth cycle but also to the hormonal levels of
their partners. Women’s hormonal levels were closely linked with the time
remaining before delivery, and men’s levels were linked with their partner’s
hormone levels, not with time until birth. This demonstrates that contact
with the pregnant partner may play a role in paternal responsiveness, just as
the quality of the marital relationship is linked with paternal involvement in
later infancy. This suggests that social variables need to be considered in
understanding the operation of biological effects. Perhaps intimate ties be-
tween partners during pregnancy stimulate hormonal changes, which in
turn, are associated with more nurturance toward babies.
Other evidence is consistent with a psychobiological view of paternal be-
havior. Fleming and her colleagues (Fleming, Corter, Stallings, & Steiner,
2002) found that fathers with lower baseline levels of testosterone are more
sympathetic and show a greater need to respond when presented with in-
112 PARKE ET AL.
fant cries than men with higher baseline testosterone levels. Moreover, fa-
thers with higher baseline prolactin levels are more positive and alert in re-
sponse to infant cries. Since similar links between androgen levels and
responsiveness to cries are evident for non-fathers as well, it suggests that
“human fathers’ androgen levels at baseline are associated with a nurturant
style and are predictive of responsiveness to infant cries” (Corter & Flem-
ing, 2002, p. 167). However, experience does appear to play a role as well.
At 2 days after the birth of a baby, fathers in contrast to non-fathers show
lower levels of testosterone. Moreover, fathers with more experience with
babies have lower testosterone and higher prolactin levels than first time fa-
thers (Corter & Fleming, 2002)—even after controlling for paternal age.
This perspective recognizes the dynamic or transactional nature of the links
between hormones and behavior in which behavior changes can lead to
hormonal shifts and vice versa. In contrast to the myth of the biologically
unfit father, this work suggests that men may be more prepared even bio-
logically for parenting than previously thought. Finally, it is critical to un-
derscore that these hormonal changes are not necessary for the elicitation
of fathering behavior in either animals or humans (Fleming & Li, 2002;
Corter & Fleming, 2002). In humans, for example, studies of father–infant
relationships in the cases of adoption clearly suggest that hormonal shifts
are unnecessary for the development of positive father–infant relationships
(Brodzinsky & Pinderhughes, 2002). Next, we turn to a discussion of the so-
cial determinants of father involvement.
Social Determinants of Paternal Behavior
There are a host of individual, family background and marital relationship

factors that influence father involvement. These determinants have been
extensively reviewed elsewhere (see Pleck & Masciadrelli, 2004; Parke,
2002) and will be only briefly examined here.
Maternal and Paternal Attitudes. At the individual level, paternal attitudes,

role identity, and perceived competence predict levels of father involvement
(Beitel & Parke, 1998; Rane & McBride, 2000). Individual factors are not the
only determinants of father involvement. Maternal attitudes concerning fa-
ther involvement and the marital relationship are both family level factors
which require examination. Consistent with a family systems view, maternal
attitudes need to be considered as a determinant of paternal participation
in childcare. In spite of advances in women’s participation in the work-
place, many women still feel ambivalent about father involvement in do-
mestic issues (Coltrane, 1996; Dienhart & Daly, 1997). As Allen and
Hawkins (1999) suggest, their ambivalence “may be because increased pa-
4. FATHERS 113
ternal involvement intrudes on a previously held monopoly over the atten-

tive and intuitive responsibilities of family work which if altered may com-
promise female power and privilege in the home” (p. 202). These maternal
attitudes may lead to behavior which, in turn, limit father involvement
and constitute a form of gatekeeping (Beitel & Parke, 1998; Bonney et
al., 1999). However, two qualifications to our discussion of gatekeeping
are needed. First, the term is gender neutral and fathers as well as mothers
engage in gatekeeping activities in other domains of family life (Allen
& Hawkins, 1999). Second, gates can open as well as close and the term
needs to be broadened to recognize that parents—mothers and fathers—
can facilitate as well as inhibit the type and level of domestic involvement of
each other. Work on parental gatekeeping needs to include gate opening
as well as gate closing in order to underscore the dual nature of the inhibi-
tory and facilatory processes that are in part of the co-parenting enterprise
(Parke, 2002).
Marital Relationships and Father–Child Relationships. Models that limit

examination of the effects of interaction patterns to only the father–child
and mother–child dyads and the direct effects of one individual on another
are inadequate for understanding the impact of social interaction patterns
in families (Belsky, 1984; Parke, 1988, 1996; Parke et al., 1979). From a fam-
ily systems viewpoint, the marital relationship needs to be considered as
well. Several studies in both the United States (Dickie & Matheson, 1984;
Pedersen, 1975) and other cultures (e.g., Japan; Durrett, Otaki, & Richards,
1984) support the conclusion that the degree of emotional/social support
that fathers provide mothers is related to both indices of maternal care-
giving competence as well as measures of the quality of infant–parent at-
tachment. Other evidence suggests that the quality of the marital relation-
ship is related to father–child interaction patterns (Booth & Amato, 1994;
Coley & Chase-Lansdale, 1999; Cummings & O’Reilly, 1997). Moreover, the
evidence suggests that the father–child relationship is altered more than
the mother–child relationship by the quality of the marriage (Belsky, 1984;
Belsky et al., 1991). A number of factors may aid in explaining this relation.
First, there is prior evidence that the father’s level of participation is, in
part, determined by the extent to which the mother permits participation
(Beitel & Parke, 1998; Allen & Hawkins, 1999). Second, because the pater-
nal role is less well articulated and defined than the maternal role, spousal
support may serve to help crystallize the boundaries of appropriate role be-
havior. Third, men have fewer opportunities to acquire and practice skills
that are central to caregiving activities during socialization and therefore
may benefit more than mothers from informational (e.g., cognitive) sup-
port (Parke & Brott, 1999).
114 PARKE ET AL.
Ecological Determinants of Father Involvement. Fatherhood needs to be

viewed as embedded in a set of contexts including work and culture. In this
section, shifts in work patterns of both mothers and fathers will be consid-
ered as well as cultural background as contextual factors that organize both
the amount and type of fathering behavior. In terms of work, two issues are
relevant. First, does father involvement shift with increases in maternal em-
ployment? Second, how does the quality of work alter fathering behavior?
Maternal employment is a robust predictor of paternal involvement (Pleck
& Masciadrelli, 2004). For example, Bonney, Kelley, and Levant (1999)
found that among European Americans, father participation in childcare
was higher when mothers were employed outside the home. Similar find-
ings are evident for African-American and Mexican-American fathers as
well. Fagan (1998) found that, as the number of hours that wives work
increases, the amount of time African American fathers spend playing,
reading, and directly interacting with their preschoolers increases. Evi-
dence suggests that the relation between maternal employment and father
involvement is, in part, dependent on fathers’ childbearing beliefs (NICHD
Child Care Research Network, 2000). When mothers do not work or work
only part-time, fathers were more likely to participate in care giving if they
held non-traditional views of parenting; when mothers were employed full
time, father participation in care giving is higher regardless of fathers’ be-
liefs. However, there are exceptions to this overall pattern. Yeung et al.
(2001), in their national sample, found no evidence of an increase in fa-
thers’ child care responsibilities on weekdays as a function of the number of
hours of maternal employment.
Although there has been an increase in recent years in the number of
parents who are employed, many workers experienced increases in work
hours, a decrease in job stability, a rise in temporary jobs, and especially
among low wage workers, a decrease in income (Mishel, Bernstein, &
Schmitt, 1999). As a result of these changes, the theoretical questions have
shifted. More recently, instead of examining whether or not one or both
parents are employed, researchers have begun to address the issue of the
impact of the quality and nature of work on the parenting of both mothers
and fathers (Perry-Jenkins, Repetti, & Crouter, 2000). Both how much and
when parents work matter for children. Not only are heavy parental work
schedules associated with negative outcomes for children (Parcel & Men-
aghan, 1994), but non-overlapping work hours for husbands and wives have
negative effects on marital relationships (White & Keith, 1990). Job loss
and underemployment have serious effects on family life, including marital
relationships, parent–child relationships, and child adjustment (Conger &
Elder, 1994; Conger et al., 2002; White & Rogers, 2000).
In terms of the impact of work on families, Crouter (1994) suggests two
types of linkage. One type of research focuses on work as an emotional cli-
4. FATHERS 115
mate that, in turn, may have carryover effects to the enactment of roles in
home settings. The focus is generally on short-term or transitory effects. A
second type of linkage focuses on the types of attitudes and values that
adults acquire in the workplace and on how these variations in job experi-
ence alter their behavior in family contexts. In contrast to the short-term
perspective of the spillover of emotional climate research, this second type
examines more enduring and long-lasting effects of work on family life.
Work in the first tradition has been conducted by Repetti (1994), who
studied the impact of working in a high stress job (air-traffic controller) on
subsequent family interaction patterns. She found that male air traffic con-
trollers were more withdrawn in marital interactions after high-stress shifts
and tended to be behaviorally and emotionally withdrawn during interac-
tions with their children as well. Although high workload is associated with
withdrawal, negative social experiences in the work place have a different
effect. Distressing social experiences at work were associated with higher
expressions of anger and greater use of discipline during interaction with
the child later in the day. Repetti and Wood (1997) found similar effects for
mothers who withdrew from their preschoolers on days when the mothers
experienced greater workloads or interpersonal stress on the job. Repetti
views this as a spillover effect in which there is transfer of negative feeling
across settings. Similarly, Crouter, Bumpus, Maguire, and McHale (1999)
found that parents who reported high work pressure and role overload had
more conflicts with their adolescents.
Research in the second tradition of family–work linkages, namely the ef-
fects of the nature of men’s occupational roles on their fathering behavior,
dates back to the classic work of Kohn (1995). Men who experience a high
degree of occupational autonomy value independence in their children,
recognize children’s intentions when considering discipline, and use rea-
soning and withdrawal of rewards instead of physical punishment. In con-
trast, men who are in highly supervised jobs with little autonomy value con-
formity and obedience, focus on consequences rather than intentions and
use more physical forms of discipline. In short, they repeat their job-based
experiences in their parenting roles. Several researchers extended this
work by focusing on the outcomes of job characteristics for children’s de-
velopment. Cooksey, Menaghan, and Jokielek (1997) found that children
had fewer behavior problems when their mothers’ work involved more au-
tonomy, working with people, and more problem-solving opportunities.
Similarly, others found that fathers with greater job complexity and auton-
omy were less authoritarian (Grimm-Thomas & Perry-Jenkins, 1994), re-
sponded with greater warmth to their children, and provided more verbal
explanations (Greenberger, O’Neil, & Nagel, 1994).
As these studies clearly suggest, fathers’ and mothers’ work experiences
impact their parenting behavior. However, the process probably operates
116 PARKE ET AL.
in both directions in which parents’ home experience affects their job per-
formance as well. In fact, arguments at home with a wife or with a child
were negatively related to father’s work performance (Frone, Yardley, &
Markel, 1997). Perhaps, a positive home-based experience would create a
positive mood and possibly enhance one’s workday. These studies under-
score the importance of moving beyond employment status per se to a de-
tailed exploration of the nature of work in our future investigations of fam-
ily–work linkages.
Cultural Factors in Fathering
Cultural factors also play an important role in determining both the

amount and quality of father involvement. In spite of this recognition there
is relatively little knowledge about the cultural aspects of fatherhood.
Reasons for the Neglect of Other Cultural Groups in Fathering Research.

There are a variety of reasons for our neglect of other cultural groups in the
fathers’ area. First, there is a universalist assumption that underlies much of
the theorizing in the social sciences. This assumes that the processes noted
in studies of Western fathers or more narrowly middle-class European
American fathers will be generalizable to both other cultures and other
non European American groups in the United States. In the last several
decades, this assumption has been challenged on several fronts. Theo-
retically, there has been a revival of interest in cross-cultural and intra-
cultural variations in large part due to the re-discovery of Vygotskian theory
with the strong focus on the cultural embeddedness of families (Rogoff,
2003). This is reflected in renewed interest in cross-cultural variations in
parenting more generally (Bornstein, 1991; Parke & Buriel, 1998) and fa-
thering more specifically (Hewlett, 1991; Lamb, 1987). Second, demo-
graphic shifts in North America have fueled interest in intra-cultural varia-
tion. In 2003, 31% of the population belonged to a racial minority group.
Currently, 13% of the U.S. population are Hispanic (37 million), 12.7% are
African-Americans (36.2 million), 3.9% are Asian-American (11 million),
1% are Indian or Alaska Natives (2.7 million) and another 4.1% are of two
or more races (4.1 million) (U.S. Census Bureau, 2003). In view of these
demographic shifts there is an opportunity to evaluate the generalizability
of our assumptions about fathering. At the same time we have a moral obli-
gation to better understand large segments of our population in order to
be able to develop and provide culturally sensitive services, and programs
and policies on behalf of children and families of diverse cultural back-
grounds. In recognition of intra-cultural diversity within the United States,
there has been a shift away from the cultural deficit model in which the fo-
cus was on majority–minority differences in parenting behavior. Instead,
the field has moved toward an understanding of intra-group variation with
4. FATHERS 117
a focus on understanding the adaptive strategies ethnic minority fathers

and families develop in response to their ecological circumstances and cul-
tural traditions. This new paradigm recognizes the value of within-group
analyses involving a single ethnic group and re-focuses attention away from
merely documenting group differences.
In spite of the importance of addressing these cultural variations in fa-
thering processes and practices, there are barriers that have limited the
amount of work that has been devoted to these minority groups. Not only
are fathers more difficult to recruit for research participation relative to
mothers, recruitment of members of ethnic minority groups is especially
difficult to enlist in our research projects (Parke et al., 2003). Members of
minority groups are often skeptical about participation in scientific studies
for a variety of reasons, including the past history of mistreatment of minor-
ity research participants. Moreover, in the case of Hispanic-American and
Asian-American groups, some of whom are recent immigrants—sometimes
illegal—there is a healthy wariness of official institutions and a distrust of
unfamiliar individuals. As a result, many of our minority samples are often
biased and unrepresentative. Moreover, due to the biased samples there is a
tendency to pathologize fathers and/or families who do not conform to ei-
ther the structure, role arrangements, or child-rearing practices and values
of the majority culture (Gadsen, 1999). Many samples of African-American
fathers, for example, are poor and unmarried and not living with their part-
ner, and therefore fathers from intact African-American families are
underrepresented in our studies. Moreover, this sampling bias not only
leads to a distorted portrait of the full range of African-American fathers’
involvement, but makes comparisons with Euro-American fathers problem-
atic since most of this work involves intact, middle class fathers. A second
problem is the establishment of scalar equivalence across fathers in differ-
ent ethnic groups. Progress has been made on this front but more on moth-
ers than fathers (Knight et al., 2002). Another problem is interpretative va-
lidity (Maxwell, 1992) or the need to insure that our interpretations of
fathers’ behaviors and utterances are, in fact, consistent with their own un-
derstanding of those displays. The increased use of focus groups (Sil-
verstein & Auerbach, 1999) with fathers of different ethnic backgrounds
has been valuable in addressing these issues. Next, we examine the role of
fathers in families of different ethnic groups—African-American, Hispanic-
American, Asian-American and Native-American.
African-American Fathers. A body of literature has developed in recent

years regarding African-American fathers, that has shown the relation be-
tween the fathering role and the well-being of family members, including
both mothers and children (Cooper, Holman, & Braithwaite, 1983; Gor-
man-Smith, Tolan, Zelli, & Huesmann, 1996). Moreover, the links between
a variety of demographic and attitudinal characteristics within the African-
118 PARKE ET AL.
American family and adolescent psychological adjustment (Dancy & Han-

dal, 1984), academic achievement (Heiss, 1996; Lamborn, Dornbusch, &
Steinberg, 1996), violence and delinquency (Gorman-Smith et al., 1996),
and self-esteem (Mandara & Murray, 2002) have emerged. The traditional
portrait of the absent or uninvolved father within a pathological family unit
is no longer present, but rather a picture of fathers who play a significant
role in family life has emerged (Gadsen, 1999; McAdoo, 1988).
Most of the work on African-American fathers has focused on poor,
noncustodial nonresidential fathers. This focus stems from the policy con-
cerns about the effects of father absence on children’s development that
has accompanied the rise in the number of single mother families over the
last several decades. In 1970, 68% of African-Americans with children were
married, while 28% of households were headed by women with no spouse
present and 4% were male parent only households. In contrast, by the mid
1990s only 47% of African Americans with children were married, while
48% of households were female-headed with no spouse present and 6%
were male parent households with no spouse present (U.S. Census Bureau,
1995). Many scholars have attributed the increase in female-headed fami-
lies to the economic marginalization of African-American males (Mason,
1996; Lerman & Ooms, 1993). Because men often link their ability to pro-
vide for their families with the fathering role, the chronic economic prob-
lems encountered by African-American men contribute to their limited
participation in the rearing of children compared to white middle class fa-
thers (Gadsen, 1999). At the same time, there have been challenges to tra-
ditional approaches to assessing involvement of nonresidential African-
American fathers, because the patterns of contact and involvement may be
different for these men than for men in intact families (Lamb, 2002). Al-
though more sporadic than in intact families, contact between nonresident
fathers and their children is important, and high-quality relationships are
associated with positive outcomes for the child.
Although the focus has been on father absence and nonresidential fa-
thers in studies of African-American families (Gadsen, 1999), when the role
of fathers in intact African-American families has been examined, the
psychopathological portrait of black fathers is clearly challenged. In one of
the earliest studies of middle class intact African-American families,
McAdoo (1981) found that among 40 middle-class African-American fa-
thers, verbal interaction with their preschoolers was warm, loving, and sup-
portive, and their behaviors demonstrated a sensitivity toward the chil-
dren’s needs. When questioned regarding child rearing, fathers endorsed
the view that fathers should be actively involved in the socialization of their
children. Child-rearing attitudes were further elucidated in a study of 135
fathers by Hyde and Texidor (1988) where 99.3% expressed the view that
fathers and mothers are equally responsible for child care. Further, 80%
4. FATHERS 119
had taken an active role in rule setting, teaching morals, and disciplining,
and 87% felt that as fathers, they had the unique characteristics that would
best serve the needs of their children.
More recently, Hofferth (2003) has provided an even clearer portrait of
African-American fathers using a nationally representative sample of Afri-
can American, Caucasian, and Hispanic fathers. In comparison to White fa-
thers, African-American fathers spend less time with their children on a
regular basis, although the differences are relatively modest (12.76 hours
per week vs. 15.35 hours per week for African-American and White fathers
respectively). This finding is in part due to family size, family structure and
employment patterns. “Black fathers have larger families, are less likely to
be the biological father and are more likely to be unemployed living with a
female breadwinner, all of which by themselves, would result in less time
spent with children” (Hoffreth, 2003, p. 211). In spite of these differences
in level of involvement, African-American fathers assumed greater responsi-
bility for routine care of their children than white fathers. This level of re-
sponsibility is consistent with the less traditional attitudes of Black fathers
toward maternal roles than White fathers. African-American fathers are less
likely to endorse such views, as “preschool children are likely to suffer if
their mother is employed.” In terms of child-rearing style, Black fathers rate
themselves as lower on warmth and more controlling than white fathers—a
finding consistent with earlier work (McAdoo, 1988; Gadsen, 1999). Finally,
African-American fathers were higher in monitoring their children than
White fathers. As others (Deater-Deckard & Dodge, 1997) have argued
neighborhood characteristics may account for these patterns. African-
American fathers control and monitor their children more because their
neighborhoods are more dangerous. Family size may explain this differ-
ence as well since African-Americans have larger families than Caucasian
families and larger families require more parental control.
Several studies have focused on the determinants of involvement for Af-
rican-American fathers (Hofferth, 2003; Toth & Xu, 1999). As in the case of
White fathers, higher numbers of work hours is linked with less father in-
volvement. When spouses are employed outside the home, Black fathers
spend more time with their children—a pattern found in earlier studies of
White fathers (Coltrane, 1996). Neighborhood characteristics are important
as well. Black fathers who live in predominantly African-American neighbor-
hoods exhibit higher levels of warmth than those who reside in more hetero-
geneous neighborhoods (Hofferth, 2003). In sum, while there are differ-
ences in style and level of involvement, the determinants of variation in
involvement in African-American families and White families are similar.
Although it is important to understand differences between African-
Americans and other cultural groups, it is also necessary to recognize that
there is considerable variability within African-American families as well.
120 PARKE ET AL.
Recently several investigators have applied a person-oriented or typology

approach to the study of fathers and families. For example, Jain, Belsky,
and Crnic (1996) described different types of White fathers including care-
takers, playmates, teachers, disciplinarians and disengaged fathers. Follow-
ing in their tradition, Mandara and Murray (2002) recently developed a
typology of middle class African-American families. This study demon-
strates how demographic and attitudinal characteristics give form to a fam-
ily structure and create well-functioning constituents. Many of the features
in this typology can be used across racial and ethnic groups as can Baum-
rind’s (1991) seminal work. Three family types were identified: Cohesive-
Authoritative, Conflictive-Authoritarian, and Defensive-Neglectful. The Co-
hesive-Authoritative family is expressive and exhibits a very low level of fam-
ily conflict. Personal growth is emphasized and there is much participation
in recreational activities; family members are encouraged to be assertive,
and are high on proactive racial socialization and low in defensive racial so-
cialization. The Conflictive-Authoritarian family is high on internal con-
flict, lack concern and commitment for family members, and parents ex-
hibit an overbearing authoritarian discipline style. Family relationships are
distressed and children do not feel they can express emotions. There is a
strong emphasis on achievement and competition but not on intellectual
stimulation. Their focus on racial socialization is relatively moderate. The
Defensive-Neglectful family is at the greatest risk for becoming dysfunctional.
Children are socialized to dislike other racial groups, but are also taught not
to be proud of being African American. There is a high level of neglectful
parenting where parents are not nurturing or supportive, but very critical.
There is low emphasis on achievement and no active participation in recre-
ational activities or religious affiliations. While this study did not deal with
the predictors of various outcome variables, it provides a more accurate de-
scription of the various forms of African-American families.
In sum, the findings of current literature demonstrate that African-
American fathers’ involvement is a function of the interplay between social
and economic conditions and gender role ideology. By focusing on intact
rather than single-parent families, many of the assumed differences between
African-American and European-American fathers are less evident. Instead
of being viewed as irresponsible and uninvolved, African-American fathers
are, in fact, central players in family life in intact families. A focus on the op-
portunities and constraints associated with jobs and education is providing
more insight into African-American male involvement in fathering activities.
Hispanic-American Fathers. Although commonly held notions of Latino

fathers might expect that they would be less involved, those who study La-
tino families have hypothesized that Latino fathers may be more likely than
fathers of other ethnicities to be involved with their children due to the cul-
4. FATHERS 121
tural values found amongst Latinos. One such value is familism which em-
phasizes family cohesion, cooperation, and closeness (Cauce & Domenech-
Rodriguez, 2002). Other cultural values that are hypothesized to be related
to father involvement include the concept of machismo, which in recent
years has been revised from earlier, largely misguided notions of manly self-
reliance and sexuality to include masculine loyalty and responsibility
(Mirandé, 1997). Empirical research has indeed found that Latino fathers
spend similar lengths of time involved in caring for their children as fathers
of other ethnicities. Specifically, some studies have found that Latino fa-
thers are more likely to be engaged in caretaking than European Ameri-
cans (Bartkowski & Xu, 2000; Toth & Xu, 1999; Yeung, Sandberg, Davis-
Kean, & Hofferth, 2001). Others have found no difference in the amount
of father engagement between fathers of different ethnicities (Hofferth,
2003; Hossain, Field, Malphurs, Valle, & Pickens, 1995; NICHD Early Child
Care Research Network, 2000).
When focusing on different types of engagement activities with their
children, researchers have found both patterns of similarity and differences
between Latino fathers and other ethnicities. Similar to other types of fa-
thers, Latino fathers spend more time in play with their children relative to
mothers (Toth & Xu, 1999; Yeung et al., 2001). Latino fathers have been
found to be more involved in household and personal care activities than
European-American fathers (Yeung et al., 2001). Finally, Latino fathers
show similar levels of affection and warmth to their children as fathers of
other ethnicities (Hofferth, 2003; Toth & Xu, 1999).
Studies of responsibility in Latino fathers have mostly focused on the ex-
tent to which Latino fathers monitor or restrict their children’s behavior.
Toth and Xu (1999) found that Latino fathers reported increased restric-
tion of their children’s behavior over European-American fathers. Hofferth
(2003) found that Latino fathers report less monitoring of their children’s
behavior than European-American fathers. Hofferth did, however, find
that Latino fathers report more responsibility for care of their children
than White fathers in spite of the fact that she found no difference in level
of involvement between Latino and White fathers. Discrepancies between
these two studies in the extent to which Latino fathers monitor their chil-
dren relative to other ethnicities may be due to sample characteristics in
each study; clearly more work is needed on the level of responsibility taken
by fathers in Latino families.
Several studies have examined factors related to increased paternal in-
volvement for Latinos. Among relevant demographic variables, high in-
come, maternal employment, and maternal hours of work have been re-
lated to increased paternal involvement in Latino families (Fagan, 1998).
Similarly, Coltrane, Parke, and Adams (2004) have found that fathers were
more involved with their children in families where mothers earned a
122 PARKE ET AL.
greater share of the income relative to other families. Neighborhood char-

acteristics have also been related to father involvement. Specifically, living
in poorer neighborhoods and in neighborhoods that are largely comprised
of other Latinos is associated with more father responsibility (Hofferth,
2003). These neighborhood characteristics account for part of the variance
in the relation between Latino fathers and increased responsibility for
childcare. Father attitudes and beliefs that are related to involvement in-
clude non-traditional gender role orientations (Coltrane et al., 2004; Col-
trane & Valdez, 1993; Hofferth, 2003; Toth & Xu, 1999), positive attitudes
towards parenting (Hofferth, 2003), commitment to the parenting role
(Toth & Xu, 1999), and value of child obedience (Toth & Xu, 1999). One
paradoxical issue that must be explained is why Latino fathers have been
found to hold more traditional gender role ideologies and yet are often
found to be similarly, if not more involved in childrearing than fathers of
other ethnicities. It has been speculated that commitment to family and to
the parenting role (Toth & Xu, 1999) might account for this discrepancy,
but more work must be done to untangle these effects.
Native American Fathers. In spite of the fact that there are 1.5 million
Native Americans in the United States, the role of Native American fathers
has been largely neglected in research. It is important to note that one can-
not generalize across all Native Americans since there are 280 different
tribal groups and 161 linguistic groups (Staples, 1988). Some Native Ameri-
cans live on reservations, some do not. Thus, the terms Native Americans or
American Indians refer to a variety of cultures, languages, nationalities, and
family systems (Mirandé, 1991), just as in the case of other groups.
While no one group can be considered typical, Mirandé (1991) has used
the Navajo as a way of illustrating some common features of Native Ameri-
can families and how the family structure has been altered by contact with
the dominant, Euro-American society. Traditionally, Navajo women were
equal to, if not greater than, men, in terms of family roles. Women were re-
sponsible for the care and maintenance of children. Many teaching and dis-
ciplinary functions were carried out by the mother’s brothers, not the fa-
ther. As the society came in contact more with Euro-American culture, the
father became increasingly important within the family and the mother lost
much of her influence (Mirandé, 1991).
Native American families rely heavily on the community as a whole.
Children are protected, loved, and nurtured not only by parents, but also by
siblings, aunts, uncles, grandparents, cousins, and other extended family
(Mirandé, 1991). Therefore, fathering in the traditional Native-American
community is best examined in the context of the extended family (Burgess,
1980). The extended family network partakes in child rearing, which pro-
vides a safeguard and protection for children and parents do not have abso-
4. FATHERS 123
lute or even primary authority over children (Mirandé, 1991). Cross (1986)
asserted that community opinion governs parents’ childrearing behavior,
and parents who do not comply are often ridiculed into compliance. In some
Native American tribes, the role of disciplinarian is assigned to a specific
tribal member or sometimes even a mythological figure, thus removing the
burden of physical discipline from parents and placing it on a “wise one.” In
fact, adults seldom, if ever, strike children, nor do they talk loudly or yell at
children, especially when correcting them. Native-American children do not
expect praise for doing what is required of them. Parents occasionally praise
children for doing well, and indicate their approval through a smile, pleasant
tone of voice, or friendly pat (Burgess, 1980). Burgess (1980) claimed that
for children, knowledge of approval and disapproval is undoubtedly a power-
ful means of social control in Native American societies.
In one of the few studies of paternal involvement among Native Ameri-
can fathers, Williams, Radin, and Coggins (1996) examined childrearing
and school performance among the Ojibwa children. Higher amounts of
father involvement were associated with better academic functioning and
better Native American adaptive functioning. Native American functioning
assessed adaptive traits that researchers believed to be important in most
Native American populations. For sons in particular, increased amounts of
father involvement were associated with better academic functioning, lower
levels of internalization, and better Native-American adaptive functioning.
Fathers who expected higher community leadership for their children
spent a higher percentage of their time as primary caregivers. It was also
surprising that children of more nurturant fathers appeared to be less com-
petent in school. However, Williams et al. suggest that this could be a result
of the father responding to a child who is struggling in a primarily Euro-
American classroom with individualistic and competitive atmosphere, which
is very different from the tribal society to which the child is accustomed.
Overall, this study indicated that there is a strong relation between fathers’
greater presence and sons’ better cognitive and social development.
While the role of the father in Native American families is still poorly
understood, it is clear that in traditional Native-American society, ulti-
mate power and authority is vested in neither the father nor the mother,
but rather in the community as a whole (Mirandé, 1991). Fathers have
been found to influence child academic achievement, especially for sons.
However, more research is needed to examine the particular amount of
involvement and responsibility Native-American fathers have in child-
rearing, and, in turn, how this is changing across generations as a conse-
quence of assimilation.
Asian Fathers. Asian fathers have typically been viewed as aloof and
uninvolved with their children. Again, this stereotype has some historical
basis, but the portrait of the modern Asian father is changing due to both
124 PARKE ET AL.
patterns of immigration and acculturation as well as shifting economic con-

ditions in some Asian countries (for a detailed discussion see Ishii-Kuntz,
1993, 2000; Chao & Tseng, 2002). In both Asian American and Asian fami-
lies, there are two general findings that characterize the father’s role in the
family. First, the strong commitment to the breadwinner role among Asian
fathers has resulted in men’s limited involvement with the care of their
children (Ishii-Kuntz, 2000) compared to other cultures. For example, Jap-
anese fathers are less involved with their children than fathers in other
countries. While Japanese fathers, according to a 1994 survey, spend 3.8
hours per day with their young children (3 years or younger), fathers in
other cultures were higher (US: 5.35 hours; Korea 4.12 hours; Thailand,
7.17 hours; UK 6.45 hours). As in many countries, Japanese fathers en-
gaged in play more than routine physical care (Ishii-Kuntz, 2000). How-
ever, both fathers themselves as well as their children and wives view their
involvement in work as valuable. In one survey (Miwa, 1995) over 90% of
5th graders saw outside work as fathers’ primary responsibility while over
80% viewed mothers as best suited to be primary caregivers. Consistent with
these findings, the amount of time that Japanese children spent with their
fathers did not greatly affect their perceptions of their fathers (Ishii-Kuntz,
1995). Similar low levels of father involvement have been reported for Chi-
nese families ( Jankowiak, 1992) as well as Taiwanese families (Sun &
Roopnarine, 1996). Taiwanese fathers were less involved in child care with
their infants than Euro-American fathers, and in China fathers were not
viewed as sufficiently competent or trustworthy to care for infants. Instead,
in Chinese families, father’s role was focused on children’s education when
children entered middle school.
However, as Ishii-Kuntz (2000) notes, the centrality of the men’s bread-
winning role among Japanese fathers is changing. In one recent study, 81%
of Japanese fathers ranked the paternal role as first or second in impor-
tance among five paternal roles—evidence that the importance of the
worker role is lessening (Shwalb, Kawai, Shoji, & Tsunetsugu, 1997). Sec-
ond, the economic recession in Japan, in combination with an increase in
the labor force participation of women, has contributed to this decline as
well. Although not universal, there are trends among some segments of Jap-
anese society for men to become more involved in fathering (Ishii-Kuntz,
2000). Similarly, in the United States as Asian families become more accul-
turated, there is a trend toward greater equality in the division of house-
hold labor including more equity in child-care responsibilities (Ishii-Kuntz,
2000). However, the patterns are not uniform across Asian subgroups that
vary in terms of immigration patterns and levels of economic participation.
Stylistic differences as well as level of involvement need to be considered.
As Chao and Tseng (2002) recently observed, “Parenting differences pur-
ported between Asian fathers and mothers have been based on the tradi-
4. FATHERS 125
tional adage ‘strict father, kind mother’—wherein fathers exert high de-
grees of authoritarian control and mothers manifest high degrees of
warmth” (p. 73). Consistent with this view, Shek (2000) found that Chinese
adolescents perceived maternal parenting as being more positive than pa-
ternal parenting. Adolescents stated that fathers showed less concern, less
responsiveness, and higher levels of harshness than mothers. Also, father–
adolescent communication was perceived less positively and as occurring
less frequently than mother–adolescent communication. However, Janko-
wiak (1992) reported that fathers spoke to their children, from ages 1 to 6,
in a softer tone than mothers. Fathers were actually very affectionate.
In contrast to the general picture that emerges for East Asian families,
studies of Asian immigrant families in the United States have found few dif-
ferences between mothers and fathers in levels of authoritarian parenting
control and warmth (Chao & Kim, 2000). Again, acculturation clearly plays
a role in helping to understand differences in mother–father childrearing
styles. These patterns present a clear challenge to our stereotype of the ma-
ternal and paternal childrearing styles among Asian-American families. Di-
versity among Asian Americans needs to be recognized in light of the differ-
ences in the recency of entry of some groups (e.g., Hmong, Vietnamese)
relative to other groups (e.g., Chinese, Japanese) into the United States. As
in the case of fathers in other cultural minorities, there is a gap between
cultural stereotypes and reality.
Consequences of Variations in Fathering

for Fathers, Marriage and Children
Consequences for Men’s Development. Becoming a father impacts a man’s

own psychological development and well-being. As Parke (1981) noted,
“the father–child relationship is a two-way process and children influence
their fathers just as fathers alter their children’s development” (p. 9).
There is extensive work on the impact of fatherhood on marital relation-
ships. As Cowan and Cowan (2000) and others (Belsky, Rovine, & Fish,
1989) have documented, the transition to parenthood signals marked
changes in marital relationships. Some couples experience a drop in mari-
tal satisfaction, others show an increase, while still others show no change.
Moreover, both fathers and mothers are affected by the shift from couple to
family status. Several lines of evidence suggest that discrepancies in expec-
tations on the part of mothers and fathers concerning the relative roles that
each will play may be an important determinant of post-partum marital sat-
isfaction. The Cowans (2000) found that, when there was a larger discrep-
ancy between the wives’ expectations of their husbands’ involvement in in-
fant care and his level of actual participation, there was a greater decline in
wives’ marital satisfaction between late pregnancy and 18 months. Belsky,
126 PARKE ET AL.
Ward, and Levine (1986) found a similar decrease in marital satisfaction

when mother’s expectations about father involvement were not met. Men
show a similar effect of a discrepancy between attitudes and behavior.
McDermid, Huston, and McHale (1990) found greater negative impact of
the onset of parenthood when there was a discrepancy between spouses’
sex role attitudes and the division of household and childcare labor.
McBride (1989) found that traditional fathers who held conservative sex-
role attitudes, but were nonetheless involved in child care, had lower levels
of satisfaction. In summary, research suggests that discrepancies in parental
expectations about roles, rather than the level of change per se, may be a
key correlate of men’s marital satisfaction after the onset of fatherhood.
However, it is important to underscore that marital relationships are both
determinants as well as a consequence of paternal involvement, as noted
above (Pleck & Masciadrelli, 2004). Even though marital satisfaction de-
creases for men (and women) after the onset of parenthood, marital stabil-
ity (i.e., the likelihood of staying in the marriage) increases relative to child-
less couples (Cowan & Cowan, 2000). As the Cowans (1992) noted:
The marital stability of couples who have preschool children is protected. Al-
though new parents may be experiencing increase tension or dissatisfaction
as couples, their joint involvement with managing the baby’s and the family’s
needs may lead them to put off, or possibly work harder on, the problems in
their marriage—at least while the children are young. (p. 110)
Less is known about the impact of being a father on marital satisfaction

after the transition to parenthood. An exception is the longitudinal study
by Heath and Heath (1991) that followed a cohort of college men born in
the 1930s into their 30s and mid-40s and found that competent fathers were
in satisfying marriages. However, these two indices (paternal competence
and marital satisfaction) are also related to psychological maturity, leaving
open the possibility that fathering activities lead to marital satisfaction and
maturity or that maturity is the common correlate of being both a compe-
tent father and husband. Due to limitations in sample size, reliance on
qualitative indices, and the lack of adequate statistical analyses, these results
remain suggestive rather than definitive. However, Snarey (1993) found
support for the relation between paternal involvement in childhood or ado-
lescence on marital satisfaction. In a follow-up longitudinal study of men
originally studied in the 1940s and 1950s, Snarey assessed the marital suc-
cess of these men at mid-life (age 47). “Fathers who provided high levels of
social-emotional support for their offspring during the childhood decade
(0–10 years) and high levels of intellectual, academic and social emotional
support during the adolescent decade (11–21 years) were themselves as
men at mid-life, more likely to be happily married” (Snarey, 1993, p. 111).
4. FATHERS 127
In sum, it is clear that there are long-term positive effects of father involve-
ment on marriage, even though there may, in some cases, be a decline in
satisfaction accompanying the transition to fatherhood.
Does fatherhood alter men’s own development? First, men’s self-identity
changes after the onset of parenthood. The Cowans (2000) assessed role
shifts during the transition to fatherhood and found that men who become
fathers decreased the partner/lover aspect of their self and increased the
parent percentage of their self-rating over the 21-month assessment period.
Self-esteem, however, was not affected by the transition to parenthood for
either fathers or mothers in the Cowans’ project. Grossman (1987), who
studied men’s transition to parenthood, found that first time fathers who
were both more affiliative (i.e., importantly connected to others, enjoying
empathetic relationships) and more autonomous (viewing themselves as
separate and distinct from others) had significantly higher life adaptation
scores. Fathers of firstborns who were more affiliative at 1 year also reported
being higher in emotional well-being. These findings suggest that “sepa-
rateness and individuation are not sufficient for men’s well-being; they
need connections as well” (Grossman, 1987, p. 107).
Does fatherhood have a longer-term impact on men’s psychological de-
velopment? Heath and Heath (1991), in a longitudinal study of college
men, found that fatherhood related to men’s ability to understand them-
selves, to understand others sympathetically, and to integrate their own
feelings. Second, just as women have difficulty balancing work and parent-
ing, there is evidence that men experience role strain between family and
occupational demands as well (Parke & Brott, 1999; Levine & Pittinsky,
1998). For example, several studies report that more involved fathers feel
that they have less time for their careers and that their family obligations in-
terfere with their occupational demands (Baruch & Barnett, 1986). Simi-
larly, Greenberger and O’Neil (1990) found that work–family role strain is
lowest when there is low work commitment and high parental involvement.
Although policy debates (e.g., Hochschild, 1989) usually involve role con-
flicts for mothers, there has been increased recognition that in dual-career
families, balancing work and family obligations is clearly an issue that af-
fects parents of both genders (Parke & Brott, 1999).
Does fatherhood affect generativity, a concept derived from Erikson’s
(1975) theoretical writings? Snarey (1993) provided a succinct summary:
The psychosocial task of middle adulthood, Stage 7 (in Erikson’s Stage the-
ory) is the attainment of a favorable balance of generativity over stagnation
and self-absorption . . . Most broadly, Erikson (1975) considers generativity to
mean any caring activity that contributes to the spirit of future generations,
such as the generation of new or more mature persons, products, ideas, or
works of art . . . generativity’s psychosocial challenge to adults is to create,
care for, and promote the development of others from nurturing the growth
128 PARKE ET AL.
of another person to shepherding the development of a broader community.

(pp. 18–19)
Snarey (1993) described three types that apply to fathers, namely (1) bio-
logical generativity (indicated by the birth of a child), (2) parental gen-
erativity (indicated by child rearing activities), and (3) societal generativity
(indicated by caring for other younger adults; serving as a mentor, provid-
ing leadership, and contributing to generational continuity). Is men’s soci-
etal generativity at mid-life related to the level of care and support they pro-
vide their children?
Snarey (1993) found that men who nurtured their children’s social-
emotional development during childhood (0–10 years) and who also con-
tributed to both social-emotional and intellectual-academic development
during the second decade (11–21 years) were at mid-life more likely to be-
come generative in areas outside their family. Again this contribution of fa-
ther participation to societal generativity was evident after controlling for a
variety of background variables. Snarey offered several interpretations of
these findings. First, a disequilibrium explanation suggests that parental
child-rearing responsibility results in demands that are difficult to meet,
and that, in turn, promote “increased complexity in the fathers’ cognitive
emotional and behavioral repertoire. . . . This commitment beyond the
self, in turn, prepares the way for societal generativity which involves a com-
mitment beyond the family” (pp. 117–118). Second, perhaps a nurturing
predisposition may underlie both parenting and societal generativity and
account for the continuity across time. Third, the arrival of children often
leads to increases in men’s participation in neighborhood and community
organizations on behalf of children, which, in turn, may continue into the
mid-life years. In summary, although the processes are not yet well under-
stood, it is clear that involved fathering relates in positive ways to other as-
pects of men’s lives. As Snarey (1993) noted, “men who are parentally gen-
erative during early adulthood usually turn out to be good spouses,
workers, and citizens at mid-life” (p. 119).
Others have found support for these links between childrearing in-
volvement (e.g., taking child on routine errands and jobs; consulting with
teachers, supervising homework) and generativity (McKeering & Paken-
ham, 2000). Moreover, paternal engagement is related to civic engage-
ment in a large representative sample (Eggebeen & Knoester, 2001). At
the same time, other studies report only small or marginal links between
care giving involvement and generativity (Bailey, 1992; Christiansen &
Palkovitz, 1998). Clearly more work is needed before strong conclusions
about the caregiving–generativity link can be firmly established (Pleck &
Masciadrelli, 2004).
4. FATHERS 129
Implications of Father Involvement for Children’s

Development
Two types of approaches to the issue of the impact of father involvement on

children’s social, emotional, and cognitive development can be distin-
guished. First, in a modern variant of the earlier father-absence theme, soci-
ologists, in particular, have recently examined the impact of nonresident fa-
thers’ frequency and quality of contact on children’s development. The
second, or normative approach, focuses on the consequences of the quality
and quantity of father–child interaction on children’s development in in-
tact families.
Contact Between Nonresident Fathers and Their Children. Research has fo-
cused on large national samples of fathers and children, such as the Na-
tional Longitudinal Survey of Youth (NLSY), the National Survey of Chil-
dren (NSC), and the National Survey of Families and Households (NSFH).
These surveys reveal a high level of disengagement on the part of nonresi-
dent fathers but at the same time sufficient variability to permit an examina-
tion of the issue of the impact of contact on children’s development. A
meta-analysis of 63 studies of the associations between nonresident fathers’
contact and children’s well-being was reported by Amato and Gilbreth
(1999). Although they found weak associations between contact and aca-
demic success and internalizing problems, there was no link between con-
tact and externalizing problems. In general, frequency of contact with non-
resident fathers was not linked to child outcomes. This conclusion is
consistent with other scholarly evaluations of the evidence (Eggebeen,
2002; McLanahan & Sandefur, 1994).
However, quality and not presence/absence alone, is important in as-
sessing the impact of nonresident fathers. In a follow-up study of 18- to 21-
year-old children of African-American adolescent mothers, Furstenberg
and Harris (1993) found little impact of contact alone on young adults’ out-
comes but clear beneficial effects if the quality of the relationship was taken
into account. Those who reported a strong bond or attachment with their
father during adolescence had higher educational attainment, were less
likely to be imprisoned, and were less depressed. These effects were espe-
cially evident in the case of children living with the father and were only
marginally evident for nonresident biological fathers. The data suggest that
both presence and quality matters; but quality is especially important be-
cause fathers’ presence is unrelated to outcomes when quality (degree of
attachment to father) is controlled. The Amato and Gilbreth (1999) meta-
analysis confirms these earlier findings; a measure of the affective relation-
ship between the father and child (feeling close) was positively associated
130 PARKE ET AL.
with academic success, and negatively with internalizing and externalizing

problems. The effect sizes were modest in magnitude. Second, father’s au-
thoritative parenting was associated with academic success, and negatively
related to internalizing and externalizing problems. Authoritative parent-
ing was a better predictor than either frequency of contact or the “feeling
close” measure. In addition to quality of involvement, the amount of fa-
ther’s payment of child support was a significant predictor of children out-
comes, including academic success and children’s externalizing behavior.
Internalizing behavior was not linked with fathering indices. This finding is
not surprising, because “fathers financial contributions provide wholesome
food, adequate shelter in safe neighborhoods, commodities (such as books,
computers, and private lessons) that facilitate children’s academic success
and support for college attendance” (Amato & Gilbreth, 1999, p. 559).
Finally, this effect was evident for both boys and girls and African-American
and European American families. This work reflects earlier and recurring
themes in the parent–child literature, namely that quality is the critical fac-
tor in determining children’s development (Wachs, 2000). One of the lin-
gering questions concerns the determinants of continual involvement of
nonresident fathers, and interesting links among child support, contact,
and child well-being are emerging (Eggebeen, 2002). For example, Gar-
finkel and McLanahan (1995) found that fathers will spend more time
with their children as child support increases which, in turn, benefits the
children. More work is needed to more fully understand this important pol-
icy issue.
Impact of Normal Variations in Intact Families on Children’s Development.

A voluminous literature has emerged over the last three decades that
clearly demonstrates relations between quality of paternal involvement and
children’s social, emotional, and cognitive development (Pleck & Mas-
ciadrelli, 2004; Parke, 1996, 2002). At the same time, considerable evidence
shows a good deal of redundancy between fathers’ and mothers’ impact on
children. There is less evidence that fathers make a unique contribution to
children’s development.
In a review of the effects of fathers on children, Marsiglio, Amato, Day,
and Lamb (2000) reviewed 72 studies published in the 1990s with the
majority involving young children or adolescents and the remaining con-
cerning young adults. Their review revealed moderate negative associations
between authoritative fathering and internalizing and externalizing prob-
lems. The relations held for children and adolescents regardless of age.
Moreover, Amato and Rivera (1999) found a similar positive influence on
children’s behavior for European American, African American and Latino
fathers. Marsiglio et al. (2000) offer three important caveats to their conclu-
sion that “positive father involvement is generally beneficial to children”
4. FATHERS 131
(p. 1183). First, most studies rely on a single data source which raises the
problem of shared method variance. Second, many researchers do not con-
trol for the quality of the mother–child relationship when examining father
effects. Since the behavior and attitudes of parents are often highly related,
this step is critical. Only 8 of the 72 studies reviewed by Marsiglio et al.
(2000) did, in fact, control for the quality of the mother–child relationship;
however, five of the eight studies continued to show a father effect after tak-
ing into account mother–child effects. For example, Isley, O’Neil, and
Parke (1996) found that fathers’ level of affect and control predicted chil-
dren’s social adaptation with peers both concurrently and one year later af-
ter controlling for maternal effects (see also Mosley & Thompson, 1995;
Hart, Nelson, Robinson, Olsen, & McNeilly-Choque, 1998).
Pleck and Masciadrelli (2004) cited several other recent studies that con-
trolled for maternal involvement and avoided the same reporter problem.
For example, Aldous and Mulligan (2002) using a national data set found
that positive paternal engagement is linked to lower frequency of later be-
havior problems for boys and for difficult-to-rear children. Similarly, in a
large sample of British teenagers, positive paternal engagement predicted
positive school attitudes (Flouri, Buchanan, & Bream, 2002). Pleck and
Masciadrelli (2004) concluded that in over 70% of the studies that were
methodologically sound (controlling for maternal effects and independent
data sources), there were positive correlations between child outcomes and
paternal involvement. Although there is overlap between the effects of
mothers and fathers on their children’s academic, emotional, and social de-
velopment, evidence is emerging that fathers make a unique contribution
to their children’s development (Parke, 2002; Rohner, 1998).
A third caveat concerns problems of inferring direction of causality be-
cause studies are correlational and involve concurrent rather than longitu-
dinal assessments (Marsiglio et al., 2000). However, two strands of evidence
suggest that the direction of effects can plausibly flow from paternal behav-
ior to child outcomes. First, longitudinal studies support the view that fa-
thers influence their children (see Amato & Rivera, 1999; Parke, 1996,
2002; Pleck & Masciadrelli, 2004, for reviews). For example, Gottman, Katz,
and Hooven (1997) found that fathers’ acceptance of and assistance with
their children’s emotions (sadness, anger) at 5 years of age were related to
higher levels of social acceptance with peers at age 8. Positive father en-
gagement in tenth grade was related to fewer behavior problems one year
later (Zimmerman, Salem, & Notaro, 2000). Nor are the effects of fathering
on developmental outcomes restricted to childhood. In a follow-up of the
classic childrearing study of Sears, Maccoby, and Levin (1957), Koestner,
Franz, and Weinberger (1990) reassessed a sample of the original children
when they were 31 years old. The most powerful predictor of empathy in
adulthood for both men and women was paternal child-rearing involve-
132 PARKE ET AL.
ment at age 5. This paternal factor was a better predictor than several other
maternal variables. In a further study (Franz, McClelland, & Weinberger,
1991), at age 41, men and women with better social relationships (marriage
quality; extra-familial ties) in mid-life had experienced more paternal
warmth as children. Although these studies support a father effects per-
spective, it is likely that reciprocal relationships will become evident, in
which children and fathers mutually influence each other across the life
course (Parke, 2002).
Beyond Description: Processes Which Link Fathering and Child Out-

comes. Recent work that has focused on fathers’ special style of interac-
tion, namely play, has begun to reveal the processes through which fathers
influence over children’s development is achieved (see Parke, 1996; Parke
et al., 2002, for reviews). Parke and his colleagues, for example, examined
the relation between father–toddler play and children’s adaptation to
peers. In one study (MacDonald & Parke, 1984), fathers and their 3- and 4-
year-old girls and boys were observed in 20 minutes of structured play in
their homes. Teachers ranked these children in terms of their popularity
among their preschool classmates. For both girls and boys, fathers who
were rated as exhibiting high levels of physical play with their children, and
eliciting high levels of positive affect from their children during the play
sessions, had children who received the highest peer popularity ratings. For
boys, however, this pattern was qualified by the father’s level of direc-
tiveness. Boys whose fathers were both highly physical and low in direc-
tiveness received the highest popularity ratings, and the boys whose fathers
were highly directive received lower popularity scores. Possibly, children
who interact with a physically playful father and at the same time have an
opportunity to regulate the pace and tempo of the interaction, a character-
istic of low-directive fathers, learn how to recognize and send emotional sig-
nals during social interactions. Later studies confirmed these findings and
showed a link between children’s emotional encoding and decoding abili-
ties that are presumably acquired, in part, in these playful interchanges and
children’s social adaptation to peers (Parke & O’Neil, 2000). In addition,
fathers’ affect displays, especially father anger, seem to be a potent corre-
late of children’s social acceptance. In studies in both the laboratory (Car-
son & Parke, 1996) and the home (Boyum & Parke, 1995), fathers’ negative
affect is inversely related to preschool and kindergarten children’s socio-
metric status. Mize and Pettit (1997) found that preschool children whose
play with fathers is characterized by mutuality or balance in making play
suggestions and following partners’ suggestions were less aggressive, more
competent, and better liked by peers. Similarly Hart and his colleagues
(Hart et al., 1998, 2000) found that greater playfulness, patience, and un-
derstanding with children, especially on the part of the father, are associ-
4. FATHERS 133
ated with less aggressive behavior with peers. Later work has isolated other
emotional processes such as emotional regulation (McDowell, Kim, O’Neil,
& Parke, 2002) and knowledge and use of display rules (McDowell & Parke,
2000) that, in turn, are influenced by paternal (as well as maternal) interac-
tion patterns and are predictive of children’s social acceptance.
Although father involvement in infancy and childhood is quantitatively
less than mother involvement, the data suggest that fathers nevertheless do
have an important impact on their offspring’s development.
APPLIED AND POLICY PERSPECTIVES
In light of the evidence it is clear that strategies aimed at increasing father in-
volvement are worthwhile. Since, fathering is multi-determined, suggestions
and policies aimed at facilitating fathers involvement need to be multi-level
in nature as well. Parke and Brott (1999) provide some guidelines for in-
creasing father involvement, by noting various steps that men, women, the
government and the private sector can take to increase father involvement.
Men themselves can increase their involvement in various ways. These in-
clude taking the initiative more rather than waiting to be asked. “If men are
going to be fully involved, they are going to have to share responsibility for
the household and childcare in an active fashion” (Parke & Brott, 1999, p.
193). This means being a partner not merely a helper. Second, men need to
get more practice in parenting skills. Whatever women know about raising
children they learned by doing and men can learn to improve their parent-
ing as well. Programs are available to help fathers learn the basics of child-
care, but men have to be willing to take advantage of these opportunities
(Fagan & Hawkins, 2000). While many women gained these critical child-
care experiences while they were growing up (Parke, 2000), many men have
to catch up when they become fathers. Third, men need to be emotionally
available to their children if they are going to be fully effective parents. As
Gottman (1994) wisely notes: “Men must allow themselves to be aware of
their feelings so they can empathize with their children. Then they must take
whatever steps necessary to make themselves available to their kids. They
must structure their lives so they give more time and attention to their chil-
dren” (p. 183). And nonresidential fathers need to stay involved if they are
single, separated or divorced. To achieve this goal fathers need to know their
legal rights as a noncustodial parent, but also be aware of their responsibili-
ties to continue to play an active role in their children’s lives and to meet
their financial support obligations.
As we noted earlier, fathering is a negotiated set of activities and mothers
play an important part in determining how much fathers are involved. Just
as men need to rethink their family roles as “assistants” to mothers, women
134 PARKE ET AL.
need to change their expectations about their partners as well and commu-
nicate that parenting is a shared enterprise, not just a mother’s responsibil-
ity. “Asking for help makes it seem as if what he’s (fathers) helping with is
really the women’s job and that she should be grateful” (Parke & Brott,
1999, p. 197). Second, women should be gate openers, not gate closers. As
research has shown, when women function as gate closers men’s participa-
tion is less (Allen & Hawkins, 1999; Beitel & Parke, 1998). To increase fa-
ther participation, women need to be facilitors and encourage men to play
a part in family caregiving routines. Third, and closely related to the gate-
keeper issue is the need to adjust standards. Women need to recognize that
men and women may have different standards, if fathers are going to be full
participants. As Parke and Brott (1999) wryly observed, “No child ever suf-
fered long term trauma by having her diaper put on a bit looser than
mother would like” (p. 196). Modifying standards in non-critical domains
may encourage greater father participation.
In view of our ecological systems perspective, it is clear that individuals
and couples cannot be expected to achieve changes in father involvement
without support from societal institutions. Schools can play a role in this
process by providing parenting education for both boys and girls, begin-
ning in elementary school. This is not a new idea; the National PTA recom-
mended that parenthood education be included in the curriculum as early
as 1925. Second, physicians need to treat fathers as parents. Too often hos-
pitals and doctors treat fathers—even expectant fathers—as second class
citizens whose primary usefulness is to pay the bills. Fathers need opportu-
nities to learn about the care and feeding of new babies in the hospital and
to have programs that are sensitive to their needs and roles (Fagan &
Hawkins, 2000). Pediatricians can encourage men to be present at well-
baby checkups and to make evening appointment available so fathers can
be there. The government can play a role too by funding public awareness
campaigns by federal, state, and local governments about the importance
of fathers in the lives of children, and government can overhaul welfare
practices to encourage father involvement by not reducing maternal wel-
fare benefits when fathers are active residential partners. Government poli-
cies, such as the Family and Medical Leave Act which gives fathers the same
right as mothers to take time off after the birth of their children, need to be
upheld and extended. At present, this law does not provide wages for the
parents and by offering a financial safety net, more men (and women)
would take advantage of these opportunities. On the legal front a policy of
encouraging joint custody is an important tool for keeping more fathers in-
volved in their children’s lives and reducing some of the negative effects of
divorce on children. The media can encourage father involvement by por-
traying fathers realistically and not as inept, uninvolved, and unimportant.
Instead television can help shape our visions of men as partners for their
4. FATHERS 135
wives and as involved and equal contributors to the care and up bringing of
their children.
It is imperative that these policies and programs be carefully crafted and
organized to appeal to fathers of different ethnic backgrounds. This kind of
cultural sensitivity is crucial to attracting and retaining fathers in these pro-
grams and for these men to appreciate the relevance of these policies to
their lives.
As Parke and Brott (1999) conclude:
Promoting a cultural change in the ways that society views fathers and the ways
that men view themselves in this role is no easy task. Just as there are many real
barriers that converge and conspire to limit fathers’ involvement, it will take a
coordinated effort by men, women, the media, government and the private sec-
tor to bring about a new and more involved era of fatherhood. It’s no easy task,
but children, women, and men themselves will all benefit if we can increase fa-
ther’s involvement as we enter the twenty-first century. (p. 204)
One goal of this chapter is to extend an invitation to join this effort and to
provide the scholarly foundation that underlies such an undertaking.
CONCLUSIONS
Our review suggests that fathers play important roles in the family and their
involvement has significant consequences for children, mothers, and men
themselves. Father involvement is multiply determined and a variety of in-
fluences, including individual, familial, marital, institutional, and cultural
factors, need to be considered in order to understand variations in level of
involvement. By recognizing fathers’ embeddedness in community and cul-
ture as well as in family contexts, we will more fully understand the father’s
role and be better positioned to design intervention efforts to increase
fathers’ level of involvement in the lives of their children.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Thanks to Faye Harmer for her assistance in the preparation of the manu-
script. Support from NIMH grant RO1MH54154 to Parke, in part, facili-
tated the work described in this chapter.
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II
CHARACTERISTICS
OF THE CHILD
5
The Effects of Child

Characteristics on Parenting
Katherine Hildebrandt Karraker

West Virginia University
Priscilla K. Coleman
Bowling Green University
INTRODUCTION
The broad topic of parenting has received substantial research attention in

recent years (e.g., Bornstein, 1995; 2002). Studies have been devoted to in-
creasing our understanding of the many personal and environmental influ-
ences on parenting, of the impact of variations in parenting on child devel-
opmental outcomes, and of the processes by which parenting interacts with
other aspects of family life. Based on the accumulating empirical and theo-
retical work on this topic, contemporary parenting researchers have devel-
oped a keen awareness of the inherent complexity of this area of study. Not
only are multiple factors involved in determining parenting and its effects,
but many relations among the relevant factors are bi-directional, multi-
directional, and nonlinear. In this chapter, we examine one relatively ne-
glected aspect of parenting, the effects of child characteristics on parenting,
while attempting to maintain sensitivity to the broader literature on parent-
ing and to the myriad relations between parenting and other variables.
Despite awareness of the complexity of parenting dynamics, most of the
studies of parenting conducted over the last several decades have adopted a
unidirectional perspective in which variations in parenting behavior have
been assumed to operate as causes of various indicators of child adjustment
and development. When correlational relations between some aspect of
parenting and some aspect of child development have been identified, the
predominant interpretation has been that variations in parenting produce
147
148 KARRAKER AND COLEMAN
variations in child outcomes. Other possible causal or noncausal relations

between these classes of variables, such as the possibility that the child out-
comes actually elicit the observed parenting behaviors, often are not dis-
cussed or are given minimal consideration.
Some recent studies of parenting effects on children have expanded on
this assumption of unidirectional causality by assessing the joint role of
parenting and child characteristics in determining child outcomes. How-
ever, the interpretation of findings continues to emphasize parenting ef-
fects on children, albeit with recognition that these parenting effects may
vary for different types of children. Again, minimal attention has been paid
to the notion that dissimilar children may systematically elicit differential
parenting.
Variations among parents in how they behave toward their children are
likely related to parents’ personality, prior experiences, and social/environ-
mental conditions as well as to the eliciting effects of children’s characteris-
tics and behavior. Disentangling these influences can be challenging. One
source of evidence that individual children elicit different parenting behav-
iors comes from comparisons of parenting behavior directed to different
children by the same adult, such as in families with more than one child. As a
hypothetical example, a parent might be likely to use milder discipline tech-
niques in response to the misbehavior of a very sensitive and eager-to-please
child who rarely misbehaves compared to a less sensitive child who is prone
to pushing limits. Such variations in parenting behavior undoubtedly play a
strong role in defining the non-shared environments leading to behavioral
and developmental differences among children in the same home (Feinberg
& Hetherington, 2001; Kowal & Kramer, 1997; McGuire, Dunn, & Plomin,
1995; McHale & Pawletko, 1992). Even when physical and psychological dif-
ferences between siblings are minimal, as in the case of identical twins, moth-
ers engage in differential parenting with more positive parenting behaviors
associated with more positive child outcomes (Deater-Deckard et al., 2001).
One challenge is to identify the factors within the parent and within the child
that lead to such differential parenting.
Children’s moment-to-moment behavior tends to be highly variable,
with their moods and levels of agreeableness fluctuating frequently in re-
sponse to situational events and interactions with others. Although these
transitory behavioral variations clearly have an impact on parent behavior,
stable characteristics and behavioral propensities of children are of most
concern to our understanding of differential parenting and its outcomes.
The primary goal of this chapter is, therefore, to explore mechanisms by
which children’s relatively enduring characteristics are likely to influence
the qualitative nature of the parenting they receive. Although we will draw
from examples related to gender, age, physical appearance, and a few other
characteristics, most of our discussion will revolve around child tempera-
5. CHILD CHARACTERISTICS AND PARENTING 149
ment, as it has long been considered to be a relevant factor in many studies

of parenting. We begin the chapter with a discussion of historical and theo-
retical considerations in understanding parenting and children’s effects on
parenting. We then consider the mechanisms by which children affect
parenting and parenting affects children. We then summarize the litera-
ture concerning the effects of particular child characteristics on parenting,
with an emphasis on temperament. We conclude by considering implica-
tions of the literature reviewed for our understanding of parenting and
child development.
HISTORICAL AND THEORETICAL VIEWS

OF CHILD EFFECTS ON PARENTING
Acknowledgment of child contributions to parenting processes dates back

to early research on socialization (Bell, 1968; Sears, Maccoby, & Levin,
1957) and temperament (Thomas, Chess, Birch, Hertzig, & Korn, 1963).
Although the concept of bi-directionality in socialization processes was for-
mally introduced by Sears et al. in 1957, acceptance of reciprocal determin-
ism (effects flowing from child to parent as well as from parent to child) did
not receive extensive attention until the publication of Bell’s 1968 review of
the limitations of the unidirectional approach. Further, Sameroff and
Chandler’s (1975) seminal paper effectively highlighted the transactional
process wherein organismic and contextual elements in combination deter-
mine child outcomes. This paper also promoted a conceptualization of the
environment as dynamic, capable of both influencing and being influenced
by the child. This transactional model can be illustrated in a simplified
form using a single child temperament characteristic such as shyness. Par-
enting a shy child is likely to elicit particular parenting cognitions (e.g.,
“Have I sheltered my child too much?” “Will my child be lonely and isolated
as shy children often are?” “How can I help my child to become more out-
going?”) and emotions (e.g., “I worry that my child isn’t happy at school.” “I
really feel compassion for my child as I was just like him.” “I get frustrated
when my child won’t jump into activities like other children do.”). These in-
ternal parental responses may lead to increased sensitivity to the child’s
comfort level in social situations, more concerted efforts to help the child
identify compatible friends and maintain relationships, or alternatively to
behaviors such as enabling the child to avoid social situations or engaging
in criticism of the child. These parent behaviors may then lead to positive
or negative child outcomes depending on how the behaviors are perceived
and acted upon by the individual child. For instance, one shy child may ap-
preciate parental compassion and assistance in becoming more social and
may respond by putting forth an extra effort to change, while another shy
child may resent the attention and insist on being left alone. The child’s re-
sponses to the parent’s behaviors then influence the parent’s subsequent
cognitions, emotions, and behaviors, which then affect the child’s re-
sponses, and so on.
Dialectical and contextualistic theoretical developments over the last
several decades have also supported the view of an active child. For exam-
ple, Vygotsky (1978) argued that development proceeds through the proc-
ess of internalization whereby externally experienced events are translated
into personal, mental activity. The view of the child as capable of influenc-
ing his or her own development is further exemplified by the concept of
constructive epigenesis (Bidell & Fischer, 1997), which focuses on the pri-
mary role of self-organizing activity in the development of new abilities.
Bronfenbrenner (1979) also advanced a bioecological model (most re-
cently termed the Process-Person-Context-Time Model; Bronfenbrenner &
Morris, 1998), which offers a theoretical perspective within a contextual
framework for understanding how particular processes involving environ-
mental components interact with characteristics of the individual child to
differentially impact development. In this model, parenting is viewed as a
proximal process in development. The influence of parenting on develop-
ment is conceptualized as one that varies in relation to child characteristics.
Belsky’s (1984) widely cited discussion of the primary influences on the
quality of parenting extends some of Bronfenbrenner’s earlier notions.
Belsky proposed that the main influences on the quality of parenting in-
clude parents’ psychological resources, child characteristics, and socio-
cultural or environmental factors.
Very little scholarly work explored child effects on others until results
from the New York Longitudinal Study (Thomas et al., 1963) effectively
challenged the dominant belief that parents were solely responsible for
their children’s development. Child behavior problems were reported to
emerge occasionally despite the presence of positive parenting practices,
and adaptive child behaviors were sometimes evident when children were
exposed to dysfunctional parenting behavior. Moreover, components of
children’s temperament and particular aspects of their rearing environ-
ments were found to combine to produce positive and negative outcomes
(Chess, Thomas, & Birch, 1965).
Despite the current prevailing consensus that children do have powerful
effects on others, there are surprisingly few studies devoted specifically to
examining the role of such effects in parent–child relations. Researchers,
parents, and society more generally persist in assuming that parent-to-child
effects represent the most salient causal path in the socialization process.
With this assumption rooted heavily in classic theories of development, tra-
dition in the field, intuition, and conventional wisdom (Harris, 1998; Pat-
terson & Fisher, 2002), other explanations for correlations between parent
behavior and child outcomes are not as actively researched as might be ex-
pected. Many behavioral geneticists (e.g., Plomin, 1990; Scarr, 1988) and
environmentalists (e.g., Wachs, 1992; Wachs & Kohnstamm, 2001) have at-
tempted to examine the child’s role in models of environmental influence.
Nevertheless, many contemporary examples suggest that researchers are
not taking child effects seriously. For example, in an extensive recent re-
view of literature on parenting related to child and parent psychopathology
by Berg-Nielsen, Vikan, and Dahl (2002), the unidirectional bias is quite
obvious. Although child effects are alluded to at the beginning of the re-
port, they are not mentioned again until the last page under a segment de-
voted to future research.
The tendency to ignore or minimize the effects of the child on parenting
in particular and the childrearing environment more generally cannot be
attributed to declining interest in the study of parenting as the number of
empirically based studies of parenting has increased dramatically in recent
years (Bornstein, 1995, 2002; Patterson & Fisher, 2002). The outpouring of
scholarly work crossing numerous disciplines including psychology, sociol-
ogy, social work, and nursing, among others, is undoubtedly tied to the in-
creased complexity and multiple pressures characterizing the lives of con-
temporary parents (Patterson & Fisher, 2002). Because much parenting
research is motivated by the desire to identify ways that parents can posi-
tively influence their children, the research agenda tends to be biased to-
ward examining parent effects rather than child effects.
As we explore the merits of including child effects in the study of
parenting processes, an examination of the definitions used in the litera-
ture is a logical starting point. Berg-Nielsen and colleagues (2002) offer a
very straightforward definition of parenting when they define it as every-
day parental behavior (including cognitions, emotions, and attributions)
directed toward children in addition to relevant attitudes and values. Most
contemporary researchers define the construct similarly; however, as noted
by O’Connor (2002), different scholars have emphasized distinct compo-
nents (e.g., behavior over socio-cognitive processes) and have adopted
different assessment strategies designed to measure parent and child vari-
ables separately or to examine dyadic behaviors such as synchrony, mutu-
ality, or reciprocity. Efforts have also been made to define competent and
less competent or dysfunctional parenting, with competent parenting typ-
ically referring to internal attributes and behaviors believed to promote
positive physical, emotional, cognitive, and social development in chil-
dren and dysfunctional parenting referring to internal attributes and be-
haviors believed to adversely impact the child’s development (Berg-Nielsen
et al., 2002).
MECHANISMS RELATING PARENTING TO CHILD

CHARACTERISTICS AND BEHAVIOR
An abundance of correlational research has accumulated suggesting strong

associations between various parenting behaviors and child characteristics
and behaviors. For example, the importance of parental warmth/support,
conflict or hostility/rejection, and monitoring and control of children’s be-
havior as predictors of discrete child outcomes has been well documented in
the literature (Baumrind, 1991; O’Connor, 2002). In addition, we know that
parenting variations are associated with particular child temperamental char-
acteristics (see discussion later). However, the majority of individual studies
devoted to examining associations between parent behavior and children’s
behavior or adjustment has not tackled the question of causality in a system-
atic and controlled manner. In this section of the chapter, we describe a gen-
eral model of parent–child influence followed by examination of the under-
lying mechanisms that can account for parent–child correlations.
A Model of Parent–Child Influence
The model we endorse is relatively simple and is based on the transactional

model of development. Most basically, we maintain that children influence
their parents, and parents influence their children. These influences take
place simultaneously and continually, and changes in either parents or chil-
dren resulting from these processes then impact future interactions and
paths of influence. However, the model becomes somewhat more complex
when we recognize the role of internal processes (various cognitions and
emotions) in addition to overt behavioral interactions. Child characteris-
tics, such as physical appearance or gender, can influence parents by affect-
ing the child’s behavior, the parent’s cognitions, or both. Parents’ behav-
iors toward the child may therefore be affected by their stereotypes,
expectations, perceptions, or beliefs about the child as well as by the child’s
actual behavior. Similar processes may take place in the child, although
many of these internal processes may be simplified or nonexistent in youn-
ger children.
Because the majority of studies of parenting and child characteristics are
correlational rather than experimental in design, it is not possible to know
whether a particular correlation between a parenting variable and a child
variable represents a causal relation. There are a number of reasons why as-
sumptions of causality based on naturally occurring, correlational relations
between variables may be ill-founded. First, many of the observed associa-
tions between parents’ and children’s behavior are artificially inflated due
to shared method variance (O’Connor, 2002). Measures of both parenting
and child behavior frequently are obtained from the same source (typically
the parent) using the same methodology (typically questionnaires). The re-
sulting correlations between the two sets of measures may be inflated as a
result of having the same person provide both measures. Second, correla-
tions observed between parent behavior and child characteristics or behav-
iors may very well be due to third variables in the environment. For exam-
ple, an association observed between inconsistent parenting and aggressive
child behavior may be the result of stress or parental divorce causing both
the inconsistency and the aggression. Third, research suggesting that par-
ent behaviors cause variations in child outcomes often ignores explanations
based on shared genes. For instance, an association between frequent pa-
rental verbal stimulation and children’s academic achievement could very
easily be based on a shared genetic endowment that leads to both verbal
and academic competence.
Many observed correlations between parenting cognitions and behaviors
and child characteristics and outcomes probably do represent the result of
a causal relation. The difficulty lies in determining whether the parenting
variable causes the child variable or the child variable causes the parenting
variable. The remainder of this section describes the possible mechanisms
underlying each of these causal paths, as well as the potential roles of ge-
netic and contextual factors in determining or identifying causation.
Parent Influences on Children
Influences on children’s behavior and development extend from the im-

mediate family to schools, friendship networks, relatives, neighborhoods,
communities, and geographical locations, all of which are embedded in dy-
namic economic, cultural, and political systems that are operative during
particular historical periods (Bronfenbrenner, 1979). However, based on
the time, energy, and emotional investment parents have in their children’s
lives, the study of parenting behavior has logically occupied the central fo-
cus of studies designed to explore environmental influences on child out-
comes. Virtually all of the parenting research prior to the 1960s and a great
deal of the more recent research has been devoted to the study of parent ef-
fects on children’s adjustment and development. Subsequent related stud-
ies have naturally focused on individual and environmental determinants
of those parenting behaviors that are likely to place children at risk for neg-
ative outcomes or that serve to promote children’s optimal development.
O’Connor (2002) evaluated evidence for parenting effects in animal
studies, intervention studies, and various types of longitudinal studies. He
concluded that, although there is definitive support for the existence of
parent effects on children, three issues require further attention. First, the
influence of parents is too frequently studied without attention to the
larger psychosocial context. Second, checks for genetic mediation of envi-
ronmental processes have generally been omitted. Finally, the uni-direc-

tional assumption that effects flow only from parent to child remains perva-
sive in the study of parenting. The problem with the uni-directional ap-
proach is the notion that parenting resides within the parent rather than
representing a process defined by the parent, the child, relationships
within the family, and contextual elements.
Although it is well accepted that parents do, at least in some realms, in-
fluence their children’s development, the precise mechanisms by which
these influences occur are not always known. Proposed mechanisms range
from the purely behavioral (parents reinforce desired child behavior and
punish undesired child behavior, leading to child behavior change) to the
highly cognitive or affective (children change their behavior in response to
their parents’ actual or presumed thoughts and feelings). Parent behaviors
are often clustered into behavioral styles or patterns, such as sensitivity, hos-
tility, authoritativeness, coercive control, warmth, and disturbed communi-
cation. Although many of these patterns of parenting behavior appear to
have an impact on child functioning, based on both correlational and ex-
perimental evidence (O’Connor, 2002), little is known about how this im-
pact occurs.
Child Influences on Parents
The most compelling evidence for child effects on parents comes from ex-
perimental and quasi-experimental studies in which adults’ responses to
children whose target characteristics systematically vary are compared. For
example, research by Barkley and colleagues (cited in Patterson & Fisher,
2002) revealed that when children with ADHD were medicated, and there-
fore demonstrated less hyperactivity than when they were unmedicated,
their mothers’ behavior became less aversive. Similarly, a study by Ander-
son, Lytton, and Romney (1986) showed that women exhibited more nega-
tive behavior when interacting with boys diagnosed with conduct disorder
than when interacting with their own boys who did not have the disorder.
Stern and Hildebrandt (1986) illustrated that women interacted differently
with unfamiliar infants who were labeled as having been born prematurely
and infants labeled as having been born at full term, independent of the in-
fants’ actual birth status.
Experimental manipulation of children’s characteristics or behavior is
often not possible, so again, most of our information about the effects of
children on parents is inferred from correlational data. The mechanisms
underlying the presumed effects of children’s characteristics and behaviors
on parenting behavior include both direct and mediated effects of child
characteristics and behaviors on parenting behavior. The most commonly
identified mediators are parent cognitions, such as beliefs, attitudes, values,
perceptions, expectations, stereotypes, knowledge, and desires (Holden,

1995), and parent emotions (Dix, 1991). These cognitions or emotions oc-
cur in response to children’s characteristics or behaviors, and then the
cognitions or emotions guide parents’ subsequent behaviors. Genetic fac-
tors in both the parent and child, the goodness-of-fit between child and par-
ent characteristics, and contextual factors also all play a role in determining
how children can influence their parents. The possibility that parent and
child behaviors are correlated due to shared genes, rather than the effect of
one individual on the other, must always be considered as well.
Children obviously influence their parents directly via their immediate
behavior. Children can affect their parents’ behavior directly by engaging
in reinforcing or punishing responses to their parents’ actions. For exam-
ple, most parents are reinforced by children’s smiles and approach and are
punished by children’s negative emotions and refusals to cooperate. In ad-
dition, many child behaviors elicit particular adult responses; for instance,
child distress commonly elicits parent behaviors intended to calm or dis-
tract the child, child misbehavior often elicits punishing or redirecting pa-
rental behaviors, and child quiet play usually elicits parental encourage-
ment or inattention.
Mediated effects of children on parents occur when enduring child char-
acteristics, such as child gender or appearance, or persistent temperament
qualities, like high activity level, function to influence parents’ perceptions
of the child or to reinforce or modify previously formed parental cog-
nitions or prevailing ways of responding emotionally, which in turn impact
parents’ child-directed behavior. For example, if a mother enters into the
experience of parenting believing that little girls are generally calm and
passive, and she finds herself with a daughter who craves activity and is per-
petually on the go, she may experience emotional and cognitive shifts that
eventually lead her to adapt her approach to parenting. This parent may
come to an understanding that children vary considerably along the activity
dimension regardless of gender, and she is likely to realize that she needs to
provide opportunities for her child to engage in positive energy outlets
(e.g., through sports or dance). She may also learn effective ways to encour-
age her child to sit long enough to do her homework, possibly through ne-
gotiation (e.g., one hour of play outside for one-half hour of homework). If
the parenting strategies adopted succeed in enabling the child’s activity
needs to be fulfilled while participating fully in other life experiences, posi-
tive outcomes are probable. Another parent surprised by an unusually ac-
tive child may be less inclined to change her beliefs, becoming convinced
that she can change her child’s disposition instead, which would likely pro-
duce frustration and negative behavior in both the parent and the child. Ev-
idence that child gender can influence parents’ expectations and the man-
ner in which a child’s behavior is interpreted by the parent (Okagaki &
Divecha, 1993) is exemplified by Rubin, Provenzano, and Luria’s (1974)

demonstration of parents’ use of masculine adjectives to describe their new-
born sons and feminine adjectives to describe their newborn daughters
(see also Karraker, Vogel, & Lake, 1995). Such perceptions are likely to
greatly influence the nature of parents’ interaction with their children
(Stern & Karraker, 1989). For example, if a father believes female infants
are more fragile than male infants, he is likely to handle a female child
more gently.
Another illustration of the mediating role of parental cognitions comes
from studies indicating that parents with atypically demanding children
(those with difficult temperaments or behavior disorders) tend to have
lower self-efficacy beliefs compared to parents of nonproblem children
(e.g., Teti and Gelfand, 1991). Parents with low self-efficacy are inclined to
have trouble putting their parenting knowledge into action and typically do
not show high levels of persistence in parenting (Grusec, Hastings, &
Mammone, 1994). Mothers with low self-efficacy also are more likely to ex-
perience postpartum depression (Cutrona & Troutman, 1986), which then
may further compromise their parenting behavior.
Child characteristics may also influence the nature of parenting by im-
pacting other relationships in the parent’s life (such as with a spouse, other
children, friends, relatives, or co-workers) or by detracting from a parent’s
competence at work, energy level, or general well-being. For example, the
stress associated with having a very reticent child who engages in frequent
school refusal may cause parents who are feeling powerless to argue and
blame each other in addition to missing time from work. If the situation
persists, the pressure they are under may result in decreased sensitivity to
the child and less effective parenting.
The Role of Genetic Factors
Identifying the true effects of biological children on their parents is compli-

cated by the influence of genetic factors. As mentioned previously, shared
genes may underlie some of the observed correlations between parent and
child behaviors. Comparisons of parent–child correlations for adopted and
nonadopted children can help to identify the effects of shared genes. A
stronger correlation for nonadopted vs. adopted children suggests that
shared genes underlie a relation between parent and child behaviors. Simi-
larly, stronger correlations between parenting behaviors directed to non-
adoptive siblings (biological siblings reared in the same family) than to
adoptive siblings (biologically unrelated children adopted into the same
family) also suggest the functioning of shared genes. Several studies have
identified such differences in correlations. For instance, using this method-
ology with a sample of infants tested at 12 and 24 months, Plomin, DeFries,
and Fulker (1988) found higher correlations for nonadoptive than for
adoptive siblings on measures of parental provision of toys and parental re-
striction–punishment. Similarly, Dunn and Plomin (1986) reported higher
correlations for nonadoptive than for adoptive siblings on a measure of ma-
ternal affection derived from observations of mother–child interaction
from infancy to early childhood. Plomin, Loehlin, and DeFries (1985) also
reported higher correlations in nonadoptive siblings than in adoptive sib-
lings for relations between Home Observation for the Measurement of the
Environment (HOME) scores and 2-year-olds’ Bayley mental scores as well
as scores on a measure of language development. There are also research
findings to suggest that the level of genetic influence on child and adoles-
cent perceptions of parenting differs depending on the aspect of parenting
measured, with support for genetic effects related to measures of warmth
but not control (Braungart, 1994; Elkins, McGue, & Iacono, 1997; Good-
man & Stevenson, 1989). Finally, results from a study of families containing
both biological and adoptive children between the ages of 12 and 18 years
revealed stronger associations between parent reports of family functioning
and adolescent reports of behavioral adjustment for the biological children
(McGue, Sharma, & Benson, 1996).
All of the above examples of evidence for genetic influence illustrate
what is referred to as a passive genotype-environment correlation (Scarr &
McCartney, 1983; Towers, Spotts, & Neiderhiser, 2001) presumably based
on genetic relatedness. Unfortunately the studies conducted to examine
the effects of shared genes have not been able to specify exactly how these
effects operate (Towers et al., 2001), and the ability to describe such mech-
anisms is confounded by the numerous ways that parent–child genetic simi-
larity might be expressed through parenting. There have been recent ef-
forts to identify particular candidate genes among family members using
DNA samples (Plomin & Rutter, 1998; Towers et al., 2001). This methodol-
ogy basically involves associating specific genes with behaviors using statisti-
cal methods such as regression analysis. These studies have also begun to
examine the role of family relationship factors in mediating or moderating
the behavioral expression of candidate genes (Towers et al., 2001).
A child’s genetic endowment may also impact parenting behavior
through nonpassive genotype-environment correlations (Scarr & McCart-
ney, 1983; Towers et al., 2001). These correlations result from the impact of
the child’s genetically determined characteristics on the parent, regardless
of the parent’s genetic makeup. There are two forms of nonpassive geno-
type-environment correlations. First, there are evocative gene-environment
correlations which are defined as reactions of others to a genetically influ-
enced trait of the individual. For example, a mother of a child with a short
attention span is likely to find herself providing many different types of ma-
terials (books, art supplies, games, and so forth) and opportunities to keep
her child content and may become very creative in strategies to help the
child remain focused for increasing time intervals. Second, there are active
gene-environment correlations, which involve the individual seeking out a
particular environment or experience as a function of genetically based
traits. For example, a child with high verbal aptitude may seek opportuni-
ties to exercise her talent through social experiences, writing, drama, or a
debate club. Parenting will undoubtedly be influenced as the child pursues
support to engage in such activities.
Genetic processes clearly are an important mechanism underlying some
relations between parenting behavior and child characteristics or behavior.
However, these processes have only been studied in limited contexts and of-
ten are not recognized as a possible influence on parent–child correlations.
The Role of Contextual Factors
Relations between parent and child characteristics are rarely consistent

across all individuals and all contexts. A variety of contextual factors may in-
fluence the strength of the association between individual parent and child
attributes as well as the underlying causal factors that produce the associa-
tion in any particular dyad.
Thomas and Chess’s (1977) goodness-of-fit model helps to explain how
child characteristics and features of the environment can work together to
detract from or optimize development. According to this model, adaptive
child outcomes are most probable when the child’s physical and behavioral
characteristics are compatible with the requirements of his or her physical
and social environment. As related to parenting, a child’s physical distinc-
tiveness and psychological individuality will prompt varying reactions in
parents based on the parents’ attitudes, values, stereotypes, and behavioral
style, and on the physical characteristics of the setting (Lerner, 1993).
Children will naturally differ in the extent to which they are able to meet
the many demands of their parents and the environment.
According to the goodness-of-fit model, positive development is not sim-
ply the product of particular child characteristics nor the specific nature of
demands made by the environment, but instead results when there is a
good match between the child’s unique qualities and the demands im-
posed (Lerner, 1993). For example, a difficult child temperament and
harsh and inconsistent parental discipline produces a poor fit that may re-
sult in a steady escalation of the child’s problematic behavior. In contrast,
when parents of difficult children provide warm and stable rearing with ap-
propriate and consistently applied discipline, the child’s behavior is likely
to become less challenging over time.
Beyond contributing to goodness-of-fit, features of the environment can
also serve as mediators and moderators of relations between child charac-
teristics and parents and parenting processes. Bronfenbrenner’s (1979)

ecological model describes a series of layers of influence on children’s de-
velopment ranging from immediate or proximal influences within the fam-
ily to more distal influences originating in the neighborhood, community,
and broader society. One of the basic tenets of this theoretical model is the
notion that there are numerous connective links among the forms and lev-
els of influence with many of the more distal factors influencing children
through their effects on parents. Although a good portion of the work on
parenting has been examined in isolation without adequate consideration
of the multiple interacting layers of environmental influence, there have
been many studies designed to examine the moderating effects of particu-
lar environmental factors such as exposure to various cultures and subcul-
tures, as well as multiple neighborhood characteristics, on parenting behav-
ior and children’s development (O’Connor, 2002). For example, a study by
Chen et al. (1998) revealed that the associations between toddler inhibition
and maternal acceptance and encouragement of achievement were positive
in a Chinese sample and negative in a Canadian sample. Studies of this sort
provide crucial data pertaining to how relations between various aspects of
temperament differentially impact parenting processes depending on the
belief, economic, and social systems characterizing particular cultures.
Studies have also demonstrated that parenting variables mediate the im-
pact of certain environmental factors such as economic adversity (e.g.,
stress on parents reduces their competence) and peer relationships (e.g.,
parents encourage and facilitate some relationships but not others) on
child outcomes (O’Connor, 2002).
Unfortunately, most of the studies devoted to understanding how aspects
of the environment are related to parenting processes seldom consider more
than a few variables, and studies have only recently begun to consider how
other familial relationships or extra-familial factors modify the effects that
children have on their parents. For example, the presence or absence of sib-
lings can alter the effects of parents on children and children on parents. Re-
search has revealed distinct child adjustment outcomes associated with rela-
tively more positive or more negative parental behavior directed toward
individual siblings within a family (McGuire et al., 1995; Pike, McGuire,
Hetherington, Reiss, & Plomin, 1996), motivating exploration of various
causes including child effects on parental tendencies to treat one child more
or less well than another. Variations in birth order, parental preferences for
one child over another based on child characteristics, one child being more
effective at eliciting attention from the parent than another, the congruence
between parent and child personalities, and a child’s similarity (or lack of sim-
ilarity) in appearance or behavior to someone the parent knows can influ-
ence parents’ differential responding to their children (Karraker &
Coleman, 2002). Other studies have found that financial and relationship
stressors including marital conflict and family size increase differential treat-
ment by parents (Crouter, McHale, & Tucker, 1999; Deal, 1996; Jenkins,
Rasbash, & O’Connor, 2003; Volling & Elins, 1998); however, the extent to
which these environmental factors interact with child effects to predict differ-
ential treatment has not been adequately explored.
With widespread acceptance of the transactional model of child develop-
ment, one of the largest challenges facing researchers today will be to find
effective methods to tease apart parent–child and child–parent effects that
are complexly intertwined with each other and with other factors that influ-
ence parenting (Patterson & Fisher, 2002). For example, a correlation be-
tween child rebelliousness and maternal withdrawal behavior may reflect a
causal relation between the two variables flowing from child to mother or
from mother to child, effects of additional child, maternal, genetic, or envi-
ronment variables, or some combination of all of these. More precise speci-
fications of the causal factors involved in the parenting of children should
follow as research moves from simple correlational studies to designs in-
volving experimental factors, complex correlational designs that take ad-
vantage of sophisticated statistical modeling techniques, and adoption or
other designs that allow identification of the role of genetic factors.
EVIDENCE FOR CHILD INFLUENCES ON PARENTING
Several child characteristics are particularly likely candidates to influence

parenting. These include temperament, age, gender, and physical attrac-
tiveness. The predominant evidence to be reviewed is correlational in na-
ture, and thus susceptible to alternate causal interpretations. However,
these child characteristics are difficult or impossible to change and there-
fore the likelihood that a correlation indicates an effect of these character-
istics on parenting is at least logically plausible.
Our focus is on child temperament because a large literature base has
explored the structure and function of temperament from the infancy pe-
riod throughout childhood and adolescence, including its role in influenc-
ing parent–child relationships and determining child outcomes. After
defining temperament, we provide examples of findings that can be inter-
preted as support for both direct and moderated effects of child tempera-
ment on parenting.
Definition of Temperament
Numerous definitions of temperament involving a variety of distinct dimen-

sions have been proposed by Thomas and Chess (1977) and others. Most
conceptualizations define temperament as encompassing individual differ-
ences in three broad areas: (a) reactivity or negative emotionality reflecting

negative mood or irritability, inflexibility, and intensely negative reactions
to limitations and/or novelty, (b) self-regulation, or the degree of effortful
control of attentional and emotional processes, and (c) approach/with-
drawal, inhibition, or sociability (Sanson, Hemphill, & Smart, 2002). Many
studies also refer to difficult temperament, which involves some combina-
tion of socially undesirable scores on indexes of these three dimensions or
which, in some cases, is simply equated with high irritability. Temperament
is believed to be constitutionally based and relatively stable across child-
hood, although environmental modification of temperament traits or the
manner in which they are expressed is sometimes possible (Sanson et al.,
2002). Temperament is typically measured via parental report, although oc-
casionally it is assessed through independent observations of children’s be-
havior.
Parents typically become aware of distinct temperament qualities in their
children soon after birth; however, parents usually do not understand the
powerful effect of temperament on their own behavior until after the birth
of a second child (Dunn & Plomin, 1990; Putnam, Sanson, & Rothbart,
2002). Parents of more than one child with different temperaments in-
creasingly recognize that their own behavior is not always the strongest in-
fluence on their children’s development and discover that they are inclined
to parent each of their children differently in response to the children’s
temperamental individuality.
Effects of Child Temperament on Parenting
The focus of many contemporary parenting studies that include measures

of child temperament is on the individual or combined effects of parenting
and temperament on child outcomes, with findings related to tempera-
ment effects on parenting considerably less common. Oftentimes data on
temperament-parenting associations are buried in reports with a primarily
uni-directional focus on child outcomes. Although a few studies have ex-
plicitly reported a failure to find relations between temperament and
parenting (e.g., Rothbart, 1986; Vaughn, Taraldson, Crichton, & Egeland,
1981; Wachs & Grandour, 1983), the majority of studies that have reported
assessments of both of these variables have found significant associations. A
particularly common finding is that parenting stress accompanies parent-
ing a child with difficult temperament qualities (Gelfand, Teti, & Radin
Fox, 1992; Mash & Johnston, 1983; McBride, Schoppe, & Rane, 2002;
Mulsow, Caldera, Pursley, & Reifman, 2002). As a result of this general find-
ing, much of the research devoted to understanding how children’s tem-
perament-driven behavior impacts parenting in more specific ways has fo-
cused on those temperament qualities that are hard to manage.
One longitudinal investigation that examined correlations between diffi-

cult temperament and aggressive social behavior of children from early to
middle childhood revealed that difficult children were exposed to harsher
parenting and had poorer quality relationships with their parents than did
easier children (Kingston & Prior, 1995). Similarly, data from the Bloom-
ington Longitudinal study revealed associations between 3-year-olds’ resis-
tance to control or low manageability and concurrent conflicts with parents
(Bates, Bayles, Bennett, Ridge, & Brown, 1991). Further, in a study by
Clark, Kochanska, and Ready (2000), negative child emotionality measured
between 8 and 10 months was found to predict maternal power assertion 5
months later. Research with parents of young children who exhibited early
social fearfulness and inhibition suggested that this temperament style
tended to elicit overprotective and overcontrolling parental behavior,
which in turn lead to more fearfulness and peer rejection once the children
entered school (Rubin & Stewart, 1996; Rubin, Stewart, & Chen, 1995).
Findings with children in early middle childhood indicated that mater-
nal reports of children’s high irritable distress and low effortful control
were associated with children’s reports of maternal hostility (Morris et al.,
2002). Similarly, research by Braungart-Rieker, Garwood, and Stifter
(1997) revealed that mothers of toddlers with high negative reactivity
showed a tendency to use harsh forms of behavioral control rather than
gentler methods. Several other studies have likewise identified correlations
between temperamental difficulty and low levels of maternal warmth and
responsiveness and more conflict-ridden, less emotionally close parent–
child relationships (Mangelsdorf, Gunnar, Kestenbaum, Lang, & Andreas,
1990; Stocker, 1995; van den Boom & Hoeksma, 1994). These findings sug-
gest that the challenges inherent in parenting a temperamentally difficult
child may cause many parents to invest minimal energy in parenting and
emotionally withdraw from the relationship.
Although the studies cited above have generally found associations be-
tween aspects of child difficulty and negative parenting behaviors, a num-
ber of studies have indicated that in some cases having children with chal-
lenging temperaments can lead to the development of skillful parenting
behavior. For example, Crockenberg (1986) reviewed six studies showing
that the amount of crying engaged in by infants and the amount of time re-
quired to soothe them at 1 and 3 months was positively associated with ac-
tive caregiving and social interaction between mothers and infants at 9
months. In addition, a study by Park, Belsky, Putnam, and Crnic (1997)
showed that parents exhibit more sensitive and affectionate and less intru-
sive behavior toward socially inhibited children compared to less inhibited
children.
Another study found a similar result with socially inhibited child behav-
ior eliciting responsive behavior in parents (Belsky, Rha, & Park, 2000). In a
study designed to examine the interaction between child fearfulness and

parental use of gentle forms of discipline at age 2 on conscience develop-
ment at age 4, child fearfulness and parental use of gentle forms of disci-
pline were found to be significantly correlated (Fowles & Kochanska,
2000). Finally, significant relations were observed between social fearful-
ness and a general index of parenting quality after controlling for various
parental and child characteristics (van Bakel & Riksen-Walraven, 2002).
A few studies also have shown simultaneous positive and negative associa-
tions between parenting and difficult child temperament. One study with
toddlers demonstrated associations between dysregulated temperament
and both maternal warmth and negative dominance (Rubin, Hastings,
Chen, Stewart, & McNichol, 1998). Another study, which also involved tod-
dlers, revealed that temperamental difficulty was associated with both ma-
ternal assistance and disapproval during a cognitive task (Gauvain & Fagot,
1995). These findings suggest that some child characteristics can elicit com-
plex behavioral patterns from parents. Some parent behaviors may reflect
the parent’s irritation with the child’s undesirable behavior whereas others
may represent the parent’s attempts to positively redirect or change the
child’s behavior.
As indicated previously, the vast majority of studies that have assessed asso-
ciations between child temperament and parenting behaviors have empha-
sized negative or demanding child characteristics. However, some studies
also have found that children with more adaptable, sociable, and easy-to-
soothe temperaments are likely to elicit warm and responsive parenting
(Putnam et al., 2002). Moreover, several studies have indicated that certain
positive temperament traits (such as high sociability, adaptability, and posi-
tive emotionality, and low impulsivity and negative emotionality) operate as
resiliency factors when children are exposed to high levels of familial
psychosocial stress (e.g., due to parental mental illness or alcoholism,
abuse, neglect, or poverty; Hetherington, 1989; Masten, 1989; Putnam et
al., 2002; Werner & Smith, 1982). Werner and Smith suggest that children
with these qualities are able to elicit more care and concern from parents
and other individuals in their lives.
Most of the studies reviewed thus far have examined only mothers’
parenting behavior. However, a few studies of both mothers and fathers
have revealed some interesting similarities and differences. One study iden-
tified associations between difficult temperament and less affectionate and
responsive parenting by fathers (Volling & Belsky, 1991); yet, other studies
indicated no significant associations between child temperament and pa-
ternal behavior (Jain, Belsky, & Crnic, 1996; Woodworth, Belsky, & Crnic,
1996). Further, high child activity tends to be associated with less positive
maternal behavior, whereas child activity levels tend not to predict paternal
behavior (Buss, 1981; McBride et al., 2002).
In addition to these observed linkages between measures of tempera-

ment and specific measures of parenting behavior, associations have been
detected between difficult temperament and internal parenting responses
such as dissatisfaction or discomfort with the parenting role and low
parenting self-efficacy (Coleman & Karraker, 1998; Gross, Conrad, Fogg, &
Wothke, 1994; Sheeber & Johnson, 1992). In one study (Leve, Scaramella,
& Fagot, 2001), child distress to limitations was found to be negatively cor-
related with both mothers’ and fathers’ reports of pleasure in everyday
parenting activities. In the same study, child fearfulness correlated nega-
tively with mothers’ but not fathers’ reports of pleasure in parenting. Ru-
bin, Nelson, Hastings, and Asendorpf (1999) conducted a longitudinal
study of mothers, fathers, and their children at 2 and 4 years designed to ex-
amine associations between child wariness/inhibition and parents’ beliefs
regarding the most appropriate means for socializing their children. The
results indicated that parent perceptions of child social wariness at 2 years
predicted preferences for socialization strategies that limited opportunities
for their children to develop independent thinking and behavior. Parents
of inhibited children who frightened easily seemed to believe that their job
was to shield their children from stressful emotions whenever possible and
may have viewed their children as too anxious and potentially excitable to
make good decisions that would protect them from psychological and/or
physical risks.
The contention that child characteristics can affect parenting is sup-
ported by this selective review of studies that have found relations between
child temperament characteristics and parenting behavior. However, most
of the studies reviewed use correlational methodologies, and thus the possi-
bility exists that observed relations between temperament and parenting
could be a function of the operation of method variance or other third vari-
ables such as genetic relatedness, or the effects of parenting on child tem-
perament. Longitudinal studies that identify relations between earlier child
characteristics and later parenting also provide some support for the idea
that children affect parents, rather than the reverse, but even these conclu-
sions could be flawed by the operation of third variables. Definitive evi-
dence will require future experimental study.
Moderators of the Effects of Child Temperament

on Parenting
Along with the many direct associations between characteristics of child

temperament and parenting, temperament may interact with parent char-
acteristics, other child characteristics, and/or contextual factors to impact
parenting behavior. As illustrated above, relations between child tempera-
ment and parenting are not always simple or intuitive (i.e., negative tem-
perament qualities do not always predict negative parenting practices), sug-

gesting that other factors may function to determine the nature of the
relation between these two variables in some cases. Most studies of tempera-
ment interactions with other variables are directed toward predicting child
outcomes rather than parenting behavior, but a few studies have illustrated
how the effects of temperament on parenting can be moderated by other
variables.
Although focused on determinants of child outcomes rather than deter-
minants of parenting behavior, Rubin and colleagues’ temple of doom model
provides an excellent example of a moderator effect (Rubin, LeMare, &
Lollis, 1990; Rubin & Stewart, 1996). In this model, early child inhibition
leads to negative parenting behavior (insensitivity, overprotection, and/or
overcontrol) only when linked with other family stressors. The negative
parenting behavior then increases the probability of child insecure attach-
ment, social withdrawal, and peer rejection. In this scenario, the effect of
temperament on parenting is moderated by family stress.
Other moderators of relations between child temperament and parent-
ing have been reported. For example, Clark et al. (2000) found that diffi-
cult child temperament was related to the use of power assertion among
mothers who were high in extraversion and low in empathy but not among
mothers low in extraversion or high in empathy. The authors interpreted
these findings as indicating that some correlates of extraversion, such as
dominance, as well as lowered ability to take another person’s perspective
(low empathy) sensitized mothers to the effects of difficult child behavior,
leading to increased power assertion. This study illustrates the importance
of considering both parent and child characteristics and their interaction
in predicting parent behavior.
In a study involving level of conflict in sons’ and daughters’ relationships
with each parent among seventh graders, mother–son conflict was highest
with the combination of a less adaptable mother and a low activity son
(Galambos & Turner, 1997). On the other hand, mother–daughter conflict
was highest with the combination of a less adaptable mother and a high ac-
tivity daughter. Low adaptability in fathers and daughters was associated
with high conflict between daughters and both parents as well as greater
use of paternal psychological control. This pattern was not apparent with
male children. Finally, in a study by Kawaguchi, Welsh, Powers, and Ro-
stosky (1998), difficult temperament in adolescent girls was correlated with
low support and depth in the father–daughter relationship; whereas diffi-
cult temperament in boys was associated with greater conflict in mother–
son dyads.
Crockenberg (1986) proposed the idea that relations between child tem-
perament and parenting are moderated by age because parents of difficult
children may invest a great deal of time and energy during infancy, but
later find themselves worn out, frustrated, and unable to maintain the stam-
ina needed to continue to adequately meet their difficult child’s demands.
Empirical data support the notion of declining emotional and verbal re-
sponsiveness, reduced teaching efforts, and increased negativity among
parents of difficult children with increasing child age (Peters-Martin &
Wachs, 1984; Maccoby, Snow, & Jacklin, 1984).
An emerging literature is devoted to describing and understanding how
the effects of temperament on parenting and child outcomes might be
modified by environmental factors. For example, a study by Jenkins et al.
(2003) revealed that associations between difficult temperament and par-
ent negativity were considerably stronger among families with low socioeco-
nomic status (SES) compared to families with high socio-economic status.
As noted by the authors, parents with high SES may be less reactive to their
children’s difficult temperament because they have lower levels of stress
generally or because they have different ways of attributing child misbehav-
ior, with higher SES parents adopting explanations that tend to be constitu-
tionally based. Contrasting results were reported by Prior, Sanson, Carroll,
and Oberklaid (1989), who found nearly twice as many significant correla-
tions between measures of temperament and parenting among high-SES
participants compared to low-SES participants, with the authors suggesting
that high-SES parents may be more aware of their children’s individual
qualities.
Effects of Other Child Characteristics on Parenting
Several other child characteristics besides temperament also appear to have

influences on parenting. A brief summary of evidence for the effects of
child age, gender, and physical attractiveness will be provided, although
other characteristics may also be influential.
In view of the rapid growth in the parenting literature across the last sev-
eral decades, it is rather surprising how little research has been devoted to
documenting differences in parenting based on the age of the child, with
most of the available studies focusing on transition periods of relatively
short duration (O’Connor, 2002). Work by Dunn and Plomin (1990) sug-
gests that parenting behavior directed toward individual children does
show considerable variability over child age during infancy and early child-
hood. Parental monitoring or control seems to play an increasingly impor-
tant role in models of adaptive parenting during late childhood; however
control becomes less effective and less central to positive parenting during
adolescence (Hetherington & Clingempeel, 1992). Maintaining a positive
relationship and not restricting the adolescent’s growing desire for inde-
pendence are apparently key components of effective parenting during ad-
olescence (Allen, Hauser, Bell, & O’Connor, 1994). A few studies have also
explored possible differences in parenting behavior corresponding to birth

order. For example, research by Jenkins et al. (2003) revealed that the old-
est child tended to receive the most positive behavior from parents fol-
lowed by youngest and then middle children.
More attention has been paid to the influence of child gender on
parenting than to the influence of child age. Child gender can influence
the caregiving environment in a variety of ways. For example, differential
behavior based on gender might impact the behavior and cognitions of par-
ents. Nevertheless, most literature reviews (e.g., Beal, 1994; Maccoby, 1998)
indicate few and relatively minor gender differences in behavior during in-
fancy, with differences increasing in early childhood, presumably as a func-
tion of socialization pressure and children’s increased understanding of
gender roles. A recent study by Jenkins et al. (2003) revealed that male chil-
dren between the ages of 2 and 11 were exposed to more parental nega-
tivity than female children. Results of another recent investigation by
Smetana and Daddis (2002) revealed that adolescent daughters were the
recipients of higher levels of parental monitoring and psychological con-
trol than adolescent sons.
Perhaps the most probable means though which child gender is likely to
impact parenting behavior is through the process of gender stereotyping.
Studies have clearly demonstrated that parents perceive male and female
newborns differently (Karraker et al., 1995; Rubin et al., 1974) and that dif-
ferences in adults’ behavior toward male and female infants is due to ste-
reotypes rather than infant behavioral differences (Stern & Karraker,
1989). These studies and others indicating that parents behave differently
with male and female infants and toddlers (reviewed by Beal, 1994) suggest
that the environments of boys and girls differ from early infancy.
The results pertaining to differential parenting based on gender are con-
flicting, however, as evidenced by a meta-analysis conducted by Lytton and
Romney (1991) revealing very few differences in the parenting of boys and
girls with the exception of encouragement of sex-typed activities. The au-
thors point out that this difference may actually reflect a biological sub-
strate that is reinforced rather than created by parents. Unfortunately, as
Putnam et al. (2002) point out, the review by Lytton and Romney did not
take into consideration interactions between child gender and tempera-
ment in predicting differential parenting responses, and as the studies re-
viewed earlier suggest, gender can operate as a strong moderator of rela-
tions between temperament and parenting. According to Putnam et al.
(2002), with only a few exceptions, the literature generally suggests more
parental acceptance of irritability and negative affect from male children
and more acceptance of shyness in female children. These gender-based
differences in tolerance for particular temperament characteristics associ-
ated with gender are undoubtedly related to stereotypical beliefs regarding
acceptable male and female behavior. The available evidence seems to indi-
cate that as a result of this differential parental treatment, inborn gender
differences, and children’s cognitive processing of gender role informa-
tion, boys and girls can be expected to behave differently and to elicit dif-
ferential responses from others. However, in an extensive review of the gen-
der literature, Fagot (1995) concluded that the central question pertaining
to whether parents treat male and female children differently has not been
sufficiently answered. She further notes that differential child outcomes
based on parenting may be tied more to attitudes than behavior and the
study of internal responses of parents to the parenting role has just
emerged in recent years.
Physical attractiveness is another child characteristic that may lead to dif-
ferential parenting behavior. For example, Langlois, Ritter, Casey, and Sawin
(1995) found that mothers of more attractive newborns demonstrated more
warmth and interest in playing with their newborns when compared to moth-
ers of less attractive newborns. Adults also tend to look longer at and pay
more attention to attractive infants and toddlers compared to their less at-
tractive peers (Hildebrandt & Cannan, 1985; Hildebrandt & Fitzgerald,
1978). In view of the high value placed on physical attractiveness in contem-
porary society (Hatfield & Sprecher, 1986), the environments of more and
less attractive children may differ in other ways as well.
Summary of Effects of Child Characteristics on Parenting
The studies reviewed previously provide evidence that certain child char-
acteristics may elicit differential responding from parents. Much of the
available evidence for these effects is necessarily correlational rather than
experimental, and thus susceptible to alternate causal and noncausal expla-
nations. In addition, from a transactional perspective, our understanding
of the parenting process would be enhanced by simultaneous consider-
ation of alternate causal pathways, mediators, and moderators. As Putnam
et al. (2002) noted, investigations of complex interactive effects have not al-
ways been theory driven, and more theory-based model development would
enhance our understanding of the parenting process.
IMPLICATIONS AND CONCLUSIONS
Expansion of the study of parenting to include child effects in combination

with parent and contextual factors has resulted in a much more sophisti-
cated picture of the parenting process with considerable potential to one
day offer very useful information to parents as they face the challenges of
rearing very different children under widely varying circumstances in a rap-
idly changing and complex world. Efforts to include more variables in

parenting research with enhanced sensitivity to bi-directional and inter-
actional effects are increasing, although at this point the findings gener-
ated often raise more questions than they answer. Nevertheless, some cen-
tral themes are emerging that should provide clear direction as this area of
study matures.
First, our knowledge of parenting cannot be reasonably developed when
examined in isolation from a full understanding of both parents and chil-
dren as individuals, as partners in a dyadic relationship, and as members of
a family, community, and society. Consideration of both interpersonal dy-
namics beyond the dyad and situational factors will be critical to advancing
our understanding of the parenting process. Researchers must also remem-
ber that attention to internal processes such as perceptions and cognitions
facilitate comprehension of parenting.
Second, both children and parents are constantly changing as they en-
gage in the ongoing process of impacting each other’s behavior and devel-
opment and in response to familial and broader contextual changes.
Therefore, it is essential for studies of parenting to adopt longitudinal de-
signs with frequent assessments that carry the potential to capture these dy-
namics and provide clarity regarding issues of directionality.
Third, specification of causal relations between parenting and other vari-
ables will require the use of multiple methodologies. O’Connor (2002) em-
phasized the need to include different types of designs tailored to particu-
lar research questions. The use of a rich combination of methodologies
(e.g., controlled experiments, naturally occurring experiments, twin and
adoption studies, comparisons of siblings, structural equation modeling,
case studies of single dyads, and so on) should not only foster greater fit be-
tween research questions and designs, but will also enable more focused ef-
fort to explore the generalizability of findings detected at higher levels of
constraint. Particular attention to the role of genetic factors in the parent-
ing process is crucial.
Finally, recent research on parenting has in many ways underscored the
centrality of parents in the lives of their children. However, studies that in-
clude child characteristics have also strongly suggested that much of the
variance once believed to be attributable to the power of parents to influ-
ence the lives of their children may actually represent responses elicited by
or at least constrained by child characteristics. As data revealing the critical
role that children’s individual qualities play in their own development accu-
mulate, parents will grow to understand that their behavior is impacted by
factors outside their personal control and that each child is unique. This
knowledge is likely to relieve some of the pressure and guilt experienced by
parents. A substantive understanding of how children with different quali-
ties affect parents with different qualities on a daily basis and over extended
periods of time should also lead to more effective parenting strategies,

more positive child outcomes, and enhanced parent satisfaction with the
role as the knowledge is made publicly available and used to inform training
and intervention efforts. As the study of parenting expands in this direction,
researchers need to make a concerted effort not to fall into a pattern de-
scribed by O’Connor (2002) as occurring when “efforts to demonstrate the
child’s contribution to the parent–child relationship (‘child effects’) some-
times ignore the parent’s contribution—rather missing the bi-directionality
idea and replacing one uni-dimension with its inverse” (p. 563).
The knowledge gained by more fully considering interactive child, par-
ent, and contextual contributions to parenting should further lead to con-
siderably more effective parenting intervention strategies with parents who
are currently engaging in or are at risk for maladaptive parenting. As noted
by Putnam et al. (2002), “Any program giving prescriptions about ‘the right
way to do it’ will clearly be deficient if it does not also direct parents’ atten-
tion to individuality and to the need to be flexible in their approach to
parenting” (p. 270). A number of temperament-based parent intervention
programs are available that emphasize general information about tempera-
ment, feedback regarding individual children’s dispositions, specific rec-
ommendations for effective parenting of children with different tempera-
ments, and use of parent support groups (Sheeber & McDevitt, 1998).
Evaluation of the programs has thus far been limited, but preliminary data
indicate that parents tend to report high levels of satisfaction with their par-
ticipation, satisfaction in parenting, perceptions of competence and mental
health, as well as lowered levels of family disruption (Sheeber & McDevitt,
1998). The goal of these programs is typically to reduce the stress in the par-
ent–child system created by a lack of synchrony between child and parent-
ing behavior. However, very few if any of the existing programs also con-
sider the parent as a unique individual with a history of experiences,
personality characteristics, attitudes, and beliefs that play a role in the
goodness-of-fit between child temperament and parenting behavior. Hope-
fully as these programs are developed in the future, the greater sensitivity to
the child exhibited recently will be coupled with enhanced awareness of the
individuality of parents.
When the study of parenting is conducted in a manner that is true to the
transactional perspective, the opportunities to understand the mysteries of
parents’ subjective responses to the role and potential for personal growth
and satisfaction become much richer. For example, use of this perspective
should be able to substantively highlight the mechanisms behind the com-
monly voiced experience of parents in which they describe the parenting of
one child as involving predominantly positive emotions and experiences,
while care for another child is reported to involve a constant struggle cou-
pled with feelings of helplessness and anger. Parenting research adopting
the transactional perspective should likewise lead to answers to many of the

complex questions related to the dynamics of parenting and child develop-
ment that have challenged scholars for years and were simply unanswer-
able using the circumscribed uni-directional perspective. Moreover, as our
knowledge expands, the utility of our efforts to offer the tangible, directly
applicable information that parents need to understand their children and
enhance their contributions to their children’s well-being should remark-
ably improve.
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6
Parenting Children with

Developmental Disabilities
Robert M. Hodapp
Vanderbilt University
Tran M. Ly
University of California–Los Angeles
INTRODUCTION
To understand the ecology of parenting children with disabilities, one must

first appreciate certain societal changes. Since the 1970s, changes have
arisen in most Western societies in the conceptualization of disabilities, in
the nature and amount of services offered to children and their families,
and in the roles that adults with disabilities play in the society at large. So,
too, have major advances occurred in various sciences associated with dis-
abilities; we now know much more about the causes and consequences of
many disability conditions.
To give a flavor of societal changes, compare American disability policy
today as opposed to the 1960s and early 1970s. In the 1970s, many more
persons—including children—resided in large, often impersonal institu-
tions. In 1967, almost 200,000 Americans lived in institutions, including
91,000 children. By 1997, that number had fallen to 56,161, including fewer
than 3,000 children (Anderson, Lakin, Mangan, & Prouty, 1998; Lakin,
Prouty, Braddock, & Anderson, 1997). Of those children who remained at
home during the 1960s and early 1970s, access to formal education varied
widely, depending mainly on the generosity of their particular town or
state. Only in 1974, with the passage of the (federal) Education for All
Handicapped Children Act (PL 94-142), were U.S. states and towns re-
quired to provide a “free, appropriate public education” to all students, in-
cluding those with disabilities (Hallahan & Kauffman, 2002). Each of these
177
178 HODAPP AND LY
events constitutes part of the changing macro-environment of parenting

children with disabilities (Glidden, 2002).
Equally striking advances have occurred in the science of disability. Con-
sider the example of mental retardation. On the one hand, the professional
study of mental retardation dates to the founding of the field’s main profes-
sional organization, the American Association on Mental Retardation, in
1876 (Scheerenberger, 1983). Around the same time, physicians such as J.
Langdon Down began identifying specific syndromes that cause mental re-
tardation (Down, 1866; see also Dunn, 1991). But the scientific study of
mental retardation has blossomed only during the past several decades.
From the discovery in 1959 that Down syndrome is caused in most cases by
an extra chromosome 21 (Lejeune, Gautier, & Turpin, 1959), we now know
that mental retardation is associated with more than 1,000 different genetic
conditions (Dykens, Hodapp, & Finucane, 2000). Over the past two de-
cades, increased numbers of behavioral studies have appeared on such dis-
orders as fragile X syndrome, Prader-Willi syndrome, and Williams syn-
drome (Hodapp & Dykens, 2004). See Table 6.1 for a brief description of
some prominent genetic forms of mental retardation.
When examining parenting issues for children with mental retardation,
then, recent years have seen changes on a variety of levels. On the macro-
environmental level, the number, variety, and quality of services have all in-
creased or improved dramatically. Parents and families have both initiated
and benefited from these changes. How researchers have conceptualized
families of children with disabilities has also changed over time. During the
same period, the field has learned much more about behavioral character-
istics of the children themselves, thereby allowing for more thoughtful,
complex investigations of parenting issues. How all of these changes go to-
gether is in many ways the topic of this chapter.
Although we focus on societal and scientific advances that are specific to
the field of disabilities, we also feel that studying the parenting of children
with disabilities is important to all researchers, not only to those interested
in children with disabilities. Our approach in this chapter thus emphasizes
the use of children with disabilities as experiments of nature. Just as twins,
children of divorce, or children adopted from orphanages can inform us
about basic processes of human development (Rutter, Pickles, Murray, &
Eaves, 2001), children with different genetic disorders can also inform us
about typical parenting reactions and behaviors. Such issues are discussed
in more detail later, but suffice it to say that we view issues and findings of
parenting children with disabilities as both applying and informing parent-
ing studies more generally.
This chapter, then, surveys the state of the art on parenting children with
disabilities. For the most part, we limit our scope to the study of children
with mental retardation, leaving aside most other disability conditions. We
TABLE 6.1
Prominent Genetic Forms of Mental Retardation
Disorder Genetics Prevalence Prominent Behavioral Features
Down syndrome 95% involve trisomy 21 1–1.5/1,000 Moderate MR: slowing rate of development as child gets older; social
strengths; weaknesses in grammar & speech
Fragile X syndrome Fragile site on X-chromosome .73–.92/1,000 Moderate MR; more males than females; strength in simultaneous
processing & weakness in sequential processing; slowed develop-
ment from puberty; hyperactivity and autistic-like behaviors
Prader-Willi 2/3 involve deletions on chromo- 1/15,000 Mild MR; failure to thrive in infancy followed by hyperphagia; prone-
syndrome some 15; 1/3 involve both ness to obesity, food foraging, and compulsive behaviors; strength
chromosome 15s from mother in jigsaw puzzles; stubbornness; skin picking
Smith-Magenis Deletion on chromosome 17 1/25,000–50,000 Mild to moderate MR; minor physical and facial anomalies; sleep dis-
syndrome turbance; self-injurious behaviors and high levels of many
maladaptive behaviors
Williams syndrome Deletion on chromosome 7 1/7,500 Mild to moderate MR; strengths in language and facial recognition;
difficulties in visual-spatial construction tasks; interest in (and some-
times fairly talented in) music; sociable but difficulty in making and
keeping friends; very high rates of anxiety, fears, and phobias
5p- syndrome Deletion on short arm of chro- 1/50,000 Severe MR; high-pitched, infantile, cat-like cry; better developed re-
(Cri du Chat) mosome 5 ceptive than expressive language; self-stimulatory and repetitive be-
haviors; hyperactivity and inattention
179
180 HODAPP AND LY
begin with a brief history, emphasizing the ways that family researchers
have changed in how they view parents of children with disabilities. We
then describe some parenting studies of children with different genetic
mental retardation syndromes, before discussing such remaining issues as:
who affects whom in parent–child interactions; what parents know and how
parental knowledge relates to parental behaviors; and the ways in which var-
ious levels of the environment might be linked when discussing the
parenting of children with disabilities.
Old and New Perspectives on Parenting Children

With Disabilities
In the field of disabilities, family studies are not new. The sociologist Ber-
nard Farber’s (1959; 1960) early work dates to the late 1950s and early
1960s, and families have been an area of research within the disabilities
field for over 100 years (Blacher & Baker, 2002). But earlier studies—those
up to the early 1980s—differ from more modern studies in several ways.
Five changes illustrate the movement from old to new studies of families of
children with disabilities.
From Pathology-Negative Perspectives to Stress-Coping Perspectives. Most

early studies considered only the negative consequences that might arise
from parenting a child with disabilities. Using Freud’s (1917/1957) model of
mourning in response to losses of any kind, Solnit and Stark (1961) de-
scribed what they called maternal mourning. In this view, upon the birth of
their child with disabilities, mothers mourn, as in a death, the loss of the per-
fect child. Mothers were thought to go through a grief process that was char-
acterized by a specific, stage-like process (see Blacher, 1984 for a review).
In line with Solnit and Stark’s (1961) formulation, family studies of the
1960s and 1970s mainly examined depression, neuroticism, role tensions,
and other adverse psychological effects. Some researchers examined depres-
sion in mothers (Cummings, Bayley, & Rie, 1966; Friedrich & Friedrich,
1981) and in fathers (Cummings, 1976). Others examined siblings, noting
that the oldest nondisabled daughters may be most at-risk for psychological
problems due to the role tensions associated with being the child in the fam-
ily most often saddled with increased household or childcare responsibilities
(Lobato, 1983). Throughout, the perspective of early researchers was that
bad things happen to families of children with disabilities.
Beginning in the early 1980s, however, researchers began to adopt a
more balanced view of these families. In a seminal article, Crnic, Friedrich,
and Greenberg (1983) proposed that the experiences of these parents and
families were better thought of in terms of stress and coping. In stress and
coping models, the child with disabilities is considered an increased stres-
6. CHILDREN WITH DEVELOPMENTAL DISABILITIES 181
sor on the family, but one that could be handled differently by different
parents and families. Parenting the child with disabilities thus became like
handling any stressor—for example, like coping with the illness of a parent
or child, or of one or both parents losing their jobs, or of the family moving.
Like reactions to all stressors, parents and families can react either posi-
tively or negatively. As we discuss below, the search for risk and protective
factors—within children, parents, or families—has increasingly character-
ized research on families of children with disabilities.
From More General to More Specific Disability Groups. Older family stud-
ies also lacked attention to the child’s type of disability. To some extent, this
inattention to child problems also stems from Solnit and Stark (1961). If
parents are reacting to the loss of the idealized infant, then any violation of
expectations, involving any type of child problem, might bring about ma-
ternal mourning. Solnit and Stark (1961) even speculated that mothers of
twins might suffer from maternal-mourning reactions.
A good example of this approach can be seen in a study by Drotar,
Baskiewicz, Irvin, Kennell, and Klaus (1975). In that study, the authors in-
terviewed 20 mothers and 5 fathers of children with disabilities to examine
a stage theory of the mourning reaction. But within their group with dis-
abilities were children with cleft lip and palate, spina bifida, Down syn-
drome, and multiple congenital malformations. In line with the thinking of
the time, mothers were reacting to parenting a child with disabilities; the
exact nature of the disability seemed unimportant.
As recent findings demonstrate, however, children with different disabil-
ities may differentially affect their parents. In mental retardation, for exam-
ple, we now know that children with different genetic mental retardation
disorders show different, etiology related maladaptive behaviors, profiles of
cognitive-linguistic strengths and weaknesses, and periods of faster or
slower development (Dykens & Hodapp, 2001). Such child behaviors, in
turn, may elicit different reactions and behaviors from parents. In contrast
to the perspectives used in early family work, then, later family researchers
concluded that specific characteristics of the child matter for how parents
and families cope with parenting the child with mental retardation. As we
mention later, children with Down syndrome may elicit better coping from
their parents, siblings, and families; children with syndromes that predis-
pose children to perform higher or lower on specific intellectual tasks may
also elicit different reactions from their parents.
From Between-Group to Between- and Within-Group Comparisons. Given

the earlier, dominant view that parents and families coped poorly and that
various child characteristics were unimportant, most early family research
adopted a group-difference perspective. Thus, most studies of the 1960s
182 HODAPP AND LY
and 1970s compared parents of children with disabilities to parents of

same-aged children without disabilities.
With the change to a stress and coping perspective, this group-difference
approach began to be complemented by studies using a within-group ap-
proach. If parents and families differ widely in how they cope, which factors
might predispose certain parents to cope well and others poorly? The iden-
tification of such factors—in children, parents, and families as a whole—
has now become a major focus of disability family research. By identifying
protective or risk variables, family researchers are also attempting to under-
stand the mechanisms by which adaptation occurs (Hodapp, 2002).
Although between-group studies continue to be performed, newer fam-
ily research is increasingly characterized by more attention to within-group
issues. Consider research on the problem-solving styles of mothers of chil-
dren with disabilities. Several studies have now documented that those par-
ents who engage in active, problem-based styles of coping experience less
depression than those who either deny their emotional feelings or who en-
gage in what has been called emotion-based coping (e.g., Essex, Seltzer, &
Krauss, 1999).
From Mothers Alone to Mothers, Fathers, and Others. In most early studies,
mothers were the sole parent considered. This emphasis on mothers was
due to a variety of factors. First, mothers were (and remain) the primary
caregivers for most children. In addition, particularly until approximately
1980, lower percentages of mothers worked outside the home, and these
percentages were likely even lower for mothers of children with disabilities.
Finally, given a predominant Freudian perspective, there may have been an
implicit emphasis on mothers as the child’s main parent. For example, even
those who disagreed with Solnit and Stark’s (1961) model—feeling that
maternal reactions were a series of ups and downs, depressive and non-
depressive reactions (Olshansky, 1962)—were still implicitly using Freud as
their touchstone and mothers as their focus.
Although fathers remain underexamined in modern studies, most re-
searchers nevertheless acknowledge the important role that fathers play in
families of children with disabilities. Moreover, various researchers are dis-
covering that the needs of fathers may differ from those of mothers. More
than fathers, mothers express needs for more social and familial support,
information to explain the child’s disability to others, and help with child
care (Bailey, Blasco, & Simeonsson, 1992). In contrast, fathers are particu-
larly concerned about the costs of caring for a child with disabilities and
what the child will mean to the family as a whole (Price-Bonham & Addison,
1978). Comparing factors affecting mothers versus fathers of young chil-
dren with mental retardation, Krauss (1993) noted, “mothers reported
more difficulty than did fathers in adjusting to the personal aspects of
parenting and parenthood (parental health, restrictions in role, and rela-

tions with spouse). . . . fathers reported more stress related to the child’s
temperament (e.g., child’s mood and adaptability) and their relationship
to the child (such as feelings of attachment and of being reinforced by the
child)” (p. 401).
From Older to More Modern Cultural Views of Disability. A final issue dis-
tinguishing older from more modern studies involves the culture itself.
American culture has changed dramatically in its reactions to children with
disabilities. As a result, over the past several decades the lives of these chil-
dren and of their parents have changed dramatically.
The first area of change involves the timing of services to children and
parents. In addition to school services from age 3 through 21 years, states
now provide early intervention services during the 0- to 3-year period. And
later, after the school-age years, services help young adults with disabilities
to work and live as independently as possible during adulthood (Hallahan
& Kauffman, 2002). Services for individuals and their families are thus life-
long, and one must consider the interplay between children–parents–fami-
lies and the service–delivery system from a life-span perspective. Changing
services constitute one important level of the overall ecology of that per-
son’s life.
A second change relates to how services are conceptualized. Partly due
to the change from pathological to stress-and-coping models, service deliv-
ery is now considered in terms of supporting families. No longer are par-
ents, siblings, and families conceptualized as patients who need to be
cured, but instead as persons—or consumers—who require long- or short-
term support to enable themselves to cope more effectively. One family
may require more information about a range of state-supported services,
another respite care (i.e., short term out-of-family care) in order that the
family can get a break from the full-time care of the offspring with disabili-
ties. Still other parents may need to be put in touch with parents of children
with similar problems, or parents who have dealt with the same school dis-
trict, or who can otherwise help in their particular situation. This support
revolution has changed the nature of services and how such services are un-
derstood by families and professionals (Hallahan & Kauffman, 2002).
Third, knowledge about many disorders has changed dramatically in re-
cent years, and many family-based services transmit knowledge to parents
and families. Considering genetic mental retardation disorders, parent-
professional groups exist for most every disorder (see Table 6.2 for a list of
some helpful Web sites). Organizations such as NORD—the National Orga-
nization of Rare Disorders—run informational Web sites that provide up-
to-date information about the disorder and about the relevant parent-
professional groups and their annual or biennial meetings. The National
184 HODAPP AND LY
TABLE 6.2
Web Sites of Parent-Professional Groups
Syndrome-Specific Organizations
Down syndrome
National Down syndrome Society http://www.ndss.org
National Down syndrome Congress http://www.ndsccenter.org
National Association for Down syndrome http://www.nads.org
National Fragile X Foundation http://www.nfxf.org
Prader-Willi syndrome Association (USA) http://www.pwsausa.org
PRISMS: Parents and Researchers Interested http://www.smithmagenis.org
in Smith-Magenis syndrome
Williams syndrome http://www.williams-syndrome.org
http://www.wsf.org
http://www.liliclairefoundation.org
5p- syndrome Society (Cri du Chat) http://www.fivepminus.org
Support and Informational Organizations
Alliance of Genetic Support Groups http://www.medhelp.org/www/agsg2.htm

The Arc of the United States http://www.thearc.org
National Organization for Rare Disorders http://www.rarediseases.org
(NORD)
Special Olympics International http://www.specialolympics.org
Institutes of Health (NIH) also offers consumer-friendly information on

the web, and some disorders also feature local or state chapters, discussion
groups, chat rooms, and other supports. Many hospitals and each state’s
University Centers of Excellence (formerly called University Affiliated Pro-
grams, or UAPs) provide family resource centers, support groups for par-
ents and siblings, conferences, and advocacy services to deal with schools or
regional centers. Compared to only a few decades ago, families can access
an almost bewildering amount of supportive services, contacts, and educa-
tional or medical information. This exponential increase in potential
knowledge and support that parents might access constitutes an important
change in the culture of disabilities. More knowledge and supportive ser-
vices exist every day, and parents are both helped and challenged by these
vast information and service systems.
Family studies in disabilities, then, have changed markedly over the past
20 years. From pathology to stress and coping; from little to much attention
to child characteristics and within-group correlates of family functioning;
from mothers alone to all family members; from older to more modern cul-
tural views and service changes—all serve as the background within which
family studies in disability need to be considered. We now turn to one as-
pect of family studies—the ways in which families might react differently
when children have various genetically-based mental retardation disorders.
Parenting Children with Different Genetic Mental

Retardation Syndromes
In discussing the many ways in which the ecology of parenting has changed
over the past few decades, one important advance concerns knowledge.
Simply put, we now know much more about the behaviors of children with
many different etiologies or causes of mental retardation (Dykens &
Hodapp, 2001). Indeed, a new area of behavioral phenotypes has arisen
(Dykens, 1995), a field that examines the ways in which particular genetic
disorders affect behaviors. Although not every affected person necessarily
shows that disorder’s characteristic behaviors, genetic syndromes do ap-
pear to influence the behaviors of most children in many areas. To give a
few examples, compared to other children with mental retardation:
1. Children with Down syndrome are considered by their parents as

demonstrating sociable, upbeat personalities (Hornby, 1995; Wishart &
Johnston, 1990). Intellectually, these children show relative strengths in vi-
sual versus auditory short-term memory (Hodapp, Evans, & Gray, 1999;
Pueschel, Gallagher, Zartler, & Pezzullo, 1986), as well as weaknesses in ex-
pressive language and in grammar (Chapman & Hesketh, 2000; Miller,
1999).
2. In addition to obsessions–compulsions (Dykens, Leckman, & Cassidy,
1996) and to life-threatening hyperphagia (i.e., overeating), children with
Prader-Willi syndrome solve jigsaw puzzles at levels well above both MA-
matched children with mental retardation and CA-matched, typically devel-
oping children (Dykens, 2002).
3. Children with Williams syndrome show extreme weaknesses in many
visuo-spatial tasks, even as they show relative strengths in several areas of
language (Bellugi, Mills, Jernigan, Hickok, & Galaburda, 1999; Mervis,
Morris, Bertrand, & Robinson, 1999).
Although more examples could be provided, these behavioral character-

istics highlight the ways that different syndromes predispose children to
show specific maladaptive behaviors, personalities, and cognitive-linguistic
profiles. On a more basic level, each also shows the ways in which genetic
disorders have direct effects on the behaviors of affected individuals
(Hodapp, 1997). Presently, we do not know the pathways from specific ge-
netic disorder to particular brain structures, to ultimate behavioral out-
comes (at different ages and with different experiences). Still, there seems
a strong predisposition for persons with one versus another genetic syn-
drome to show particular, etiology related behavioral outcomes.
Such etiology related behaviors may also influence others. In line with
influences from parent-to-child and vice-versa (Bell, 1968), children with
186 HODAPP AND LY
different genetic disorders, by their etiology related behaviors, may elicit

predictable responses and behaviors from their mothers, fathers, siblings,
teachers, peers, and others in their environments. Genetic disorders thus
directly predispose children to show etiology related behaviors, which in
turn indirectly lead to certain reactions and behaviors from others
(Hodapp, 1999).
Although potential indirect effects have only begun to be examined in
the mental retardation field, we provide below two tentative examples. We
conclude this chapter by discussing future issues and problems.
Down Syndrome Advantage
Compared to several different comparison groups and using a range of

measures, parents of children with Down syndrome appear to experience
less stress and to feel more rewarded by their child. We first present the few
available studies that examine stress and rewardingness in parents of chil-
dren with Down syndrome, before discussing possible reasons for this Down
syndrome advantage.
Parental Stress. In studies that examine parents of children with or with-

out disabilities, stress is examined using a variety of measures. Probably the
most used of these measures include Abidin’s Parenting Stress Index (PSI)
(Abidin, 1995) and the Questionnaire on Resources and Stress, in its origi-
nal (QRS; Holroyd & MacArthur, 1976) or Freidrich (QRS-F) editions
(Friedrich, Greenberg, & Crnic, 1983). Some studies have also used the
Beck Depression Inventory (Beck, Rush, Shaw, & Emery, 1971) as an indi-
cator of psychological distress.
Despite using different measures of stress, studies of parents of children
with Down syndrome generally report less stress compared to parents of
children with such severe disabilities as autism. In an early study comparing
same-aged children with autism and with Down syndrome, Holroyd and
MacArthur (1976) found that parents of children with Down syndrome re-
ported less stress on the QRS. Similarly, compared to children with autism,
parents reported less child-related stress on the PSI (Kasari & Sigman,
1997). Using the QRS-F, Sanders and Morgan (1997) found that, relative to
parents of children with autism, both mothers and fathers of children with
Down syndrome experienced similar levels of parental pessimism but fewer
parent and family problems.
Other studies compared stress levels in parents of children with Down
syndrome to levels in parents of children and adults with other types of
mental retardation. Fidler, Hodapp, and Dykens (2000) found that parents
of 3- to 10-year-old children with Down syndrome reported less stress on the
QRS-F relative to parents of children with Williams syndrome or Smith-
Magenis syndrome. In another study comparing mothers of children with

heterogeneous causes of mental retardation as opposed to Down syn-
drome, mothers of children with Down syndrome reported lower total
child-related stress levels (Hodapp, Ricci, Ly, & Fidler, 2003). This Down
syndrome advantage was also present when Seltzer, Krauss, and Tsunematsu
(1993) compared parenting stress in mothers of 35-year-old adults with
Down syndrome to stress in mothers of adults with other forms of mental
retardation.
In contrast, over a three-year span Hanson and Hanline (1990) did not
find a consistent trend when comparing mother–child pairs of children
with Down syndrome, with neurological impairments, and with hearing im-
pairments. Specifically, mothers of children with Down syndrome reported
less stress than did mothers of children with neurological impairments, but
more than mothers of children with hearing impairments on some sub-
scales of the PSI. Similarly, Cahill and Glidden (1996) did not find a Down
syndrome advantage on the QRS when children with Down syndrome and
children with other types of mental retardation were matched on several
demographic variables.
Overall, then, most (but not all) studies find a Down syndrome advan-
tage when parents of children with Down syndrome are compared to par-
ents of children with autism, psychiatric disorders, or other forms of mental
retardation. For the most part, such an advantage is not seen when compar-
isons are made to parents of children with same-aged, typically developing
children (Scott, Atkinson, Minton, & Bowman, 1997; Roach, Orsmond, &
Barratt, 1999; although see also Sanders & Morgan, 1997, and Wolf, Noh,
Fisman, & Speechley, 1989). Thus, although parents of children with Down
syndrome reported less stress than did parents of children with various dis-
abilities, they usually reported slightly more stress when compared to par-
ents of typically-developing age-mates.
Parental Rewardingness. Consistent with the changing emphasis from

negative to positive outcomes in family research, some studies also examine
parental rewardingness in parents of children with Down syndrome. Par-
ents of children with Down syndrome do seem more rewarded by their chil-
dren, and perhaps as rewarded as parents of typically developing children.
Using the PSI, studies showed that, when compared to parents of chil-
dren with other types of disorders, parents of children with Down syn-
drome were more rewarded by their children. (In these studies, less PSI Re-
inforcement stress was considered as evidence that parents considered the
child as more rewarding.) Hoppes and Harris (1990) found that, relative to
parents of children with autism, parents of children with Down syndrome
regarded their children as more rewarding. Noh, Dumas, Wolf, and Fisman
(1989) also found the same pattern when contrasting parents of children
188 HODAPP AND LY
with Down syndrome to parents of children with autism or with conduct dis-
order. Likewise, Hodapp et al. (2003) found that, relative to parents of chil-
dren with heterogeneous causes of mental retardation, mothers of children
with Down syndrome considered their child more acceptable and more re-
warding.
It may even be the case that parents of children with Down syndrome ex-
perience equal levels of rewardingness as parents of typically developing
children. Interestingly, these low levels of PSI Reinforcement stress oc-
curred even when parents reported higher levels of stress overall. Such was
the case in the study by Roach et al. (1999). Mothers and fathers reported
more stress on most of the PSI subscales compared to their counterparts of
same-aged typically developing children. On the PSI Reinforcement sub-
scale, however, no group differences emerged (and the means of parents of
typical children and of children with Down syndrome were almost identi-
cal). Similarly in Noh et al. (1989), although parents of children with Down
syndrome rated their children as less attractive, socially appropriate, and in-
telligent, they regarded “their children as happier and as a greater source
of positive reinforcement than the parents of normal children” (p. 460).
Indirect Effects or Associated Characteristics? Two explanations account

for the Down syndrome advantage to parents. The first concerns what we
have called associated characteristics, or aspects of Down syndrome that do
not concern the behavior of these children themselves and that may make
parenting children with Down syndrome different from parenting children
with other types of disabilities. For example, Down syndrome is the most
well known disorder to parents, professionals, and educators alike. It is also
the most studied syndrome, with almost as many studies as all other genetic
mental retardation syndromes combined (Hodapp, 1996). Parents of chil-
dren with Down syndrome also have the option of joining the many active
parent support and advocacy groups (Hodapp, Ly, Fidler, & Ricci, 2001).
Other parent- or family-related characteristics may also underlie the
Down syndrome advantage. These include the higher likelihood of chil-
dren with Down syndrome being born to older mothers (Olsen, Cross,
Gensburg, & Hughes, 1996), who are more likely to have had one or more
children already (and thus are more experienced in parenting). Likewise,
older parents are more likely to have worked longer, and thus may be of
slightly higher SES.
Apart from this set of associated characteristics, however, certain etiol-
ogy related behaviors may also predispose parents of children with Down
syndrome to display lower stress levels and to feel more rewarded by their
child. For example, although researchers debate whether a Down syndrome
personality exists (Wishart & Johnston, 1990), children with Down syndrome
are often perceived to be sociable because of their ability to share and inte-
grate emotions and attention with others. Compared to mental age-

matched typical controls, children with Down syndrome look more often to
the experimenter’s face and less often to toys (Kasari, Mundy, Yirmiya, &
Sigman, 1990; Ruskin, Kasari, Mundy, & Sigman, 1994). Further, children
with Down syndrome tend to look to adults and engage in social behaviors,
particularly during difficult problem-solving tasks (Kasari & Freeman, 2001;
Pitcairn & Wishart, 1994). Thus, these children often smile when looking at
others, thereby indicating their eagerness to interact with others and sup-
porting the long-held belief that children with Down syndrome have an
easygoing, pleasant, and sociable personality (Gibson, 1978; Wishart &
Johnston, 1990).
Possibly due to these sociable behaviors, parents often find their child
with Down syndrome to be positive and easygoing. Most fathers (Hornby,
1995) and mothers (Carr, 1995) spontaneously described their child with
Down syndrome as “affectionate,” “lovable,” and “sociable.” In addition to
their positive personalities, children with Down syndrome also exhibit less
etiology related maladaptive problems (Dykens & Kasari, 1997; Meyers &
Pueschel, 1991). Parents, in turn, may be reacting positively to such positive
behaviors from their children. Thus, when parents perceive their children
with Down syndrome to have more sociable and positive personalities (and
lower levels of maladaptive behaviors), mothers were more likely to normal-
ize their child’s noncompliant behaviors (Ly & Hodapp, 2002) and to expe-
rience less child-related stress and more reward from their children
(Hodapp et al., 2003).
At this point, it remains unknown how the Down syndrome advantage
operates—even whether this advantage is mainly due to child behaviors or
to parental (and societal) knowledge and expectations about the syn-
drome. Also remaining to be examined are a variety of issues concerning
what one might call the ecology of both knowledge and support. How, for
example, is any Down syndrome advantage influenced by what parents
know about the syndrome, by their level of participation in parent groups,
by parental educational levels or work status, parent-teacher connections,
or the parents’ and family’s degree of formal (e.g., therapists) or informal
(extended family or friends) supports? Each issue remains open to future
research.
Interactive Behaviors Within Interactions Tapping Etiology

Related High versus Low Abilities
A second example of indirect effects can be seen in parental behaviors in

response to a specific interaction, such as putting together a novel jigsaw
puzzle, involving children with two other genetic forms of mental retarda-
tion, Prader-Willi syndrome and Williams syndrome. These two syndromes
190 HODAPP AND LY
were chosen because, as a group, children with each of these two disorders
are either exceptionally strong (Prader-Willi syndrome) or exceptionally
weak (Williams syndrome) in puzzles and other visuospatial tasks. Thus,
Dykens (2002) has recently found that, even compared to typical children
of similar chronological ages, children with Prader-Willi syndrome perform
exceptionally well in putting together jigsaw puzzles. In contrast, children
with Williams syndrome perform particularly poorly (i.e., below mental
age-levels) on a wide variety of visuospatial tasks (Bellugi, Mills, Jernigan,
Hickok, & Galaburda, 1999; Mervis, Morris, Bertrand, & Robinson, 1999).
In one study, Ly and Hodapp (2003) examined child effects on parents’
behaviors in parent–child dyads of 20 children with Prader-Willi syndrome
and 21 children with Williams syndrome. We measured parents’ amount of
helping and reinforcement behaviors in response to interacting with their
child to complete a jigsaw puzzle task. The jigsaw puzzle task was used to
capitalize on the strength of Prader-Willi syndrome and the weakness of
Williams syndrome. From attribution theory (Graham, 1991), parents of
children with Williams syndrome (vs. with Prader-Willi syndrome) were hy-
pothesized to provide more help and reinforcement during the jigsaw puz-
zle interaction task.
Prior to the interaction task, children completed a jigsaw puzzle inde-
pendently to obtain an objective measure of the child’s puzzle abilities. Al-
though children with Prader-Willi syndrome, on average, completed more
jigsaw puzzle pieces than children with Williams syndrome, each group
showed a fair amount of within-syndrome variability. Two groups were
therefore created—low and high puzzle ability.
Findings showed that, compared to parents of children with Prader-Willi
syndrome, parents of children with Williams syndrome provided both more
helping and more reinforcement behaviors. Within the 5-minute interac-
tion session, parents of children with Williams syndrome helped their child
49 times, compared to slightly less than 24 times for the Prader-Willi par-
ents. Similarly, parents of children with Williams syndrome reinforced their
children over twice as often (Ms = 14.14 and 5.75, SDs = 8.46 and 5.41 for
Williams and Prader-Willi syndromes, respectively). Although parents did
not differ in the amount of reinforcement behaviors in children with
higher versus lower puzzle abilities, parents provided more instances of
help when their children had lower (M = 45.96, SD = 23.43) versus higher
(M = 24.89, SD = 20.10) puzzle abilities.
These findings show that different genetic mental retardation syn-
dromes may have indirect effects on parents, and possibly on others in the
child’s environment. If, indeed, parents of children with Down syndrome
are reacting to the child’s more pleasant personalities (and general lack of
maladaptive behaviors), and those of children with Prader-Willi and Wil-
liams syndromes are reacting to high versus low puzzle abilities (respec-
tively), then different genetic disorders may indirectly affect surrounding

adults. Just how such influences occur, however, remains unclear, and we
now turn to five intriguing, unresolved issues in this regard.
Five Remaining Questions
(1) What Is the Direction of Effects? In introducing the concept of inter-

action between mothers and their children, R. Q. Bell (1968) entitled his
groundbreaking article “A reinterpretation of the direction of effects in
studies of socialization.” In that article, Bell reinterpreted the direction of
effects, arguing that, for many studies of socialization (in which mothers
presumably affected—or socialized—their children), one could equally ar-
gue that the direction of effects instead ran from children to adults. Since
the 1970s, researchers of both typical and atypical development have strug-
gled with the issue of direction of effects. Do parents affect children, do
children affect parents, do both occur, and, if so, in what ways and at what
points during development?
Similarly with regard to dyads of parents and children with disabilities,
the direction-of-effects question remains. For example, do the more pleas-
ant personalities and relative lack of psychopathology of children with
Down syndrome elicit less stress and more reward from their parents, or,
conversely, are less stressed, happier parents producing children with more
pleasant personalities (who also have lower amounts of maladaptive behav-
ior)?
Although disability studies of parenting remain unclear about the direc-
tion of effects, some preliminary evidence points to children influencing
their parents. In a study examining children with mental retardation when
children were 3, 7, and 11 years old, Keogh, Garnier, Bernheimer, and
Gallimore (2000) found that the more likely direction of effects was from
child to parent. Using path analyses, the child’s higher levels of behavior
problems, greater degrees of cognitive impairment, and lower levels of per-
sonal-social competence affected parent and family adaptation. In contrast,
parental changes and accommodations of the family routine usually did not
influence later child behaviors. Although the question remains open for
many aspects of parent–child interaction, some evidence supports a child-
affects-parents direction of effect. Obviously, more studies using longitudi-
nal designs and more complex statistical analyses will be needed in future
work.
(2) Can One Use Genetic Disorders as Behavioral Proxies? In many studies
examining the direct effects of genetic disorders on children themselves,
researchers emphasize how this or that genetic syndrome can serve as a
model for a particular gene–brain–behavior pathway. In research on indi-
192 HODAPP AND LY
rect effects as well, researchers are implicitly using genetic disorders as a

model. In this case, however, we are using a specific genetic disorder as a
proxy for a particular, etiology related behavior (Hodapp, 2004). In the
parent stress and reward studies mentioned above, we use Down syndrome
as a stand-in for a pleasant personality and relative lack of psychopathology.
In the study examining parental behaviors in the puzzle task, we use chil-
dren with Prader-Willi syndrome to represent good puzzlers and children
with Williams syndrome as proxies for poor puzzlers.
However, as shown by the listing of etiology-related behaviors in Down,
Prader-Willi, and Williams syndromes, children with each syndrome are
prone to several behaviors. Children with Prader-Willi syndrome are gener-
ally good at jigsaw puzzles, but also show hyperphagia, obsessions–compul-
sions, and other maladaptive behaviors. Compared to others with mental
retardation, children with Down syndrome may display sociable personali-
ties, but they also show relatively strong visual versus auditory short-term
memory, as well as relative weaknesses in expressive language and in gram-
mar. A genetic disorder predisposes individuals to a variety of behavioral
characteristics.
Given that a genetic syndrome predisposes individuals to many behav-
ioral outcomes, one must be careful when thinking about indirect effects.
When judging the reactions or interactive behaviors of mothers of children
with Down syndrome, which aspects of behavior are mothers reacting to?
Are mothers more attuned to their child’s sociable personalities, weak lan-
guage abilities, or strong visual short-term memory? Mothers may also react
differently from fathers, siblings, or teachers. In the same way, the
interactional situation itself may matter. Thus, when putting together a jig-
saw puzzle, parents seem likely to be responding to their child’s jigsaw puz-
zle abilities. But in other situations, the child’s puzzle abilities are probably
not foremost in parents’ minds. Which behavior matters to parents, in
which specific circumstances, with which particular parent or other
interactor?
A variety of ecological concerns also come into play. For example, how
might attributions of their children’s success or failure differ when parents
come from different cultural groups (e.g., Euro-American vs. Asian-
American)? Are any of these attributions and attribution-based behaviors
related to whether mothers are married, divorced, or single, or to those
with different educations, incomes, or levels of formal and informal sup-
port? At present, such ecological issues remain totally unexamined.
(3) Are Indirect Effects Etiology-Specific or Etiology-General? In considering

the ways that genetic disorders indirectly affect others, our original think-
ing proposed what might be called an etiology general approach (Hodapp,
1997, 1999). That is, a genetic disorder predisposes children to show one or
more etiology related behaviors, which in turn lead parents to certain, pre-
dictable responses. The parent’s response was to the child’s behavior, not
to the child’s etiology per se. Considering cases in which the behavior of an
individual child ran counter to the general etiology related profile, then,
parents should essentially react to the behavior, not to the etiology. Thus, if
a specific child with Down syndrome is not particularly pleasant or has
many behavior problems, parents should feel more stressed and less re-
warded. If a specific child with Prader-Willi syndrome is poor at puzzles,
parents should react with more help. Conversely, if a certain child with Wil-
liams syndrome is good at puzzles, parents should offer less help. In effect,
then, an etiology general approach assumes that parents react to the child’s
behavior, and that any child showing that behavior should elicit similar pa-
rental reactions and behaviors, regardless of the etiology of mental retarda-
tion.
In several studies, however, parents react to the child’s behavior, but
mainly in the context of what parents know or perceive of their child’s syn-
drome. In one study, Ly and Hodapp (2002) asked parents of children with
Down syndrome versus with other forms of mental retardation to make
causal attributions in response to hypothetical vignettes in which their child
performed each of two common, noncompliant behaviors. Parents of chil-
dren considered more sociable and outgoing attributed their child’s
noncompliant behaviors as due to normative concerns (“my child is acting
like other children his age”). But such connections between child personal-
ity and normalizing behaviors were found only within the Down syndrome
group. Thus, among parents of children with Down syndrome, those who
saw their child as more sociable, also rated more highly normalizing as the
reason for their child’s noncompliance, r = .43, p < .01. But among parents
of children with mixed forms of mental retardation, no such connections
existed between child personality and parental ratings of normalizing attri-
butions, r = .05, ns.
A similar, maybe even more extreme, finding occurred in the jigsaw puz-
zle study (Ly & Hodapp, in press). In addition to comparing parental help
and reward behaviors to children with Williams syndrome versus with
Prader-Willi syndromes, we also divided children into high and low puz-
zlers. Given the usual amount of within-syndrome variance, dividing chil-
dren at the overall median score for the two groups combined produced
some children in each etiological group who were against the etiology. Some
children with Prader-Willi syndrome were therefore poor puzzlers, and
some with William syndrome were good puzzlers. To separate the contribu-
tions of the child’s level of puzzle ability and parents’ knowledge of the
child’s etiological diagnosis on parental behaviors, we then performed step-
wise multiple regressions, using both etiology group and puzzle ability as in-
dependent predictors. When looking at parents’ helping behaviors, the
194 HODAPP AND LY
child’s etiology accounted for 28% of the variance, with the child’s puzzle
ability accounting for an additional 12%. For reinforcement behaviors,
only the child’s etiology emerged as a significant predictor, accounting for
27% of the variance.
Such findings suggest a complex interplay between the child’s behavior,
on one hand, and parental knowledge or perceptions of etiology related
behavior on the other. In the case of Down syndrome, increasing amounts
of etiology related personality elicited greater degrees of parental normaliz-
ing attributions. More etiology related behavior was associated with a partic-
ular parental reaction, but only within the Down syndrome group. In the
puzzle study, the important issue seemed to be parents’ perceptions of what
that etiology means, less so the child’s behavior per se. There seems, then,
to be a complex interaction between the behaviors themselves and the
child’s type of mental retardation. Sometimes both are important, some-
times etiology trumps behavior, and sometimes behavior matters, but only
within the context of what parents know or think that they know about eti-
ology related behaviors of their child’s etiology. We again return to Bell,
and his idea that reactions and behaviors must be considered within the
context of a “thinking parent” (Bell, 1979).
(4) What Do Parents Know and How Do They Know It? If parental percep-
tions and knowledge of their child’s etiology are so important, what do par-
ents know? This involves the issue of parental beliefs and their origins
(Okagaki & Divecha, 1993; Okagaki & Bingham, chap. 1, this volume), a
significant area within parenting studies of typically developing children,
which is relatively unexplored among parents of children with disabilities.
In a few syndromes, however, we do have some sense of what parents know
about their child’s etiology. In one study, Fidler, Hodapp, and Dykens (2002)
asked parents of children with Prader-Willi syndrome, Down syndrome, and
Williams syndrome about several education-related aspects of their child’s
behavioral characteristics and school accommodations. Whereas parents of
children with Down syndrome were aware of their child’s cognitive-linguistic
strengths (e.g., visual short-term memory) and weaknesses (e.g., expressive
language), parents in the two other groups knew much less. Among parents
of children with Prader-Willi syndrome, parents knew of their child’s ex-
treme overeating and tantrums, but were less aware of their child’s strong
visuospatial abilities. In Williams syndrome, parents were aware of the many
fears and anxieties shown by these children (Dykens, 2003), but less aware of
these children’s general propensity to have relatively strong linguistic skills
and relatively weak visuospatial skills.
Another, somewhat unexpected finding concerned delivery of etiology
related information into the classroom setting. Thus, one of our questions
asked parents about who among ten different people (the parent and nine
different school professionals) brought information about their child’s syn-

drome into the classroom. In Down syndrome, an average of 3.38 people—
including mothers themselves, school psychologists, teachers, and speech-
language pathologists—all brought Down syndrome-related information
into the school setting. In contrast, an average of only 1.52 persons brought
Prader-Willi-related information into the school, and 1.25 people brought
Williams syndrome-related information into the school. Stated another
way, only 9.5% of mothers of children with Down syndrome were the sole
providers of etiology based information to their child’s school personnel,
but 52% and 66.7% of parents of children with Prader-Willi syndrome and
Williams syndrome, respectively, were the sole etiology-information-providers
to their child’s school.
Though suggestive, these findings leave unanswered countless other
questions. Where do mothers receive their information, when do they re-
ceive it, and to what extent are mothers good information providers about
their child’s condition? How might such information be related to parental
access to and abilities in searching the Internet, or to a parent’s degree of
involvement with an etiology related parent group? Are there ethnic differ-
ences in information gathering or use? How do schools and other service-
systems relate to parents who present etiology based information, particu-
larly given the general disregard of etiology-related information that has
historically characterized the field of special education (see Hodapp &
Fidler, 1999, for a review)? To these and other questions, we remain woe-
fully uninformed.
(5) How Do We Link Various Levels of the Environment? As the many unex-
plored questions imply, the field of parenting studies in mental retarda-
tion—and even in disabilities in general—has not yet joined the various
levels of the child’s environment (e.g., parents and families, schools, neigh-
borhoods). Although an ecological approach to parenting is a booming en-
terprise for parents of typically developing children, our knowledge of
Bronfenbrenner’s (1979) many different levels, or of how such levels inter-
relate is almost non-existent for children with mental retardation.
And yet, as shown above, if we are to understand parenting children with
different genetic disorders, we need to know how children with these disor-
ders live within their families, with friends, and in their schools, neighbor-
hoods, and other environments. In addition to knowing about each level
separately, we will also need to know how the various levels of ecology go to-
gether. To follow our example above, we will need to know when and how
parents access information, how such information might be gathered or
used differently by parents who are of different ages, ethnicities, SES levels,
or who live in different geographic locales or types of locale (urban, subur-
ban, rural).
196 HODAPP AND LY
To further complicate this interplay of various levels of the ecology, par-

ents of children with disabilities confront service and scientific worlds that
are changing rapidly. As noted earlier, the disabilities field has changed
enormously over the past few decades. Parents are now simultaneously
faced with learning about and accessing services for their child with mental
retardation; rearing their child with mental retardation while simulta-
neously rearing other, nondisabled children; and taking care of their own
needs as individuals and as a couple. The increasing amount of research in-
formation adds a further complication. To give a single example, more and
more children with disorders such as Williams and Prader-Willi syndromes
have only recently been diagnosed at early ages, and an explosion of knowl-
edge has occurred in these and other syndromes (Dykens & Hodapp,
2001). Keeping up with this knowledge explosion is a challenge, particu-
larly when most parents do not start out as experts in any area of child de-
velopment, genetics, psychiatry, or social service systems. The world has
changed, and the field is only now catching up in its understanding of how
parents of children with different genetic syndromes cope within this
changing world, this moving target.
CONCLUSIONS
In conceptualizing parenting children with disabilities, we grope for a met-

aphor that might do justice to the various changes in society, family, and
child. If Bronfenbrenner’s (1979) ecological model is, in a visual sense, a
series of circles-within-circles, those circles-within-circles must become
more dynamic when considering the parenting of children with disabilities.
As Glidden (2002) notes, the entire macro-environment of parenting has
changed for these parents, even as the very objects of their parenting—the
children—have changed, at least in terms of what professionals know about
children’s behavior and those interventions and supports that might help.
How such field-related knowledge reaches (or does not reach) parents and
interventionists is yet another complicated, dynamic issue. Everything, it
seems, is changing at all times.
We end this chapter with the sense that, for all our advances, we know
too little about these families. Moreover, when we do have knowledge, such
findings often appear piecemeal and unconnected. Although such a state
of affairs may simply be the hallmark of any field that has a relatively small
research community, the number and size of our gaps remain alarming.
Still, even with these problems, one can judge as successful the changes
in both society and science as those changes pertain to parenting children
with disabilities. Parents and children do benefit from the major societal
advances seen in the services and conceptualization of children with dis-
abilities. So, too, have advances occurred in how these families are under-
stood by researchers and practitioners, as represented by the movement
from more pathological and less differentiated views to more stress-and-
coping perspectives. Scientific advances have also helped us know much
more about the biomedical and behavioral characteristics of children with
a wide variety of genetic syndromes. Although we have far to go, we remain
hopeful that we will continue to learn more about parenting children with
disabilities, thereby benefiting the families themselves as well as the larger
parenting field in general.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We would like to thank Tom Luster, Lynn Okagaki, Marc Bornstein, and
Elisabeth Dykens for their comments on earlier drafts of this chapter. The
support of NSF post-doctoral fellowship #0310013 to the second author is
also gratefully acknowledged.
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III
CONTEXTUAL INFLUENCES
ON PARENTING
7
Parenting and the

Marital Relationship
Frank D. Fincham
Florida State University
Julie H. Hall
University at Buffalo, The State University of New York
INTRODUCTION
Parent and spouse roles are characterized by numerous expectations and

responsibilities that tend to be fulfilled simultaneously as partners in a mar-
riage are often partners in parenting as well. Thus, it can be quite difficult
to disentangle marital and parenting processes, and to determine how one
relationship impacts the other. Considerable attention has been devoted to
exploring how becoming a parent affects the marital relationship; the birth
of a child is associated with an increase in marital conflict and a decrease in
marital satisfaction, but an increased sense of partnership (Belsky, Lang,
Rovine, 1985; Cowan, Cowan, Heming, Garrett, Coysh, Curtis-Boles, &
Boles, 1985). Yet at the same time, marital relationships also exert a consid-
erable influence on parenting processes and behaviors. Given the nature of
this book, we focus on this aspect of the association between marriage and
parenting.
In Bronfenbrenner’s (1979, 1992) ecological model, the marital rela-
tionship constitutes part of a child’s microsystem, and thus directly influ-
ences the child. Behavioral exchanges between spouses are one of the ma-
jor vehicles through which the immediate environment directly affects a
child’s psychological growth (Bronfenbrenner, 1979, 1992). Beyond the
direct effects of the marital relationship on child development, Bronfen-
brenner also highlighted how marriage impacts children indirectly,
through the parenting relationship. Such indirect influence, defined as
205
206 FINCHAM AND HALL
second-order effects, points out how the marital relationship can affect in-
teractions between parent and child (Bronfenbrenner, 1979). The eco-
logical model also emphasizes the importance of the marital relationship
as a support system for parenting; Bronfenbrenner (1986) reviewed evi-
dence that mothers who felt supported by their husbands tended to have
higher marital satisfaction and more positive attitudes toward parenting.
This research helped lay the foundation for much current work on mari-
tal and parenting processes, and illustrated the importance of the envi-
ronment in such processes.
In keeping with Bronfenbrenner’s ecological model, this chapter ex-
plores the direct effects of the marital relationship on child development,
as well as the indirect effects that occur through parenting. We review
briefly direct effects, before turning to the primary focus of the chapter,
how marital and parenting processes interact to influence child develop-
ment. Following consideration of the major research in this area, the next
section identifies promising avenues for future research. The chapter con-
cludes with a summary of the main arguments.
DIRECT EFFECTS OF THE MARITAL RELATIONSHIP

ON CHILD DEVELOPMENT
There is a robust association between marital conflict and child behavior

problems. For example, the meta-analysis by Buehler, Anthony, Krishnaku-
mar, and Stone (1997) of 68 studies testing the association between marital
conflict and child adjustment showed that the average effect size for this as-
sociation was .32, midway between a small (.20) and medium (.50) effect as
described by Cohen (1977). According to social learning theory, negative
marital interactions lead children to adopt similar maladaptive behaviors
through the processes of modeling. Children who are repeatedly exposed
to marital conflict may acquire negative strategies of conflict resolution and
affective expression through observing their parents’ behavior (Easter-
brooks & Emde, 1988), and they are at greater risk for externalizing disor-
ders (Cummings & Davies, 1994). Children also tend to be more aggressive
towards peers after observing an angry argument between adults (Cum-
mings, Iannotti, & Zahn-Walker, 1985), and are more likely to have social
problems with siblings and peers (Stocker & Youngblade, 1999).
There is also a direct relation between marital conflict and disorganized-
disoriented infant attachment behavior (Owen & Cox, 1997). It has been
suggested that exposure to negative marital interactions adversely affects
the organization of children’s emotional response to stressful situations
(Davies & Cummings, 1994). Owen and Cox (1997) argued that exposure
to chronic marital conflict leads infants to experience their parents as
7. PARENTING AND THE MARITAL RELATIONSHIP 207
frightening, and to have limited options for alleviating accompanying dis-

tress. In contrast, marital satisfaction is associated with secure attachment in
toddlers (Goldberg & Easterbrooks, 1984).
Specific aspects of marital conflict appear to have differential effects on
child adjustment; Buehler and colleagues (1997) showed that effect sizes
differed depending on how conflict was expressed. Studies assessing overt
conflict, defined as direct expressions of hostile behavior and affect, pro-
duced a larger effect size (.35) than studies examining covert conflict (.28),
in which hostility is expressed indirectly, withdrawal from conflict (.27), or
studies simply measuring conflict frequency (.19). These differences sug-
gest that the way parents manage conflict, rather than its occurrence per se,
determines its impact on children.
The direct relation between marital conflict and child adjustment can
also be understood by conceptualizing conflict as a stressor on children
(Fincham, Grych, & Osborne, 1994; Wilson & Gottman, 1995). Children re-
port that observing interparental conflict is a significant stressor (Lewis,
Siegal, & Lewis, 1984), and observational studies show that children typi-
cally exhibit distress when exposed to angry or aggressive interactions in-
volving their parents (see Cummings, Davies & Campbell, 2000). Even at a
young age, children become distressed when observing family conflict
(Cummings, Zahn-Walker, Radke-Yarrow, 1981), and that distress increases
with more frequent exposure to anger and aggression (Cummings et al.,
1985). Exposure to conflict has also been found to threaten children’s
sense of safety and emotional security (Davies & Cummings, 1994).
However, as noted, interparental conflict may not be intrinsically damag-
ing to children; rather, how conflict is handled may determine whether the
interaction will serve as a stressor for the child. Frequent conflicts that are
intense, unresolved, and child-related tend to be more distressing to chil-
dren than non-child related conflicts that are resolved constructively and
nonaggressively (Grych & Fincham, 1992). It has also been suggested that
children are more affected by marital conflict when parent-to-child hostility
is expressed during the course of the conflict (Gordis, Margolin, & John,
2001).
Although some scholars have argued that the relation between conflict
and child adjustment is due to the effects of marital conflict on parenting
(e.g., Fauber & Long, 1991), others have argued that this relation cannot
be reduced to variations in parenting. In support of this position it is noted
that overt marital conflict has a greater impact on children than covert con-
flict (Emery, Fincham, & Cummings, 1992) and that children’s perceptions
of marital conflict tend to be related to their adjustment (Cummings,
Davies, & Simpson, 1994; Harold, Fincham, Osborne, & Conger, 1997).
Such findings would be unlikely if parenting processes accounted for all of
the variance in child adjustment.
INDIRECT EFFECTS OF THE MARITAL RELATIONSHIP

ON CHILD DEVELOPMENT
Parenting has consistently been shown to play a mediating role in the rela-
tion between marital quality and child functioning. High marital quality is
associated with sensitive parenting and optimal toddler functioning (e.g.,
Goldberg & Easterbrooks, 1984), whereas marital discord undermines and
disrupts effective parenting practices and is associated with poor child ad-
justment (Belsky, 1984; Fauber & Long, 1991; Reid & Crisafulli, 1990).
However, before one can fully explore such associations, it is critical to ex-
amine central constructs. For example, Erel and Burman (1995) were not
able to test adequately whether relevant variables moderated the associa-
tion between the marital and parent–child relationships owing to the heter-
ogeneity of effect sizes within categories of the moderator variables that
they examined (e.g., different operationalizations of marital quality).
Marital Quality Is Not Marital Quality Is Not Marital Quality
Much of the literature regarding the marriage–parenting association has

focused on the general concept of marital quality, and how it relates to
parenting practices. As noted by Erel and Burman (1995) and Goldberg
and Easterbrooks (1984), however, studies have varied widely in the con-
ceptualization and measurement of marital quality. The emergence of a
replicable association between marital quality and the quality of parenting
is noteworthy. But both of these constructs are multidimensional. Thus, it is
important to distinguish among their dimensions and to consider how spe-
cific aspects of the marital relationship are associated with specific aspects
of parenting. The importance of such conceptual development is empha-
sized by the fact that even the most sophisticated statistical analyses cannot
clarify ambiguous constructs.
Erel and Burman (1995) identified three conceptualizations of marital
quality used by researchers: general marital satisfaction, overt marital con-
flict, and marital coalition. Before we consider the first two of these in
greater detail, it is important to note that parenting can be conceptualized
along numerous dimensions, including global quality, satisfaction, covert
control, discipline, or within/between parent consistency. However, the
majority of the studies in Erel and Burman’s (1995) meta-analysis measured
marital quality in terms of marital satisfaction and the parent–child rela-
tionship in terms of global quality. Nevertheless, it is important to consider
these distinctions when reviewing the literature, as a general association be-
tween marital quality and parenting could reflect several different relation-
ships.
What is Marital Satisfaction? This is not the context in which to offer a

definitive answer to this question, and we therefore limit ourselves to two
observations. First, two of the most commonly used measures of marital sat-
isfaction, the Marital Adjustment Test (MAT; Locke & Wallace, 1959) and
Dyadic Adjustment Scale (DAS; Spanier, 1976), combine heterogeneous
question types, including general evaluative questions and specific descrip-
tive questions about behavior (e.g., communication, affection). As a result,
these scales may overestimate associations between marital quality and self-
reported interpersonal processes within marriage because of item overlap
(Bradbury, Fincham, & Beach, 2000; Feeney, Noller, & Ward, 1997). This
has led some researchers to suggest that global, evaluative measures of mar-
ital satisfaction (e.g., Quality Marriage Index, QMI; Norton, 1983; Kansas
Marital Satisfaction Scale, KMSS; Schumm, Paff-Bergen, Hatch, Obiorah,
Copeland, Meens, & Bugaighis, 1986) are more appropriate when seeking
to capture an individual’s overall sentiment toward the marriage (Fincham,
1998; Fincham & Bradbury, 1987). However, global measures are only ap-
propriate when the researcher is seeking to measure marital quality as an
overall evaluative judgment, and they are less useful when information is
sought about specific dimensions of marital quality.
Second, it is important to note that marital satisfaction is not the mere
absence of dissatisfaction, and that satisfaction and dissatisfaction are not
necessarily inversely related (Bradbury et al., 2000). In actuality, it is possi-
ble for an individual to evaluate his or her marriage as both positive and
negative (Fincham, Beach, & Kemp-Fincham, 1997; Fincham & Linfield,
1997). Conceptualizating marital quality as bi-dimensional allows research-
ers to distinguish between people who may score similarly on measures of
global marital satisfaction, despite the fact that some are high in positivity
and negativity (i.e., ambivalent), whereas others are low on both dimen-
sions (i.e. indifferent; see Fincham & Linfield, 1997). Few researchers have
so far adopted this bi-dimensional approach.
In summary, then, marital quality has been operationalized in different
ways. The vast majority of studies have used the MAT, DAS or some variant
of these measures. Increasingly, however, researchers are limiting marital
satisfaction to global judgments of the marriage and using separate meas-
ures to assess different aspects of marriage (e.g., communication, consen-
sus) that are also tapped by instruments such as the MAT and DAS.
What Is Marital Conflict? Marital conflict has been conceptualized in

several different ways, with most sharing the common themes that conflict
can be overt or covert, can arise from the perceived conflict of interests,
goals, wishes, expectations, or interference with behavior, and that conflict
behaviors vary across time and situation (Fincham & Beach, 1999). Couples
can be differentiated based on their marital conflict styles, including physi-
cal aggression, verbal aggression, withdrawal, and nondistressed/low levels

of conflict (Burman, Margolin, & John, 1993). Marital conflict can also be
considered in terms of process, by exploring cycles of escalation and resolu-
tion within couples. For example, Burman et al. (1993) found that physi-
cally aggressive and nondistressed couples display similar negative conflict
behavior patterns, but nondistressed couples are able to exit from negative
exchanges more quickly. As with measures of marital satisfaction, measures
of marital conflict vary according to the specific dimensions of interest to
the researcher.
Overlap Between Satisfaction and Conflict. Although we have discussed

marital satisfaction and marital conflict as separate constructs, empirical ev-
idence suggests that conflict directly affects satisfaction in well established
relationships (Christensen & Walczynski, 1997). When compared to non-
distressed couples, distressed couples experience more frequent conflict
(Christensen & Margolin, 1988), engage in more criticism and disagree-
ment, and are more likely to reciprocate negative behaviors. In fact, nega-
tive reciprocity is more consistent across different types of situations than is
the amount of negative behavior, making it the most reliable overt signa-
ture of a dissatisfied marriage. Both frequency and reciprocity of negative
behavior are more pronounced in couples where physical aggression is
found (Fincham, 2003). Marital conflict also predicts deterioration in rela-
tionship satisfaction over time (Karney & Bradbury, 1995). Nevertheless,
they are distinct constructs, as it is possible for marriages to be high in con-
flict and satisfaction or low in both. Furthermore, marital satisfaction and
conflict have unique effects on parenting and parent–child behavior. Thus,
we continue to consider them separately.
Models of the Association Between Marriage and Parenting
Erel and Burman (1995) found a positive association between marital qual-
ity and parenting (the composite mean weighted effect size was .46). Thus,
on the whole, harmonious marriages tend to be associated with effective
parenting, whereas troubled marriages are linked to maladaptive parent-
ing. This finding supports a spillover model whereby the affective tone of
the marriage spills over into the parent–child relationship; it stands in
sharp contrast to the alternative compensatory model in which marital
quality and parenting quality are posited to be negatively related (Erel &
Burman, 1995; Goldberg & Easterbrooks, 1984).
However, there is some empirical support for the compensatory model
in which parents are hypothesized to compensate for marital frustration
and dissatisfaction by channeling these negative emotions into positive
parenting behaviors (Amato, 1986; Belsky, Youngblade, Rovine, & Volling,
1991). Parents may attempt to fill the void left by their unhappy marriage
by establishing fulfilling relationships with their children. Nevertheless,
Cox, Paley, and Harter (2001) point out that it is difficult to differentiate
between genuinely positive parenting and parent–child relationships that
seem positive but actually serve to meet the needs of the parent. As a whole,
support for the compensatory model is limited and difficult to interpret.
Krishnakumar and Buehler’s (2000) meta-analysis of interparental con-
flict and parenting behaviors suggests a third model, compartmentaliza-
tion, in which parents are able to maintain the boundaries between their
spousal and parenting roles. Such a model requires partners to contain
their feelings about the marriage and to not let them contaminate the par-
ent–child relationship. This model implies that there is no relationship be-
tween marital quality and parenting. However, neither Erel and Burman
(1995) nor Krisnakumar and Buehler (2000) found support for this model
in their meta-analyses. In fact the latter authors found an average weighted
effect size of −.62 between interparental conflict and positive parenting be-
haviors which lends further support to the spillover model.
What Processes Account for the Spillover Effect? Grych (2002) reviewed sev-
eral conceptual models that might explain the association between marital
and parenting domains. Family systems theory accounts for this association
through the idea of circular causality in which relationships within the family
are reciprocally related. From a stress and coping perspective, the marital re-
lationship is conceptualized as a source of stress or support for parenting
processes. Third, the affective spillover model posits that emotional experi-
ences in the marriage carry over to affective expression in parent–child rela-
tionships. A fourth conceptual model proposes that spouses in distressed
marriages withdraw from their children, leading to problems in parenting.
However, it is also possible that a third variable influences behavior in both
marital and parenting domains. Although each of these models is theoreti-
cally sound, it is difficult to distinguish among them empirically because the
processes described in each lead to the same outcomes.
A general theoretical framework would facilitate research on the interre-
lationship of marriage and parenting, but it is equally important to explore
empirically specific associations to identify which elements of marital func-
tioning are linked to parenting. As noted, one important association sup-
ported by empirical research is the link between marital satisfaction and
quality of parenting.
Marital Satisfaction/Adjustment and Parenting
High marital satisfaction/adjustment is related to parenting that is sensitive,

responsive, warm, and accepting (Goldberg & Easterbrooks, 1984; Grych,
2002), whereas lower marital satisfaction is related to permissive parenting
and more negative parent–child relationships (DeVito & Hopkins, 2001;

Easterbrooks & Emde, 1988). However, the direction of causality in such re-
lationships is uncertain since most data are cross-sectional.
However, there is a handful of relevant longitudinal studies. Kurdek
(1998) found that marital adjustment in the first year of marriage was not
predictive of parenting satisfaction eight years later. Similarly, Lindahl,
Clements, and Markman (1997) showed that parents’ affective responsive-
ness to their children was not predicted by prechild marital satisfaction, but
was related to current marital satisfaction. Prebirth marital adjustment also
does not predict cognitive and verbal stimulation of the infant (Heinicke,
1995).
In contrast, Shek (1998) found that marital adjustment was longitudinally
associated with parent–child relational quality and perceived demands from
children, and suggested that marital quality predicted change in parent–
child relational quality. Cowan and Cowan (2000) also found that greater
marital satisfaction during pregnancy was associated with parenting that was
warm, responsive, and structuring when children reached preschool age,
whereas marital dissatisfaction predicts more authoritarian and less authori-
tative parenting (Cowan & Cowan, 1992). Thus, further research is needed
to determine the strength of the longitudinal relationship between marital
satisfaction/adjustment and parenting. This is an especially interesting area
of research because marital satisfaction changes across the life cycle and is
generally believed to follow a U-shaped pattern of declining in the early years
of parenthood and increasing in the later years (Emery & Tuer, 1993).
In the past decade, efforts to understand the association between marital
processes and child development increasingly have focused on how couples
express and manage conflict in their relationship. It is now clear that mari-
tal conflict is more important for understanding child development than
satisfaction (Grych & Fincham, 2001).
Marital Conflict and Parenting
Several studies show that ineffective parenting partially or fully mediates

the relation between marital conflict and children’s maladjustment (Os-
borne & Fincham, 1996; Vandewater & Lansford, 1998; Webster-Stratton &
Hammond, 1999). Three processes have been suggested to account for
such indirect effects; marital conflict disrupts parental discipline, dimin-
ishes the affective quality of parent–child interactions, and increases par-
ent–child aggression (Fincham et al., 1994).
Discipline and Affect in Parent–Child Interactions. A meta-analysis sug-

gested that the parenting behaviors impacted most by interparental conflict
are harsh discipline and parental acceptance (Krishnakumar & Buehler,
2000). Marital conflict is also related to child rejection, low parental in-
volvement, and low emotional responsivity (Buehler & Gerard, 2002; Fau-
ber, Forehand, Thomas, & Wierson, 1990; Webster-Stratton & Hammond,
1999). Parents often become so consumed by marital conflicts that their
parenting behavior grows less effective and more inconsistent (Fauber &
Long, 1991). Indeed, marital conflict may drain parent resources to the
point that it reduces parents’ ability to recognize and respond to the child’s
emotional needs (Goldberg & Easterbrooks, 1984). Children may perceive
parental inattention as rejection, leading to emotional and behavioral
problems (Fincham et al., 1994). In addition to diminishing the quantity of
parent–child interactions, marital conflict may also influence the quality of
these exchanges. Negative affect from the marital context may spillover
into parent–child relationships (Kerig, Cowan, & Cowan, 1993), leading to
disciplinary techniques that are harsh, critical, and rely on guilt and anxiety
induction (Buehler & Gerard, 2002; Fauber et al., 1990; Fincham et al.,
1994; Gable, Belsky, & Crnic, 1992; Webster-Stratton & Hammond, 1999).
When compared to nondistressed families, tension in distressed families
endures for a longer period of time, and marital conflict increases the prob-
ability of parent–child conflict (Christensen & Margolin, 1988; Margolin,
Christensen, & John, 1996).
Parent–Child Aggression. Children whose parents engage in physical vio-

lence toward one another are at increased risk of being abused by their par-
ents; the median base rate of co-occurrence in clinical samples is 40% (Ap-
pel & Holden, 1998). In a nationally representative sample, the conditional
probability of child abuse given the presence of partner abuse is 31%
(O’Leary, Slep & O’Leary, 2000). Appel and Holden (1998) identified five
models that may underlie this association. The simplest is a single perpetra-
tor model, in which one parent (stereotypically the father) aggresses to-
ward spouse and child. This pattern can also be sequential, such that the
victim of marital violence becomes aggressive toward the child, or follow a
dual model in which one spouse is violent toward his/her partner, and both
are violent toward the child.
The remaining two models are bi-directional and thus incorporate the
child and victimized partner as active agents in the system. In the marital
violence model, both partners are abusive toward one another and to-
wards the child, whereas the family dysfunction model includes a pathway
in which the child aggresses towards both parents. Although the single
perpetrator model has received the most empirical support, these models
have not been empirically contrasted with one another and thus their rela-
tive utility remains uncertain. However, some researchers have cautioned
that marital conflict and parent–child aggression may not lead to one an-
other; rather, both may arise from a third factor, such as the individual
characteristics of one or both parents (e.g., antisocial personality; Finch-

am et al., 1994).
As noted earlier, a more fine-grained examination of the dimensions of
conflict is necessary to advance our understanding of the impact of inter-
parental conflict on parenting, parent–child relationships, and child devel-
opment. The impact of conflict is likely to depend on the intensity, fre-
quency, resolution, content, and context of the dispute (Cummings &
Davies, 1994; Fincham, 2003; Fincham et al., 1994; Zimet & Jacob, 2001).
Children’s understanding and appraisals of the conflict are also likely to in-
fluence its impact as there is already evidence that stable and global attribu-
tions for interparental conflict and/or blaming the self leads to negative
consequences for the child (Davies & Cummings, 1994; Grych & Fincham,
1990).
In a similar vein there is a small body of research that emphasizes the im-
portance of spousal appraisals, particularly attributions or explanations for
marital conflict, for parenting and parent–child relationships.
The Role of Marital Attributions
Maritally distressed couples tend to attribute their difficulties to causes that

are stable or unchanging, global (affect many areas of the relationship),
and located within the other spouse (see Fincham, 2001). Negative attribu-
tions such as these serve to exacerbate and maintain marital difficulties and
have been shown to predict behavior in marital interactions (Bradbury &
Fincham, 1992). The relation between such conflict promoting attributions
and behavior holds across different levels of marital satisfaction (Bradbury,
Beach, Fincham, & Nelson, 1996) and is not due to general negative
affectivity (Karney, Bradbury, Fincham, & Sullivan, 1994).
Maladaptive marital attributions are also associated with negative attribu-
tions for child behavior (Fincham & Grych, 1991). Thus, spouses who inter-
pret their partner’s negative behavior as internal, stable, and global tend to
perceive their children’s misbehavior in the same way, and such attribu-
tions influence subsequent behavior. Parents’ attributional styles are re-
lated to how coercive, harsh, and authoritarian their interactions are with
their children (Bugental & Johnston, 2000). Slep and O’Leary (1998)
found that mothers who believe that their child is to blame for his/her mis-
behavior are angrier and more overreactive in their disciplinary responses
when compared to mothers who believe their child is not to blame. There is
also an association between attributions for child behavior and parental
maltreatment of children. Abusive/neglectful mothers tend to make more
internal (to the child) and stable attributions for their children’s negative
behavior than do non-abusive mothers (Larrance & Twentyman, 1983).
Similarly, Bugental, Blue, and Cruzcosa (1989) found that parents who per-
ceive themselves as lacking power are most likely to use coercive control tac-
tics with their children.
Brody, Arias, and Fincham (1996) further explored how marital attribu-
tions are related to parenting, and also examined the link with children’s
attributions for negative parental behavior. Consistent with prior research,
they found that husbands’ and wives’ conflict promoting attributions were
related to negativity in the marital context, which was associated with harsh,
punitive parenting, less involved communicative parenting, and ineffective
parent–child communication. Harsh, punitive parenting tends to be associ-
ated with conflicted and distant parent–child relationships, whereas in-
volved communicative parenting is associated with harmonious and cohe-
sive parent–child relationships (Collins, 1990). The direct effects of
attributions on parent–child relationships were also stronger for fathers
than for mothers. Brody et al. (1996) also found that parenting behavior
was related to children’s attributions for negative parental behavior. In-
volved communicative parenting was negatively related to children’s con-
flict promoting attributions, and harsh, punitive parenting was positively re-
lated (Brody et al., 1996).
Implicit in our discussion thus far is the assumption that the processes
discussed are gender neutral. But the same behavior performed by a father
versus a mother may be experienced quite differently. Not only might re-
sponses differ because boys and girls develop different relationships with fa-
thers and mothers, but factors such as size and strength differences can
make a slap delivered with the same force more or less threatening depend-
ing on whether the mother slaps the father or vice versa. We therefore turn
to consider the role of gender.
Gender Matters
There has been a great deal of controversy as to whether there are system-
atic differences in the association between marital quality and fathering ver-
sus mothering. Several studies have suggested that fathering is more af-
fected by marital quality than is mothering (Belsky et al., 1991; Coiro &
Emery, 1998; Easterbrooks & Emde, 1988; Goldberg & Easterbrooks, 1984;
Kitzmann, 2000). Some researchers have posited that this is because male
familial roles are less defined than those of females, and/or that mothers
are better able to maintain boundaries between familial roles (Belsky et al.,
1991).
Marital satisfaction and conflict also have been linked to gender differ-
ences in parenting behaviors and attitudes. Marital satisfaction is positively
related to fathers’ childrearing attitudes but is unrelated to the attitudes of
mothers (Easterbrooks & Emde, 1988). Fathering is also more likely to be
affected by marital conflict than mothering (Coiro & Emery, 1998), with fa-
thers being more likely to withdraw from their wives and children following
marital conflict or when in distressed marriages (Christensen & Heavey,
1990; Howes & Markman, 1989). There is an especially strong link between
destructive forms of marital conflict and negative fathering behaviors (Lin-
dahl & Malik, 1999). Fathers tend to be less supportive and engaged when
interacting with their sons after a conflictual marital discussion whereas
mothers do not show such an effect (Kitzmann, 2000). There is also evi-
dence of gender specific longitudinal associations between marital quality
and parenting, as deterioration in marital quality over time is associated
with more negative and intrusive fathering behavior but facilitative mother-
ing behavior (Belsky et al., 1991).
While these findings may suggest that there is a null or compensatory re-
lation between marital quality and maternal parenting behavior, there is
evidence that marital distress is linked to lower maternal involvement and
increased negativity (Erel & Burman, 1995; Grych & Fincham, 1990). Fur-
thermore, Osborne and Fincham (1996) found that boys’ perceptions of
interparental conflict were more strongly associated with mother–child re-
lationships than father–child relationships, and that there was no differ-
ence in the associations for girls. As these findings show, it is insufficient
merely to introduce gender at the parental level. Only by considering both
parent and child gender is it possible to show that interparental conflict is
especially deleterious for cross-gender parent child relationships (e.g., Ke-
rig, Cowan, & Cowan, 1993) which, unlike same-sex relationships, predict
child outcome even though boys and girls report similar levels of exposure
to interparental conflict (Osborne & Fincham, 1996). Despite the consider-
able attention given to child gender, our understanding of the impact of
the interparental relationship on boys versus girls remains limited (see
Davies & Lindsay 2001).
Kerig, Cowan, and Cowan (1993) found that, overall, both fathers and
mothers tend to respond negatively towards daughters more often than
sons. Also, less maritally adjusted fathers behave most negatively towards
daughters, whereas mothers in less satisfied marriages are the least accept-
ing of daughter’s assertiveness and are more likely to reciprocate their sons’
negative affect. However, Reid and Crisafulli (1990) found that there is a
stronger association between marital conflict and externalizing child be-
havior for sons than for daughters. Similarly, Gordis, Margolin, and John
(2001) showed that parent-to-child hostility increases the effects of marital
hostility on child adjustment among boys but not among girls. This could
be due to the fact that boys are less shielded from family conflict than girls
(Grych & Fincham, 1990), or that girls are more likely to react with inter-
nalizing behaviors than externalizing behaviors. Thus, evidence of gender
effects in the association between marriage and parenting is somewhat
mixed. It is important that future research examine not only the effects of
parent and child gender, but also their interaction (Grych, 2002; Snyder,
1998).
In sum, consideration of parent and child gender is likely to yield a more
textured picture of the associations among the marital relationship, parent-
ing and child development. Moving beyond consideration of family dyads is
similarly likely to yield a more sophisticated understanding. We therefore
turn to briefly consider triadic family interactions.
Triadic Family Interactions
In recent years, it has become increasingly apparent that parents treat their
children differently when their spouse is present than they do when alone
with their children. However, triadic interactions are extremely complex to
study, as they require a focus on three different dyadic relationships, as well
as an examination of how the third person influences each of these dyads.
Vuchinich, Emery, and Cassidy (1988) found that in situations with dyadic
conflict, a third family member intervened more than one-third of time,
and often in a way that formed an alliance with one of the parties. Children
tended to use distraction tactics to intervene, and girls were more likely
than boys to intervene in all family disputes except marital conflicts. Fathers
tended to use authority strategies to intervene, whereas mothers used
mediational tactics, but mothers and fathers were unlikely to side against
each other when intervening in dyadic conflicts.
Early studies showed that parents tend to have less physical contact and
talk less to their infants when in triadic situations than they do in dyadic
parent–child interactions (Belsky, 1979). However, when looking at adoles-
cents, Gjerde (1986) found that both the quantity and the quality of
parenting behaviors changed across contexts, as well as by gender. The
quality of mother–son interactions improved when the father was present,
with mothers becoming more engaged, secure, consistent, and affective
than they were when they were alone with their sons. However, father–son
interactions deteriorated in quality when in the presence of the mother,
with fathers decreasing in involvement, engagement, and egalitarianism,
and increasing in criticism and antagonism. In contrast, Johnson (2001)
found that both parents displayed less negative affect and were less en-
gaged with their children in triadic interactions than in dyadic parent–
child interactions, but that parental warmth and responsiveness were stable
across contexts. There also tends to be greater role differentiation between
mothering and fathering in triadic interactions than in dyadic parent–child
interactions. Mothers are more at ease and traditional in their mothering
role when in the presence of the father. In contrast, fathers are more likely
to withdraw from a primary parenting role when in the presence of their
wives (Gjerde, 1986; Johnson, 2001).
Marital Conflict and Triadic Interaction. Marital conflict has a negative

impact upon triadic family interactions. Kerig (1995) found that marital
conflict and dissatisfaction are positively associated with triangulation
(cross-generational coalitions) in triadic interactions. Similarly, destructive
marital conflicts are associated with parental withdrawal during triadic in-
teractions, and fathering behaviors that are rejecting, coercive, and less
emotionally supportive (Lindahl & Malik, 1999). Marital hostility is also as-
sociated with fathers being more intrusive and less positively involved in
triadic interactions, and mothers displaying more derisive humor (Katz &
Gottman, 1996). However, when husbands withdraw from the marriage,
mothers are more intrusive and critical in triadic interactions (Katz &
Gottman, 1996). There is also a longitudinal association between marital
conflict and triadic interaction, as negative escalation of marital discussions
before children are born is predictive of coalition formation and low family
cohesion, as well as father’s triangulation of the child into marital conflict
(Lindahl et al., 1997).
Marital Power and Triadic Interaction. Lindahl and Malik (1999) exam-
ined how the balance of power within marriage relates to parenting in
triadic situations, and classified marriages as balanced, male dominant, or
power struggle. The results varied according to gender, level of marital dis-
tress, and ethnicity. Mothers from male-dominant marriages were more
emotionally supportive in triadic interactions than mothers from power
struggle marriages, but only when they were European American and were
not maritally distressed. However, maritally distressed fathers from male-
dominant marriages were more coercive with sons than fathers from bal-
anced or power struggle marriages. Hispanic American fathers from
balanced marriages were more emotionally supportive of sons in triadic in-
teractions than fathers from male-dominant or power struggle marriages.
Meanwhile, European American fathers from power struggle marriages
were more withdrawn than fathers from the other power groups. These re-
sults illustrate the complexity of triadic interactions, and the variety of ways
in which marital processes can interact with parenting behavior.
In sum, it is clear that the marital relationship–parenting association
cannot be adequately understood without consideration of the broader
context of triadic family processes. At the same time, it is apparent that
work on triadic family processes is in its infancy. In the next section of the
chapter we turn explicitly to identifying directions for future research that
might provide a more complete understanding of marriage, parenting, and

child development.
FUTURE DIRECTIONS
As emphasized throughout this chapter it is crucial to pinpoint specific as-

pects of the marital relationship that are associated with specific dimen-
sions of parenting. However, identification of such associations begs the
important question of why such associations exist. What processes or mech-
anisms give rise to the associations? We therefore discuss one particularly
promising mechanism before exploring the implications of current marital
research for future research on the link between marriage and parenting.
The Search for Mechanism: Coparenting
Coparenting refers to how mothers and fathers function together in their

roles as parents, and reflects discrepancies in parenting involvement, as
well as the extent to which parents support or undermine one another.
Coparenting has been conceptualized bidimensionally, in terms of mutual
support in parenting and mutual involvement with the child (McHale,
1995) and has been broken down into four dimensions: family integrity,
disparagement, conflict, and reprimand (McHale, 1997). Using this defini-
tion, McHale (1997) found evidence of five types of coparenting families:
disconnected, supportive, average, distressed–conflicted, and passionate.
An alternative conceptualization of coparenting is offered by Margolin,
Gordis, and John (2001) who identified three coparenting dimensions:
conflict over parenting issues, cooperation, and triangulation. Further dis-
tinctions have been drawn between overt and covert coparenting processes,
with the former referring to triadic interactions in which both parents and
the child are present, whereas the latter refers to dyadic (parent–child) in-
teractions involving family issues when the other partner is not present
(Margolin et al., 2001; McHale, 1997). Covert processes illustrate how
coparenting continues even in one partner’s absence; such behaviors can
either strengthen or undermine a child’s sense of family integrity (McHale,
Lauretti, Talbot, & Pouquette, 2002). McHale and Rasmussen (1998)
found that mothers’ verbal and nonverbal messages about fathers in the fa-
thers’ absence have a powerful influence on the child; children whose
mothers engage in negative covert coparenting behavior (e.g., disparage-
ment of the father) are rated by teachers as showing more behavior prob-
lems then peers (McHale & Rasmussen, 1998). Thus, both overt and covert
coparenting processes may influence child adjustment.
How Is Coparenting Related to Marriage, Parenting, and Child Adjustment?

Co-operative coparenting is positively associated with marital satisfaction
and parenting quality. However, it is important to note that coparenting
and marital relationships are distinct, because the former is motivated by
concern for the child, whereas the latter is motivated by concern for the
self, the partner, and/or the dyad (Margolin et al., 2001). Nevertheless,
positive coparenting behaviors, such as supporting the other parent’s disci-
plinary attempts, are related to higher marital satisfaction and more effec-
tive parenting. In contrast, negative coparenting behaviors, such as dispar-
agement and conflict, are associated with lower marital satisfaction and
marital discord (Christensen & Margolin, 1988; McHale, 1997). Belsky,
Crnic, and Gable (1995) found that greater differences between spouses
(e.g., in terms of demographic factors, personality, and so forth) were asso-
ciated with unsupportive coparenting, and that this association was stron-
gest in families with high levels of stress. As regards different types of
coparenting, supportive coparenting families tend to display high marital
satisfaction, whereas disconnected and distressed–conflicted coparenting
families express low marital satisfaction (McHale, 1997).
Coparenting is also related to marital conflict. Katz and Gottman (1996)
found that marital hostility was associated with hostile and competitive
coparenting, lower partner responsiveness and interaction, and greater fa-
ther withdrawal from children. Coparenting styles are also less democratic
after a conflictual marital discussion (Kitzmann, 2000). It has also been sug-
gested that positive coparenting strengthens individual parenting (e.g.,
Margolin et al., 2001). These findings suggest that marital conflict impairs a
couples’ abilities to be supportive coparents.
Coparenting is also associated with child adjustment, even after control-
ling for other factors such as parental well-being and marital quality (Mc-
Hale, Kuersten-Hogan, Lauretti, & Rasmussen, 2000; McHale & Rasmus-
sen, 1998), parent–child relationship quality (Belsky, Putnam, & Crnic,
1996), and marital conflict (Frosch, Mangelsdorf, & McHale, 2000). Unsup-
portive coparenting predicts child externalizing behavior, low inhibition,
and the severity of child behavior problems (Bearss & Eyberg, 1998; Belsky
et al., 1996; Floyd & Zmich, 1991; Schoppe, Mangelsdorf, & Frosch, 2001).
McHale and Rasmussen (1998) found that larger parenting discrepancies
are predictive of greater child anxiety, whereas more hostile-competitive
coparenting and lower harmony predicts higher child aggression. Co-
parenting is also related to negative peer behavior (McHale, Johnson, &
Sinclair, 1999) and children’s classroom adjustment, as it predicts atten-
tion, passivity/dependence, and grades, even after controlling for child

gender and parents’ rejection (Stright & Neitzel, 2003).
Gender Differences. Among maritally distressed families, the association

between marital quality and coparenting differs by child gender. Marital con-
flict has been associated with hostile–competitive coparenting in triadic in-
teractions with sons, whereas a link between marital distress and discrepant
levels of parental involvement is more characteristic of parent–daughter in-
teractions (McHale, 1995). These findings are consistent with research sug-
gesting that boys are at greater risk for exposure to interparental conflict and
childrearing disputes (e.g., Block, Block, & Morrison, 1981), whereas mari-
tally distressed fathers are more likely to withdraw from their daughters
(Amato, 1986). However, several other studies, including Margolin et al.
(2001) found that child gender did not affect the way that coparenting medi-
ated the link between marital conflict and parenting.
Nevertheless, parent gender may influence coparenting, as Katz and
Gottman (1996) found that the spillover from marital to parenting/co-
parenting processes differed for fathers and mothers. Marital hostility was
associated with greater father withdrawal from children in subsequent
triadic interactions. On the other hand, husbands’ withdrawal from marital
conflict was associated with fathers being more positively involved with chil-
dren in triadic interactions. However, husbands’ withdrawal from marital
conflict was associated with mothers being less positively involved with chil-
dren in subsequent triadic interactions. Thus, spousal behavior also plays a
role in gendered parenting.
Coparenting as a Mediator. Coparenting lies at the intersection of mari-

tal and parent–child relationships, and several studies suggest that co-
parenting is more proximally and strongly associated with parenting and
child adjustment than is the marital relationship (Abidin & Brunner, 1995;
Bearss & Eyberg, 1998; Feinberg, 2002; McHale & Rasmussen, 1998). This
lends support to the view that coparenting is the mechanism that explains
the link between marriage and parenting. Margolin et al. (2001) presented
evidence suggesting that coparenting mediates the relation between mari-
tal functioning and parenting. More specifically, they found that reports of
one’s spouse’s coparenting mediated the association between spouse re-
ports of marital conflict and one’s own parenting practices and stress. The
authors suggested that this occurs because “conflict in the marriage may
spill over and be reflected in the coparenting relationship, which, in turn,
affects the level of efficacy and the amount of stress experienced in the
parenting relationship” (p. 4). Margolin et al. (2001) further explained
that coparenting may represent a risk mechanism, whereas marital proc-
esses are actually risk indicators (Rutter, 1994). Floyd, Gilliom, and Costi-
gan (1998) also found that coparenting (parenting alliance) mediated the
effects of marital quality on parenting and did not find evidence of a recip-
rocal relation (i.e., parenting → marital quality).
Parenting behavior may have a particularly strong influence on child be-
havior when coparenting is unsupportive; parental rejection plays an espe-
cially important role in predicting attention, passivity/dependence, and
grades when supportive coparenting is low (Stright & Neitzel, 2003). Simi-
larly, unsupportive coparenting influences externalizing behavior when
family structure is less adaptive (Schoppe et al., 2001). This interaction also
extends to positive affect in the family—when positive affect is low, suppor-
tive coparenting protects against the development of externalizing prob-
lems, but when positive affect is high, supportive coparenting is not associ-
ated with such problems (Schoppe et al., 2001).
As research on coparenting as a mechanism continues, it will be neces-
sary to explore what aspects of marriage are related to coparenting, and
which aspects of coparenting are related to parenting. Nevertheless, it is im-
portant to recognize that coparenting is only one of several likely mecha-
nisms operating in the relation between marriage and parenting. Other
possibilities include parent’s own adjustment (Cowan & Cowan, 2002;
Seifer & Dickstein, 2000), individual personality differences (Belsky et al.,
1995), and/or disrupted sibling relationships (Deal, Hagan, Bass, Hether-
ington, & Clingempeel, 1999). The field will benefit from further explora-
tion of possible mechanisms in this relationship.
Causal Pathways in Relations Among Marriage, Coparenting, and Parenting.

The findings described earlier lend further support to a model in which
marital conflict affects parenting through changes in coparenting. One dif-
ficulty in interpreting such findings is that both coparenting and parenting
are, in part, a response to child behavior. As a consequence, they will always
covary more with each other than with factors (e.g., marital discord) that
may also potentially explain parenting but which are not necessarily direct
responses to child behavior. In light of such observations it is perhaps not
surprising to note that the relation between marriage and coparenting may
be a reciprocal one, in which coparenting styles can also influence marital
relations. But virtually no attempt has been made to examine possible bi-
directional causal relations.
Two relatively simple steps can be taken to increase confidence in causal
inference. First, a temporal dimension can be introduced into correlational
studies to determine whether marital conflict (a) precedes the onset of dele-
terious coparenting practices and (b) predicts later coparenting independ-
ently of earlier coparenting. The converse temporal relations can also be ex-
amined allowing investigation of bi-directional relations. Although data from
such longitudinal studies are still correlational, they do permit one to make
slightly stronger causal inferences. Second, intervention studies allow experi-
mental manipulation and thus stronger causal inference. We therefore high-
light the role of intervention research in the next section.
Intervention Research
Although longitudinal studies are informative, they cannot answer ques-

tions of causality. Instead, the most powerful way to address the question of
directionality in the relations among marriage, coparenting, parenting,
and child adjustment is to conduct intervention research.
Coparenting Interventions. A growing body of research suggests that mar-

ital quality influences coparenting and one study suggests that the converse
may also be true. Belsky and Hsieh (1998) found that unsupportive
coparenting predicted a later deterioration in marital quality. Should fu-
ture research show that coparenting mediates the relation between mar-
riage and parenting, interventions targeted at coparenting could be valu-
able.
Feinberg (2002) suggested that the coparenting relationship is a more
malleable intervention target than the marital relationship and has the po-
tential to bring about greater improvements in parenting processes. Posi-
tive coparenting appears to help buffer the deleterious effects of marital
distress and conflict on parenting (Feinberg, 2002; Margolin et al., 2001).
Such findings have led researchers to suggest that improving the quality of
coparenting will enhance parenting sensitivity, warmth, and consistency,
which will in turn lead to positive emotional consequences for children
(Feinberg, 2002). Thus, coparenting interventions may be a powerful way
to control the negative effects of marriage on parenting and determine the
nature of potential causal relations between the two variables.
Marital and Parenting Intervention Research. Intervention research can

also explore whether marital/parenting therapy benefits child adjustment
and/or whether family therapy improves marital relations and parenting.
Cowan and Cowan (2002) point out that, if a family-based intervention
“produces a positive change in parent–child or marital relationship quality,
and if change in these two central family relationships is associated with improve-
ment in the child’s adaptation, that would constitute strong support, though
not absolute proof, of the causal relevance of family relationship patterns to
the child outcomes under study” (pp. 733–734). These issues are important
in choosing the most effective course of treatment for child behavior prob-
lems, and can also inform preventive interventions. Cowan and Cowan
(2002) acknowledge that even with random assignment to intervention
condition, intervention studies establish associations between risk and out-

come, but do not address the issue of etiology.
There is very little existing research examining the interplay of marital
quality, parenting, and child adjustment in family interventions. However,
it has been demonstrated that parenting interventions are associated with
improved child adjustment (see Cowan & Cowan, 2002). Parent training is
also associated with improved marital satisfaction—but only for troubled
couples, not those who are satisfied (Brody & Forehand, 1985). As regards
the link between marital quality and child adjustment, Dadds, Schwartz,
and Sanders (1987) explored how marital discord affects treatment out-
come in behavioral treatment of child conduct disorders. They compared
child management (CMT) to a combination of CMT and partner support
training that focused on marital issues such as conflict and communication.
At follow-up, children whose parents received the treatment combination
performed significantly better than children whose parents received only
CMT, but again only for couples with marital discord.
Few marital interventions have looked beyond how the intervention af-
fects the marriage, to explore its affects on parenting, coparenting, and
child adjustment. Cowan, Cowan, Ablow, Johnson, and Measelle (in press)
recently conducted a study in which maritally focused couples groups and
parenting focused couples groups were compared to controls, and found
that the interventions affected the appropriate mediators (i.e., marital vs.
parenting quality), and that these mediators were associated with child ad-
justment one to two years later. However, couples in the parenting focused
groups showed improvements in parenting but not in marital interaction,
whereas couples in the maritally focused groups showed improvement in
both areas. This suggests a marriage → parenting → child adjustment path-
way, rather than vice versa. Consistent with such a model, Oltmanns, Brod-
erick, and O’Leary (1977) found that improvements in child behavior were
not associated with improvements in marital satisfaction, and Margolin and
Christensen (1981) showed that marital therapy improves both marital and
parent–child problems, but family therapy does not help marital problems.
These findings are consistent with Bronfenbrenner’s (1979) observations
about second order effects in that improving the marriage had a salutary
impact on parenting.
Cowan and Cowan (2002) make several suggestions for the future of in-
tervention research. They first highlight the importance of linking theories
of development and theories of intervention explicitly rather than implic-
itly. They also proposed that researchers test a wider variety of theories and
attempt to narrow the gap between correlational data and results of inter-
vention studies. Research will further benefit from including fathers in in-
tervention studies and focusing on moderators and mediators. Finally,
these authors suggested that we emphasize developmental outcomes rather
than just child adaptation. The bottom line is that the field of intervention
research on parenting and coparenting needs to move beyond asking if an
intervention works, to ask whom it works for and under what conditions,
and to focus on specific intervention targets (Cowan & Cowan, 2002).
In addition to an increased focus on intervention our understanding of
the relation among marital processes, parenting, and child development
will benefit from attention to recent advances in marital research, a topic
that we now briefly address.
Recent Developments in Marital Research
Recent calls have been made to reconsider the role of conflict in marriage
(e.g., Bradbury, Rogge & Lawrence, 2001; Fincham, 2003). These calls re-
flect, in part, recognition of the fact that couple conflict varies according to
contextual factors. For example, conflictual marital interactions occur
more frequently in couples’ homes on days of high general life stress (e.g.,
Repetti, 1989), and at times and places associated with multiple competing
demands (e.g., Halford, Gravestock, Lowe, & Scheldt, 1992). Similarly the
interior context of the marriage is important for understanding marital
conflict. For example, in the context of poor support communication, con-
flict produces the greatest risk of marital deterioration (Pasch & Bradbury,
1998; see also Carels & Baucom, 1999; Saitzyk, Floyd, & Kroll, 1997),
whereas in the context of high levels of affectional expression between
spouses, the inverse correlation between negative spouse behavior and mar-
ital satisfaction decreases significantly (Huston & Chorost, 1994).
As a result, greater attention is being paid to positive aspects of marriage,
a development further facilitated by the emergence of positive psychology
(Sheldon & King, 2001), with its emphasis on shifting attention from re-
pairing distressed marriages to building up happy, satisfying marriages
(Seligman, 2002). This shift is paralleled in the more general family litera-
ture. As noted by McHale, Kuersten, and Lauretti (1996), much of the cur-
rent research on family processes focuses on conflict, and we must look be-
yond that in order for the field to progress.
The implications are relatively straightforward. First, the ecological niche
of the couple—their life events, family constellation, socioeconomic stand-
ing, and stressful circumstances—can no longer be ignored. For example,
Conger, Rueter, and Elder (1999) found that economic pressure in a sample
of predominantly rural families at Time 1 predicted individual distress and
observed marital conflict at Time 2, which in turn predicted marital distress
at Time 3. Such findings have lead to the argument that it may be “at least as
important to examine the struggle that exists between the couple . . . and the
environment they inhabit as it is to examine the interpersonal struggles that
are the focus of our work” (Bradbury et al., 2001, p.76). To the extent that
work on marriage and parenting takes into account the broader ecological
niche of the couple it is likely to be more informative.
Second, it is important to recognize the processes that promote and main-
tain good marriages, and examine how they relate to parenting. Focusing on
positive marital processes and strengths will allow researchers to broaden
their conceptual frameworks and look at a range of emotions, not solely neg-
ative ones. It has become increasingly apparent that marital satisfaction and
marital conflict are not mutually exclusive, and that positive, satisfying mari-
tal processes reflect much more than the absence of negative processes
(Fincham, 1998; Reis & Gable, 2003). However, at the same time, we must
not conclude that marital conflict is wholly negative; there are no doubt con-
structive elements that might even be beneficial (e.g., in building resilience
in the couple, providing children with a model of conflict resolution). The
field will benefit from incorporating into research on parenting and mar-
riage these and other constructive variables such as positive affect (Dix,
1991), communication (McHale et al., 1996), marital intimacy (O’Brien &
Peyton, 2002), and spousal supportive behavior (Pasch & Bradbury, 1998).
CONCLUSIONS
In this chapter we map the terrain that stands at the interface of marital and
parenting research. Our initial brief review of the direct effects of marital
processes on child development serves as a springboard for an extended
discussion of how the marital relationship may be linked to child develop-
ment via parenting behavior. We consider several models of the association
between marital processes and parenting before examining specific ways in
which marital conflict might influence parent behavior. This, in turn, high-
lights the need to consider marital attributions, child gender and triadic in-
teractions to gain a more complete understanding of the marital relation-
ship–parenting association. In the penultimate section of the chapter, we
offer some signposts that might guide future exploration, focusing in par-
ticular on coparenting as a process that links marital processes to mother-
ing and fathering and, to a lesser extent, the implications of recent develop-
ments in marital research. Although our map is far from complete, we hope
it will provide a heuristic stepping stone for cartographers as they develop a
more detailed map of the ecology of parenting and its implications for un-
derstanding child development.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This chapter was written while the first author was supported by a
grant from the National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism
(R21AA013690).
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8
Parenting and Personal

Social Networks
Moncrieff Cochran
Cornell University
Susan K. Walker
University of Maryland, College Park
INTRODUCTION
In this chapter, we examine the effects of parents’ personal networks on

their parenting attitudes and behaviors. To limit ourselves to that single
connection—between personal networks and parenting—would, however,
run counter to the ecological perspective guiding this book, because per-
sonal networks are, in part, social lines of transmission, carrying the influ-
ences of the larger society into the life-space of the individual and family.
Thus, to a significant degree, a parent’s network reflects her or his position
in the social structure of a given society. For that reason, the impacts of that
network on parenting attitudes and behavior must be understood as the im-
pacts of that social structure, and his or her location in it.
In order to capture the ecology of parents’ networks, and so do justice to
ecological influences on parenting, we have organized this chapter around
a conceptual framework that includes articulation of the forces influencing
the development of parents’ networks as well as specification of those net-
work dimensions affecting parenting attitudes and behavior. Using this
framework we begin with a definition of the network of interest, and then
review studies that illustrate the effects of culture, structural position (class,
race, family structure), and neighborhood ecology on the network mem-
bership potential available to parents. Then, we examine ways that personal
initiatives by the parents themselves might also contribute to the form and
content of their networks. Next, there is consideration of evidence bearing
235
236 COCHRAN AND WALKER
on the processes by which network membership influences parenting, and

the parenting outcomes that are affected. This is followed by the presenta-
tion of evidence suggesting that the size and composition of parents’ net-
works can combine with other influences to affect the ways that children de-
velop, both directly and also indirectly as they affect parenting. Examples
from parenting programs are introduced to illustrate how personal social
network structural dimensions and interactions can affect parents’ partici-
pation and receptiveness to external supports, and impact the accomplish-
ment of program goals. Finally we discuss some of the policy implications
that flow from what has been learned about the societal factors affecting
network development, and the effects of those networks on parents and
children.
WHAT ARE PERSONAL SOCIAL NETWORKS?
Social networks are specific sets of linkages among defined sets of people
(Mitchell, 1969). The type of social network of particular interest to the
readers of this chapter is personal, that is, anchored to a specific person or
family. In this case our focus is on the personal networks of parents or chil-
dren, or the whole family. These networks consist of those relatives, neigh-
bors, co-workers, and other friends who are directly linked to a family mem-
ber, and who may be linked to one another as well.
Some years ago, in an article linking child development with personal so-
cial networks, Cochran and Brassard (1979) defined the network of interest
as consisting of “those people outside the household who engage in activi-
ties and exchanges of an affective and/or material nature with the mem-
bers of the immediate family” (p. 601). In that original formulation the
spouse and children were specifically excluded from the parent’s personal
network, and siblings from the child’s, so long as they lived together with
the parent or child anchoring the network. Bryant (1985), examining
sources of support in middle childhood, defined the network as including
the family members in the child’s household, explicitly rejecting this earlier
definition.
From a conceptual standpoint the important distinction here is between
the nuclear family and the personal network. Bott (1957), in her networks
study Family and Social Network, emphasized the distinction to show that the
definition of roles in a marital relationship is a function in part of the struc-
ture of the personal networks that each person brings to the new family. In
so doing she distinguished membership in the nuclear family from mem-
bership in the networks of husband and wife. Study of nuclear families has a
long tradition in sociology and anthropology, and the subdiscipline of fam-
ily sociology has become well established during the past half century. Fam-
8. PERSONAL SOCIAL NETWORKS 237
ily historians and others conceive of the family as an emotional entity rest-
ing on sentimental ties between husband and wife and parents and
children, and as a social unit with economic significance (Haraven, 1984).
Thus, the nuclear family is a concept that has meaning in the real world
and significance for the development of the individual, separate from the
impacts of other kin, associates and friends.1
There is empirical evidence that spousal and parent–child relations are
qualitatively different from those relationships maintained by parents or
children with people living outside the household. Brassard (1982) applied
the in versus outside the family distinction in the design of her own study of
mother–child interaction and personal social networks, by comparing
stress and support in one- and two-parent families and measuring the con-
tributions of the father separately from those of other kin and nonkin. She
found that the effects of a supportive father on mother–child relations were
quite different from the effects of a supportive network. Her research un-
derscores the value of making a distinction between members of the nu-
clear family and the rest of the personal network. Others have also identi-
fied the independent effect of a supportive partner on the parenting
behavior of the mother (Quinton & Rutter, 1985; Crockenberg, 1987). For
instance, Simons, Lorenz, Wu, and Conger (1993) used a sample of 451
two-parent families to examine a number of possible determinants of
parenting behavior, including economic pressure, parental depression
(mother and father), spouse support, and social network support. The
LISREL statistical model-building technique was used to examine how the
significant relations between economic pressure and supportive parenting
might be mediated by spouse support, network support, and depression.
Best fit models showed no significant association between spouse support
and network support and the two variables demonstrated differential rela-
tionships to parenting. Spouse support had a positive, direct influence on
parenting, and an indirect influence through depression. Network support
was only indirectly influential on parenting through mothers’ emotional
well-being. There was some evidence that spousal support was especially sa-
lient when social support was low, again suggesting that the two kinds of
support should be considered independent of one another.
SOCIAL NETWORKS AND SOCIAL SUPPORT
When defining the social networks concept it is also important to distinguish

it from social supports. Most of those using the social support concept refer
to the work of Cobb (1976), who defined such support as information that
1
1We recognize that the distinction between nuclear and extended families may not be valid
beyond societies in North America and Europe.

leads an individual to believe that he or she is cared for and loved, valued,
and a member of a network of mutual obligation. Crockenberg (1988) stated
that social support refers to the emotional, instrumental, or informational
help that other people provide to an individual. She went on to say that:
With respect to families, emotional support refers to expressions of empathy

and encouragement that convey to parents that they are understood and ca-
pable of working through difficulties in order to do a good job in that role. In-
strumental support refers to concrete help that reduces the number of tasks
or responsibilities a parent must perform, typically household and child care
tasks. Informational support refers to advice or information concerning child
care or parenting. (p. 141)
The personal social network has been defined earlier as a specific set of
linkages among a defined set of persons. The content of those linkages
ranges from information of various kinds (where to find work, how to rear
your child, which day care arrangement to choose) to emotional and mate-
rial assistance and access to role models (Cochran & Brassard, 1979; Mitch-
ell, 1969). Thus the social support concept focuses primarily on the types of
support provided (emotional, instrumental, informational) and the psy-
chological state of the receiving individual (cared for and loved, valued),
whereas with the personal network the emphasis is both on the characteris-
tics of the set of linkages (structure) and on a broader range of types of ex-
changes between the anchoring individual and members of the network
(content).
Researchers interested only in support have tended to map the networks
of their respondents with the use of probes that are oriented explicitly to
support, like “Please give me the names of all the people who provide you
with emotional support.” These particular defining characteristics lead to
identification of a partial network, excluding all of those people in a per-
son’s life who are not thought of primarily in terms of support. Such other
people are more likely to be included in response to an orienting question
like “Please give me the names of all the people who make a difference to
you in one way or another.” This more inclusive approach was the one
adopted in the Cornell studies described later in this chapter.
The emphasis by social support theorists and researchers on function
(what is provided) much more than on role (the socially proscribed parame-
ters of the relationship) helps to explain why they include partners as mem-
bers of the social support network along with friends and relatives living out-
side the household. Those interested in the broader social network concept
are as concerned with the limits imposed by society on personal relationships
as we are on the content of those relationships. For this reason we assign
spouses and partners living with the mother to the immediate family, and re-
serve network membership for those living outside the household.
Both the social network and the social support concepts are valuable.
The distinction can be maintained, in part, by acknowledging that network
relations are stressful as well as supportive, and that network members can
influence parenting in ways that extend well beyond those included in the
support concept.2 In her study of low-income mothers with young children
Belle (1982) was interested in the costs as well as the benefits of social ties,
and concluded that “one cannot receive support without also risking the
costs of rejection, betrayal, burdensome dependence, and vicarious pain”
(p. 143). Research has documented the negative consequences for develop-
ment in adolescence and early adulthood of network membership that is a
source of conflict as well as support (see for example, Crockenberg, 1987).
Based on their study of the support networks of 25 African-American ado-
lescent first-time mothers, Voight, Hans, and Bernstein (1996) concluded
that “when support is provided by someone who is also a source of stress,
the combination of support and conflict may be related to poor maternal
adjustment” (p. 70). Wellman (1981) wrote an entire chapter on the appli-
cation of network analysis to the study of support, in which he articulated
the various ways that the concept of social support can oversimplify the na-
ture of social networks:
Its focus on a simple “support/nonsupport” dichotomy de-emphasizes the

multi-faceted, often contradictory nature of social ties. Its assumption that
supportive ties form a separate system isolates them from a person’s overall
network of interpersonal ties. Its assumption that all of these supportive ties
are connected to each other in one integrated system goes against empirical
reality and creates the dubious expectation that solitary systems are invariably
more desirable. Its assumption that there are no conflicts of interest between
“supporters” invokes the false premise of a common good. (p. 173)
PERSONAL NETWORKS AND PARENTING: A MODEL
What forces and factors influence how personal networks develop? What
determines their size and shape, and how they change over time? What is
the role of the individual parent in the network-building process? How do
the resulting networks affect parenting attitudes and behaviors? A frame-
work for addressing these questions is provided in Fig. 8.1, as a summariz-
ing model. A detailed presentation of the model and empirical evidence on
which the framework is based are presented elsewhere (Cochran, Larner,
Riley, Gunnarsson, & Henderson, 1990). The model incorporates the
forces constraining or shaping network development, the factors stimulat-
2
2Perhaps
the most powerful articulation of network influences that are distinct from social
support can be found in Granovetter’s 1973 article “The strengths of weak ties.”
FIG. 8.1. Personal networks and parenting: a conceptual framework.
ing individual initiatives at network-building, the parent’s network itself,

and reference to the resultant parenting processes and outcomes.
It is very important to project the dynamic qualities of the processes driv-
ing this model. Most of the potential for network change comes from the
forces and factors shown on the right side of the figure; shifts in develop-
mental stage, level of knowledge and skill, and personal identity all affect
the amount and direction of social initiatives taken by the parent. Initiatives
themselves can take two forms: (a) the selection of network members from
the pool of individuals available to the parent, and (b) maintenance activi-
ties undertaken within the existing network.
A pool of eligibles distinguishes between the people actually available to
the parent for inclusion in the network and those included as members.
The pool of eligibles consists of those people to whom the parent has access
for potential inclusion in the network. Use of this concept permits defini-
tion of the constraints on the left side of the model as establishing the
boundaries for the size and content of the pool, and at the same time pro-
vides the individual parent with a role in building a network from that pool.
Selection of the term constraints to characterize the factors included on
the left side of the model draws upon the terminology of Fischer and other
sociologists doing network research (Fischer, 1982; Wellman, 1979). This
term connotes restraint on individual action. The emphasis here is on the
ways in which parents may be restrained by societal forces beyond their con-
trol from establishing social relations that are crucial to their development
as parents. At the same time, we also recognize that many of the constraints
by societies placed on individual behavior are constructive. Limits placed
on violence against children, for example, and on the right of parents to re-
linquish responsibility for financial support of their children are positive
constraints.
It is also important to note the use of the word initiatives, rather than
Fischer’s (1982) choices, to characterize the behavioral contribution of the
individual parent to the construction of his or her network. Initiatives
rather than choices is preferred because the word conveys action without
necessarily assuming that alternatives exist. That is, a parent can initiate the
act of including or excluding a person available in the “pool of eligibles”
without necessarily choosing among alternatives available in the pool.
Evidence presented later in this chapter indicates that a substantial num-
ber of parents experience severe constraints on free choice because of the
structural forces arraying on the left hand side of the figure. Fischer (1982)
wrote early in To Dwell Among Friends that, “In general, we each construct our
own networks” (p. 4). The evidence presented in this chapter, taken as a
whole, indicates: (a) that it is inappropriate to generalize across ecological
niches, and (b) that the networks of poor and undereducated parents—who
make up 20% to 25% of all parents in the United States—are largely con-
structed for them by their life circumstances. The model in Fig. 8.1 conveys
the power struggle between cultural and social structural forces on the one
hand and the individual on the other for control over the content of the per-
sonal social network. For any given adult the tilt in the power balance is de-
termined by that person’s location in the social structure of the society to
which he or she belongs. Recent studies indicate, for instance, that in the
United States an unemployed, poor, African-American, single mother has far
less control over who is included in her personal network than does a Euro-
pean-American, married, middle-income mother working outside the home
(Cochran et al., 1990). Wilson and Tolson (1990), in a review of the struc-
tural, functional, and interactional aspects of African-American familial net-
works, attribute the depletion of network resources ( jobs, father presence,
stable family membership) to social and economic opportunities. They cited
generational poverty, ongoing racial discrimination, and differences in the
economic status of African-American and European-American families as
some primary contributors to network vulnerability.
Stability and Change Over Time
During the past decade there has been an expansion of knowledge related
to stability and change in the social networks of parents over time. The in-
augural longitudinal study of parents’ networks, reported by Larner
(1990), showed that the networks of parents with young children show sta-
bility in structural characteristics such as overall size and kin/nonkin distri-
bution, but that considerable change can occur at the level of the individ-
ual network member, as one friend is replaced by another, for instance.
Manetti and Schneider (1996) have since replicated those findings with an
Italian sample of parents with 4- and 5-year-olds, examining social networks
with children’s school transition over two years. Bost, Cox, Burchinal, and
Payne (2002) focused on parents’ networks during the transition to parent-
hood, gathering networks and support data during the prenatal period and
over three time points until the firstborn’s second birthday. They also
found considerable stability in network size and amount of support during
that transition, yet noted important dynamic changes across networks dur-
ing this period.
PERSONAL NETWORKS AND LARGER SOCIAL

SYSTEMS
Toward the end of his chapter Wellman (1981) reminded the reader that
personal networks operate within and must be influenced by the attributes
of larger social systems. He referred in that regard to the social and spatial
division of labor, the ways that bureaucracies are organized, and the social
classes to which respondents belong. These more macro-level constraints
were included on the left side of the model shown in Fig. 8.1. They repre-
sent aspects of the social ecology surrounding families and children that
shape their social and economic opportunities. In Fig. 8.2 they are shown in
greater detail. We discuss only certain of these constraint factors, given the
limited space available in a single chapter and our desire to illustrate other
aspects of the overall model.
Social Class
Family income, the educational level of parents, and the status and com-
plexity of the occupations parents engage in are thought of by sociologists
as contributing to determination of the social class in which a family is lo-
cated. The first sociologist to provide empirical evidence for the relations
between dimensions of social class and network ties was Fischer (1982), in
his book To Dwell Among Friends: Personal Networks in Town and City. Fischer’s
team interviewed slightly more than 1,000 people in a 20 county area
around San Francisco about their personal social networks. These people
were all English-speaking, at least 18 years old, and permanent residents.
Some were parents, others were not. They reflected rather well the diversity
in educational, occupational, economic, gender and life-cycle characteris-
FIG. 8.2. Personal networks and larger social systems.
tics of that part of California. It is these variations that are of particular im-
portance to us, because Fischer was able to consider the extent to which var-
ious aspects of the personal networks described by the people in his study
were associated with such social structural factors. Of these factors, Fischer
found that educational level had the most consistent effect upon the per-
sonal networks. He stated:
Other things being equal, the more educational credentials respondents had,
the more socially active they were, the larger their networks, the more com-
panionship they reported, the more intimate their relations, and the wider
the geographic range of their ties. In general, education by itself meant
broader, deeper, and richer networks. (p. 252)
Fischer also found that household income made a sizeable difference in the
networks reported, even with education held constant. People with more
income included more nonkin in their networks, and were more likely to
report adequate amounts of companionship and practical support than
were the poor. In considering the meaning of these relations between so-
cioeconomic factors and network ties Fischer offered three, not necessarily
contradictory, possibilities. Perhaps, he suggested, certain kinds of person-
alities result in both higher socioeconomic status and greater sociability.
Another explanation, and the one he seemed to prefer, emphasized the so-
cial skills and concrete resources that come with more education and in-
come, and the ways that these skills and resources can be used to build and
maintain network ties. The third explanation, which he thought of as oper-
ating “in a straightforward structural manner” (p. 252), is one in which
schooling is viewed as providing the direct opportunity to meet and make
friends with people of like mind.
Fischer’s work also provided insight into the impacts of life cycle stage
and gender on personal networks. Married people named more relatives
and neighbors than did those who were unmarried, whereas single people
were more involved with nonkin. Children restricted the social involvement
of their parents, and especially of their mothers. “Women with children at
home had fewer friends and associates, engaged in fewer social activities,
had less reliable social support, and had more localized networks than did
otherwise similar women without children” (p. 253). From the gender per-
spective, women tended to be more involved with kinfolk and to report
more intimate ties than did men.
Culture, Class and Race
Some years ago Gunnarsson and the first author participated with Welsh and
West German colleagues in a coordinated set of studies of mothers’ social
networks, which extended Fischer’s general approach to a comparison of
networks across cultures (Sweden, the United States, Wales, West Germany),
social class (blue collar vs. white collar), and family structure (one vs. two par-
ent families; Cochran & Gunnarsson, 1990). The mothers in all four coun-
tries were Caucasian, and each had a 3-year-old child when first interviewed.
Concentrating first on mothers in two-parent families, the researchers found
in all four countries that mothers in white-collar families reported larger net-
works than did women in blue-collar households. Interestingly, the magni-
tude of the difference proved to be about the same in every country except
the United States, where the differences by occupational status were larger.
Network size however, differed by culture. Networks of mothers in the
United States and in Sweden were larger than those of mothers in West Ger-
many and in Wales. Looking beyond simply network size for the functions
performed by network members, again differences by class were readily ap-
parent. Mothers in the white-collar families reported involvement with a
higher number of network members in every category of social support. This
difference was most visible for social and recreational activities. The data sug-
gested, as a hypothesis, that mothers in white-collar families had more leisure
time at their disposal (especially in Sweden and the United States), and spent
some of that extra time in social and recreational activities with network
members. Across cultures, network support differed as well. Mothers in the
United States and in Sweden identified greatly higher percentages of net-
work members whom they could call on for all types of social support, com-
pared with the mothers in Germany and Wales.
Within the United States, MacPhee and colleagues (MacPhee, Fritz, &
Miller-Heyl, 1996) compared the social networks of Latin-American, Na-
tive-American and European-American parents. Their sample included 500
low-income parents of 2 to 5 year old children (74% mothers) living in ur-
ban and rural areas in a western state. The three ethnic groups were equally
likely to identify a domestic partner, children and parents in their social
networks. Though overall network size was similar across ethnic groups
(each mentioning approximately 15 persons), Native Americans had signif-
icantly more extended kin and siblings in their networks than did Euro-
pean Americans. More friends were found in the European-American re-
ports of network membership. Even with socioeconomic status held
constant, ethnic differences appeared in network density and contact.
The authors characterized Native-American caregivers as having a close
knit social system, one with which they felt satisfaction with support and fre-
quency of contact. The authors suggested that closeness of the Native-
American network may be a cultural phenomenon, but may also be due to
reservation dynamics and a response to local prejudice. Latin-American
parents also had large, close-knit networks yet relied on smaller numbers of
immediate and extended kin for emotional support. Offers of babysitting as
practical assistance were more prevalent within the larger network. A site
difference was noted within this ethnic group. Urban Latin Americans had
smaller, more cohesive networks with more expression of emotional sup-
port. MacPhee and his colleagues observed that urban areas afford more
opportunities for interaction and the formation of subcultures. The Latin
American families in this particular geographic area also showed relatively
little migration, suggesting residential stability as a potential factor in cohe-
sive networking. European-American parents, on the other hand, had more
diffuse networks in terms of contact and connectedness, yet reported more
offers of emotional support within the network. The authors suggested that
this may be due to geographic mobility or a preference to turn to a wider
range of different individuals for support and assistance.
Roschelle (1997), using data from the National Survey of Families and
Households (NSFH) looked at the structure and function of social support
across culture, gender, and class. In particular, Roschelle was interested in
determining if culture and/or economic need dominate in determining
participation in support networks and whether such differences are the re-
sult of cultural or gendered attitudes, economic resources, or a combina-
tion of these structural factors. Limitations of the data set precluded an
analysis of network size. Rather, Roschelle was able to examine the proxim-
ity of network members (specifically at least one parent, siblings, and adult
children) by distance from the respondent, the presence of extended fam-
ily living in the home, and the exchange of support functions (child care,
monetary resources, and household assistance received from and given to
network members). The sample included 13,017 individuals 19 and older,
living in a household, and was divided by race/ethnicity to include Euro-
pean Americans, African Americans, Chicanos, and Puerto Ricans.
The examination of household help revealed that European Americans
were significantly more likely to be involved with their social networks in of-
fers of help than were the other three race/ethnic subgroups. Yet, examina-
tion of the receipt of assistance did not find this group’s participation with
their networks greater than the others. In fact, no predictable pattern
emerged across the race/ethnic groups on the type of support or source
within the network with whom support was exchanged. However, within
gender lines, offers of child care (for women) and household assistance
(for men) cut across all race/ethnic categories.
Looking at offers of child care to women by their families and extended
networks and by women to their networks, Roschelle found unexpected
race or ethnic differences across the four groups. In fact, she found that Eu-
ropean-American women, especially as compared with African American
mothers, were more likely than women in other groups to offer and receive
child care help. Economic circumstances, the proximity of extended family
members, and migration status played a part in the dynamics. As women’s
economic situations improved, so did their offers of child care to and from
family members. It was also determined that the closer a respondent lived
to family members, the greater the amount of child-care exchange. That
non U.S.-born Puerto Rican mothers exchanged less child care with family
members was believed to reflect the back and forth migration patterns of
immigrant parents. Roschelle observed that the lack of participation in so-
cial network exchanges of child care may not indicate that cultural norms
toward familism are irrelevant, rather that limited resources may prevent
poor women from these exchanges.
When she shifted her attention to the household help men contribute to
other family members, as well as the help they receive from family and ex-
tended family, Roschelle again found an impact based on economic condi-
tions. African American, Chicano, and Puerto Rican men were not more
likely than non-Latin American men to offer or receive household assistance.
Puerto Rican men’s assistance was similarly affected by their migration status.
The relation between exchanges of household assistance and Puerto Rican
ethnicity disappeared when migration status was controlled for. Roschelle
considered her results a replication of those of the first author and his col-
leagues (p. 177) and suggested that more impoverished families do not have
the time and resources necessary to become involved in offering or receiving
support from others in their family and extended family networks. She
suggested that the finding of limited availability of kin networks with declin-
ing economic conditions dispels a common belief that in tough times, and in
the face of fewer public services, families can turn to each other.
Limited resources also affect mothers’ satisfaction with support. If, as
Roschelle asserted, network participation is based on exchange reciprocity,
it would make sense that satisfaction with support from the network would
be tied to socioeconomic status and the ability to return assistance and sup-
port. Miller-Loncar and colleagues (Miller-Loncar, Erwin, Landry, Smith, &
Swank, 1998) examined the social network differences among low-income
African-American, Latin-American and European-American mothers and
determined that across all ethnic groups, mothers higher in socioeconomic
status were more likely to be satisfied with help from family and friends
than were those of lower SES.
Immigration status among non-U.S. parents also can affect the structure
and function of their network relations. In Roschelle’s analyses she found a
clear relation between migration status and participation of social networks
among Latin American mothers. Chicano and Puerto Rican respondents
born in the United States were far more active participants with their net-
works than were those not born in the United States. This was due to proxim-
ity; second and third generation mothers had more access to family mem-
bers. First generation mothers had to rely on visits to or from family members
who were in their native countries, and thus offered less support overall and
less offers of instrumental support specifically. Yet even this phenomenon
may be tied to economic status and motivation. Some racial–ethnic groups
may choose to live near family as a way to maintain cultural and familial ties.
Others may choose to move away from kin and nonkin, including migration
to another country as a means to seek greater access to economic resources.
Roschelle also noted that for Puerto Ricans circular migration patterns may
lead to the perception among network members of their unavailability to
participate in network exchanges and fulfill obligations. Therefore, migra-
tion among Puerto Ricans in the United States may discourage connections
to kin and nonkin in both countries.
Societies, and classes within societies, differ in terms of the roles women
are permitted or encouraged to adopt (mother vs. worker, for instance),
and the extent to which they can develop identities beyond those roles.
From a developmental perspective, one can distinguish between develop-
ment as a parent (parent role) and development as a person (personal
identity). Network members can be thought of as contributing more or less
to one or another of these developmental trajectories. It is reasonable to
suggest, for instance, that kinfolk contribute heavily to definition and rein-
forcement of the parental role, whereas other friends are more likely to
contribute to “development of self as person” or personal identity.
Our general understanding of class differences indicates that blue-collar
expectations are somewhat more conservative than those of white-collar
workers regarding the roles of men and women. This pattern was reflected
in the network data presented by Cochran and colleagues, and Roschelle.
Cutting across cultures was the picture of lower-SES networks as somewhat
smaller, more kin-dominated, less geographically dispersed and more
child-related and practical in content than their higher income, more
highly educated counterparts. The overall impression from the Cornell net-
works study is that cultural expectations regarding the woman’s place over-
ride those of class; that is, the network differences were greater between
pairs of countries than among occupational levels within country. Adding
to this, Roschelle suggested that stereotypical behaviors about gender roles
extend beyond culture, race and socioeconomic status. In her analysis of
the NSFH data, she determined that men and women, across race and eth-
nic groups, taught their like-gendered offspring skills that maintain tradi-
tional male (occupational) and female (nurturing) skills.
Cross (1990) examined the personal networks of African-American sin-
gle and married mothers, and compared the size and functioning of those
networks with the social ties reported by White ethnic and nonethnic moth-
ers from similar socioeconomic circumstances living in the same city. His
study included a dimension of cross race membership in networks of the
mothers, testing the likelihood that at least one opposite race contact
would appear at the functional level of the network. The results of this anal-
ysis showed that 21% of the African American mothers and 16% of the
White parents in one-parent families had at least one opposite race friend.
This modest disparity by race increased as family structure changed and so-
cioeconomic level became higher; within the two-parent sample 41% of the
African American women but only 11% of the European Americans re-
ported friends of the opposite race.
Cross postulated a relation between the relative lack of African-Ameri-
can people in the networks of European-American mothers and the smaller
number of other friends reported by the African-American women. On the
one hand, he suggested that the exclusion of African Americans as poten-
tial friends would not have much of an effect on the overall size of Euro-
pean-American networks (reduce the pool of eligibles very much), since
the large numbers of European Americans in all sectors of everyday life pro-
vide numerous opportunities to meet and incorporate new European-
American nonkin contacts. On the other hand, he pointed out that this is
not the case for African-American people living in the same community. In
the northeastern city where this study was conducted only about 12% of the
population was African American. So the pool of potential same-race net-
work members was much smaller for African American than for European-
American mothers, meaning that any cross-race avoidance that might have
occurred would have placed the African American women at a relative dis-
advantage.
The evidence that Cross assembled strongly suggests that in the United
States race continues to be a social divide. He questions what the conse-
quences of such segregation might be for the development of children in
these families, and points for evidence to studies of group identity showing
that African-American children develop a much more bi-racial orientation
than European-American children, and so are better equipped to function
in a truly multi-racial society.
In this section of the chapter we present evidence that structural factors
operating at the levels of culture, class, race, ethnicity, and family structure
constrain the network-building opportunities of some parents more than of
others. That is, the pool of network eligibles available to some parents is
smaller than that available to others. African-American parents, parents with
relatively little education, first generation immigrants, and parents living in
cultures shaped by beliefs that lead to narrow definitions of the woman’s role
all have a smaller pool of potential network membership available to them
than do their more socioeconomically and socially advantaged counterparts.
Constraints accumulate for single parents, who often have less access to rela-
tives, to further education, to jobs paying a decent salary, and to housing in
neighborhoods that are supportive of neighboring activities.
One-Parent Families
In the Cornell networks study, interest in a cross-cultural examination of

solo parenting and network relations led to the oversampling of single par-
ent families by the Swedish and U.S. teams (Gunnarsson & Cochran, 1990).
Forty-three Swedish mothers and 48 of the U.S. mothers were Caucasian
single parents. Comparisons of these mothers’ networks with those of
mothers in two-parent families showed that they were smaller, regardless of
culture or class. There was also a remarkably large difference in the Ameri-
can sample between the average number of network members reported by
white- and blue-collar single mothers (18 vs. 12). As mentioned earlier, this
difference was found also in the U.S. two-parent sample. Differentiation by
social class was not nearly as evident in the Swedish sample; in fact, there
the tendency was for white-collar, single mothers to have somewhat smaller
networks than their blue-collar counterparts.
One major factor accounting for the difference in total size of the net-
works was a smaller number of relatives in the networks of single mothers.
In the U.S. sample there was an average difference of more than four rela-
tives between mothers in two-parent families and single mothers, regardless
of social class. In Sweden, where the networks of mothers in two-parent
families were themselves smaller and less kin-centered than in the United
States, there was still an average of two more relatives in the networks of the
coupled women than in those of the single mothers.
In the other friends sector, single mothers in white-collar families in-

cluded more membership than mothers in blue-collar families, both in
Sweden and in the United States. The marked differences between the sizes
of the total network reported by the U.S. white- and blue-collar single moth-
ers was largely explained by this greater number of other friends. The aver-
age of eight nonkin friends in the networks of American white-collar single
mothers outranked all the other subgroups of women by a substantial mar-
gin, and was nearly twice as large as in the case of U.S. blue-collar single
mothers.
It is important to understand that other friends are acquired rather than
ascribed network members. Such acquisition requires access to people, in-
terest and motivation to build and maintain such relationships, and the so-
cial and material resources with which to initiate and sustain the process.
The white-collar single mothers in the U.S. sample were working outside
the home to a much larger degree than were the blue-collar single mothers,
and so had access to workmates. White-collar jobs are likely to provide more
opportunities for socializing than is the case with jobs in the blue-collar sec-
tor. Training for such jobs usually involves educational situations where op-
portunities to meet people are present and social interaction and develop-
ment of social skills encouraged. Finally, financial and material resources
are likely to be more available to the white-collar single mothers in the sam-
ple; their jobs pay better.
It is interesting to note that in Sweden more than 70% of the neighbors in-
cluded in the networks of single mothers were themselves mothers with
young children, whereas in the United States the corresponding figures were
only 48 to 59%. This cultural difference was especially extreme for blue-
collar single parents (86% vs. 48%). The difference may stem from the fact
that in the United States such families are often forced by financial disadvan-
tage to live in high-crime areas with substandard housing, where parents are
suspicious of their neighbors and are afraid to allow their children to play
outside, whereas in Sweden income redistribution has made it possible to en-
sure that all families can live in safe, relatively child-friendly neighborhoods.
Swedish women in two-parent families lived further from their network
ties than did mothers in any of the other three countries. This cultural dif-
ference was reinforced and extended by the data from Swedish single
mothers, whose networks were still more dispersed geographically. Only
about half the membership in the networks of the Swedish single mothers
lived within 10 miles, compared with more than three quarters of American
membership. In fact, in the United States single mothers lived in closer
proximity to network members than did their two-parent counterpart,
whereas in Sweden the reverse was true.
What prompts a mother, and especially a single mother, to live closer to
or further from her relatives or friends? One reason might be economic ne-
cessity. Some single mothers in the U.S. sample were actually living with
their parents, because they could not afford to live elsewhere. Beyond hous-
ing there are other ways of relieving stress that require rather close proxim-
ity: child care, housework, transportation, and babysitting. Knowing of the
greater need by single parents for these services, it was not surprising to
find in the U.S. data that they were living closer to their network contacts
than were mothers living with their spouses. Therefore, it was puzzling to
find the opposite pattern in the Swedish data. One hypothesis is that the
sharp difference in proximity patterns is due to the much larger set of for-
mal supports available to such mothers in Sweden—parental leave, housing
allowance, child allowance, subsidized child care arrangements—supports
that may well reduce the need to live together with or right next to relatives
or friends.
Roschelle (1997) made an interesting observation about the exchanges
of social support involving different types of single mothers in the NSFH
data set. With single, never-married mothers she found fewer exchanges of
child care than in two-parent families. Single mothers were far less likely to
offer child care services to family members, suggesting that the presence of
a spouse enabled married women to offer care for others. This may also
have been due to co-residence of single mothers with other single mothers,
keeping the exchange of child care help within the household. Yet, when
the one parent family was headed by a woman who was divorced, separated
or widowed, exchanges of child care between the parent and her non-
family social network were more frequent than in two-parent families. The
social network membership of these women featured more relationships
with friends and neighbors. Roschelle hypothesized that divorced, sepa-
rated or widowed women with young children may bond in a friendship
network, or an intimate community of shared experiences. This may not be
as common or available to single, never-married mothers.
THE NETWORK-BUILDING PROCESS
The underlying thesis of the previous section was that cultures are structured
in ways that may limit the range of social relations available to some, and per-
haps many, of their members. Equally important to acknowledge is the role
played by the individual in challenging those limits. One key feature of the
ecological orientation is its recognition that influence is bi-directional. Not
only are individuals and families shaped by the larger forces within which
they are embedded, but they also play active, initiating roles in altering those
larger systems to fit their needs. In his preface to Network Analysis: Studies in
Human Interaction (Boissevain & Mitchell, 1973), Boissevain refers to “the
concept of man as an interacting social being capable of manipulating others
as well as being manipulated by them” (p. viii). This concept of the human
organism as a proactive participant in construction of the social environment

implies a need to know how humans, and in this case parents, develop net-
work-building skills, and whether different social, ethnic, and cultural group-
ings are more or less likely to promote such behavior by their members.
Cochran and Brassard devoted a section of their 1979 article to development
in the child of such skills, and identified reciprocal exchange as the key cog-
nitive process underlying network-building developed during childhood.
They also acknowledged the part that individual temperament and personal-
ity characteristics might play in affecting the propensity to initiate relation-
ships, and pointed to the importance of studying children across develop-
mental time for an understanding of network-building processes. The first
author and colleagues (Cochran et al., 1990) carried this thinking further in
relation to parents, as summarized below in Fig. 8.3. There the reader sees
nine factors proposed as contributors to the propensity of the parent to en-
gage actively in network building; that is, to recruit network membership
from the pool of potentials provided by the society of which she is a part.
Much of this model is speculation, pure and simple, because the studies
needed to examine these factors systematically have yet to be carried out.
Again, space does not permit discussion of every possible element in the
model, so we limit ourselves to some key illustrations.
FIG. 8.3. The network-building process.

Personal Identity
McLanahan and her colleagues were the first researchers to link personal
identity with personal social networks (McLanahan, Wedemeyer, & Adel-
berg, 1981). Working with data gathered through in-depth interviews with 45
divorced mothers, they distinguished women who wished to maintain their
existing identity after the divorce from those trying to create a different and
less traditional identity for themselves. These researchers suggested that a
close-knit network may be especially supportive to those interested in retain-
ing their pre-divorce identity, and a loose-knit network can be helpful to
those seeking change. In practice, involvement in a close-knit network typi-
cally meant that the mother had frequent contact with her own mother and
other female relatives, who usually lived nearby. Women wishing to transition
from one role orientation to another—for instance, from homemaker to
working outside the home—seemed to be better served by more extended
networks, which included significant numbers of nonkin, female friends.
The study by McLanahan and colleagues alerted us to the fact that differ-
ent kinds of network resources are useful to women with differing defini-
tions of their own roles, and different future orientations. The differing
identities of the women studied translated into greater or lesser expecta-
tions for change. Where role transition was sought, some kinds of social re-
sources were more helpful than others. Implied by the findings, but not
studied directly, is the notion that when the needed resources are not pres-
ent in the network, women desiring change will seek them elsewhere, and
attempt to recruit them into their networks.
This reference to networks fitting with psychosocial needs serves as a re-
minder that the relations between personal identity and the network are dy-
namic. Alcalay (1983) summarized the differing functions of high and low
density networks under different conditions in this way:
Social networks can be both a source of direct help and a source of linkage to
other resources. In crises a small, dense network with strong ties may be most
valuable. At times of psychosocial transition, a low density network with weak
ties . . . may be most useful. Under these circumstances social support net-
works provide a much needed sense of identity, a feeling of belonging, of be-
ing wanted and worthwhile. (p. 73)
Networks contribute to a sense of identity, just as changes in identity may

contribute to modifications in network composition and function.
Stage of Development
There is growing evidence that both biological changes in the organism

and changes in the expectations of significant others compel the develop-
ing person to periodically reassess the resource potential represented by
members of the existing network. For instance, adult relatives seem to be

especially salient for young children. In an American study of the networks
and school performance of first graders Cochran and Riley (1990) found
that the number of adult kinfolk (other than parents) engaging in task-
oriented interactions with these six-year-olds was a strong predictor of how
well they were performing in school.
Bryant (1985) focused on middle childhood, with a particular interest in
possible relations between sources of social support and socioemotional
functioning during middle childhood. She found that there was a positive
relation between the support variables and socioemotional functioning for
10-year-olds but not for 7-year-olds. Bryant suggested, among several possi-
ble explanations, that a certain amount of parental distancing in middle
childhood may nudge the 10-year-olds from the parental nest, thereby giv-
ing other supports more salience. Thus it may not be that the amount of
network resources change from one developmental stage to the next, but
that many of the same resources have different meaning, and are used dif-
ferently, because the press for social relations is different at the succeeding
stage.
In adolescence, nonkin come to the fore; analysis of Norwegian data in-
dicated that it was the number of nonkin adults in the networks reported by
16-year-old boys that predicted their school performance (Cochran & Bø,
1989). Again, a reasonable explanation for the shift in importance from kin
to nonkin adults involves developmental press. The extended family pro-
vides a secure base from which to develop new relations in the neighbor-
hood and school, and at the same time permitting the younger child to ex-
perience the behavior and expectations of adults different enough from
the parents to require development of some new social skills and expansion
of cognitive frames. In adolescence, when the transition into adulthood
and work roles looms large, nonkin adults provide models for the future,
challenge the teenager to accept increased responsibility for self, signifi-
cant others and the community, and provide information about where to
obtain services, training, and paid work. Finally, for the young adults (par-
ents) in the Cornell networks study both kin and nonkin were important,
but for different purposes in different roles (Cochran et al., 1990). Kinfolk
had particular salience for perceptions and activities of these adults in their
childrearing roles, whereas nonrelatives were especially relevant to the
work role, and for personal self-regard.
Discrete Life Events
It is important to distinguish developmental press from those presses

caused by life events. Significant, time-limited life events like birth or death
of a family member, marriage or divorce, or job acquisition, change, or loss,
create social presses for the individual that are different from the demands
stemming from developmental change. The causes of these events may be
independent of the individual. However, they are not necessarily direct ex-
tensions of the environmental constraints discussed earlier (see Fig. 8.2).
The interest here is in how such occurrences might stimulate networking
initiatives by the individual.
The transition to parenthood is a major life event for adults, with high
potential for change in both network composition and function. Bost et
al. (2002) examined patterns of change in couples’ social networks in the
months during their first child’s birth through 24 months postpartum.
One hundred and thirty-seven primarily European-American, working-
class couples from rural prenatal clinics in North Carolina participated in
the study. Network dimensions of size, composition and frequency of con-
tact, satisfaction with support, depression and adjustment scores for hus-
bands and wives were examined separately prenatally and three times
postpartum (3 months, 12 months and 24 months). All social network and
support dimensions remained relatively stable over the two years for both
parents, with network size the most consistent variable. At various points
across the years, some flux in network dimensions was observed. For ex-
ample, although family network size decreased after the birth of the chil-
dren, the frequency of contact with family members increased. Yet, as the
authors observed, amidst great change, and over time, social network
characteristics can remain stable.
Depression and adjustment scores were also found to be stable across
time for husbands and wives. Variability in these indicators of well-being re-
lated to mothers’ and fathers’ interactions with and the size of their social
networks. Increased network size was related to parental adjustment, yet
more frequent contact was associated with decreased adjustment. The au-
thors suggested that less adjusted parents may feel the need for more con-
tact with family members with the onset of parenting. Depression was nega-
tively linked to perceived reciprocity and satisfaction with network support,
particularly from friends, and the importance of this relationship increased
over time. Bost and her colleagues concluded that social relationships and
the support they offer remain critical aids to adjustment and well-being
during the transition to parenthood. They recommended however, that the
dynamic nature of social structures and support should be examined more
closely to determine their roles in familial adaptation over time.
The research by McLanahan and her associates and by Roschelle dis-
cussed earlier underscore the importance of the divorcing woman’s per-
sonal identity in determining the utility of existing network ties. Thus it is
plausible to suggest, pending better evidence, that separation or divorce
acts as a stimulus to network reorganization primarily in combination with
an interest in establishing a new identity and use of resources.
In the Cornell networks study a family support program provided home

visitors, neighborhood parenting support groups, or a combination of
these two types of support to 160 of the 225 families that participated in the
American portion of the overall longitudinal study. Thus involvement in
the support program over a three year period could be viewed as a discrete
event in the lives of those families. Participation in this program stimulated
network-building activity on a conditional basis, with the conditions in this
case involving race and family structure. European-American single parents
in the program added a significant number of nonkin to their networks
over a three year period, when compared with a no program comparison
group, whereas with African-American single parents the additions were
both kin and nonkin. Married women showed no increases in the size of
their networks as a function of the program, but assigned greater impor-
tance at follow-up than at baseline to people already in their networks.
Personality Characteristics
Researchers believe that personality traits like responsiveness, persistence,

and introversion are temperamental, biologically wired into a child at birth,
and affecting that person throughout life (Thomas & Chess, 1977; Chess &
Thomas, 1984; Hinde, Stevenson-Hinde, & Tamplin, 1985). Whether or
not this is the case, it is reasonable to propose that shy or introverted par-
ents may be less likely to take advantage of social opportunities than are
parents who are gregarious or extroverted.
Other characteristics of a parent’s personality develop through experi-
ences during childhood and adolescence. The body of research in this do-
main focuses not on why some parents and not others engage in network
building, but instead on why some parents are much more socially isolated
than others. This interest stems from evidence linking this social isolation
with child abuse and neglect. Crockenberg (1988), in summarizing these
findings, introduced the possibility that “characteristics of the mothers ac-
count both for their low support and their abusive parenting” (p. 160).
Polansky, Gaudin, Ammons, and Davis (1985) carried out a comparison of
neglectful with nonneglectful mothers that supports this hypothesis. These
researchers used a comparison group that was similar to the neglectful fam-
ilies not only in socioeconomic and family characteristics, but also regard-
ing the geographic accessibility of relatives and proximity to where they
grew up. One innovative feature of the study involved interviewing a neigh-
bor of every neglectful and control family to determine perceptions of the
friendliness and helpfulness of people in the neighborhood, whether there
were people one could call on for help, and whether there were people
who needed help in raising their children. Polansky and colleagues found
first, that neglectful mothers described their neighborhoods as less sup-

portive and friendly than did parents in the control group or neighbors of
the parents in either group. Thus they described a different psychological
reality, although there was no evidence from the neighbors of differences
in the objective support potential (the size of what is referred to in Figs.
8.1–8.3 as the pool of potential network members). Second, there was evi-
dence that neglectful parents were less helpful than control parents to oth-
ers in the neighborhood, based both on their own reports and the reports
of their neighbors. The researchers concluded from their data that “inade-
quacies of ability, and perhaps motivation, cut them off from helping net-
works dependent on mutuality. Related inadequacies lead to their being
stigmatized and held at a distance socially” (p. 274).
Crittenden (1981, 1985a) conducted research that provides greater un-
derstanding of what the inadequacies referred to by Polansky et al., might
consist of, and some indication of their origins. She drew on the work of at-
tachment theorists to propose that adults have internalized working models
of social relationships that are developed from experiences in early child-
hood, and then modified over time based on the social relations experi-
enced during later childhood and adolescence. Crittenden documented
that maltreating mothers have deviant patterns of interaction with their
children, and inferred that these patterns result from working models of
what a social relationship can and should be that are very different from
those of mothers not maltreating their children. She showed that these de-
viant interaction patterns were leading, in turn, to more difficult and more
passive child behaviors. The proposal is that the behavioral differences
found in the children reflected the beginnings of working models for social
interaction similar to those carried by their mothers.
Applying this conceptual orientation to network relations, Crittenden
(1985b) proposed that “on the basis of her working model, a mother may
influence her relationship with her network, just as she appears to do in her
relationship with her child, through the processes of generalization and
repetition of ingrained patterns of behavior” (p. 1301). This proposal re-
ceived support from her comparison of the networks and parent–profes-
sional relationships of adequate mothers with those of neglectful and abu-
sive/neglectful mothers. She found that mothers in the adequate group
had far more supportive and satisfying network relationships than the
mothers in either of the other two groups. This was true despite the fact
that the adequate and maltreating mothers were often living in the same
neighborhoods. The adequate mothers were also more cooperative in the
parent–professional relationship, and less defensive or withdrawn. Critten-
den then examined the relations of the network and parent-professional
variables with the security of attachment between the mothers and their 1-
to 4-year-old children. She found that a cooperative approach to the par-

ent–professional relationship was substantially more powerful than net-
work typology in predicting a secure attachment. Crittenden concluded
that her data are “highly consistent with the notion that the mothers’ ap-
proach to relationships of all kinds was reflected both in their relationships
with their children and in their relationships with network members” (p.
1311). The terms she used to characterize the interaction styles of these
women—cooperative, defensive, withdrawn—can be thought of as learned
personality characteristics. Crittenden argued that these characteristics re-
flect internalized working models of relationships, and result in greater or
lesser openness to and capacity for the establishment and maintenance of
satisfying and supportive network relations.
Rogosch, Mowbray and Bogat (1992) studied mothers with severe psy-
chopathology and examined the link between mothers’ relational experi-
ences in childhood and their current perceptions of emotional support and
parenting practices. Their findings paralleled those of mentally healthy
mothers and provided further evidence to support the notion of working
models of social relationships continuing to influence socialization and
parenting into adulthood. Mothers who had difficulties in their childhood
relational experiences had fewer persons in their current lives on whom
they could rely for emotional support. Mothers’ self-esteem was tied to their
perception of emotional support from the social network and sensitivity in
their orientation toward parenting. Mothers with low emotional support
showed less adaptive parenting attitudes.
PERSONAL NETWORK INFLUENCES ON PARENTS
In the first section of this chapter we focus on the structural constraints de-
fining the pool of network potential available to parents in differing ecolog-
ical niches. In the second section we identify some of the factors that might
determine the propensity of parents to actively seek out relationships with
people in the pool of potential membership. We shift now to the question
of how networks with differing characteristics, once they are in place and
functioning, affect parenting attitudes and behavior. (See social processes, in
Fig. 8.1.)
Network Size
Network dimensions of size, density, and frequency of contact have been

examined as structural influences on parents’ attitudes and behaviors. Most
commonly, larger social networks have been associated with more positive
parenting. For example, Jennings, Stagg and Connors (1991) examined
network size, cohesion, and satisfaction as influences on mothers’ play in-

teractions with their 4-year-old children. Consistent with other research,
mothers with smaller, more cohesive networks tended to be less satisfied
with their personal network relations. A clear relationship emerged be-
tween dimensions of mothers’ networks and their parenting behavior.
Mothers with larger networks and those who were more satisfied with their
network relations showed a warmer, less intrusive style of interaction. Simi-
larly, this parenting style was associated with less cohesive maternal net-
works. The authors acknowledged that the relation between mothers’ social
networks and parenting may not be due to structural dynamics, but that
more socially competent mothers may be more skilled in parenting. Yet,
they speculated about the influence of processes underlying the structural
dynamics of the mothers’ relationships, and suggested that mothers whose
own needs are met by a quantity of supportive others are better able to meet
and respond to the emotional and developmental needs of their children.
Mothers in smaller, more tightly knit networks may experience more power
and control in their relationships and be more likely to utilize these strate-
gies with their children. Frequent contact may increase exposure to rela-
tionships that reinforce negative parenting practices.
Emotional and Instrumental Support
Studies of parents’ social networks conducted during the 1980s revealed

that assistance with child care, unconditional emotional support and advice
about how to maintain authoritative control over the child’s behavior prove
particularly helpful to young mothers, especially when the women are sin-
gle, divorced or separated (Brassard, 1982; Colletta, 1981). Work by Belle
(1982), cited earlier, provides important evidence in this regard. Belle stud-
ied the costs and benefits of social ties identified as important by 43 low-
income mothers with young children. Although her work is within the
broader social support and health outcomes tradition of Cobb, with particular
interest in personal mastery and depression in adults, she was also inter-
ested in the quality of interaction between the mothers and their children.
Belle found that it was not network size, proximity of membership, or fre-
quency of contact that was associated with emotional well-being, but rather
the number of people reported as engaged specifically in providing child
care assistance and “someone to turn to.” This greater provision of concrete
assistance and support seemed to carry over positively to the quality of the
interactions between these mothers and their children.
Recent studies alluded to earlier in the chapter convey the importance
of recognizing the stresses as well as the supports in network relations.
Voight and colleagues (1996), for instance, studied the support networks of
25 low-income, African-American teenage mothers and found that network
size and offers of support were associated with perception of the parenting
experience and observations of parenting behavior. Having more friends in
her social network was positively related to the quality of the adolescent’s
interactions with her one-year-old child, as was the number of types of sup-
ports that her mother offered (though the latter was negatively related to
the parenting experience). The relationship effect was conditional on the
source of the network support (more siblings and more sibling support re-
lated to poorer parenting behavior, support from male partners was not sig-
nificant), and on support from the network being positive. The authors de-
termined that larger network membership was related to the quality of the
parenting experience if the quality of the relationship was marred by con-
flict. More sources of conflicted support were negatively associated with
parenting behavior.
The study by MacPhee and associates (1996) referred to previously also
examined influences from social network structure and support on parent-
ing practices, and was based on the premise that ethnic differences in the
formation of and processes within personal social networks may help to ex-
plain subcultural variations in socialization practices of parents. As they
noted in their review of cultural literature related to parenting, network ex-
changes convey childrearing norms through approval or criticism. More
frequent exchanges with smaller numbers of individuals increase the op-
portunities for social sanctions, modeling, and reinforcement of behavior.
Values of familism and interdependence frequently seen in collectivistic
cultures, such as those associated with the Latin American and Native
American groups represented in their study, can reinforce the reliance
upon family members as the primary support network. As a result, parents’
exposure to information outside the kin network may be potentially lim-
ited. Social support from the cultural network that increases personal well-
being, and buffers parenting stress, may be most influential on parenting
when psychosocial risk is greatest.
These authors were cautious about teasing out ethnic network influ-
ences from those by geographic area, population density and social stratifi-
cation. Economic well-being is a critical dimension of ethnic differences in
both social network composition and function and parenting practices. Of-
ten when economic variables such as income, education, and occupation
are controlled, ethnic differences in social networks disappear. In fact, in
this study, though some variation was noted surrounding parents’ value for
autonomy, controlling for socioeconomic variables lessened the impact of
ethnicity on parenting.
Despite differences observed in structural aspects of the social networks
in the three ethnic groups, MacPhee and colleagues found that the quality
of emotional support proved to be a more important influence on
parenting. Controlling for psychosocial risk in within-ethnicity regression
analyses, satisfaction with support provided by others (for Latin Americans)

and satisfaction and level of support (for Native Americans and European
Americans) positively related to the parenting practice of limit setting. For
Latin Americans and European Americans, quality of emotional support
negatively related to harsh parenting. The relationship between emotional
support and parenting was mediated by parental competence. Support pro-
vided by close attachment figures rather than distant network members ap-
peared to be particularly important, leading the authors to suggest that
“one’s sense of competence in a specific role may be quite dependent on
the regard of others who share that role” (p. 3292).
The stress-buffering hypothesis was not supported for Native American
and Latin American parents. Parents in these groups with the least social in-
tegration showed more non-normative parenting practices. Native Ameri-
cans with low psychosocial risk who were less satisfied with support received
showed less parental efficacy and harsher parenting practices. Conversely,
Latin American parents who received less support, and who were in less
contact with their networks showed less punitive practices. The authors
concluded that less contact with network members may have reduced the
reinforcement and social modeling needed to regulate parenting practices
within the cultural group.
Childrearing Advice and Other Informational Support
Riley (1990) broadened the discussion of networks and parenting to in-

clude men in the parenting role, by capitalizing on the fact that the Cornell
networks study’s data set included information about the networks of fa-
thers. The question he asked of these data was: in what ways would a father
utilize his social ties in the service of his childrearing efforts? One impor-
tant way is to use network members for discussion of parenting concerns
and to gather childrearing advice. To whom do the fathers turn for such ad-
vice? Do they favor advice from their own parents or siblings, or from other
young parents? Are there fathers who report no one with whom they talk
about childrearing? To answer these questions, Riley focused on the 70
married, non-African-American, employed fathers from two-parent house-
holds who participated in the follow-up portion of the study. The average
network included 5.1 sources of childrearing advice. But there was great
variation. Eleven of the 70 fathers reported 10 or more sources of advice,
while 12 fathers (17%) reported no one.
Riley related aspects of the fathers’ networks to those men’s levels of in-
volvement in the rearing of their six-year-old children, focusing on two ar-
eas of father involvement: participation in routine child care tasks and play
interaction with the child. He was careful to distinguish families by mater-
nal employment status. Thirty-seven of the 70 families had an employed
mother. Analyses were carried out separately for families with and without
an employed mother.
Riley found that in the two-earner families both nonkin allies and local
female kin affected the child care participation of the father. Nonkin allies
are those highly elective and supportive network members who provided
three or more of the following six kinds of support to the father: practical
borrowing, financial assistance, work-related support, a person to talk with
about marital issues, emotional support, and social activities. Local female
kin consisted of the number of adult female relatives (including in-laws) in
the father’s network who lived in the same section of town. Of these two
sources of network support, the nonkin allies variable was a much stronger
predictor than was the number of local female kin. Riley noted that the two
were related; fathers with fewer local kinfolk had more nonkin allies. He
suggested the intriguing possibility that today some men are substituting
multiply-supportive nonkin bonds for the traditional extended family
bonds sustained by other men.
In the case of the one-earner families the pattern was different: There
was a powerful effect for what Riley called the male network variable, showing
that as the percentage of men in the network increased, the father’s share
of parent–child play went down. The existence of local female relatives also
decreased the father’s play involvement. The local female kin seemed to re-
duce the demand for the father’s assistance in childrearing, and the male
peer group to maintain activities and attitudes in competition with the
father’s home role. Riley concluded by emphasizing that in two-parent
households maternal employment status appeared to represent a crucial
ecological divide. His findings indicated that fathers are often pushed into
childrearing involvement, or away from it, by situational demands. The ex-
istence of a local female kin network appeared to relieve the pressure on
the father to participate in childrearing (or it may have competed with him
if he wanted more responsibility for his children). At the same time, there
was evidence that fathers may to some extent select or construct the social
environment that thereafter influences them. The male peer group and
nonkin allies are highly amenable to active construction by the individual.
This is especially true for the nonkin allies, since they represent social
bonds encompassing diverse kinds of support content, often with an indi-
vidual known through no regular role-context.
Cotterell (1986), working in rural towns of inland Australia, was inter-
ested in the influences on childrearing of the father’s workplace, the
mother’s social network, and the community itself. With a total of 96 mar-
ried mothers he compared the personal networks of and the childrearing
milieus provided by those with husbands regularly present with those whose
partners’ jobs routinely required periods of absence from home. Character-
istics of the childrearing environment were measured with the Caldwell
HOME inventory, and the quality of maternal expectations and beliefs was
assessed with the Parent as a Teacher (PAAT) inventory. Analysis of the net-
work data indicated that mothers with absentee husbands relied more
heavily on their neighbors than those with husbands regularly at home.
When the quality of childrearing variables were analyzed by father presence/
absence and mother’s amount of informational support from the network,
the characteristics of the father’s work exerted independent influence on
only two of the variables, while the effects of support were statistically signif-
icant for six of the seven childrearing measures. In order to assess the sepa-
rate and joint contributions of the three environmental dimensions, Cot-
terell entered them all with the childrearing variables in a regression
equation. In his own words:
Between 40% and 60% of the variance explained in the full model could be
attributed to the factors of father absence, community characteristics, and
mother’s informational support. Of the three factors, the support factor had
the greatest prominence in terms of its power to add significantly to the vari-
ance in the measures of childrearing quality. (p. 369)
Cotterell was careful to point out the danger of assuming that these three
environmental forces—general character of the community, father’s work
situation and network support—operate independently and at the same
level of influence. He suggested that “the chain of influence of father’s
work is connected to maternal behavior via the patterns of social relation-
ships established by the mother” (p. 371). His evidence indicated that the
wives of absentee husbands had smaller networks, and that these women
had a more limited range of settings available for contacting network mem-
bers.
It is important to keep in mind the effects of context on the value of sup-
port as an influence on parenting. Ceballo and McLloyd (2002) examined
whether living under stressful neighborhood conditions influences social
support’s effects on parenting behavior. Their sample was 262 low income,
African-American single mothers of middle school age children who re-
sided in lower and working-class urban neighborhoods. As neighborhood
quality decreased, based on mothers’ perceptions, violent crime rate statis-
tics, and levels of poverty by families in the area, emotional support from
friends and relatives had less influence on mothers’ nurturant parenting.
Similarly, the negative relation between instrumental support and maternal
punishment was also weakened as neighborhood quality diminished. The
findings suggest that in certain conditions, social support may have limited
value as a cushion to mothers’ stress. The authors cautioned that a fuller
understanding of parenting behavior should include the consideration of
context as potential moderator of psychological relations.
Crockenberg (1988), in her review of the theories explaining how social

support affects parental behavior, identified four processes by which bene-
fits might be conveyed. First, support can reduce the sheer number of
stressful events. The instrumental support described earlier probably oper-
ates largely in this manner. Babysitting, childrearing advice, and financial
assistance simply provide relief from daily burdens that might otherwise ac-
cumulate to incapacitate the parent, or press her or him into inappropriate
or even abusive behavior patterns.
It is possible that social support may not directly reduce the number of
stressful events experienced by the parent, but may act as a buffer, prevent-
ing the parent from being as adversely affected by a stressful event, like di-
vorce or job loss, and making it possible for parents to maintain satisfactory
childrearing routines in the face of hard times. This second process is prob-
ably not an alternative to sheer reduction of stressful events, but rather op-
erates in addition to it.
Crockenberg identified generation of active coping strategies as the third
process by which social supports may have beneficial effects on parents. This
process operates on the initiatives side of the model presented in Fig. 8.1; the
mother’s self confidence is bolstered by praise from a supportive and more
experienced network member, and her skills improve as a result of sugges-
tions from this person. The result is willingness and ability to take positive ini-
tiatives, rather than passivity generated by inexperience and self-doubt.
The fourth process identified by Crockenberg involves the emotional
support that emerged from several of the studies reviewed earlier as an im-
portant predictor of more constructive parenting behaviors. She tied emo-
tional support to the idea of working models of relationships outlined pre-
viously in relation to maltreating parents (Crittenden, 1985b), pointing out
that “ongoing emotional support or nurturance may affirm this sense [of
herself or himself as a person deserving of care and capable of caring for
someone else] and in doing so encourage the individual’s inclination to be
nurturant to others” (p. 146).
THE PERSONAL NETWORKS OF MOTHERS,

AND CHILD-RELATED OUTCOMES
It is important to go beyond relations between parents’ networks and their

childrearing attitudes and behaviors, to consider the question of whether
the social resources available to parents actually have an impact on the de-
velopment of their children. Space limitations permit the presentation of
only four illustrative examples of the link to child development. Crocken-
berg (1981) was interested in ways that social support might affect the na-
ture of the emotional bond between mother and infant. Her sample was
middle- and working-class in socioeconomic composition. She stated her

primary findings rather unambiguously:
The adequacy of the mother’s social support is clearly and consistently associ-
ated with the security of the infant–mother attachment: low social support
was associated with high resistance, high avoidance, and with anxious attach-
ment. Moreover, that support had its strongest effects on the irritable babies
and their mothers suggests that the availability of social support is particularly
critical when the family is under particular stress. (p. 862)
The fact that the positive relation between social support for the mother
and the attachment behaviors of the child was obtained primarily in the
case of irritable babies is important to note. An environmental demand, the
irritable baby, appears to have created the conditions calling for mobiliza-
tion of existing support.
Melson, Ladd, and Hsu (1993) tested a model of maternal network char-
acteristics as direct influences on children’s social and cognitive develop-
ment and as indirect influences through mother’s attributions about
parenting. The sample was comprised of 69 primarily European-American,
moderately high SES mothers and their preschool age children from a uni-
versity preschool setting. Network size and quality (including components
of contact frequency, duration, and perceived helpfulness, conflict, satisfac-
tion and a willingness to seek help), directly predicted child cognitive per-
formance. Children’s exposure to stimulation and network influences on
maternal interactions were cited as probable processes at play. Indirectly,
network size positively influenced cognitive performance and peer accep-
tance through maternal attributions about helping the child. Network size
was also related to differing patterns of attributions depending on the ease
of the helping situation. Mothers who had larger social networks were more
likely to attribute an easy situation of cognitive or social assistance to the
child, and they were less likely to make a child attribution when the situa-
tion of assistance was difficult. The authors suggested that more support
from a larger social network may expose mothers to more information
about caring for their children, generate a greater sense of well-being in
mothers, and help them feel more positive toward the children.
Manetti and Schneider (1996) examined the direct connection between
the structure and satisfaction with parents’ social networks and children’s ad-
justment to the transition to elementary school. They studied an Italian sam-
ple of mothers, their spouses, and their children over a three-year period, be-
ginning when the children were 4- and 5-year-olds. The size of the mothers’
networks at year one predicted the adjustment of the children to school two
years later, as measured by teacher ratings. Network support to mothers who
experienced stressful life events showed a stronger impact. For these moth-
ers, both network size and frequency of contact were predictive of children’s
school adjustment, at one point in time (year three) and over time (year one
data predicting year three adjustment). The findings were related only to the
mother’s social network. The authors cautioned that the lack of findings for
the fathers may be related to small numbers in the sample over time.
With an ethnically and economically diverse sample, Marshall and col-
leagues (Marshall, Noonan, McCartney, Marx, & Keefe, 2001) looked at the
social networks of African-American, European-American and Latin-Ameri-
can parents with an elementary school age child (grades 1 to 4) to deter-
mine the relation, if any, between parents’ social networks and several
aspects of children’s well-being. This study differed from others in that non-
standard measures of size and structure were used to measure the social
network. Network homogeneity was determined by whether or not kin were
within walking distance, and network size was determined by the number of
neighbors the parent knew well enough to stop and talk with outside the
home. Also, the children were involved by answering questions about the
availability of adults to talk about their feelings.
There was no difference in emotional support provided by the social net-
works to parents of different races or ethnic backgrounds. European-Amer-
ican parents had less extended family nearby and were more involved with
their neighbors. African-American parents were more likely to rely on rela-
tives than on friends in aspects of caring for their children and, like Latin-
American families, had more extended family nearby. Although neighbor-
hood ties were positively associated with children’s social competence and
negatively associated with children’s depression, when parent gender, ma-
ternal education and ethnicity were controlled, these direct relations were
no longer detected. However, indirect effects of social networks on child
outcomes were found through the influence of the network on parental be-
havior and efficacy. Parents with more heterogeneous networks demon-
strated more responsive, warm parenting practices, and their children had
fewer behavior problems. This outcome was also observed in the children
of those parents who reported feeling more effective in their parenting
role, which was influenced by the degree of emotional support from their
networks. And, parents with heterogeneous networks also provided a more
stimulating home environment for their children, who showed more posi-
tive social skills.
PERSONAL SOCIAL NETWORKS

AND PROGRAM IMPACTS
Acknowledging the potential impact of personal networks on parents,

parenting programs have begun to explore how personal social networks
relate to the accomplishment of program goals. The social and cognitive
processes occurring through a parent’s interaction with her social net-

work—information gathering, cognitive stimulation, social integration—
that result in changes in parenting perceptions or practices (Cochran,
1990) are also stimulated by a parent’s participation in parent education
and support programs. Such programs trigger personal social network in-
teractions. For instance, Tracy, Whittaker, Kapp, and Overstreet (1994)
suggested the value of understanding parents’ social network membership
and functions in meeting the goals of family preservation. Workers who are
aware of families’ social networks will discern a variety of supports available
to families, and can identify gaps in their support needs. Understanding
the membership and functions of the caregivers’ social network could also
enable workers to encourage the more timely mobilization of network re-
sources. Encouraging parents to ask others for help widens their base of
support and decreases dependency on the worker as the primary source of
support.
Program and social network interactions can also operate conjointly.
Sheldon (2002) examined how the structure of personal social networks
might influence parent involvement with their children’s education at
home and at school. Helping children prepare and participate in school,
complete homework and school assignments, learn school concepts, and
advocating for students in the school system enhances student achievement
and engagement in learning. Yet educators acknowledge that many parents
are not as involved as they might be with their children’s education, and
seek to find ways to bolster their participation.
Sheldon asked a sample of urban and suburban parents of children in
grades 1 to 5 to identify up to seven other parents at their child’s school
with whom they discussed issues related to the child’s education, and up to
five other adults outside the school with whom they talked a lot about the
child’s education. These other adults were identified as relatives, those who
worked in education, or a parent of a child enrolled in a different school.
His analysis included the number and types of adults in parents’ school dis-
cussion networks. Including background characteristics and parents’ be-
liefs about the importance of being active in children’s education in the
models, network size predicted parent involvement at home and at school,
although the variance accounted for was small (about 4%) in both cases. In
addition, involvement was related to whom parents interacted with about
their children’s education: involvement with other parents at school pre-
dicted participation at school; involvement with other adults out of the
school predicted participation at home. Sheldon observed that in his sam-
ple of urban and suburban parents, one-third reported not talking to any
other parents about the school or their child’s education. He suggested
that connecting these isolated parents to other parents would be a way to
help them gain information about the child’s school and empower them to
make decisions about their children’s education. Community empower-

ment initiatives built on this idea have shown benefit to immigrant families
(Delgado-Gaitan, 1993).
Walker and Riley (2001) took the idea of social network involvement as
an indicator of program involvement a step further by exploring whether
involvement was a vehicle to observed changes in parent behavior. New par-
ents’ primary sources of information about the development and care of an
infant include family and friends, and the pediatrician. Evaluations of an
age-paced newsletter about infant caregiving delivered to parents consis-
tently showed it to be a reliable, credible, and popular source of informa-
tion as well, and demonstrated positive results in self-reported change of
parenting behavior. The authors investigated how new parents’ social net-
works of informational support on childrearing intersected with the educa-
tional process of the newsletter intervention. They asked whether new par-
ents’ discussions of the content of an age-paced newsletter with members of
their personal social network would affect the degree of behavior and confi-
dence change they would report from reading the newsletter. Instead of
constructing a supportive group or class setting typical of many parenting
education programs, the study capitalized on a natural phenomenon of
parenting—talking with family and friends. By using a one-way form of
mass communication as the intervention method, variability in program
stimulus (also likely with different instructors and settings) was eliminated.
A primarily European-American sample of first time and experienced
mothers (n = 427) was surveyed about their program participation (use of
the newsletter, or amount read), and the degree to which they involved oth-
ers in their social networks (which and how many people with whom they
shared copies of the newsletter and discussed newsletter content). Behavior
change was measured by self-reports of degree of change in five areas of
parenting (for example, providing a stimulating environment, responding
to baby’s cries and cues) and change in confidence. Mothers reported dis-
cussing newsletter content with an average of two other people (usually the
father plus one other). Topics of discussion focused primarily on develop-
ment, nutrition and feeding, and behavior.
Examining degree of behavior change with social network involvement,
mothers who shared and/or discussed the newsletter content with more
people (five or more) reported the highest degree of change and the differ-
ences in change scores were significant. Using path analysis to test the
mediational hypothesis, reading the newsletter was associated with greater
parental change whether or not they discussed newsletter content with oth-
ers. But sharing and discussing the newsletters with others was associated
with greater self-reported parental change. When the network involvement
variable was added to the model, it produced a small (2%) but significant
increase in the explained variance. The two processes, reading the newslet-
ter and discussing and sharing it with others in the social network were sig-
nificantly linked, but not so strongly that network involvement mediated
the effect of participation; they were largely separate processes. Walker and
Riley concluded from the findings that social network processes and par-
enting education intervention may exist as parallel learning environments
for new parents and function perhaps, as separate channels of information
about childrearing. But the analyses also revealed that they operate con-
jointly. The authors observed that the processes were correlated and that
the measure of network involvement referred only to interactions around
program (newsletter) content. This research encourages the question
whether other results reported by parenting programs may, in part, be the
result of stimulated interaction with the parents’ personal support network.
CONCLUSIONS
In this chapter we consider parenting and social networks in ecological con-

text. Larger systems with particular influence on parents’ social ties include
higher education environments, the workplace, and the neighborhood. Evi-
dence that personal networks influence the attitudes and behaviors of par-
ents is accumulating slowly, but findings from recent studies are consistent
with those done earlier, and the samples involved are becoming increasingly
representative. Kinfolk certainly are important as primary supporters, and to
reinforce traditional parenting values and childrearing practices. Nonrela-
tives also appear to play important roles as supplementary (and even in some
cases primary) supports and as sources of new information for parents.
There is growing evidence, coming from both the United States and abroad,
that nonkin can, within supportive environmental circumstances, function
like kin in their support of friends who are parents.
There are also a few studies indicating that the support and assistance
provided to parents by their network membership translates into more con-
structive childrearing practices, and positive outcomes in the child. More
fine-grained, process-oriented studies have been conducted in recent years,
and additional studies are needed before we will be able to trace exactly
how this support translates into parenting activities that produce more
competent children.
If certain kinds of networks are more beneficial than others for parents,
then it behooves us to better understand network development, because in
those developmental processes lie the keys to identifying ways that local
communities and the larger society can structure themselves to facilitate
the functioning of families in their childrearing roles. The policy implica-
tions of the constraints identified on the left hand side of Fig. 8.1 deserve
serious consideration. Polices that increase the availability of post-second-
ary education would appear to deserve highest priority, because those par-
ents who had acquired such schooling were much richer in network re-
sources than those who had not. College scholarships, student loans, and
programs providing incentives to adolescents and young adults for continu-
ation of schooling through high school and beyond would seem to be an es-
pecially good investment to society from this standpoint.
Policies that stimulate job creation and continuation would also deserve
high priority from a networks in context perspective. The workplace has been
seen in our studies to be an important context for network building, and
the economic returns associated with working provide the resources
needed to sustain network relations. Just as importantly, the absence of job
security for much of today’s semi- or unskilled and non-unionized work
force reduces the capacity of the workplace to support the development of
social relationships among co-workers. Economic instability also contrib-
utes to residential mobility as families leave the state to seek better fortune
in another part of the country. The protection of job security and assur-
ances of fair treatment for employees during hard times would support the
social as well as the economic well-being of working families.
We would be remiss, however, if in closing we left the impression that en-
hancement of network development can come only through removal of so-
cietal constraints. Several of the factors contributing to parental initiative in
developing their network relations are accessible to public policies and pro-
grams. Educational opportunity has already been mentioned. Home visit-
ing and parent support groups, if carried out in an empowering way,
enhance parental self-esteem, and thereby increase network-building po-
tential. Any family support program that provides parents with respite, and
more time to devote to family life, increases the capacity of parents to en-
gage in the social activities that develop and maintain network ties. And ini-
tial research about the intersection of parenting program influences and
parents’ social networks suggests great potential for strengthening network
ties and relations through parent education and support programs.
At the same time, the most important policy lesson to be learned from
the various studies of networks and parenting is that it is not nearly enough
simply to provide opportunities for social interaction, and the message that
social ties are important, if parents are to be supported on behalf of their
own development and that of their children. Public policies must give first
priority to freeing parents, and those who will become parents, from the
constraints of inequality and oppression, by insuring the provision of ade-
quate and sufficient education, employment, and housing conditions. The
evidence suggests that freedom to grow and develop, through schooling,
work, and leisure activities, will lead in turn to the social network connec-
tions that form the basis for healthy, productive communities.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Permission to use the material in Figs. 8.1–8.3 has been provided by Cam-
bridge University Press.
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9
The Long Arm of the Job

Revisited: Parenting
in Dual-Earner Families
Ann C. Crouter
Susan M. McHale
The Pennsylvania State University
INTRODUCTION
In Middletown, the classic monograph about U.S. culture, Lynd and Lynd
(1929) coined the phrase “the long arm of the job” to describe the consid-
erable influence that fathers’ employment situations had on their families.
As the Lynds explained, the temporal rhythms of work life and the specter
of unemployment helped to shape many aspects of family life in Middle-
town, including parents’ childrearing activities. In the years since that pub-
lication, the phrase “the long arm of the job” has been borrowed by other
scholars too. Waller (1938) used it as a chapter title in his book, The family:
A dynamic interpretation, as did Komarovsky (1962) in Blue Collar Marriage.
Menaghan (1991) used the term “the long reach of the job” in her chapter
on work and family for the Annual Review of Sociology. We were pleased to
join this tradition in our chapter (Crouter & McHale, 1993a) in the first
edition of Parenting: An Ecological Perspective and to continue it in our cur-
rent reassessment of the influences of parental work on childrearing.
In our 1993 chapter on the long arm of the job, we acknowledged that
the influence of work on family life was no less important then than it was in
the Lynds’ day, but we noted that the relationship between these two social
institutions had become more complex with the entrance of large numbers
of mothers into the paid labor force. Indeed, the movement of women, es-
pecially mothers of young children, into the labor force is one of the most
dramatic demographic trends of the twentieth century (Hernandez, 1997).
275
276 CROUTER AND MCHALE
This trend shows no signs of abating in the early twenty-first century. In

many families today, there are two long arms of the job, one reaching back
to the father’s world of work and the other to the mother’s work setting. In
this chapter we focus on the way this dual-earner lifestyle poses certain op-
portunities and constraints for contemporary parents.
In the ecological framework, mother’s workplace and father’s workplace
constitute an important exosystem for their developing children (and for
one another as well). According to Bronfenbrenner (1979), “An exosystem
refers to one or more settings that do not involve the developing person as
an active participant, but in which events occur that affect, or are affected
by, what happens in the setting containing the developing person” (p. 25).
Parenting researchers have examined work–family relations from several
angles. Some look at the work–family interface through the lens of the
workplace, and others examine these interconnections through the lens of
the family (Kline & Cowan, 1989). When researchers examine the work–
parenting interface through the lens of the workplace, parents’ jobs are
seen as ecological settings with certain characteristics and features. Work
may be conceptualized broadly or narrowly. A broad view would include is-
sues of subsistence, that is, how adults in a culture or subculture provide for
their families. A narrower view of work zooms in on proximal processes
such as daily work loads and interactions with co-workers and supervisors
that shape ebbs and flows in parents’ psychological well-being. When seen
through the lens of the workplace, the question for researchers becomes:
How does parents’ involvement in certain work ecologies, as defined by
their roles, relationships, and activities in those settings, influence the ways
in which they rear their children?
When the research lens focuses on families, specific characteristics of
parents’ jobs are often peripheral or even ignored. Instead the emphasis is
on how families function as settings for childrearing and differ in terms of
mothers’ and fathers’ roles in the paid labor force. An ecological approach
involves an examination of those familial processes that are similar and dif-
ferent across families with different connections to the labor force. When
developmental researchers first examined work and family issues, the domi-
nant questions in this genre focused on the implications of mothers’ em-
ployment status for parenting and child development (see review of early
research in this area by Bronfenbrenner & Crouter, 1982). More recently,
and in part in acknowledgment of the widespread nature of maternal em-
ployment, there is less attention to maternal employment status and more
attention to how much time mothers and, to a lesser extent, fathers spend
at work. In a sense, the interest in mothers’ and fathers’ work hours reflects
the tendency of developmental researchers to equate parents’ work time
with absence from the family.
9. LONG ARM OF THE JOB 277
In this chapter, we describe research that examines the work–parenting

interface through both lenses, noting the strengths, limitations, and unex-
plored territory in each. We begin by examining characteristics of parents’
jobs that may affect their patterns of childrearing and then turn to consider
how living in a dual-earner family may influence women’s and men’s activi-
ties as parents.
THROUGH THE LENS OF THE WORKPLACE:

CHARACTERISTICS OF WORK THAT MATTER
FOR CHILDREARING
When the impact of parental work on parenting is viewed through the lens
of the workplace, there are three levels of analysis to consider. At the broad-
est level, work is adults’ means of subsistence and, as such, is a central deter-
minant of their world views (Kanter, 1977). Work informs parents’ concep-
tualizations of how their environments operate and the qualities required
to be successful in these environments (Kohn, 1977; Ogbu, 1981). These
ideas in turn shape parents’ values about the characteristics that are impor-
tant to inculcate in their young.
At an intermediate level, the characteristics of parents’ jobs and the orga-
nizations in which they are employed pose opportunities and constraints for
parenting. For example, some jobs encourage the acquisition of skills that
are applicable not only on the job but at home. Other work settings provide
informal support to working parents via helpful co-workers and supervisors
or access to formal workplace benefits and programs that enable parents to
carry out their parenting roles more effectively. Jobs also come with charac-
teristic stressors, such as low control, fast pace, or frequent deadlines, stress-
ors that have implications over time for the quality of parenting.
Finally, the work–parenting system can be examined at a very proximal,
immediate level, a view of work–family dynamics that focuses on daily work
experiences. Although most jobs have fairly stable characteristics, such as a
schedule, an assortment of supportive or unsupportive co-workers, and cer-
tain activities that make up the nature of the work itself, there are also daily
fluctuations in work demands and interpersonal interactions that shape the
daily emotional state of the employee. “How was your day?” is a familiar
question in the post-reunion script of family members. The answer to that
question usually is based on the unusual occurrences of that particular day
and often has to do with how those events made the person feel. Here, work
is seen as an influence on parents’ emotional states, moods that in turn may
be brought home to influence the tenor and content of parent–child and
mother–father interactions.
Work and the Acquisition of Parenting Values
Anthropologist Ogbu (1981) argued that adults acquire ideas about what it
takes to be successful in their culture by observing prevailing subsistence
patterns, that is, by observing work roles in the culture that are associated
with success. In a hunting and gathering society, for example, adults iden-
tify the characteristics of successful hunters (e.g., individualism, bravery,
risk-taking, and independence) as those traits that they value and wish to in-
culcate in their children (Barry, Child, & Bacon, 1959). Ogbu (1981) ex-
plained that adults form theories of childrearing that correspond to those
values and, in turn, they develop childrearing techniques designed to foster
these desirable qualities in children. Miller and Swanson (1958) provided
early evidence for this idea in their comparison of parental values of moth-
ers whose husbands were employed in entrepreneurial versus bureaucratic
work settings. The former group emphasized achievement and striving in
their children, whereas their bureaucratic counterparts emphasized inter-
personal skills and getting along well with others in their reports of
childrearing values.
Note that the early work in this area simplified the picture considerably.
The causal arrow was seen to run in one direction: from work (notably fa-
thers’ work) to parenting values. There was little recognition that powerful
sorting mechanisms function to distribute people into jobs on a non-ran-
dom basis, as is the case in western, industrialized societies. People select
(and are selected for) jobs based on a complex set of variables including ap-
titudes, educational background, specific job related training, interests,
skills, perceptions of opportunity, attraction to the lifestyle represented by
the job, and so forth. Thus, before they even take their first jobs, future en-
trepreneurs and bureaucrats undoubtedly differ on many characteristics
that may in turn have implications for parenting. The reciprocal linkages
between work and the individual are rarely acknowledged in work and fam-
ily research but are critically important. Jobs shape individual functioning,
but individuals also actively select in and out of careers, occupations, and
specific jobs.
One of the leading researchers in the area of work and parental values
who has recognized the complex, reciprocal linkages between work and in-
dividual characteristics is sociologist Kohn. In Class and Conformity, Kohn
(1977) argued that men who differ in their occupational position in the
stratification system come to see the world differently and that the charac-
teristics associated with success in men’s occupational niches influence the
qualities they value in their children and, consequently, the characteristics
they will support or discourage in the context of daily childrearing activi-
ties. In a survey of more than 3,000 employed men, Kohn (1977) found that
men in middle-class occupations tended to value independence and initia-
tive in their offspring, whereas their working class counterparts tended to

value obedience and conformity.
The mechanisms through which parents translate abstract childrearing
values into daily childrearing activities are murky in Kohn’s research. He
found that middle-class fathers were more likely to report using reasoning
and withdrawal of love as discipline techniques than were working-class fa-
thers. Middle-class fathers also reported taking their child’s intentions into
account when determining disciplinary action; misbehavior seen as acci-
dental thereby receives less severe punishment than misbehavior seen as in-
tentional. Working-class fathers, on the other hand, reported using more
physical punishment and indicated that they punished on the basis of the
consequences of their child’s misbehavior rather than the child’s inten-
tions. Compliance seemed to be the primary goal of working-class fathers,
and an internalized standard could be seen as the goal for middle-class fa-
thers. Nonetheless, a clear correspondence between values and childrear-
ing strategy is missing in Kohn’s research. Additional limitations of this
early research were that it focused only on fathers and was based on fathers’
self-reported practices in hypothetical situations. It is difficult to ascertain
what their behavior would be in real life.
Parcel and Menaghan built on the occupational socialization tradition in
a series of studies using data from the National Longitudinal Survey of
Youth (NLSY) (Parcel & Menaghan, 1994; Menaghan, 1991; Menaghan &
Parcel, 1995). They were particularly interested in the connections between
parental work conditions and the nature of the home environment. A
strength of their work has been the focus on the substantive complexity of
jobs, a component of a more global construct Kohn and Schooler (1983)
term “occupational self-direction.” Parcel and Menaghan operationalized
complexity by matching NLSY mothers’ occupations with objective data on
work demands provided by the Dictionary of Occupational Titles. Arguing
that, “having a parent in a complex job can be a resource for children in
that it sets a high level of expectation regarding self-direction and intellec-
tual flexibility” (Parcel & Menaghan, 1994, p. 14), they found that, control-
ling for mothers’ education, age, measured mental ability, income and
other possible confounds, mothers employed in jobs with greater substan-
tive complexity created more stimulating home environments for their chil-
dren. The positive effects of high maternal job complexity were particularly
important when the father held a job low in complexity.
Menaghan and Parcel’s (1995) longitudinal analyses also illustrated the
potential effects of movement in and out of jobs of varying complexity.
Home environments deteriorated over time in the extent to which they of-
fered stimulation and support for children if mothers moved into jobs low
in substantive complexity but improved if mothers moved into more sub-
stantively complex jobs. Declines in the home environment were particu-
larly pronounced for unmarried women who took on jobs low in complex-
ity and low in wages. The quality of home environments in turn was related
to children’s receptive vocabulary at ages 3 to 6 and reading and math skills
at ages 5 to 8 (Parcel & Menaghan, 1994). Interestingly, Parcel and Men-
aghan (1994) did not find statistical evidence that the quality of the home
environment mediated the effects of occupational self-direction on child
outcomes. Thus, the processes through which occupational complexity af-
fects children’s development remain unclear.
In a small scale study of 65 mother–infant dyads, Luster, Rhoades, and
Haas (1989) focused more precisely on what the mechanisms might be that
may link social class and parenting behavior during the first year of life.
These researchers replicated the finding that social class is related to par-
ents’ values of conformity and self-direction in their children. They also
identified a set of specific parental beliefs that mediated the relation be-
tween parental values and parenting behavior. Global parenting values
were related to specific attitudes about spoiling the baby, giving babies free-
dom to explore the home environment, discipline, and the importance of
verbal stimulation. These specific beliefs, in turn, were related to mothers’
supportive and constraining behaviors toward their babies as reported by
the mothers themselves and as rated by interviewers.
The dual-earner arrangement, so prevalent today, raises the issue that
mothers and fathers, by virtue of their occupational positions, may identify
different qualities as important and come to favor different childrearing
practices. A mismatch in childrearing values and strategies may be unusual,
however, given patterns of assortative mating in this culture (i.e., men and
women who marry tend to have similar levels of education and thus would
probably gravitate to jobs at similar levels in the occupational hierarchy)
and given the fact that husbands and wives socialize one another through-
out the life course (Gruber-Baldini, Schaie, & Willis, 1995). On the other
hand, due to the prevalence of occupational segregation along gender
lines, even within occupations, men and women tend to hold quite differ-
ent jobs (Baron & Bielby, 1985). A hypothesis for future research is that in-
congruence in occupational position (and hence, world view) for husbands
and wives is linked to differences in childrearing values and philosophy.
Workplace Opportunities and Constraints for Parenting
By virtue of the job that a parent holds and the nature of the specific work-
place in which that job is carried out, mothers and fathers are exposed to
certain opportunities and constraints with regard to their parenting role. In
his review of the “determinants of parenting,” Belsky (1984) conceptual-
ized the influence of work on parenting in terms of stress and support. Al-
though stress and support are important, a full consideration of the place
of work in parents’ lives requires thinking about dimensions of work experi-

ences that are perhaps neither stressful nor supportive but serve to encour-
age parents to structure childrearing in qualitatively different ways.
Skill Development. Work has long been recognized as an important set-

ting for adult socialization and development, but little research has focused
on whether and how the skills and orientations attained at work make their
mark on employed adults’ behaviors in others settings, such as the family.
If, for example, work-based training on stress management, communica-
tion, and administration result in the employed adult acquiring new skills,
presumably these new capabilities generalize to other settings in which the
adult spends time.
Crouter (1984) explored these issues in a qualitative study of employees
in a manufacturing plant that was experimenting with new ways of involving
blue-collar employees in managing their own work activities. Organized
into small, semi-autonomous work teams, machinists and assembly workers
participated in hiring fellow team members, monitoring work perform-
ance, ordering inventory, handling machine breakdowns, monitoring
quality and safety, and interacting with external vendors and customers.
Teams held meetings in which members were expected to voice their
points of view constructively, listen to one another, problem solve, and
make collective decisions. At various times, workers would leave the team
area to participate in training exercises designed to improve teamwork. In
semi-structured interviews, workers noted that they found themselves using
the democratic approach to teamwork emphasized at work in their parent-
ing. One employee described holding team meetings at home, adding, “Af-
ter all, a family is kind of like a team” (Crouter, 1984, p. 82). A divorced
mother made this analogy: “I say things to my daughter that I know are a re-
sult of the way things are at work. I ask her, ‘What do you think about that?’
or ‘How would you deal with this problem?’ I tend to deal with her the way
we deal with people at work. The logic is the same” (Crouter, 1984, pp.
81–82). These quotes suggest that workers in this innovative setting favored
a democratic or authoritative parenting style, an approach to childrearing
that is characterized by “a high degree of warmth or acceptance, a high de-
gree of psychological autonomy or democracy, and a high degree of behav-
ioral control” (Steinberg, Elmen, & Mounts, 1989, p. 1425).
A direction for future research is to piggyback parenting research on to
workplace experiments such as the introduction of semi-autonomous work
teams in order to explore whether workers engaged in such new ways of or-
ganizing work change their parenting values, beliefs, or behaviors. Ideally,
such a study would involve random assignment to work conditions to try to
minimize the kinds of selection processes described above. Even with ran-
dom assignment to traditional vs. innovative work settings, however, some
selection effects are probably unavoidable. For example, employees told

Crouter (1984) that younger workers found the transition to semi-autono-
mous work teams much easier than older workers, many of whom had be-
come more entrenched in traditional ways of organizing work. Crouter’s in-
terviews were conducted with the survivors of this transition, the employees
who had managed to adjust to the dramatic changes that occurred when
the company switched from traditional assembly lines to semi-autonomous
work teams. Her qualitative research did not include the perspectives of
those workers who could not work effectively in work teams and either quit
or lost their jobs.
Workplace Relationships. Although work consumes a large portion of

adults’ time and is doubtless a setting in which many interpersonal relation-
ships are formed, little systematic research has been conducted on personal
relationships at work. This lacuna is particularly unfortunate in regard to
employed parents of young children for whom work may provide an impor-
tant source of peer interaction. Indeed, friends in the workplace may be an
important source of advice to parents.
To learn more about day-to-day interactions between co-workers, Marks
(1994) pored over the more than 1,000 pages of observer notes from the fa-
mous Hawthorne studies that were reported in Roethlisberger and Dick-
son’s classic monograph, Management and the Worker (1939). He found the
records about the women in the Relay Assembly Room particularly interest-
ing:
. . . for 5 years these women lived much of their lives together in that room.
Their menial jobs did not deaden their vibrant personalities, and in their con-
versations with one another one can see a clear reflection of the totality of
their lives. When I visit with these women through their conversations, I get to
participate in their constant dramas, their continual flow of humor, their sto-
ries, their worries, their frivolity, their omnipresent planning for the next
grand event, and above all, their intimacy . . . they talk in detail about their
family members, especially if one of them is in any kind of difficulty. Here
they reveal themselves not only as kin keepers but also as their coworkers’ kin
keepers. (pp. 160–161)
In one of the few empirical studies of parents to explicitly examine the

role of co-workers, Greenberger, Goldberg, Hamill, O’Neil, and Payne
(1989) surveyed more than 300 parents of preschool children about infor-
mal and formal sources of support in their work environments and the rela-
tionship between those workplace supports and parents’ job-related atti-
tudes (e.g., organizational commitment) and personal well-being (i.e., role
strain, health). Controlling for background characteristics and other
sources of workplace support, Greenberger et al. (1989) found that co-
worker support was a significant correlate of role strain for married fathers
and single mothers, although not for married mothers: the greater the per-
ceived co-worker support, the less role strain married fathers and single
mothers reported. Supervisor support was not associated with parents’ re-
ports of role strain in the Greenberger et al. study, although Repetti (1987)
found that supervisor support mitigated depression in female bank tellers
who experienced stressful work conditions. Future research is needed to
examine whether co-worker support and supervisor support are linked to
mothers’ and fathers’ actual parenting behavior.
Such research will have to grapple with the ubiquitous selection effects
discussed earlier. Socially competent people may develop and engage in
constructive relationships at work, and they may also develop and engage in
constructive parent–child relationships. Finding a correlation between the
two does not imply that workplace relationships cause effective parenting.
This is another situation in which a workplace intervention, such as training
supervisors to be supportive of workers’ family roles, might be evaluated
not only in terms of whether or not it reduces absenteeism and turnover or
increased job satisfaction and productivity—traditional “outcomes” of in-
terest to the workplace—but also in terms of whether it enhances employ-
ees’ parenting.
Workplace Policies. In addition to the informal support provided by

some supervisors and coworkers, work settings vary in terms of the extent to
which they formally acknowledge or support employees’ roles and responsi-
bilities in the family. Workplace policies such as flexible scheduling (flex-
time), rules about the use of sick time and personal leave time, parental
leave, and provisions for the care of employees’ dependents presumably re-
lieve the strain that results from balancing work and family roles, a support
that ultimately may enhance parenting. The empirical evidence, however,
is very scant (Friedman, 1990).
Evidence suggests that having some flexibility about work schedules is
important for parents. For example, Gottfried, Gottfried, and Bathurst
(2002), reviewing research from their Fullerton Longitudinal Study, re-
ported no direct associations between mothers’ work hours and child out-
comes, although the correlation between mothers’ work hours and moth-
ers’ attitudes toward the dual responsibilities of employment and parenting
became stronger and more negative as children moved through the school-
aged years. Having flexible schedules, in contrast, was consistently linked to
less negative maternal attitudes toward work and family responsibilities
which, in turn, predicted lower levels of behavior problems in children.
Such findings suggest that mothers’ flexible work hours may have indirect
connections with child outcomes. Greenberger et al. (1989) found that
mothers used formal benefits (e.g., flexible scheduling, parental leave poli-
cies, assistance with child care) more than fathers did and that, for single
mothers, use of formal benefits was related to reduced role strain, even con-
trolling for other sources of support at work.
Hyde and colleagues (Hyde, 1995; Hyde, Essex, Clark, Klein, & Byrd,
1996) have conducted research on maternity leave and its implications for
mothers themselves as well as for the quality of their interactions with their
children. Clark, Hyde, Essex, and Klein (1997), for example, compared the
quality of mother–infant interaction when babies were about 4 months of
age for mothers who had taken a maternity leave of about 6 weeks (short) vs.
a leave of about 12 weeks (long). In general, mothers who experienced a
short leave evidenced more negative affect and behavior than other moth-
ers. Clark et al. (1997), however, also reported interaction effects. Mothers
who experienced a short leave tended to interact with their offspring with
less positive affect, responsiveness, and sensitivity if they also reported
higher levels of depressive symptoms or perceived their baby as having a
more difficult temperament.
Studying the effects of formal workplace policies should be relatively
straightforward, but it is not. In some organizations, there is a discrepancy
between the policies that are “on the books” and the behaviors that are in-
formally encouraged or discouraged in the organization’s culture: during
lunch breaks, around the water cooler, and in hallway interactions. Paren-
tal leave may be technically available to employees, for example, but there
may be strong informal discouragement of people actually taking that
leave, discouragement that is hard to measure in surveys but may be detect-
able in qualitative research (see, for example, Fried, 1998). Likewise, long,
inflexible work hours may not be a formal requirement of some organiza-
tions, but there may be subtle messages about the importance of “face
time,” messages that convey the difficulties of getting ahead in the organiza-
tion if the employee does not put in long hours that are visible to co-
workers and supervisors or go the extra mile to work on weekends and eve-
nings.
Further complicating matters, the organization or larger cultural con-
text may send different messages to men and women about taking advan-
tage of workplace policies and benefits. Haas (1992) documents, for exam-
ple, that, although both men and women are permitted by Swedish social
policy to take a generous leave at the birth of a child, men are often infor-
mally discouraged from taking the time to which they are entitled. Thus, a
careful examination of whether family friendly benefits and practices do in
fact support parents in their childrearing roles would have to carefully as-
sess not only the availability of the specific policies and practices but also
the extent to which male and female workers are informally encouraged or
discouraged from actually using them.
Work Stress as an Influence on Parents’ Emotional States

at Home
A third level at which to examine the connections between parental work

and parents’ childrearing behavior focuses on the work day as an influence
on parents’ psychological states. This perspective recognizes that individu-
als experience considerable day-to-day variability in work demands, inter-
personal dynamics at work, and work accomplishments that may influence
their mood at the end of the work day. The small but interesting body of re-
search on the generalization of mood from work to family (and from family
to work) is part of a larger literature on emotional transmission (see review
by Larson & Almeida, 1999).
Studies linking mood at work to employed parents’ behavior or mood at
home are challenging for a number of reasons. They require careful meas-
urement of psychological states, repeatedly assessed over days or weeks, as
well as attention to the sequencing of mood and subsequent behavior.
Bolger, DeLongis, Kessler, and Wethington (1989), for example, asked
couples to complete a short questionnaire diary at the end of each day for
42 consecutive days and used the day as the unit of analysis, rather than the
individual. Researchers must also pay attention to the experiences that may
intervene between work and family. Fearing that long commutes would al-
ter parents’ work-based moods, Repetti and Wood (1997), for example, de-
signed an ingenious study to collect data on parent–child reunion behavior
at workplace childcare centers. Parents in this situation have virtually no
commute, so researchers can be more confident that the mood the parent
exhibits as he or she walks into the center to pick up the child is the same
mood that he or she had several minutes ago when leaving the workplace.
Researchers also cannot assume that mothers and fathers will exhibit the
same patterns of work to family emotional transmission. Indeed, Larson and
Richards (1994) suggest that employed mothers and fathers of adolescents
experience work and family life quite differently. They used the experience
sampling method, an approach in which family members carry electronic beep-
ers throughout the day and are paged at random moments to complete brief
questionnaires about their activities, companions, and emotional states.
Larson and Richards found that employed wives recorded their most positive
moods while at work; indeed, wives’ emotions were generally more positive
than were husbands’ when they were paged on the job. Wives, however, expe-
rienced a decline in positive emotion at home during the evening hours
which were filled with housework and child care. Husbands, on the other
hand, recorded their most negative emotions in the workplace; at home,
their moods lightened, in part because non-work time provided a source of
leisure for them. Even when men performed housework or childcare, how-
ever, their moods during these tasks were more positive than was the case for
their wives when they performed the same activities. Larson and Richards
(1994) proposed that housework and child care elicit a more positive reac-
tion from husbands than wives because it is seen as voluntary work by hus-
bands. Men get involved when they are in the mood, and their efforts are
noted and appreciated by wives, but wives are expected to handle these tasks
whether or not they are in the mood to do them.
Much research on emotional transmission across the work–family inter-
face has focused on stress. In a pioneering study, for example, Bolger et al.
(1989) found an increased probability of arguments with spouse (but not
children) after days in which the husband had had arguments at work. For
wives, in contrast, there was no association between arguments at work and
arguments with husbands (or children). Repetti (1989) examined the con-
nections between work-induced stress and parents’ behavior at home using
a somewhat different strategy. She zeroed in on air traffic controllers, an oc-
cupation that is notoriously stressful, to take advantage of daily FAA records
of work conditions and demands. Twenty seven air traffic controllers, all
parents, completed daily reports on work stress and parent–child interac-
tions on three consecutive days. Repetti found that parents tended to be
more socially withdrawn and less emotionally expressive on days when work
had been stressful.
To follow up Repetti’s findings about parental withdrawal following
stressful work days, Repetti and Wood (1997) collected mood data at the
end of mothers’ work shifts and self-report and observational parenting
data during subsequent mother–child reunions at work-site child care cen-
ters. Consistent with their expectations, they found that mothers of pre-
schoolers were more likely to withdraw from their children, both emotion-
ally and behaviorally, on days during which they had experienced either
overloads or negative interpersonal interactions at work. Interestingly,
stress on the job generally was not followed by aversive mother–child inter-
action. Indeed, Repetti and Wood found some evidence in the observa-
tional component of their study that mothers were somewhat more patient
with their children after high stress work days, a pattern they interpreted as
part of the package of emotional and behavioral withdrawal. The extent to
which mothers were able to refrain from engaging in negative interaction
depended, however, on the mother’s own general level of psychosocial
functioning. Mothers characterized as high on Type A behavior were less
able to refrain from interacting negatively with their children than were
mothers with low scores on that measure. This finding is a good reminder
that the effects of work conditions on parents are not uniform but undoubt-
edly depend on the individual strengths and vulnerabilities that parents
bring to their work and family situations (Perry-Jenkins, Repetti, & Crouter,
2000).
A handful of studies has examined the connections between parents’

global reports of stress or pressure on the job and parenting (see review by
Crouter & Bumpus, 2001). This approach relies on mothers’ and fathers’
reports of their general levels of stress or pressure on the job, moving away
from a focus on day-to-day variability in work conditions to generalizations
about typical conditions. Crouter, Bumpus, Maguire, and McHale (1999),
for example, examined the connections between mothers’ and fathers’ per-
ceptions of work pressure (e.g., deadlines, fast pace) and conflict with their
adolescents. They found that parental work pressure was linked to parents’
feeling of being overloaded and that reports of overload in turn positively
predicted parent–adolescent conflict. Unlike the literature on daily stress
which suggests a pattern of parental withdrawal under high stress condi-
tions, the literature on global work stress suggests a series of interrelated ef-
fects, much like a series of dominos. Work pressure exacerbates feelings of
overload which in turn increase the likelihood of engaging in conflict with
adolescent offspring.
In the future, researchers should consider asking questions that cut
across the various areas we have reviewed here. For example, does emo-
tional transmission from work to the family differ as a function of how re-
sponsive (formally or informally) the workplace is to family issues? Do sup-
portive relationships at work buffer mothers’ and fathers’ parenting from
the potentially negative effects of work-related pressure and stress?
THROUGH THE LENS OF THE FAMILY:

PARENTING IN DUAL-EARNER FAMILIES
The second way researchers have examined the opportunities and con-
straints that working outside the home presents to parents pays little atten-
tion to the nature of the work that parents perform or to the setting in
which that work is done but focuses instead on variations in family lifestyles
as a function of parents’ work-related choices. The first generation of stud-
ies in this area focused on the implications for two-parent families of having
one or two parents working outside the home by comparing family proc-
esses or child outcomes in single-earner versus dual-earner families (see re-
view by Bronfenbrenner & Crouter, 1982). Early studies in this tradition
were often explicitly or implicitly designed to illuminate the potentially
negative effects of maternal employment for parenting and, in turn, for
children. We will briefly touch on this literature.
In recent years, however, the focus of this genre has shifted rather dra-
matically. As more and more mothers have moved into the paid labor force,
with the concomitant trend that dual-earner families have become the most
common form of two-parent family (Hernandez, 1997), and as the dual-
earner lifestyle has become more widely accepted, researchers have paid
less attention to maternal employment status and more attention to how
much time mothers and fathers are spending at work. Like the old litera-
ture on employment status, the concern underlying some of the research
on mothers’ and fathers’ work time is that long hours represent a risk factor
for children because they reduce parents’ temporal and (some worry) emo-
tional availability to their children. As will be seen, however, the empirical
evidence provides mixed support for these ideas.
Mothers’ Employment and Work Hours
If we look simply at how much time parents spend with their children, the
general picture is that, although there are minimal differences in involve-
ment for mothers as a function of their employment status, maternal em-
ployment has the effect of pulling fathers into a more active parenting role.
Demographer Bianchi (2000) examined children’s time with their par-
ents from 1981 to 1997 and concluded that there has been surprisingly little
change in the amount of time that mothers spend with their children across
that period. In addition, she summarized evidence from several national
studies showing that, after controlling for many of the variables that reflect
parents’ tendencies to select (or be selected) into one lifestyle or another,
employed mothers today spend only slightly less time with their offspring,
overall, than homemaker mothers do. The differences are modest. Bianchi
suggests that rather than taking time away from parenting, employed moth-
ers cut back “in other areas, reallocating priorities to protect time with
children” (Bianchi, 2000, p. 406). Specifically, she notes that, during the
historical period she studied, employed mothers reduced time spent in
housework, volunteer work, personal care, leisure time, and even sleep!
Given that there are only small differences in maternal involvement with
children as a function of earner status, it is perhaps not surprising that
there is little consistent evidence that maternal employment has positive or
negative implications for children’s development. In an analysis of data
from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth, Parcel and Menaghan
(1994) reported that, holding a variety of possible confounding variables
constant, mothers’ work hours have few consistent, direct effects on young
children’s cognitive and social outcomes, a conclusion underscored by
Harvey’s (1999) analyses of the same data set. In her review of the litera-
ture, Bianchi (2000) noted bits of evidence here and there that maternal
employment may have some negative effects, for example in the first year of
life or for children in certain family situations, but she underscored the
paucity of significant outcomes for children:
. . . given the effort that has been devoted to searching for negative effects of
maternal employment on children’s academic achievement and emotional
adjustment, coupled with the scarcity of findings (either positive or negative),
it would appear that the dramatic movement into the labor force by women of
childbearing age in the United States has been accomplished with relatively
little consequence for children. (p. 401)
A number of studies document that fathers in dual-earner families in-

crease their involvement with their children quite substantially when their
wives hold jobs outside the home (Bianchi, 2000; Coltrane, 1996; Crouter,
Helms-Erikson, Updegraff, & McHale, 1999). Bianchi (2000) summarized
evidence that the time fathers contribute to childcare (relative to their
wives) increased between 1965 and 1998. The factors that pull fathers into
greater levels of involvement are complex and depend on a variety of other
family circumstances in addition to the wife’s work status and work hours.
Coltrane (1996) reported, for example, that men increased their involve-
ment in caring for their preschool aged children when they were employed
fewer hours, had more children, held less traditional attitudes about gen-
der roles, and when they became fathers at an older age.
The tendency for mothers’ involvement in paid work to pull fathers into a
more active caregiving role is mirrored in research on parents’ knowledge of
their children’s daily activities. The construct of parental knowledge reflects
the extent to which parents are informed on a daily basis about their chil-
dren’s activities, whereabouts, and companions (see review by Crouter &
Head, 2002). Sometimes referred to as parental monitoring, parental knowl-
edge is an important indicator of parenting, especially as children move into
the school-age and adolescent years and spend less time in direct involve-
ment in activities with their parents and more time with peers. Numerous
studies indicate that children and adolescents tend to engage in higher levels
of problem behavior when their parents are less informed about their daily
experiences (Crouter & Head, 2002). Stattin and Kerr (2000; Kerr & Stattin,
2000, 2003), however, raised important questions about the direction of ef-
fect between parental knowledge and children’s problem behavior. Al-
though the field has tended to assume that children react poorly because
their parents are out of touch and ill-informed, the arrow may go the other
way: children who misbehave may tend to keep information from their par-
ents. Indeed, in Stattin and Kerr’s (2000) analysis of Swedish data, youths’
tendency to self-disclose to their parents was a more powerful predictor of pa-
rental knowledge than was parents’ solicitation (i.e., asking questions about
their children’s experiences and peer associations).
Regardless of the exact nature of these causal associations, parents’ work
involvement is related to parents’ knowledge of their children’s activities,
whereabouts, and companions. Crouter et al. (1999) reported that, not sur-
prisingly, mothers of school-aged children are more knowledgeable about
their children’s daily lives than fathers are. They also found that, although
mothers did not differ in knowledge as a function of their level of involve-
ment in paid work, fathers married to women who worked longer hours
were more knowledgeable than their counterparts whose wives worked few
hours.
Fathers’ tendencies to respond to their wives’ longer work hours with
greater parental involvement and parental knowledge is suggested in a
short-term longitudinal study conducted by Crouter and McHale (1993b)
that capitalized on seasonal variability in mothers’ work involvement. Using
data on time use and daily parental knowledge collected during a series of
evening telephone interviews with parents and children, they compared
mothers and fathers at three time points: the school year, the following
summer when children were not in school, and the following school year.
They divided families into three groups on the basis of stability or change in
mothers’ work hours (all fathers were employed full-time). The three
groups were (a) consistently dual-earner (both parents employed at all
three time points); (b) consistently single-earner (fathers were consistently
employed outside the home and their wives were employed very little or not
at all); and (c) a group in which parents both worked during the school
year but mothers cut their work hours way back or ceased working at all
during the summer months. In comparison to the first two groups which
were marked by stability in parents’ work time the third group of families
was characterized by substantial change from the winter to the summer in
parenting processes. The division of parenting between mothers and fa-
thers became significantly more traditional in the summer and then re-
turned to a more egalitarian arrangement during the subsequent school
year. In addition, although the fathers in the consistently dual-earner
group maintained a relatively high level of knowledge about their chil-
dren’s daily activities throughout all three occasions of measurement, fa-
thers in the group in which mothers cut way back in work involvement in
the summer dropped substantially in their levels of knowledge in the sum-
mer months and recovered again in the subsequent school year when
mothers had returned to their prior levels of involvement in paid work.
Fathers’ Employment and Work Hours
In comparison to the literature on maternal employment and work hours,

less attention has been paid to fathers’ work hours and the implications for
parenting, probably because paternal employment is often seen as a given;
being the good provider is an integral part of being a husband and father.
On average, fathers work longer hours than mothers do ( Jacobs & Gerson,
1998, 2001), so presumably there are more examples at the high end of fa-
thers putting in extraordinarily long work weeks than of mothers doing so,
but, with a few exceptions, paternal long hours have generally not been
conceptualized as a social issue worthy of concern.
Parcel and Menaghan (1994) reported that, controlling for a variety of
background and individual characteristics and for baseline levels of the
quality of the home environment, the quality of children’s home environ-
ments deteriorated over a two-year period when fathers worked part-time.
This finding may reflect part-time employed men’s tenuous position in the
labor force. Parcel and Menaghan (1994) also underscored the importance
of looking at the combination of fathers’ and mothers’ work hours, noting
that when both parents held part-time work schedules they provided their
children with lower quality home environments than was the case when
only one parent worked part-time. Likewise, they found that the combina-
tion of two parents working overtime was associated with higher levels of
problem behavior in children and lower levels of verbal competence (i.e.,
vocabulary) than was the case when only one parent worked overtime. In
households in which both parents are putting in long hours, it may be
harder to maintain consistent limit-setting, interact positively and contin-
gently with children, and find time for conversations, story telling, songs,
and other forms of verbal stimulation.
Crouter et al. (1999) found no connection between fathers’ work hours
and either fathers’ or mothers’ knowledge of their children’s daily experi-
ences. This may be due to the fact that fathers have a variety of different
sources of information about their children’s daily lives. Indeed, Bumpus
and Crouter (2003) developed a typology of fathers based on their sources
of knowledge about their children’s daily experiences. One group of fa-
thers was characterized by high levels of reliance on wives and other chil-
dren in the family. Interestingly, these fathers tended to work long hours
and to have close marital relationships. Mothers and fathers in two-parent
families may catch their partners up on child-oriented events, another way
in which children are buffered from the effects of long work hours. Under
some conditions, however, long paternal work hours may erode the quality
of father–child relationships. Crouter, Bumpus, Head, and McHale (2001)
examined the connections among fathers’ overwork (defined as paid em-
ployment of more than 60 hours a week), overload (e.g., fathers’ subjective
perceptions of being overwhelmed by having too much to do), and fathers’
and adolescents’ reports of the quality of their relationship. They found no
associations between overwork or overload and the sheer amount of time
fathers spent with their adolescent offspring in daily activities, data gath-
ered through a series of seven evening telephone interviews about time use.
In contrast, the combination of long paternal work hours and high paternal
overload was consistently related to both fathers’ and adolescents’ subjec-
tive reports of lower levels of acceptance and perspective-taking and higher

levels of conflict in their relationship. In other words, on their own, fathers’
work hours were not related to the quality of father–adolescent relation-
ships, but, coupled with high levels of subjective strain, they were linked to
less positive father–adolescent relationship quality, as seen both by fathers
and their sons and daughters. It is not possible to ascertain, however,
whether fathers’ hours exerted strain on the relationship or whether, in the
face of less than positive father–adolescent relations, fathers increased their
work hours. Both scenarios are possible.
Since the publication of the first edition of Parenting: An Ecological Per-
spective (Luster & Okagaki, 1993), there is a consensus that maternal em-
ployment in and of itself does not represent a risk factor for children. That
does not mean, however, that future researchers should ignore the chal-
lenges men and women confront when they form a dual-earner family. In
the conclusion of her presidential address to the Population of Association
of America, Bianchi (2000) came to this sobering assessment:
My one concern is that I have given the impression that women have found it
quite easy to balance increased labor force participation with child rearing, to
reduce hours of employment so as to juggle childcare, and to get their hus-
bands more involved in child rearing; and that fathers have found it easy to
add more hours with children to those they already commit to supporting
children financially. I do not think these changes have been easy for Ameri-
can families, particularly for American women. (p. 412)
Bianchi’s words echo the thoughts of Davis (1984), another demographer,

who wrote about similar issues about 20 years ago. In his words:
A century may seem a long time, but it is a short time to alter the basic struc-
ture of an institution. The new egalitarian system of sex roles still lacks norma-
tive guidelines. Each couple has to work out its own arrangement which
means in practice a great deal of experimentation and failure. (p. 413)
CONCLUSIONS
For dual-earner families, mother’s job and father’s job constitute an impor-
tant exosystem for the developing child. Scholars interested in the interre-
lationship between work and parenting have taken quite different ap-
proaches depending upon whether their focus is that of work, and the
roles, activities, and relationships associated with employment, or family
and the parenting dynamics associated with that context. Work influences
childrearing via its effects on parents’ views of the world, the opportunities
and constraints jobs pose for parents who need to balance multiple roles,
and the daily stresses (and exhilarations) of the work day that shape par-
ents’ emotional states as they leave their workplaces to resume their parent-
ing roles. All three levels are important; the next challenge is to design re-
search that bridges two or more. A second general approach researchers
have taken to examining work and family life has been to focus primarily on
whether and how family processes, such as parent–child involvement, pa-
rental knowledge, and parent–child closeness, differ in families that vary in
terms of parents’ connections to the paid labor force. Both perspectives are
needed, alone and in tandem, to inform the next generation of research in
this area.
A challenge for the future is to design studies that look in detail at the
implications for parenting and parent–child relationships of the combina-
tion of mothers’ and fathers’ work situations. This means taking a dyadic
approach to the study of work and parenting in two-parent families (see
Crouter & Helms-Erikson, 1997). This can be done in at least two ways. A
variable-oriented approach is to create interaction terms that combine vari-
ables reflecting “his and her” occupational conditions (e.g., Parcel & Men-
aghan, 1994). A pattern-analytic approach is to create typologies based on
the patterning of mothers’ and fathers’ work characteristics (e.g., Bumpus,
Crouter, & McHale, 1999; Crouter & Manke, 1997), using a statistical pro-
cedure like cluster analysis. Once interesting family groups have been iden-
tified and described, they can be examined in relation to parenting and
parent–child relationships. Dyadic approaches will get us closer to a more
holistic understanding of the diverse ecologies that are included under the
rubric of dual-earner families—and hence to a more detailed, nuanced un-
derstanding of the work and family contexts of child development.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We are grateful for the many insights provided by our current and former
graduate students, Tom Luster, Lynn Okagaki, and Marc Bornstein, as well
as for sustained funding for our work from the National Institute of Child
Health and Human Development.
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10
Neighborhood and Community

Influences on Parenting
James Garbarino
Cornell University
Catherine P. Bradshaw
Johns Hopkins University
Kathleen Kostelny
Erikson Institute for Advanced Study in Child Development
INTRODUCTION
Families are, to a certain degree, “open systems,” and are thus influenced
by the larger social context (Bronfenbrenner, 1986; Furstenberg, Cook,
Eccles, Elder, & Sameroff, 1999; Leventhal & Brooks-Gunn, 2000; Minu-
chin, 1974; Stinnett, Chesser, & DeFrain, 1979). Families and environ-
ments continually negotiate and re-negotiate their relationships, each in-
fluencing, changing, and depending on the other. Although the effects
are usually neither simple nor direct, there is a constant shifting and
evolving interplay among the child’s biology, the environment, and the
parents’ behavior. Consequently, the success of parents to a great extent
depends on the difficulties posed by the children and the degree to which
the social environment is toxic or nurturing to both children and their
parents (Collins, Maccoby, Steinberg, Hetherington, & Bornstein, 2000;
Garbarino, 1995). This interaction is particularly important to consider
when examining how neighborhoods and communities influence parent-
ing behaviors in modern societies.
In this chapter, we examine several aspects of neighborhoods and com-
munities that have the potential to influence parents and the children they
rear. We review some of the consequences of living in high-risk environ-
ments for both children and parents. A crucial indicator of successful
parenting and family functioning is the absence of child maltreatment;
297
298 GARBARINO, BRADSHAW, KOSTELNY
thus, it is important to consider how environmental factors can either sup-

port or work against high-risk parents (Garbarino & Crouter, 1978a; Gar-
barino & Sherman, 1980; Steinberg, Catalano, & Dooley, 1981). We follow
with a discussion of some of the ways parents—both successfully and unsuc-
cessfully—modify or adapt their parenting behavior to combat socially
toxic forces (e.g., poverty, violence) present in the community and neigh-
borhood. We also consider how the promotion of individual, family,
school, and community based assets is associated with positive youth devel-
opment. Because it is important to harness the strengths of parents and
their communities when creating and implementing programs intended to
benefit families, we conclude with a discussion of strategies for supporting
parents in high-risk communities through programs and policies.
NEIGHBORHOOD AND COMMUNITY INFLUENCES

ON FAMILIES
On the individual level, we know that one of the most important functions
of parents is to provide stability and security. Parents are or should be a se-
cure emotional base from which their children and adolescents explore the
environment (Allen & Land, 1999). Similarly, parents serve as emotional
and social buffers by creating boundaries for their children and deciding
how permeable the boundaries will be to the flow of information, energy,
and people in and out of the family system (Garbarino, 1995). Although
parents play a significant role in promoting healthy development, socially
toxic forces present in many American communities are often working
against the goals of parents and impeding positive youth development.
Parenting and the Concentration of Poverty

The increasing number of high-risk families in a geographically concen-
trated underclass is exerting dramatic influences on the needs and the
competence of many parents (Lehmann, 1986; Wilson, 1987, 1996). The
concentration of poor families is relevant to parenting because it means
that a disproportionately low percentage of parents are “free from drain”
(Collins & Pancoast, 1976) and a high concentration of “needy” parents liv-
ing in high-risk neighborhoods. Chronic impoverishment poses a serious
threat to child welfare, but so does acute, episodic impoverishment—the
much more common variety in the American system. Many researchers pro-
ject that, unless there is some dramatic change in demography, policy, and
the structure of the economy, one in four young children will continue to
live in poverty. This trend appears particularly relevant to children living in
single-parent households (Garbarino & Bedard, 2001), for single parent-
hood is a major correlate if not a direct cause of poverty. Furthermore,
10. NEIGHBORHOOD AND COMMUNITY INFLUENCES ON PARENTING 299
nearly 50% of children in America will live in a single-parent household at

some point before turning eighteen, thus, single parenting is a feature of
life for nearly half of all children (Amato, 2000).
Although there is considerable debate about the exact process by which
poverty serves as a threat to parenting, there is consensus that acute eco-
nomic deprivation represents a challenge to the coping resources of individ-
uals, families, and communities (Klebanov, Brooks-Gunn, & Duncan, 1994;
Wilson, 1991, 1996). Data from the nearly 900 families involved in the Infant
Health and Development Program illustrate how the influences of neighbor-
hood-level poverty differ from family level poverty (Klebanov et al., 1994).
Even after controlling for family level poverty, neighborhood poverty was as-
sociated with less parental warmth and responsiveness, and a diminished
quality of the home physical environment (e.g., unsafe play area, dimly
lighted home interior). In contrast, family level risk factors (e.g., poverty,
lower education, female-headed household), but not neighborhood-level
factors, were associated with a diminished home learning environment (e.g.,
fewer developmentally appropriate educational toys). These findings pro-
vided some of the first empirical evidence of the process by which neighbor-
hood poverty influences parenting behaviors, such as maternal characteris-
tics and quality of the home environment provided by the parent or parents.
Unemployment is common among inner-city neighborhoods and com-
pounds the effects of poverty. As Wilson describes in When Work Disappears
(1996), there is a qualitative difference between being both poor and un-
employed, from being poor but employed; for those with employment,
there is the hope of greater economic stability and a more favorable set of
attitudes and values regarding work, family, and community. As with the in-
fluence of poverty on parenting, the connection between unemployment
and youth development crisis is mainly indirect (Wilson, 1991, 1995, 1996).
Unemployment tends to diminish resources and precipitate problems in
children’s mental health and welfare, which presumably occurs through its
effects on parents. Furthermore, male identity and parental status have tra-
ditionally been tied to occupational position, and unemployment dimin-
ishes that identity and can lead to role ambiguity, or even outright conflict
in the family (Wilson, 1996).
The fact that employment is the principal source of basic health and wel-
fare services only adds to the psychological and financial effects of unem-
ployment. Unemployment thus simultaneously increases the vulnerability
of children and decreases the likelihood that parents will attend and re-
spond effectively to their children. This is particularly important for par-
ents who are marginally employed and operate “one paycheck away from
disaster.” Their financial reserves are minimal or nonexistent.
Another consequence of deteriorating economic conditions is highly
concentrated pockets of poverty, characterized by a high proportion (e.g.,
40% or more) of parents falling below the poverty level (Wilson, 1996).
Studies indicate that child abuse and infant mortality rates are significantly
higher in poverty stricken neighborhoods than in unafflicted communities.
In Chicago, for example, the rates of child abuse in the poorest neighbor-
hoods were four times higher than in the more affluent areas, and for in-
fant mortality, the rate was higher by a factor of five (Garbarino, Dubrow,
Kostelny, & Pardo, 1992). In the following section, we discuss research on
child victimization and the numerous challenges posed to parents who live
in high-risk communities as they struggle to keep their children physically
safe while promoting positive youth development.
Community Influences on Child Victimization

and Infant Mortality
Child victimization is a global concern and has even been characterized as a

public health epidemic in the United States (Bell & Jenkins, 1993; Osofsky,
1997). The rate of violent victimization of children aged 12 to 17 in the
United States is nearly three times that for adults (Snyder & Sickmund,
1995). The murder rate of juveniles increased 66% between 1985 and 1995
and the greatest increase was for older children. In 1997, approximately six
juveniles were murdered each day in the United States, of which 70% were
male and 47% were African American (Snyder & Sickmund, 1999). The
number of juvenile murders reached its peak at 2,900 in 1993 (Sickmund,
Snyder, & Poe-Yamagata, 1997), but has been declining since the mid-1990s
(U.S. Department of Justice, 2002).
Whereas children over age 12 are more likely to be killed by someone
other than a family member (95%), younger children are more likely to be
killed by family members (57%) (National Clearinghouse on Child Abuse
and Neglect Information, 2003; Sickmund et al., 1997). An estimated 1,300
children died in the U.S. in 2001 as the result of maltreatment (National
Clearinghouse on Child Abuse and Neglect Information, 2003). Approxi-
mately one million cases of child maltreatment are substantiated each year;
however, the National Incidence Study of Child Abuse and Neglect esti-
mates that the actual rate is nearly three times that number (Sedlak &
Broadhurst, 1996). In 2001, approximately 60% of the substantiated cases
were for physical neglect, 19% for physical abuse, 10% for sexual abuse,
and 7% for emotional or psychological maltreatment (U.S. Department of
Health and Human Services, 2003).
Risk is more than simply the sum of child victimization rates, for there
are two meanings of risk (Garbarino & Crouter, 1978b; Garbarino & Kostel-
ny, 1992). In identifying high- and low-risk areas for child victimization, it is
important to consider not only the absolute victimization rates (based on
actual incidence in a given population), but also the rates of victimization
that are higher or lower than would be expected in that community (given
its socioeconomic and demographic composition). For example, consider
two communities which have the same actual child maltreatment rates.
One community might be labeled high-risk because its rate exceeds what it
should be given its socioeconomic and demographic characteristics. In con-
trast, the other would be labeled low-risk because the rate is lower than ex-
pected, given its socioeconomic and demographic profile.
Building on this model, Garbarino and Kostelny (1992) examined com-
munity level factors as possible explanations for different patterns of infant
mortality in Chicago’s 77 communities during the mid-1980s. They pre-
dicted infant mortality rates for each community by computing a multiple
regression analysis with nine socioeconomic and demographic variables,
and then compared the predicted rates with the actual rates. Not surpris-
ingly, there was a strong correlation between economically impoverished
communities and high rates of infant mortality. However, closer examina-
tion of the data indicated more complex associations between other com-
munity level variables and infant mortality. Rates of infant mortality in 4 of
the 77 communities were not adequately explained by either socioeco-
nomic and demographic variables or the additional factors of low birth
weight and births to teens. In these neighborhoods, idiosyncratic commu-
nity factors, such as participation in the community’s prenatal class, parent-
ing education and support programs were associated with lower rates of in-
fant mortality, whereas barriers to medical care, such as a hospital closure,
were associated with higher rates.
This approach of comparing actual risks with expected risks illustrates
how institutional policies and the concentration of poverty can have a nega-
tive influence on parents and childbearing. Conditions within poor com-
munities (e.g., hospital closings) can exacerbate the problems faced by par-
ents and increase the risk for children. In contrast, programs (e.g.,
community prenatal classes) for parents living in some impoverished com-
munities have the potential to strengthen and support families, thereby re-
ducing the actual risk of infant mortality. Comparing communities with
similar predicted rates of risk factors, but different actual rates can provide
useful insights for the development of intervention strategies in high-risk
neighborhoods (Garbarino & Kostelny, 1992).
THE CHALLENGE TO PARENTS
The statistics on child and youth victimization summarized above illustrate

the challenges posed to many children and parents who live in high-risk com-
munities. These challenges can vary significantly and dramatically by neigh-
borhood. Some communities have much more than their share of child vic-
tims. Approximately one quarter of all juvenile murders in the United States
occur in only five out of the nearly 3,000 U.S. counties—these five counties
include the cities of Los Angeles, Chicago, New York, Philadelphia, and De-
troit (Sickmund et al., 1997). Poor, inner-city, minority neighborhoods are
the sites for most of these murders and serious assaults. For example, the ho-
micide rate in Chicago hovers around 22 per 100,000 and 17 for Los Angeles,
when the national rate is only about 5.5 (Federal Bureau of Investigation,
n.d.). Consequently, some children and their parents face environmental vi-
olence on a weekly, if not daily, basis. One study of children living in Chicago
in the inner-city communities indicated that by age 17, 30% of the children
had witnessed a homicide (Bell & Jenkins, 1991).
It is clear that children are sensitive and responsive to stressors in their
environments; however, what parents do and say to their children can me-
diate these influences (Garbarino et al., 1992; Furstenberg et al., 1999). To
a large degree, the effect of stressful neighborhoods and communities on
children is influenced by the impact of that stress on the parents, most no-
tably on mothers. Children in the care of their parents or familiar parent
substitutes can cope with stressful life circumstances if parents are able to
maintain their day-to-day routines, project high morale, and continue to be
responsive to their children’s basic physical and emotional needs (Richters
& Martinez, 1993).
Parents’ Own Emotional Responses to Stressful

Environments
The way children respond to community violence depends at least in part

on how their parents respond (Garbarino et al., 1992). Research and clini-
cal observations indicate that parents’ response to stress and trauma are
one of the best predictors of how children will respond (Freud &
Burlingham, 1943; Furstenberg et al., 1999; Groves, 2002; Osofsky, 1995).
As long as parents are not pushed beyond their “stress absorption capacity,”
children will continue to cope with difficult environments. But once a par-
ent’s stress absorption capacity is exceeded, the well-being of young chil-
dren deteriorates rapidly and markedly. These parents tend to deny or mis-
interpret their children’s signals and needs, and thus are emotionally
unavailable to their children. When parents begin to deteriorate or panic
in response to stress and community violence, children suffer, as parents
who are traumatized seldom offer their children what they need to cope
successfully with these experiences (Osofsky, 1995). Without effective inter-
vention or adaptation, day-to-day care breaks down and the risk of infant
mortality, exploitation, or victimization increases.
Parents forced to cope with chronic danger in their community may
adapt in ways that are dysfunctional for themselves and their families. The
psychopathological dimensions of such adaptation are now widely recog-

nized and can include Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) (Garbarino
et al., 1992). The social dimensions are equally worthy of attention. Parents
may cope with danger by adopting a world-view or persona that may be dys-
functional in nonviolent or normal situations. Some adaptations to chronic
danger, such as emotional withdrawal or hypervigilance, may be socially
adaptive in the short run, but become a danger to the next generation,
when their children become parents. This response has been observed in
studies of families of Holocaust survivors (Danieli, 1985) and in the
parenting patterns of individuals who were abused as children (Egeland &
Farber, 1984; Gelles & Lancaster, 1987).
Even in the absence of this intergenerational process, parental adapta-
tions to dangerous environments may produce childrearing strategies that
impede moral, social, or cognitive development. For example, a mother
who does not allow her child to play on the floor because there is poison on
the floor to kill the rats that infest the apartment may deprive the child of
important opportunities for exploratory play. Likewise, a parent who pro-
hibits the child from playing outside for fear of shooting incidents may be
denying the child a chance to engage in social and athletic play, as an unde-
sirable side effect of protecting the child from assault.
In more extreme environmental circumstances, studies indicate that
parents living in urban areas may attempt to compensate for the unpredict-
ability of their environment by setting greater restrictions on their chil-
dren’s behavior and using a slightly domineering or authoritarian parent-
ing style, which sometimes includes the threat of physical punishment
(Deater-Deckard, Dodge, Bates, & Pettit, 1996; Dunifon & Kowaleski-Jones,
2002; DuRant, Cadenhead, Pendergrast, Slavens, & Linder, 1994; Fursten-
berg et al., 1999; Leventhal & Brooks-Gunn, 2003). For example, interviews
with mothers rearing children in the public housing projects of inner-city
Chicago during the 1980s indicate that these mothers reported being more
restrictive with their children and adolescents because they were concerned
about their children’s safety. These mothers stated that this was the only
way they felt they could protect their children from the widespread gang ac-
tivity and gunfire that was characteristic of their neighborhood (Dubrow &
Garbarino, 1989). More recent studies indicate that these views and corre-
sponding restrictive parenting behaviors are still prevalent among mothers
living in public housing projects (Leventhal & Brooks-Gunn, 2003; Ry-
mond-Richmond, 2003).
It is clear that these parents have good intentions and are struggling to
ensure the physical well-being of their children, but at what cost? There is
no empirical evidence indicating that authoritarian parenting and harsh
parenting strategies (including the threat of physical punishment) are nec-
essarily more effective in these contexts. To the contrary, previous research
has shown that overly restrictive and controlling parenting practices are as-
sociated with increased behavior problems and greater affiliation with devi-
ant peers among adolescents and pre-adolescents (Brody et al., 2001). This
finding is particularly important, since several studies have shown that asso-
ciation with deviant peers is major risk factor for aggressive and delinquent
behavior during adolescence (for a review see Thornberry & Krohn, 1997).
It also illustrates the transactional nature of parenting, whereby ineffective
parenting behavior leaves an open door to the influences of deviant peers
(Patterson, DeBaryshe, & Ramsey, 1989).
An overly restrictive parenting style also likely heightens aggression on
the child’s part and models aggressive responses to threat. More restrictive
parenting practices do appear to be somewhat effective in terms of reduc-
ing delinquency for younger African American children, but only when
coupled with high levels of maternal warmth (Dunifon & Kowalski-Jones,
2002; Mason, Cauce, Gonzales, Hiraga, & Grove, 1994). Although these ef-
fects do not appear to hold for European American children, they remind
us that the emotional context of any parenting behavior is extremely im-
portant (Steinberg, 2001).
In these examples, the parental adaptation was likely well-intentioned
and may have appeared to be practically sensible, but its side effects may be
detrimental in the long run. Attempts to shield the child from negative
forces by punitive restrictiveness is generally much less successful as a strat-
egy than expressing confidence in the child’s capacities and promoting
positive alternatives to the negative subculture feared by the parent
(Scheinfeld, 1983). In the following section, we consider some of the other
more successful strategies that parents use to mediate the negative influ-
ences of high-risk communities.
Mediating Environmental Influences
It is clear that the negative physical and psychological consequences of liv-

ing in high-risk neighborhoods are great for both parents and children.
There are however, strategies that individual parents, as well as communi-
ties, can utilize to cope with these problems and to minimize the negative
developmental consequences for children. Several studies have shown that
parents can—to a certain degree—alter their parenting behavior to com-
pensate for the toxicity of their children’s social environments (Beyers,
Bates, Pettit & Dodge, 2003; Dishion & McMahon, 1998; Furstenberg et al.,
1999; Garbarino, 1995).
Enhanced parental monitoring strategies, such as tracking and attend-
ing to the child’s activities and whereabouts, are one way parents appear to
be adapting to the risks posed by their environment. Well-monitored youth
are at decreased risk for smoking, using drugs and alcohol, engaging in
risky sexual behavior, becoming antisocial or delinquent, and socializing

with deviant peers (Dishion & McMahon, 1998; Kerr & Stattin, 2000; Patter-
son & Stouthamer-Loeber, 1984). Although monitoring appears to be a
protective factor, longitudinal studies indicate that parental monitoring
typically decreases as youth become engaged in problem and delinquent
behaviors (Paternoster, 1988). These youth are more difficult to monitor
and less likely to disclose their activities and whereabouts to their parents.
These and other similar studies suggest that certain youth are easier to
monitor and may be more amenable to their parents’ efforts at monitoring
than others (Kerr & Stattin, 2000; Laird, Pettit, Dodge, & Bates, 2003). Pa-
rental monitoring appears to be most effective if initiated early and consis-
tently throughout childhood and adolescence, rather than spontaneously
after the youth has become delinquent or involved with drugs.
The effectiveness of parenting behaviors depends, to some extent, on
the emotional context in which they occur (Laird et al., 2003). Related re-
search indicates that it may be the youths’ disclosure to the parents rather
than parental monitoring that has the greatest impact on their problem be-
havior (Kerr & Stattin, 2000). Furthermore, youth who are securely at-
tached to their parents are most likely to disclose to their parents (Armsden
& Greenberg, 1987). This association illustrates the importance and pro-
found effects of a secure parent–infant bond—one which is characterized
by high levels of warmth, consistency, and responsiveness. Not only are se-
cure attachments in early childhood associated with positive youth and par-
ent relationships during adolescence, but they also are associated with posi-
tive social–emotional development and reduced stress reactivity for the
youth (Sroufe, 1989).
More generally, an authoritative parenting style—including firmness,
warmth, and psychological autonomy granting—is most effective for pro-
moting positive behavior in children and adolescents (Baumrind, 1966;
Steinberg, 2001). There also appear to be indirect effects of authoritative
parenting which operate through peers, such that a youth may benefit simply
from having friends whose parents are authoritative. It is likely that many of
the positive attitudes and behaviors are passed onto the children of authori-
tative parents. More specifically, many of the qualities of an authoritative par-
ent are also desirable in a good friend, such as being consistent and reliable
(i.e., firm), supportive (i.e., warm), and being accepting and tolerant of indi-
vidual or cultural differences (i.e., autonomy granting; Steinberg, 2001).
Moreover, an entire community of authoritative parents also appears to have
a cumulative effect, whereby the community has mutually agreed on norms
of acceptable behavior for youth, and enforces and expects those behaviors
in all youth (Fletcher, Darling, Steinberg, & Dornbusch, 1995).
Large-scale longitudinal studies have shown that neighbors’ willingness
to intervene on behalf of the common good is associated with reduced com-
munity violence (Sampson, Morenoff, & Earls, 1999; Sampson, Rauden-

bush, & Earls, 1997). This type of group effort requires that parents let go
of the “American value” of individualism, a value which promotes closed
family systems. Parents’ effectiveness increases dramatically if they join
forces with other parents to set norms and enforce expectations of accept-
able behavior. In addition to establishing norms of parenting behaviors,
adults should be willing to intervene when these norms are not meet. An
example comes from the 161% increase in the number of maltreatment re-
ports filed between 1980 and 1996. This dramatic jump in the number of
cases reported is attributable, at least in part, to increased public awareness
of the negative consequences of maltreatment and a greater willingness
among adults to report suspected incidents (Sickmund et al., 1997).
The broader context also influences parents and parenting behaviors
(Leventhal & Brooks-Gunn, 2000). Communities that are high in collective
efficacy produce a carry over effect to individual children (Brody et al.,
2001; Sampson et al., 1999; Sampson et al., 1997), which may help compen-
sate—to some degree—for a less effective parent. This may be why some re-
searchers (e.g., Harris, 1998) have argued that for low-risk children living
in low-risk environments, slight variations in parenting behaviors only have
a limited influence. However, this does not mean that parents do not mat-
ter in low-risk environments. Successful parenting behaviors appear to be
particularly important when there are few neighborhood-level resources
(e.g., low collective efficacy, social support) and many risks (e.g., neighbor-
hood disorder, and high concentration of unemployed, low-SES residents;
Beyers et al., 2003; Brody et al., 2001; Ceballo & McLoyd, 2002).
In contrast, there is a “double whammy” effect for children who live in
communities with low social resources and have parents with poor parent-
ing practices (Beyers et al., 2003; Brody et al., 2001). Under these condi-
tions, children are at greatest risk for developing problem behaviors. One
large-scale community based program has attempted to ameliorate the neg-
ative effects of neighborhood risks, such as low collective efficacy and high
concentration of poverty, and better identify the mechanism by which
neighborhoods influence both parents and children.
Moving to Opportunities Housing Demonstration Program. Moving to Op-

portunities (MTO) is a social and geographic mobility demonstration proj-
ect sponsored by the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development
(HUD); it was developed to alleviate some of the problems low income fam-
ilies face living in impoverished and disorganized neighborhoods (Orr et
al., 2003; Shroder, 2001). In addition to providing more adequate housing,
HUD is conducting a rigorous study to examine the effects of residential
change and mobility counseling on family well-being, adult employment,
family income, and children’s academic performance.
The $70 million dollar MTO program is modeled after the smaller
Gautreaux Program, in which African American families residing in public
housing in inner-city Chicago were provided with a voucher to move to sub-
sidized suburban or urban housing (Orr et al., 2003; Shroder, 2001). The
families who moved to the suburbs demonstrated numerous gains in em-
ployment and education. However, the program was not truly experimental
(with random assignment to conditions), and thus it cannot be determined
whether the changes resulted from the relocation or other factors (e.g.,
self-selection bias). To examine more specifically the influence of residen-
tial mobility on parents and children, HUD developed the MTO program
and utilized a controlled experimental design (Shroder, 2001).
Beginning in 1994, the MTO program identified 4,608 eligible families
living in neighborhood with poverty rates of 40% or higher across five large
cities: Baltimore, Boston, Chicago, Los Angeles, and New York (Orr et al.,
2003). Approximately half of the sample consisted of African American
families and another 39% were Hispanic. An average of 2.5 children under
age 18 resided in each household, and the mean family income was just un-
der $9,400; 75% of families received assistance through Aid to Families with
Dependent Children (AFDC) or Temporary Assistances for Needy Families
(TANF; Shroder, 2001).
The families were randomly assigned into one of three groups. Partici-
pants in the experimental group were given a “Section 8” rental voucher to
move to private-market rental housing and were provided counseling assis-
tance in finding a new residence and working with prospective landlords.
Their relocations were restricted, such that families were required to move
into a community where no more than 10% of the population was below
the poverty line. The families in the Section 8 only group also received a
rental voucher for private-market housing, but there were no relocation re-
strictions, nor were residential counseling services provided. Families in the
comparison group continued residing in project-based housing (Orr et al.,
2003). Approximately 48% of the experimental group (i.e., Section 8
voucher plus residential counseling) and 60% of the Section 8 only group
“leased-up” through the use of the voucher system (Shroder, 2001). It is not
clear why some families did not lease-up; some may have had a difficult time
finding housing in low-poverty neighborhoods, whereas others may have
simply chosen not to move.
A longitudinal study of the MTO program is currently underway to ex-
amine the several aspects of mobility including, mental and physical health,
educational achievement, delinquency and crime, employment, and earn-
ings. The families in the experimental and Section 8 only groups who
leased-up, moved to significantly better neighborhoods, as indicated by
higher proportions of employed adults, high school graduates, and home-
owners. The movers in the two voucher groups also reported greater satis-
faction with the new neighborhood, greater perceptions of safety, less expo-
sure to neighborhood disorder (e.g., litter, graffiti, public drinking), and
reduced likelihood of witnessing or being victimized by violence in the
neighborhood (Orr et al., 2003).
With regard to health outcomes, there was a reduced incidence of obe-
sity among the parents in the experimental and Section 8 only groups, as
well as reductions in psychological distress and depression for the parents
in the experimental group. For the children in the two voucher groups, in
contrast to the comparison group, there were no significant differences in
the educational performance measures. The girls in the two voucher
groups reported reductions in mental health problems (e.g., psychological
distress, depression, anxiety), whereas the findings regarding the children’s
behavior problems (e.g., delinquency, risky behavior) were mixed. There is
some indication that the effects of the move through the MTO voucher
program yielded positive effects for girls, but some negative effects for boys
(Orr et al., 2003).
Overall, the short-term findings from the first four years of the MTO
demonstration are promising, despite the fact that only about half of the
families in the experimental and Section 8 only groups actually moved
(Shroder, 2001). Even with this limitation, the effects observed for families
in the two voucher groups are positive, with those in the experimental
group demonstrating the greatest improvements. And it is likely that the
impacts will become stronger with time. These and other studies on neigh-
borhood effects illustrate the role context can play in promoting healthy
behaviors among parents and positive development among youth. In the
following section, we highlight some of the other ways in which communi-
ties can support parents and contribute to the well-being of children.
THE ROLE OF COMMUNITIES IN SUPPORTING

PARENTS
Strategies intended to promote positive youth development and effective

parenting should incorporate an ecological orientation (Bronfenbrenner,
1986; Scales & Leffert, 1999). One such comprehensive approach examines
children and adolescents’ entire social and psychological environment in
terms of the presence or absence of a series of assets. The Minnesota-based
Search Institute has identified 40 such assets that are grouped into 8 catego-
ries: Support, Empowerment, Boundaries and Expectations, Constructive
Use of Time, Commitment to Learning, Positive Values, Social Compe-
tencies, and Positive Identity. The more assets children or adolescents have
the less likely they are to develop problems with aggression or violence,
abuse alcohol, or use illicit drugs such as cocaine, heroin, or amphetamines
(Scales, Benson, Leffert, & Blyth, 2000; Scales & Leffert, 1999).
The Boundaries and Expectations category emphasizes the “web of influ-

ence” that parents can collectively create to support positive development
among the children in their neighborhoods (Price, Cioci, Penner, &
Trautlein, 1993). This group of assets includes “neighbors take responsibil-
ity for monitoring young people’s behavior” and “parent(s) and other
adults model positive, responsible behavior” (Scales & Leffert, 1999, p. 2).
These assets are based in part on research summarized above demonstrat-
ing a link between collective efficacy and reduced incidence of youth prob-
lem behaviors (e.g., Sampson et al., 1997).
Studies conducted by the Search Institute on these 40 developmental as-
sets indicate that 61% of youth who had between zero and 10 developmen-
tal assets evidenced aggressive or violent behavior. This was compared to
only 6% of youth with 31 to 40 assets (Scales & Leffert, 1999). A similar pat-
tern occurred for substance abuse and other high-risk behaviors (see Table
10.1). Conversely, the greater the number of assets, the more likely youth
are to demonstrate positive behaviors, such as school success, valuing diver-
sity, maintaining good health, and delaying gratification. The Search Insti-
tute’s research indicates that, although only 7% of youth with zero to 10 as-
sets succeeded in school, 53% of those with 31 to 40 did. Similarly, whereas
only 27% of those with zero to 10 assets delayed gratification, 72% of those
with 31 to 40 did (Scales & Leffert, 1999). Although it is tempting to assume
that simply adding assets would automatically replace positive for problem
behaviors, the child development equation is far more complex. It is impor-
tant to consider the role of family as well as community based assets. Par-
ents who attempt to close off their family to community influences limit
their children’s opportunities for positive development, for only about 10
TABLE 10.1
Percent of Youth Demonstrating High-Risk
Behavior Grouped by Number of Assets
Number of Assets
0–10 11–20 21–30 31–40
Alcohol Abuse 53 30 11 3
Tobacco Use 45 21 6 1
Illicit Drug Use 42 19 6 1
Sexual Intercourse 33 21 10 3
Depression/Suicide 40 25 13 4
Antisocial Behavior 52 23 7 1
Violence 61 35 16 6
School Problems 43 19 7 2
Drinking and Driving 42 24 10 4
Source: Scales, P., & Leffert, N. (1999). Developmental assets: A synthesis of the scientific research
on adolescent development. Minneapolis, MN: Search Institute, p. 8. (N = 99,462 U.S. students.)
of the 40 assets are under the direct control of parents (e.g., “parent(s) are
actively involved in helping young person succeed in school”; Scales &
Leffert, 1999, p. 2). This means that the other 30 assets are primarily char-
acteristics of the school or community (e.g., “school provides a caring, en-
couraging environment” and “young person experiences caring neigh-
bors”; Scales & Leffert, 1999, p. 2). Assets found in contexts outside the
family may complement those provided by the parents, and for some chil-
dren, may help compensate for what parents cannot provide.
Quite a bit can be done to support children outside the actions of par-
ents. Parents and the parent-oriented assets can benefit from social support
provided by the larger community. Convergent findings from several stud-
ies of life course responses to stressful early experiences suggest a series of
ameliorating factors that lead to prosocial and healthy adaptation (Losel &
Bliesener, 1990):
1. Actively trying to cope with stress (rather than just reacting);

2. Cognitive competence (at least an average level of intelligence);
3. High levels of self-efficacy, self-confidence, and positive self-esteem;
4. Temperamental characteristics that favor active coping attempts and
positive relationships with others (e.g., activity, goal orientation, so-
ciability) rather than passive withdrawal;
5. A stable emotional relationship with at least one parent or other sig-
nificant adult;
6. An open, supportive educational climate and parental model of be-
havior that encourages constructive coping with problems; and
7. Social support from persons outside the family.
Several of these factors involve community and neighborhood factors, both

directly and as mediators of parenting. Community factors influence
whether parents provide philosophical, moral, spiritual, and political sup-
port for the type of active coping, which helps children develop and express
resilience. Communities can contribute to parents’ efficacy by providing
support and guidance and promoting positive youth/adult interaction.
The Parents as Teachers (PAT) program is such an effort that seeks to in-
volve and validate parents in active and developmentally enhancing rela-
tionships with their children from the first weeks of life (Parents as Teach-
ers National Center, 2003). This program intends to reduce the child’s risk
of developmental delay and bolster resources for resilience. PAT originated
in Missouri as a pilot project in the 1980s, but has become a national net-
work including more than 2,500 programs. Recent evaluations of the Par-
ents as Teachers program indicate that it can eliminate the disparity in
school readiness scores between children living in high and low poverty
communities (Pfannenstiel, Seitz, & Zigler, 2002).
For parenting to be successful in high-risk environments, parents must
overcome powerful negative forces that include the depressive effects of liv-
ing in chronic stress. Chicago’s Center for Successful Child Development
(“The Beethoven Project”) is an effort which prevents developmental de-
lays among an entire birth cohort in a public housing project (i.e., all the
children born in one year who live in the same kindergarten catchment
area; Barclay-McLaughlin, 1987; Center for Successful Child Development,
1998). The program provides several supportive services, such as home
health visits, early developmental screening, prenatal health care, parent
education, job training for parents, infant day care, child abuse prevention
programming, and Head Start programming (Barclay-McLaughlin, 1987).
When such efforts are conducted in the context of thoughtful evaluation
research, they can serve as the kind of transforming experiments that ad-
vance an ecologically valid science of parenting (Bronfenbrenner, 1979).
Community influences also are important in providing the open, sup-
portive educational climate, that is a source of resilience for children. Com-
munities can help set the tone and the context of individual parenting deci-
sions. For example, the growing campaign to end corporal punishment
(i.e., physical assault as discipline) in U.S. schools is driven by the belief that
this will help shape the context for disciplinary practices in the home. The
informal nature of the community and neighborhood are an important
source of resilience for children and, in a sense, are defined by the social
support from individuals outside the family.
Informal social support, either through emotional support (e.g., some-
one to confide in) or instrumental support (e.g., someone to depend on),
can be particularly important for parents, especially single parents. A study
of 262 low-SES, African American single mothers indicated that emotional
support was associated with greater warmth and more nurturing parenting
behaviors (Ceballo & McLoyd, 2002). But these effects varied by context,
such that within disordered neighborhoods, the association was weaker. Re-
ceipt of instrumental support by the mothers was associated with reductions
in the single mothers’ use of punitive parenting behaviors (e.g., yelling, hit-
ting, threatening), but this association also weakened as the neighborhood
conditions worsened (Ceballo & McLoyd, 2002). These findings suggest
that parents may benefit less from social and instrumental support in disor-
dered contexts. Furthermore, in these contexts, the costs of initiating or
maintaining social networks may outweigh the benefits. Some parents may
consciously withdraw—physically, emotionally, and socially—from the dis-
order present in their neighborhood as a way of protecting their children
(Ceballo & McLoyd, 2002).
Maintaining a Minimum Standard of Care
The challenge to high-risk communities is to create an environment that

helps maintain the integrity of the family, both through formal support ser-
vices and informal neighborhood networking. Maintaining the minimum
standard of care for young children in a society depends on how well that
society sustains the basic infrastructure of family life. Parent–child attach-
ment, parental self-esteem and identity, and stability of routine care-giving
arrangements are three critical elements of this infrastructure (Bronfen-
brenner, 1986).
If parents can sustain a strong attachment to their children, maintain a
positive sense of self, and have access to rudimentary shelter, food, and
medical care, then children will manage, although it may be at great cost to
the psychological and physical welfare of those parents. Environments that
maintain a stable infrastructure under stress have a different impact from
situations of acute disaster, in which there is a dramatic and overwhelming
destruction of the infrastructure of daily life. Erikson’s study (1976) of an
Appalachian community devastated by flood illustrated how children and
their parents respond when confronted with vivid and concrete evidence of
their vulnerability. Their homes were destroyed and their parents were de-
moralized and apparently socially powerless: “The major problem, for
adults and children alike, is that the fears haunting them are prompted not
only by the memory of past terrors but by a wholly realistic assessment of
present dangers” (p. 238). When parents are emotionally incapacitated,
children rightly fear for their future.
Attenuating the Debilitating Effects of Community Level

Risk Factors Through Policy Changes
The phenomenology of poverty is dominated by the experience of depriva-

tion, and exacerbated by widespread promulgation of highly monetarized
affluence as the standard. Low paying jobs can be interpreted as an affront
in such a context, and the accoutrements of affluence a right. None of this
contributes to the well-being of young children; all of it sustains rage and
despair among parents. When you add to this the geographic concentra-
tion of economically marginal families, communities become more homo-
geneous (namely through clustering public housing), and the developmen-
tal effects on parenting—and thus on children—are profoundly disturbing.
Large-scale community-based projects, such as the Moving to Opportu-
nities Demonstration Program, are one way of ameliorate the stress of con-
centrated poverty on both parents and children.
In a nation where everything costs money and continues to cost more,
most families need two incomes to keep up, although because of divorce
and single-parenthood more and more families have only one potential
wage earner. This was not the case at the outset of the economic depression
of the 1930s, when most families with children contained two adults, and
wives represented a largely untapped resource that had the potential to be,
and in fact was, mobilized to generate cash income in response to the un-
employment and income loss experienced by male workers (Elder, 1974).
Now, this resource has already been tapped to meet basic family expenses,
and therefore does not represent a reserve in the same sense that it did in
the 1930s. Children are increasingly an economic burden, directly because
of what it costs to rear them and indirectly because of what they “cost” in
lost parental income (i.e., time away from the job that over a childhood
comes to tens of thousands if not hundreds of thousands of dollars; Gar-
barino & Bedard, 2001).
Economic issues play quite a large role in the dynamics of early risk, for
family structure and activities interact with the parents’ participation in the
workforce. To the degree to which the community’s day-to-day life is mone-
tarized, families will be drawn or driven into the cash economy. The great-
est risks come when families lack the financial resources to purchase sup-
port services in the market place and are cut off from the informal helping
relationships. This is seen most clearly in the urban underclass that has be-
come the focal point for emergency intervention. Marginal or submarginal
economic resources interact with diminished psychosocial resources born
of violence, academic failure, exploitation, despair, fear, and deteriorated
community infrastructure. In such environments most females experience
their first pregnancy while still an unmarried teenager, living with little
prospect of economic self-sufficiency or two-parent family status. Many of
these pregnancies result from sexual exploitations by much older men
(Barclay-McLaughlin, 1987). These are the environments in which prenatal
care is inadequate, intervals between births are often too brief, beliefs
about child care too often dysfunctional, access to and use of healthcare for
infants is inadequate, and early intervention for child disabilities insuffi-
cient. It is perhaps not surprising that it is also in these environments that
large numbers of child mortality and morbidity are rampant.
CONCLUSIONS
In the Middle Ages, only half of all children lived past age five. Now, child
death is relatively rare and the nature of parenting has changed. As stan-
dards and expectations for the care and life prospects of children have im-
proved in the last century, developmental risk has become a focal point for
research and policy. Thus, parental focus has shifted from sheer quantita-
tive concern with child survival to a qualitative concern with development;
this is a major accomplishment. We also have come to realize that parenting

is not solely an individual endeavor, for there is more to child development
than the direct impact of parents on their children (Ianni, 1989).
Parents both shape their social surroundings and are shaped by them—
an interactive process which can enhance or undermine family function-
ing. More systematic efforts to study and serve families in context, such as
the Moving to Opportunities Demonstration Project, can enrich research
and intervention, both preventive and rehabilitative. For many practical
purposes, this means examining high-risk neighborhoods as well as high-
risk families.
In this chapter, we have explored the sources of supports and stresses for
parents that derive from the character of neighborhood and community in-
fluences. The research summarized above explored and validated the con-
cept of social impoverishment as a characteristic of high-risk family envi-
ronments, and as a factor in evaluating support and prevention programs
aimed at child victimization. The environmental correlates of child mal-
treatment and infant mortality provide an empirical basis for screening
neighborhoods to identify high- and low-risk areas. The link between neigh-
borhood poverty and child maltreatment continues to be a powerful fea-
ture of the problem. Parents and children both suffer when faced with
neighborhood poverty, especially when it is coupled with high levels of ex-
posure to community violence. These findings illustrate specific environ-
mental conditions that can influence the consequences of community level
variables on childrearing.
Parents can, however, play a significant role in protecting their children
from the negative aspects of high-risk communities. Effective parenting be-
haviors, such as fostering a secure attachment during infancy and providing a
warm, supportive relationship during childhood and adolescence are associ-
ated with well-being among youth, even in the face of environmental risk.
Furthermore, the support provided by parents can be bolstered by strong
connections with other adults and families in the community. Finally, macro-
level alterations in structural barriers (e.g., poverty, unemployment) through
family focused programs and policy changes can ameliorate some of the neg-
ative consequences of high-risk communities on parenting.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This chapter was supported in part by the Family Life Development Center
at Cornell University, the National Institute of Justice, and the National
Consortium on Violence Research. We thank Katrina Davy for helpful com-
ments on an earlier version of this chapter.
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11
Socioeconomic Status,
Ethnicity, and Parenting
Birgit Leyendecker
Ruhr-University Bochum, Germany
Robin L. Harwood
Texas Tech University
Lisa Comparini
Clark University
Alev Yalç2nkaya
University of Connecticut
The primary goal in this chapter is to contribute to our understanding of the

relationship between SES and parenting across families from differing ethnic
backgrounds as well as to differentiate between the effects of socioeconomic
status (SES) and the effects of ethnicity on parenting. Paying attention to both
SES and ethnicity as dimensions of parenting can help to identify the nature
and the extent of variability in normative parenting. Particularly, we want to
address issues of: (a) variability in normative parenting styles, and (b) the ef-
fects of SES on parenting within and across families from differing ethnic
backgrounds. To what extent does SES influence parenting practices and are
these effects similar across ethnic groups in the United States? In addition, we
want to point out that due to the confound of SES and ethnicity in many stud-
ies, some features associated with ethnicity are valid and evident only for par-
ents from a specific socioeconomic strata (e.g., parents living in poverty), yet
these characteristics have been associated with the entire ethnic group. This is
true both for majority and minority populations. Within the context of parent-
ing and child development, SES matters for two reasons. First, some ethnic
groups are more likely than others to experience persistent or temporary pov-
erty and the detrimental effects associated herewith. Aside from lower levels of
school achievement, these children are more likely to experience harsh, in-
consistent parenting as well as elevated exposure to acute and chronic stressors
319
320 LEYENDECKER ET AL.
(McLoyd, 1998). Second, the parenting styles considered to be most optimal

for child development are very sensitive to both SES and ethnicity inasmuch
as they are calibrated in Caucasian middle- to upper middle-class families
whereas parenting styles practiced in lower SES families as well as in families
from other ethnic backgrounds share many features with parenting styles con-
sidered to be less optimal (Chao, 1994). We begin the chapter by discussing
methodological issues on how to measure and define SES and ethnicity. We
then turn to the literature describing SES and parenting as well as ethnicity
and parenting. Here, we will take a closer look at the construct of interdepen-
dence and independence as broad cultural orientations. We will conclude our
chapter with a discussion of the association between optimal and less optimal
parenting styles, SES, and ethnic background.
METHODOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS: DO SES

AND ETHNICITY REPRESENT DISCRETE VARIABLES?
Measuring SES
SES represents a major source of indirect and direct influences on parent-

ing practices and children’s development. The social status of parents influ-
ences economic resources and consequently the quality of children’s (ma-
terial) lives. For example, neighborhood safety, quality of nutrition, home
learning environment, clothing, childcare settings outside the home, ac-
cess to schools and education, as well as parent–child interactions, parent-
ing styles and the underlying parenting beliefs and long-term socialization
goals are all tied to the economic resources available to parents. As a result
of these differing experiences, children’s academic achievement and cogni-
tive abilities, health status, and socioemotional functioning have been
found to vary according to their parents’ SES (Duncan & Brooks-Gunn,
1997; McLoyd, 1998). Thus, similar to gender and age, SES represents one
of the key sociodemographic marker variables, present on virtually every
demographic questionnaire used in developmental psychology. In addi-
tion, it is standard to check the results of studies for effects of SES. Al-
though there is little doubt that SES influences parenting practices, there is
much doubt and discussion about the appropriate conceptualization of this
multi-faceted concept: How do we measure SES and how do we understand
the effects of its key components on parenting?
The classical measurements of socioeconomic status are the so-called
Hollingshead indexes (Hollingshead, 1975). These scales measure either
maternal and paternal occupation and education (four-factor index) or
just paternal occupation and education (two-factor index). The composites
present a continuous measurement of socioeconomic status, although in
11. SOCIOECONOMIC STATUS, ETHNICITY, AND PARENTING 321
empirical research the measures are often collapsed to create groups be-
yond or above a cut-off point and thus reduced to discrete categories.
These discrete categories group people who receive points based on their
occupation and education within a certain range into discrete social classes.
The classes derived from these or other measures are disadvantageous inas-
much as they obscure individual sources of SES effects, such as mother’s or
father’s education, income, and family structure. In addition, they assume
meaningful differences between people who might be only a point apart.
Although the grouping into distinct social classes may be problematic,
there is little doubt that SES—just like ethnicity—is a social construct highly
relevant to the study of differences in individual’s developmental trajecto-
ries. Many external factors such as family structure and neighborhood, as
well as internal factors such as parenting behavior, parent–child interac-
tion, and school achievement vary with socioeconomic status (Duncan &
Magnuson, 2003; Entwisle & Astone, 1994; Hoff, Laursen, & Tardif, 2002;
McLoyd, 1998). According to Entwisle and Astone’s (1994) measurement
of socioeconomic status, we can differentiate between three kinds of capital
that parents provide for their children. First, there is the financial capital
that allows parents to provide their children with the basic necessities such
as food and clothes. Second, there is the human capital which represents
the nonmaterial resources. Here, parents’ education is of special impor-
tance as this is an indicator of the extent to which parents can support chil-
dren with homework and other school demands, and are likely to encour-
age higher education. In addition, a higher level of parental education is
likely to facilitate communication with teachers. Third, parents have an im-
pact on the social capital which provides a connection between children
and the larger world outside their household. Here, the people living in a
youngster’s household, including the social networks of parents and other
household members, are of special importance as they are likely to share
these links to the larger community with these youngsters.
Unfortunately, there is no single best stand-in for the effects of SES on
parenting; moreover, parenting demands are likely to vary with children’s
age. Instead, for any consideration of the possible impact of SES on parent-
ing and child development, we need to bear in mind two questions: First,
what are the components of SES that are likely to influence parenting at
each stage of child development? Second, are these components of SES a
stable characteristic of the family or are they likely to fluctuate greatly?
There is evidence that specific aspects of financial, human, and social
capital have differing influences on parenting and child development and
that the magnitude changes with children’s ages. For example, research has
documented that for parents of young children, human capital, particularly
a mother’s participation in formal schooling, is likely to be the single best
measurement of SES. In an observational study on parenting behavior of
mothers with young infants, Bornstein, Hahn, Suwalsky, and Haynes (2003)
examined the effects of SES (Hollingshead four-factor index as well as the
Socioeconomic Index of Occupations) on 324 Euro-American mother–in-
fants dyads. Two of their findings are particularly noteworthy in the context
of this paper: First, they found mothers’ education to be the most robust
and thus the single most important individual sociodemographic predictor
of their parenting behavior, and second the results of their study indicate
that, because maternal education was a unique and consistent predictor of
maternal and infant behaviors, various components of the SES indexes are
not interchangeable but provide different information on the parenting of
young children. The relative importance of mothers’ education on their in-
teractions with young children is also supported by an earlier study by
Richman, Miller, and LeVine (1992). Although mothers are likely to be the
ones who spend the most time with their infants and thus may exert the
greatest single influence on an infant’s development, the impact of the ed-
ucational status of the father and of other caregivers is likely to increase
with children’s age. As children grow older, other parameters such as the
social and financial capital are also likely to become more important in the
assessment of socioeconomic influences on parenting. Thus, SES compos-
ites are not more than the sum of its parts but may be best analyzed sepa-
rately rather than combined into a single scale (Bornstein et al., 2003). This
approach is also strongly advocated by Entwisle and Astone (1994). Accord-
ing to Entwisle and Astone (1994), human capital, specifically parents’ edu-
cation, is the single best measurement of SES. However, this indicator
should not be used by itself but only in combination with income and meas-
ures of household structure to assess potential social capital: number of
birth parents, and whether there is a stepparent or a grandparent in the
home. They strongly advise that any analysis of SES should include meas-
ures of the financial, human, and social capital separately rather than rely-
ing on a composite measure. For example, if we are interested in studying
parents’ preferences for differing childcare arrangements, the social capi-
tal as well as the financial capital are both likely to impact parents’ decisions
separately and in concert. At a later point in time, parents’ education as
well as the current and the anticipated financial capital of a family may in-
fluence parents’ plans and hopes for their children’s economic future.
There appears to be, however, a non-linear relationship between paren-
tal education and income on parenting and children’s socioemotional and
cognitive development. For example, a 100% increase in parents’ income is
more likely to affect children’s development in a family living around the
poverty line than in an already affluent family. The same is true for educa-
tion—the difference between dropping out of high school after 10th grade
or completing high school is likely to have greater effects on parenting and
child development than between having parents with an M.A. versus a
Ph.D. degree. The smaller the numbers of the yearly income or of the years
spent in formal education, the greater the likelihood that any variation and
change is likely to affect children, inasmuch as development is particularly
likely to be impaired by lack of parental resources (Duncan & Magnuson,
2003; McLoyd, 1998). In addition, there is evidence that social capital is
particularly critical for families with low financial and human capital, inas-
much as social networks and professional support can serve to buffer the ef-
fects of poverty on parenting and child development (Field, Widmayer,
Adler, & De Cubas, 1990; Hurrelmann, Klocke, Melzer, & Ravens-Sieberer,
2003).
Although education is likely to remain stable over an adult’s life, income
and social support may fluctuate greatly and may not be a permanent char-
acteristic of a family (Hauser, 1994). For children living in low SES families,
the income of their parents is likely to influence later school attainment
(Duncan, Brooks-Gunn, & Smith, 1998). Although parents’ education tends
to remain stable (or may even increase), financial and social capital are
both very volatile. However, there is a general tendency for a family’s in-
come to increase as parents grow older, acquire experience, and obtain
promotions. Aside from unemployment, decreases and increases in a house-
hold’s disposable income are not unusual and may fluctuate considerably
across a child’s childhood. Assessing the monthly or yearly income of a fam-
ily is a sensitive issue, making it difficult in some cases to obtain accurate
data. In addition, these numbers might not represent the actual disposable
income because high mortgages, loan payments, property taxes, and medi-
cal care may reduce available income considerably. Duncan and Magnuson
(2003) suggest that to avoid a somewhat erroneous measure of a house-
hold’s income, a combination of income measured over several years
combined with measurement of wealth and occupation provide a better
estimate of the influence of financial capital on parenting and child devel-
opment. Similar to income, social capital is also subject to change due to
fluctuations in the social network due to divorce or relocation of family
members or friends.
The fluctuation of the financial and social capital is particularly impor-
tant when studying parents below or around the threshold of poverty. In
2003, the official U.S. Department of Health and Human Services’ defini-
tion of poverty was based on a combination of a household’s income and
the size of a household, e.g., the threshold for two-, three-, and four-person
families living in poverty were $12,120, $15,260, and $18,400, respectively,
in the 48 contiguous states and Washington, D.C. Duncan and Magnuson
(Duncan & Magnuson, 2003; Magnuson & Duncan, 2002) allude to the
need to differentiate between persistent poverty and shorter spells of pov-
erty. Persistent poverty has stronger negative association with parenting
and child development than shorter spells of poverty. They summarize lon-
gitudinal research revealing a considerable fluctuation inasmuch as less

than one-half of those who experience poverty remain persistently poor
over many years, whereas the majority of poverty spells are less than three
years. Duncan et al. (1998) and McLoyd (1998) point out the relationship
between poverty and family life cycle. The detrimental impact of poverty on
families with young children is much greater than it is when families have
older children. This appears to be related to the fact that adequate nutri-
tion has a clearer impact on school achievement in early childhood, and
younger parents are likely to have fewer financial resources to buffer them-
selves from financial strain. In addition, parents living in poverty are less
likely than more affluent families to be able to provide their children with
an enriched home learning environment (Bradley, et al., 1994). As they
grow older, the characteristics of the neighborhood are likely to affect chil-
dren and their parents’ socialization strategies as children increase the time
they spend away from home. Parents living in poverty are more likely to live
in potentially threatening neighborhoods and to adapt their parenting
strategies to these potential dangers (Kusserow, 1999; Magnuson & Dun-
can, 2002; McLoyd, 1998).
In sum, using discrete categorical variables to analyze SES effects on
parenting appears to be problematic, and empirical research should con-
sider the various sources of influence rather than relying solely on a com-
posite measure of SES. Families living below or around the poverty line ap-
pear to be particularly vulnerable to even small drops in family income or
loss of social support. However, in light of the available literature, we will re-
fer to discrete social classes as well as to individual factors that allow us to
unpack SES effects.
Ethnicity and Cultural Communities
One of the problems for research in this domain has been how to define
ethnicity. Although often used as a synonym for minority status, technically
the term means people, from the Greek ethnos, and thus everyone can be con-
sidered to have an ethnic background. From this perspective, it becomes an
aspect of culture that corresponds to an individual’s national heritage.
However, the tendency to equate culture with national heritage runs the
risk of perpetuating group stereotypes by treating large, diverse groups of
people as all of the same kind. The challenge is to find a way of conceptual-
izing culture that recognizes group differences without reifying them. For
our purposes in this chapter, we elaborate briefly on a perspective articu-
lated by Harwood, Handwerker, Schoelmerich and Leyendecker (2001)
which locates culture not in the group but in the contextualized individual;
culture is viewed not as an entity equivalent to group membership labels
but as a shifting continuum of shared commonality among individuals. In
particular, definitions of culture as shared discourse or shared scripts for

the understanding of self and other, or as shared norms for social interac-
tion imply a relatively fluid definition of what constitutes a cultural commu-
nity (Strauss & Quinn, 1997). A parent may simultaneously be a member of
multiple groups, each with its own particular “morally enforceable concep-
tual scheme instantiated in practice” (Shweder, 1996, p. 20).
From this perspective, the boundaries that we draw for ethnic group
membership are essentially arbitrary and depend on the particular level of
commonality we wish to investigate. We can draw them broadly (e.g., Euro-
pean Americans), or more narrowly (e.g., Italian Americans), or very specif-
ically (Sicilians who immigrated to New York City in the 1920s). In addition,
parents with a shared ethnic background may differ among themselves with
regard to other variables, such as social class, acculturation, circumstances
of arrival in the U.S., and place of origin. For example, it is common to
speak broadly of Latinos, but in fact Latinos are a diverse group represent-
ing all Spanish-speaking people from Mexico, Central or South America,
and the Caribbean; in addition, Latinos differ among themselves with re-
gard to generational status (e.g., whether they are recent immigrants or
not), social class, and circumstances of arrival in the U.S. (e.g., whether
they obtained citizenship through the annexation of Puerto Rico, or ar-
rived as political refugees from Cuba). Similarly, we use the umbrella term
African American for all American-born individuals with origins in Africa.
Although we may find some commonalities within these broadly defined
groups, a focus on parenting based entirely on ethnic heritage is likely to
create a false impression of internal homogeneity, and thus carries the risk
of reinforcing stereotypes (Harwood, Leyendecker, Carlson, Asencio, &
Miller, 2002; Phinney, 1996). For example, parents of each of the two larg-
est ethnic minority groups in the U.S., Latinos and African Americans, vary
considerably among themselves in terms of: (a) country of origin; (b) socio-
economic status; (c) generational status and acculturation; and (d) histori-
cal and personal reasons for being in the United States.
A second approach attempts to capture the term cultural community from
the perspective of the individual parent and his or her multiple, intersect-
ing group memberships. For example, parents in the U.S. typically belong
to one or more specific ethnic groups with whom they share a common her-
itage, and this ethnic group membership is likely to play a role in their
parenting beliefs and practices (Lee, 2002). At the same time, they belong
to multiple other cultural communities as well, provided for them by biol-
ogy (e.g., age, gender), by circumstances of birth (e.g., place and family of
origin) by choice, or by available opportunities (e.g., education or profes-
sion, parental or family status, membership in political or religious commu-
nities). Each parent is likely to be a member of both broad and inclusive so-
cial groups like ethnicity and religion, and of more specialized social
groups like residential or academic communities (see Harwood, et al.,

2001; Harwood, et al., 2002). All of these memberships are of more or less
importance and contribute to the variation within any identified commu-
nity. For example, a Muslim mother belonging to the Indian community in
the U.S. shares a common heritage with other people with roots in India as
well as with other Muslims from all over the world. At the same time, this
mother is a member of her own and of her husband’s family, she might be a
lawyer, an avid supporter of the local soccer team, a mother of teenage chil-
dren, a college professor, and an enthusiastic bicyclist. Thus, this woman is
likely to share practices and discourses relevant to members of her various
families, to other mothers, lawyers, college teachers, soccer fans, and her
fellow bicyclists. In this way, any identifiable cultural community is com-
prised of individuals who also participate in multiple other social groups
and thereby contribute to the heterogeneity of that group. From this per-
spective, parents participate in overlapping (and changing) cultural com-
munities. These communities, including the various ethnic groups that are
part of these communities, are not entirely distinct or separate but rather
are in continuous contact with each other and influence each other (Chao,
2000).
To what extent should the social groups a parent belongs to be viewed as
separate factors? Rogoff and Angelillo (2002) argue that too much segmen-
tation into variables is likely to distort the whole picture:
Instead, research can examine cultural processes in terms of people’s partici-

pation in practices of their cultural communities—practices that include reli-
gious traditions, participation in schooling, languages used for varying pur-
poses, and so on. Such practices, from a participation perspective, are not
separate factors treated as attributes of individuals or groups but rather are re-
lated aspects of heterogeneous community functioning in which people en-
gage. (p. 216)
Along these lines, Lee (2002) supports and specifies this view by pointing
out that it is important to study the variation as well as the commonalities
within an ethnic community. With regard to parenting, we can expect to
find variation in an ethnic community inasmuch as families differ accord-
ing to their socioeconomic status as well as to the degree that they partici-
pate in various other cultural communities.
In research on parenting practices, however, separate sources of influ-
ence have been frequently confounded. For example, much of what we
know about parenting in ethnic minority groups is derived from studies on
low SES families and is thus not representative of the entire community
(Garcia Coll & Pachter, 2002). By contrast, most of our knowledge of what
constitutes optimal parenting is derived from studies on middle-class Euro-
pean American families. Since these particular parenting practices and the
beliefs and values associated with them are reflected in mainstream institu-
tions, children from ethnic minority families, in particular those from low
SES families, are likely to experience a discontinuity between the home
culture and societal culture and may be faced with conflicting messages
(Greenfield & Suzuki, 1998; Garcia Coll & Pachter, 2002).
In sum, the two errors that are most likely to occur when we look at
parenting within an ethnic community is either to treat families of very di-
verse backgrounds as all of the same kind, or to associate a particular ethnic
community with a particular SES-based parenting style. If we want to under-
stand how parenting beliefs and practices are shaped, we need to pay closer
attention to the separate effects of parents’ ethnic background, their socio-
economic status, and to the matrices of cultural communities in which they
participate.
PARENTING AND SES
In order to understand the effects of SES and ethnicity on parenting we

need to take a closer look at the parenting practices and parenting styles
that are widely accepted to be most optimal. These are not only informed
by middle-class samples but by European American samples as well. This
raises a question as to what extent the parenting practices and values of Eu-
ropean American families are likely to differ from those of parents from
other ethnic and socioeconomic backgrounds.
The Four-Fold Scheme—from Authoritarian

to Indulgent-Permissive
Parenting styles and practices as well as parental beliefs and socialization

goals are areas that have received considerable attention within the last few
decades. Both socio-economic status and ethnic background appear to in-
fluence parents’ socialization goals and parenting styles. Much of the re-
search on parenting styles is connected with Diana Baumrind’s (1967)
typology of authoritarian, authoritative, and permissive parenting. Maccoby
and Martin (1983) further divided the permissive category into indulgent
and neglectful parenting, and this fourfold scheme is currently widely ac-
cepted (Hoff, et al., 2002; see Maccoby & Martin, 1983, for a historical over-
view). In addition, Maccoby and Martin further differentiate each of these
parenting patterns according to dimensions of parental demandingness
and parental responsiveness, even though there is some variation in the de-
gree and the weighting of these components within each of the four catego-
ries. Although the authoritarian and the authoritative parenting patterns
have been associated most often with SES-related differences, parental in-
dulgence, particularly in the first years of life, has also been associated with
ethnic background.
Authoritarian (also labeled authoritarian-autocratic) parents place
power-assertive strict limits on the allowable expression of their children’s
needs and wants. They are parent-centered, high on demandingness and
control, and value the maintenance of their authority. They are also low on
parental responsiveness, and so do not discuss and do not attempt to reach
mutual agreements. Maccoby and Martin (1983) summarize the following
characteristics of this parenting pattern: “1. Attempting to shape, control,
and evaluate the behavior and attitudes of their children in accordance
with an absolute set of standards. 2. Valuing obedience, respect for author-
ity, work, tradition, and preservation of order. 3. Discouraging verbal give-
and-take between parent and child” (p. 40).
In contrast, parents who are authoritative or authoritative–reciprocal ex-
hibit a pattern in which they are responsive to their children’s needs yet ex-
pect their children to be responsive to their demands as well. Children are
allowed to express their wishes and desires, to discuss these with their par-
ents, and to reach a mutual agreement. Parents firmly implement rules but
are willing to discuss and to amend these rules if necessary. Authoritative
parenting is child-centered but in a reciprocal fashion which combines
high bidirectional communication with parental demandingness and con-
trol. Parents encourage their children’s independence and individuality
and emphasize the rights of both parents and children. Fairly high levels of
mutual involvement, responsiveness, and compliance between parents and
children are associated with children’s optimal functioning and high self-
esteem. However, as Maccoby and Martin (1983) point out, in “making
such generalizations we are, of course, glossing over the enormous varia-
tions in family styles and in the individual personalities that emerge from
the family system” (p. 83).
In comparison to the authoritarian and authoritative patterns, the parent-
ing style labeled indulgent-permissive refers to those who are tolerant and ac-
cepting toward children’s impulses, moods, and demands, use little punish-
ment, and reduce parental authority to a minimum. These parents are less
likely to impose and to enforce strict rules and to make maturity demands,
but more likely to allow their children to make their own decisions, e.g. re-
garding schedules for sleeping or for the amount of TV watching. In contrast
to neglectful parents, these parents are described as relatively warm.
Parenting Styles, SES, and Socialization Goals
Much of our thinking about the relationship between socioeconomic stat-

us, parenting styles, and childrearing goals has been informed by the work
of Kohn and the replication of his findings in various cultures (Hoffman,
1988; Imamoglu, 1988; Kohn, 1969, 1979; Kagitcibasi, 1996). Specifically,

Kohn demonstrated that the social context parents live in, particularly their
occupational experiences and the life they anticipate for their children as a
result of those experiences, influences their parenting goals and subse-
quently their parenting styles. In particular, parents from low socioeco-
nomic strata were found to value obedience and conformity to societal pre-
scriptions, whereas parents from higher socioeconomic strata were found
to value self-confidence and self-direction (see Hoff et al., 2002, for an over-
view). According to Kohn (1969, 1979), parents’ occupation (and in partic-
ular the conditions associated with it, such as the degree of self-initiative vs.
compliance with authority) is the single major source of influence on pa-
rental values and practices, with education being a correlate of occupa-
tional success. In addition, the authoritative parenting style, which is con-
sidered to be most optimal, is typified by many characteristics generally
associated with an independent, individualistic cultural orientation, e.g.,
bidirectional communication, providing choice, encouragement of discus-
sion, recognition of children’s rights on the parents’ part, and independ-
ence and high self-esteem on the children’s part. In contrast, the authori-
tarian parenting style, which is typically characterized by direct orders,
obedience, and a hierarchical family structure, possesses many features
generally associated with a interdependent, sociocentric cultural orienta-
tion.
Briefly, European American culture is often described as individualistic
in that it conceives of the individual as an “independent, self-contained, au-
tonomous entity who (a) comprises a unique configuration of internal at-
tributes . . . and (b) behaves primarily as a consequence of those internal at-
tributes” (Markus & Kitayama, 1991, p. 224). In contrast, many other
cultures are described as sociocentric or interdependent in that they em-
phasize the fundamental connectedness of human beings to one another:
“Experiencing interdependence entails seeing oneself as part of an encom-
passing social relationship and recognizing that one’s behavior is deter-
mined, contingent on, and, to a large extent organized by what the actor
perceives to be the thoughts, feelings, and actions of others in the relation-
ship” (Markus & Kitayama, 1991, p. 227).
Unfortunately, specific parallels between an authoritative parenting style
and elements of individualism (such as an emphasis on the independent
self), and between an authoritarian parenting style and elements of socio-
centrism (such as an emphasis on respect for authority), have served to
reify the existing association between low-SES and the valuing of confor-
mity. Kusserow (1999) warns about creating an East-West dichotomy within
a society, and her findings show that parents from all socioeconomic back-
grounds incorporate both individualistic and sociocentric orientations,
“but in differing styles and ratios, depending on the local world they in-
habit” (p. 213). Kusserow (1999) took a closer look at the relationship be-
tween preferences for independence/individualism and for interdepend-
ence/sociocentrism in three groups of 4-year old European American
children and their parents in Manhattan and Queens. These families repre-
sented lower working-class families living in a dangerous environment, as
well as upper working-class and upper middle-class families. Kusserow de-
scribes three different styles of individualism that exist alongside socio-
centric socialization practices. The low SES parents who live in a dangerous
environment prefer a style of individualism that combines independence
and self-defense in the form of “not relying on anyone else,” “not trusting
anyone but yourself.” This attempt to toughen up children from early on by
teasing them and by teaching them to speak up and fight back is also de-
scribed by Miller (1996) in her study of working-class families in South Bal-
timore. Preparing children for a rough world outside by fostering their in-
dependence, self-defense skills, and self-reliance can be combined with the
encouragement of strong moral principles (Kusserow, 1999), as well as with
parents’ and teachers’ expectations of respect and adherence to strict rules
(Corsaro, 1996). In addition, the controlling behavior of low-SES parents
living in a high-risk inner-city community has been related to positive child
outcomes (Baldwin, Baldwin, & Cole, 1990; Deater-Deckard & Dodge,
1997). Thus, depending on the environment that children are raised in,
parents might teach their children to be emotionally independent and self-
reliant but at the same time they might expect them to follow strict rules.
The upper working-class parents in Kusserow’s study were more likely to
emphasize the self-assertive aspects of individualism with the goal of up-
ward mobility. Success was often linked to hard work, self-confidence, te-
nacity, good grades, and sports (Kusserow, 1999). In contrast to the two
groups of working-class parents, the socialization practices of the upper
middle-class, well educated Manhattan parents were in most respects identi-
cal with the ones generally associated both with individualism and with an
authoritative parenting style. These parents, as well as their preschool
teachers, practiced a “soft psychologized individualism, in which self-con-
fidence and assertion of the child’s unique feelings were paramount” (Kus-
serow, 1999, p. 222). Parents pursued the goal of raising children by gently
assisting them to discover their own unique qualities, thoughts and feelings
(Kusserow, 1999). Parenting practices were geared toward the reduction of
the power differential between child and parents by instilling a feeling of
empowerment and control in the child while at the same time maintaining
discipline. Thus, direct commands were avoided. As has been described by
other researchers as well (e.g., Nucci, 1994; Nucci, Killen, & Smetana,
1996), the children were either offered choices or commands which were
phrased as suggestions, even though the children knew how to interpret
them correctly. At the same time, parents and teachers balanced the inde-
pendence of children by teaching them to accommodate to societal con-

straints, and by enhancing their understanding of socially appropriate be-
havior and by developing their social skills (see also Kwak, 2003, for a
detailed description of this particular aspect of individualism).
In sum, the social context in which parents live and the future they antic-
ipate for their children influence their parenting goals and practices. In ad-
dition, very different aspects of independence and interdependence can be
found with regard to the context parents live in. A mixture of parental con-
trol in combination with fostering independence and self-reliance might
thus be suited best to an inner-city environment. By contrast, parents who
are well-off and live in a relatively safe environment might prefer to teach
their children that the world is their oyster, and at the same time balancing
this emphasis on personal needs and the individual self with the need to ad-
here to societal prescriptions. The study by Kusserow (1999) demonstrates
the enormous variation that can be found among parents based simply on
socioeconomic status. This heterogeneity and variation would likely in-
crease if minority parents from different SES backgrounds had also been
included. These findings caution us against using an overly dichotomous
view of individualism and sociocentrism, as both independence and inter-
dependence reflect basic human tendencies and are evident in all socioeco-
nomic strata of a society.
PARENTING AND ETHNICITY
Although, as described above, independence and interdependence are hu-

man tendencies likely to be found across all socio-economic strata in a given
society, independence and interdependence have also been described as
characterizing two deeply different cultural pathways through development.
Along these lines, Greenfield, Keller, Fuligni, and Maynard (2003) acknowl-
edge that parental concerns for the child both as an individual and as em-
bedded in social relationships coexist in all cultures. Nonetheless, the pat-
terning of these concerns takes shape differently across different cultural
contexts. They thus describe independence and interdependence as broad
cultural frameworks which serve to organize larger parenting goals and prac-
tices and so influence children’s development. They further argue that most
research on parenting and child development has been informed by the in-
dependent pathway, whereas interdependent pathways have only recently
been recognized and are still largely understudied.
Thus, two central aspects of parenting and ethnicity concern the degree
of children’s autonomy and the types of social relationships. Both aspects
vary according to the: (a) instrumental and emotional autonomy granted to
a child at a given age combined with the degree and extent of parental con-
trol; and (b) the expectations and extent of familial duties and obligations.
In the independent framework, instrumental autonomy is practiced from
early on, with children sleeping by themselves in their own rooms (Leyen-
decker, Lamb, Schoelmerich, & Fracasso, 1995; Morelli, Rogoff, Oppen-
heim, & Goldsmith, 1992) and feeding themselves from an early age (Har-
wood, Schoelmerich, Ventura-Cook, Schulze, & Wilson, 1996; Harwood,
Miller, Carlson, & Leyendecker, 2002; Schulze, Harwood, & Schoelmerich,
2001). However, the children are closely supervised, e.g., by parents, baby-
sitters, or a baby monitor. By encouraging early self-feeding, middle-class
Euro-American parents foster the child’s sense of control over his or her
own body, as well as autonomy and choice in decisions about how much to
eat and at what pace (Schulze, Harwood, Schoelmerich, & Leyendecker,
2002). However, parents may also tend to carefully structure their chil-
dren’s day, and to provide and follow a schedule for feeding, sleeping, and
napping (Leyendecker et al., 1995). In contrast, early autonomy in feeding,
combined with close supervision and the establishment of a schedule, may
be of much less importance among parents who emphasize a more interde-
pendent orientation. For example, Central American immigrant parents in
the U.S. were found to place little emphasis on schedules for their children
(Leyendecker et al., 1995).
With regard to early autonomy, Lebanese-born mothers now living in
Australia thought that their 5 to 6 year old children were still babies and
should not be given jobs aside from asking them to help mind or amuse
their younger siblings (Goodnow, Cashmore, Cotton & Knight, 1984). Sim-
ilarly, Mexican-born mothers in California did not expect their young chil-
dren to help with household chores, nor did they coax their children to de-
velop self-care skills or to perform household tasks. “Interdependence in
these families means expecting and accepting help when you are very
young, then learning to give help as you get older” (Delgado-Gaitan, 1994,
p. 69).
This principle has also been described for parenting in Muslim families.
According to Khounani (2000), early childhood in Muslim families is char-
acterized by great indulgence towards the child (see Kagitcibasi, 1996, for a
description of parent–child relationships in Turkish families). This serves
the goals of establishing strong emotional ties from children to their par-
ents and their families. Young children are not expected to follow rules and
even their misbehavior is met with great tolerance (Pfluger-Schindlbeck,
1989). This permissive–indulgent parenting style is limited to the first 5 to 7
years, and is likely to be gradually replaced by a parenting style that is much
more demanding and authoritarian, and in which children are expected to
help their younger siblings or their elders. However, although instrumental
independence is taught and valued within an interdependent framework,
emotional interdependence remains strong and is less likely to change dur-
ing childhood and adolescence. Emotional interdependence is strongly re-

lated to familial duties and obligations.
Within an independent framework, many parenting practices are geared
at fostering emotional independence. This is particularly evident in the cus-
tom of letting children sleep by themselves at an early age (e.g., Morelli, et
al., 1992; Schulze et al., 2002). At the same time, children are socialized
into functioning independently when outside of their parents’ proximity
and close supervision. Interviews on parents’ long-term socialization goals
revealed that the preference for autonomy is balanced by a preference for
independent regulation of emotions, particularly of self-control when in-
teracting with others (Harwood et al., 2002; Leyendecker, Harwood, Lamb
& Schoelmerich, 2002). This preference for an independent regulation of
emotions, however, does not mean that parents belonging to an ethnic
group with an independent framework strive to detach themselves from
their children. Just the opposite is true inasmuch as adolescents still require
confidence in their parents’ commitment to them. Baltes and Silverberg
(1994) point out that even within an independent framework parents still
provide the secure psychological base which allows their youngsters’ to ex-
plore options outside the family. Despite the early emphasis on emotional
independence, parenting practices during adolescence are still geared at
supporting youngsters’ developing sense of self-reliance and individuality.
Becoming more autonomous is not facilitated by an increasing separation
and detachment from parents but rather by maintaining close relationships
with parents and significant others (Kagitcibasi, 2003/submitted paper;
Ryan, Deci, & Grolnick, 1995). Greenfield and colleagues (2003) state:
Even in independence-oriented societies such as the United States, complete

autonomy from parents is antithetical to healthy adolescent development.
Rather, a complicated balance between what has been called “autonomy and
relatedness” or “individuation and connectedness” appears to be most salu-
tary for adolescent adjustment, in that it provides children the opportunity to
develop the ability to think and act independently within the context of sup-
portive relationships with parents. (p. 478)
Although striving for a life-long relatedness and an emotional tie with

their children is not unique to parents with a interdependent orientation, an
important difference appears to be that both the expectations of duty and
obligations towards parents as well as to other members of the family are
closely associated with the aspect of mutuality. In light of the preference for
emotional interdependence, expectations with regard to familial duties and
obligations influence both the type of relationships as well as expectations of
adherence to family hierarchy. Interdependence works best if the family
members remain close and the give-and-take is balanced. This balance, how-
ever, does not necessarily happen immediately or between the same persons
but has to be viewed over the course of a lifetime and within the entire family
network. For example, the individual who is pampered as a young child is
later expected to pamper younger siblings and family members and to take
care of aging parents. At the same time, however, while growing older, one
learns how to respect authority and also how to grow into the role of some-
one who is treated with respect due to being an older sibling or the oldest
male or female in the family. With a reduction in family size and increased fi-
nancial capital, many of these aspects are likely to change, yet research, for
example, on American-born adolescents of Asian or Latin-American descent
shows that emotional solidarity and obligation remain especially high. Ac-
cording to Fuligni, Tseng, and Lam (1999) parenting practices in Asian and
Latin American families resulted in greater expectations of adolescents re-
garding their duty to assist, respect, and support their families when com-
pared to their peers with European backgrounds. These feelings of closeness
towards their families were consistent across youths’ generation, family com-
position, and socioeconomic backgrounds. Similarly, adolescents from immi-
grant families with an interdependent cultural orientation, such as Asian and
Latin American families, were found to be more willing to accept rather than
to fight parental control and to sustain positive family relations in part by de-
laying their pursuit of autonomy (overviews in Greenfield et al., 2003;
Kagitcibasi, 2003; Kwak, 2003).
In sum, parenting styles and practices vary greatly within as well as across
ethnic groups. In particular, the types of relationships as well as the adher-
ence to hierarchy varies according to the relative importance of an inde-
pendent or an interdependent cultural framework. Both frameworks coexist
in all ethnic communities and overlap greatly but differ in their emphasis.
SES, ETHNICITY, AND PARENTING VIEWED

IN THE CONTEXT OF THE INDEPENDENCE/
INTERDEPENDENCE APPROACH
Finally, we are interested in discussing to what extent the relationship

among SES, parenting, and children’s outcomes that has been described
for parents with an independent orientation applies for parents with an in-
terdependent orientation as well. As stated above, some core features of
each of the previously described parenting styles have been related to SES,
whereas other core features have been related to the independent or inter-
dependent orientations of specific ethnic or cultural communities. Given
that neither ethnicity nor SES are clear-cut discrete variables (even though
for research purposes, we often operationalize them as such), the answer is
multifaceted. There is evidence that: (a) the effects of SES on parenting
styles are similar across families from differing ethnic backgrounds, and (b)
some aspects of parenting styles have a different impact on children, de-

pending on ethnic background.
Parallel Effects of SES Regardless of Ethnicity
Directly or indirectly, many studies support the notion that a parenting

style should be viewed in light of the socioeconomic strata to which a family
belongs, the environment in which they live, as well as their ethnic roots.
Parents foster continuity (e.g., with regard to personally and ethnically de-
rived values) and at the same time strive to prepare their children for the
perceived future that lies ahead of them. Most of the available studies sup-
port Kohn’s (1969, 1979) hypothesis that the parents’ social context, in par-
ticular their education, occupation, and the life they anticipate for their
children, influences their parenting goals and their parenting styles, and
that these effects largely apply to parents and children from a variety of eth-
nic backgrounds. In particular, the degree of parental control and power-
oriented punishing, as well as the preference for providing explanations or
reasons and for encouraging independent thinking, appear to be related to
SES across differing countries and ethnicities. Hoffman (1988) for exam-
ple, who compared parenting practices in differing countries, found mean
differences between the countries. Within each country, however, parents
with a blue-collar occupation were more likely to stress conformity to rules
in their childrearing, whereas more highly educated parents encouraged
initiative and independence. Similarly, research in Turkey indicates that
punishment-oriented control strategies decrease from lower to higher SES,
whereas preference for autonomy and self-reliance increase with SES
(Imamoglu, 1988; Kagitcibasi, 1996). The findings of Hill, Bush, and Roosa
(2003), who studied Mexican American and European American parents
living in the same low-income community, also suggest that experiences of
socioeconomic and community factors can be at least as strong as ethnic in-
fluences. Kagitcibasi (2003) supports these parallels from another perspec-
tive. She points out that ethnic differences often overlap with social class
differences, and that what is attributed to ethnicity may in fact be due to
lower socioeconomic status.
Several factors might contribute to the difficulty of disentangling the ef-
fects of SES from those of ethnicity on parenting. First, while the majority of
ethnic minority parents do not live in poverty, the proportion of low SES
families is higher in most ethnic minority communities and this is likely to
distort the overall picture (Magnuson & Duncan, 2002). In addition, posi-
tive and negative racial stereotypes regarding parenting and the cognitive
abilities of children from differing ethnic backgrounds (Garcia Coll &
Pachter, 2002) may impact both the chances parents see for their children
to improve their socioeconomic status and for the quality of support that
teachers provide for children from minority backgrounds. Second, many
members of ethnic minority communities are likely to be immigrants. Re-

gardless of their previous educational attainment, immigrants who lack
English language skills and who do not qualify for high-profile jobs are
likely to rely on temporary work arrangements and low wages regardless of
their previous educational attainment. In addition, recent immigrants are
likely to value education for their children as this is perceived to be impor-
tant to make advancements in the U.S. (Leyendecker et al., 2002). Yet, due
to their lack of experience with the requirements of the American school
system, they might encounter difficulties when attempting to support their
children’s school achievement.
Impact of Parenting Styles on Children’s Outcome Depends

on Ethnic Background
These parallel effects of SES within families from differing ethnic back-
grounds, however, do not capture the entire picture. First, despite the same
tendencies, overall differences between ethnic groups should not be ig-
nored. Second, particular attitudes toward personal autonomy and family
obligation appear to remain salient in families from differing ethnic
groups, regardless of SES or degree of acculturation. For example, Chao
(1994) suggests that it is somewhat ethnocentric to regard the authoritative
parenting style as the most optimal and the authoritarian as less optimal:
“For Asians, parental obedience and some aspects of strictness may be
equated with parental control, caring, or involvement. Just as important,
for Asians parental control may not always involve ‘domination’ of children
per se, but rather a more organizational type of control for the purpose or
goal of keeping the family running smoothly and fostering family harmony”
(Chao, 1994, p. 1112). She further points out that, despite some parallel
features, the concept of training (guan) should not simply be equated with
the concept of authoritarian parenting, inasmuch as the concept of train-
ing includes high involvement on the part of the parents, physical closeness
as well as parental warmth. Numerous studies indirectly support this view in
reporting that emotional closeness with the family, the acceptance of de-
creasing autonomy with age, and the importance attached to family obliga-
tions, all remain high in children and adolescents with roots in ethnic com-
munities who endorse an interdependent framework, regardless of their
SES (e.g., Phinney, Ong, & Madden, 2000).
CONCLUSIONS
Parents’ childrearing beliefs and practices are influenced by both ethnic

background and socioeconomic status; these dual sources of influence
need to be considered in our attempts to understand parenting and norma-
tive development in all its diverse complexity. Unfortunately, this task is nei-
ther simple nor straightforward. First, SES is a multifaceted construct con-
sisting of many components that influence parenting both directly (e.g.,
the association between a mother’s educational level and her vocalizations
toward the infant) and indirectly (e.g., the quality of neighborhood or the
availability of a variety of toys and books in the home). Thus, depending on
our focal group and possible sources of variation, it is necessary to identify
those components which are likely to be a relevant indicators of socioeco-
nomic status, and which are likely to influence parenting practices and chil-
dren’s development. When studying lower SES groups, particularly those
living at or below the poverty level, small differences in available human, so-
cial, or financial capital might have relatively large explanatory power.
Second, the key values of middle-class Euro-American parents have been
studied extensively, and central aspects of parenting beliefs and practices
prevalent among this group have been associated with socioeconomic stat-
us. In particular, many key features of the authoritative parenting style,
widely considered to be most optimal for child development, appear linked
to both a higher socioeconomic status and an independent framework. For
example, more educated European American parents are more likely to
provide explanations rather than relying on simple strict orders. However,
some socioeconomic effects might be parallel in families from diverse eth-
nic backgrounds, but others are likely to be dwarfed by the possibly more
powerful key cultural values. A recognition of the role of cultural values is
necessary to avoid stereotyping normative parenting in minority families.
Third, neither ethnicity nor socioeconomic status can be treated as static
index variables. This is particularly true both for first and second genera-
tion immigrants who might find it necessary to accept jobs well below their
educational attainment and skills due to limited English skills. In addition,
although limited education and/or language skills increase the risk that
families will live below the poverty line, it is important to recognize that this
situation may only be temporary. Similarly, ethnicity is not a clearly defined
marker variable but may also be subject to change. Changes may be in-
duced, for example, by shifts within one’s own or in other ethnic communi-
ties, changes in the composition of the ethnic background of household
members, or (in the case of immigrant families) by changes in accultura-
tion. As a result, the increasing diversity (both ethnically and socioecono-
mically) of the United States as well as of other industrialized countries,
forces us to move beyond the safe realm of a developmental psychology
based primarily on our knowledge of Euro-American middle-class families.
The relations among parenting practices, parenting styles, and children’s
development are much less clearcut once ethnic, socioeconomic, and
acculturative influences are all taken into account. As Miller (1996) points
out, going beyond the vantage point of the privileged sector of our society
allows us to represent human plurality more fully. In addition, we need to

increase our efforts to understand these complex relationships on their
own terms beyond comparisons of more and less privileged children or of
differing ethnic communities. This is potentially rewarding inasmuch as
this allows us to enhance our understanding and appreciation of the di-
verse complexity of parenting and normative child development.
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12
Searches for What Works

in Parenting Interventions
Douglas R. Powell
Purdue University
INTRODUCTION
Widespread interest in ecological perspectives on parenting in the 1980s

transformed the field of programs aimed at helping parents and significant
family caregivers function effectively in their childrearing roles. The cen-
tury-old idea that the best way to help parents is to disseminate child devel-
opment information was modified to include a major focus on the social
contexts of parenting. Programs experimented with ways to strengthen par-
ents’ social networks, community ties, work–family relations, and connec-
tions with a range of other systems affecting families as a means of promot-
ing competent parenting.
Ecological perspectives increased the field’s sensitivity to population dif-
ferences at group and individual levels. The long standing idea that a given
program model could work with any parent or group of parents gave way to
interest in culturally responsive approaches to working with families,
matching parents to different types of programs, adapting or developing
programs to accommodate particular populations, and methods of individ-
ualizing services to parents within their unique circumstances. The rapidity
of change in ideas about best ways to help parents was aided by growing in-
terest in extending parenting programs to populations deemed to be in
need of special assistance in the parenting role (e.g., low-income parents,
adolescent parents). This was a stretch for a field dominated by program
343
344 POWELL
content and methods that originated with middle-class European American

mothers (Powell, 1988).
Changes in parenting program content, methods, and target populations
led to new research questions about factors contributing to program effects.
Why is Program A effective? What minimum number of sessions is needed
for a program to be beneficial to Population Y? Are paraprofessionals effec-
tive providers of parenting programs? Will a program found effective with
middle-class European American mothers work equally well with lower-in-
come European Americans or African Americans or Latinas? Researchers
broadened a primary focus on program outcomes to embrace questions
about “what works” as well as more precise questions about “what works for
whom,” with concomitant complications in research design (Berlin, O’Neal,
& Brooks-Gunn, 1998; Korfmacher, 2001). Treatment and population vari-
ables, long degraded in intervention research, moved to center stage.
This chapter examines the status of research on factors contributing to
the effectiveness of parenting interventions, a growing focus of parenting
intervention investigations since the mid-1980s. It codifies and describes
conceptual and methodological approaches to research on what works; re-
views selected studies; and identifies needed research directions, including
variables that warrant further investigation as potential attributes of effec-
tive interventions. The chapter begins with an overview of the parameters
of research on what works, followed by a section on methodological strate-
gies and issues, and then provides an overview of conceptual approaches
and illustrative studies in three domains of variables: program features, pro-
gram processes, and population characteristics. It concludes with suggested
directions for future research. The chapter draws mostly from studies of
preventive interventions targeted to populations at risk due to such factors
as low-income, parent characteristic (i.e., adolescent) or child status (i.e.,
low birth weight).
PARAMETERS OF RESEARCH ON WHAT WORKS
The research shift to identifying critical program features in parenting in-

terventions can be seen as a movement from first-generation studies, fo-
cused on program outcomes, to a second generation of research on what
works (Guralnick, 1997). The second generation of research began approx-
imately in the mid-1980s, although there was attention to differential pro-
gram effects prior to this time. Investigators have addressed questions
about “what works” and “what works with whom,” and occasionally “what
works with whom under what conditions,” generally as part of a larger study
of program outcomes.
12. PARENTING INTERVENTIONS 345
The first generation of studies of parenting intervention outcomes

yielded a mixed picture of program effects. It is difficult to offer generaliza-
tions about results because the field encompasses considerable diversity in
program content, method, intensity, population served, and community
context (for a recent review, see Cowan, Powell, & Cowan, 1998). In gen-
eral, results of experimental studies point to modest intervention effects on
parents and children that often fall short of the expectations of policy-
makers and program advocates, leading some scholars to call for a closer
look at what actually happens in parenting programs. For example, gener-
ally lackluster results from randomized trials of six prominent home visiting
programs led one group of analysts to call for research “crafted to primarily
help programs improve quality and implementation: for example, to ex-
plore which families are most likely to engage in and to benefit from the
services . . . and to determine the threshold levels of intensity and duration
of services . . .” (Gomby, Culross, & Behrman, 1999, p. 22).
The growing interest in what works in parenting interventions coincides
with similar research emphases in related fields, including psychotherapy
(Roth & Fonagy, 1996), child care (framed as a quality issue; Lamb, 1998),
and education (Slavin, 2002, 2004). For example, a National Research
Council (2002) report on education research emphasizes the importance
of addressing three types of research questions: description (what is hap-
pening?), cause (is there a systematic effect?), and process or mechanism
(why or how is it happening?). The federal government has bolstered ef-
forts to use findings from scientifically based research to improve the na-
tion’s educational outcomes. As one step to this end, the U.S. Department
of Education’s Institute of Education Sciences has established a What Works
Clearinghouse (www.w-w-c.org) to provide educators, policymakers, and the
public with high-quality reviews of scientific evidence of the effectiveness of
replicable educational interventions, including programs, practices, prod-
ucts or policies. More significantly, the reauthorization of the multi-billion
dollar federal Elementary and Secondary Education Act—the No Child
Left Behind Act of 2001—actively promotes the use of scientifically based
teaching methods. With more than 100 references to the term scientifically
based research, the No Child Left Behind Act approaches progress in educa-
tion like advances in the field of medicine, where practice is driven by find-
ings of impartial research rather than folk wisdom or moral philosophy
(Traub, 2002).
Calls for increased use of scientific evidence, particularly findings from
experimental research, to inform program design and practice decisions
have been met with reminders about the difficulty of defining the treat-
ment variable (Olson, 2004) and the complexities of field research, espe-
cially the inability of research and broad theory to “incorporate the enor-
346 POWELL
mous number or determine the power of the contexts within which human
beings find themselves” (Berliner, 2002, p. 19).
Rigorous investigation of questions about what works puts a spotlight on
program processes and population characteristics long viewed as static enti-
ties in intervention studies (Powell & Sigel, 1991). For certain, “black box
experiments are out” (Cook & Payne, 2002, p. 160). Less certain is how to
appropriately conceptualize, measure, and analyze program process and
population variables, especially in the context of program features and
community systems in which families and programs function. The treat-
ment variable is actually an intervention package comprised of many vari-
ables (e.g., curriculum, intensity, staffing), usually organized in a complex
manner (Campbell, 1986).
First and foremost, investigators of questions about what works need to
identify variables and their potential linkages in a coherent model of how a
program is expected to make a difference. The model needs to specify how
anticipated actions in a parenting program are expected to change parent
knowledge or behavior and how, in turn, those changes might lead to spe-
cific early, intermediate, and long-term outcomes. This framework can be
used as a road map for examining the extent to which a program’s theory
actually holds (Weiss, 1995). Typically a program’s theory of change, also
known as a logic model, is implicit. Designers of interventions generally do
not articulate in precise terms the assumptions of program strategies (St.Pi-
erre & Layzer, 1998). Moreover, researchers cannot expect program staff to
readily provide a short list of variables or a hypothesized model of causal
linkages. Although service providers are a valuable and overlooked source
of insight into intervention processes (e.g., Kitzman, Cole, Yoos, & Olds,
1997), it appears that program staff often have difficulty articulating the
theory or theories upon which their program is based. Researchers who
have collaborated with program staff to develop a testable model or theory
of change for program evaluation purposes report that early discussions
with staff may yield vague terms and ideas, multiple and sometimes compet-
ing theories of change for the same program; these “Grand Canyon mod-
els” are characterized by a wide gap between the intervention design and
desired results (Philliber, 1998, p. 92), and a reluctance to make program
assumptions explicit due to political risks of alienating or offending one or
more constituencies in a community (Weiss, 1995). Accordingly, the devel-
opment of a model with program staff may be best approached as an itera-
tive process that moves toward successive refinement of a set of program ac-
tions that are both doable and plausibly linked to program goals and
anticipated outcomes (Connell & Kubisch, 1998).
As indicated earlier, this chapter examines three domains of variables in
searches for what works in parenting interventions: program features; pro-
gram processes; and population characteristics. Program features include

structural (e.g., delivery mode) and staffing (e.g., professional or paraprofes-
sional) arrangements as well as program goals, content, and method of sup-
porting change in parents. Program processes entail the quantity and quality
of participation, including the engagement of program content and relation-
ships between participants and program staff. Demographic and mental
health (e.g., psychological depression) factors are among the population
characteristics in parenting intervention research.
Figure 12.1 depicts the relations most commonly examined among these
three categories of variables. Program features have been considered in re-
lation to outcomes (path a) and also have been studied as a context of pro-
gram processes (path b). Program processes have been examined primarily
in relation to outcomes (path c). Population characteristics have been con-
ceptualized as moderators of intervention effects (path d) in some studies
and as predictors of program participation (path e) in other studies.
In the next section, I describe methodological approaches and chal-
lenges associated with this line of research. In subsequent sections, I de-
scribe conceptual approaches and illustrative studies in each of the three
categories of variables.
FIG. 12.1. Relations between domains of variables typically examined in re-

search on what works in parenting interventions.
348 POWELL
METHODOLOGICAL APPROACHES TO DETERMINING

WHAT WORKS
Studies of what works in parenting interventions may be organized into

three broad categories of research design:
1. Between-group comparisons of the effects of different programs or

planned variation in the delivery of the same program.
2. Within-group comparisons focused on one or more population char-
acteristic and/or natural variation in program participation, usually
in relation to program effects.
3. Descriptive research on program implementation, including partici-
pant recruitment and retention, staff approaches to program deliv-
ery, and participant responses to program content and methods.
Each of these approaches to research has proven to be useful in address-

ing specific types of questions regarding what works in parenting interven-
tions. Later I describe in general terms how each of these basic research de-
signs has been used in parenting intervention studies, noting some of the
methodological challenges commonly encountered. Studies are briefly ref-
erenced here as examples of particular methodological challenges or ap-
proaches. The results of most of the studies cited below are described in
subsequent sections of this chapter.
Between-Group Comparisons. As indicated above, two different types of

between-group comparisons have been pursued in research on what works
in parenting interventions. One set of studies has examined the relative ef-
fectiveness of theoretically distinct programs. For example, Barnard and
her colleagues compared the use and effects of two different types of home
visiting programs with high-risk mothers: a mental health program that em-
phasized a therapeutic relationship with the mother, and a information-
referral program designed to provide information on infant growth and de-
velopment (Barnard et al., 1988; see also Booth, Mitchell, Barnard, &
Spieker, 1989). Between-group comparisons also may vary the configura-
tion of program services or the frequency and mode of delivery as a test of
the effects of program intensity. For example, in the multi-site study of the
Early Head Start program, sites were compared on the basis of full versus
partial implementation of program services to determine whether there
were differential program effects (Love et al., 2002). An experimental study
by Luster and his colleagues compared effects on adolescent mothers of
weekly home visiting as opposed to less frequent contact via telephone and
mail (Luster, Perlstadt, McKinney, Sims, & Juang, 1996).
In the second type of between-group comparison studies, systematic en-

hancement or adaptation of a particular program, found to be effective in
prior investigations, has been examined to determine whether there are
better ways to deliver the program. Examples include planned variation in
the use of videotapes versus in-person staff to demonstrate effective joint
book reading strategies with preschool children (Arnold, Lonigan, White-
hurst, & Epstein, 1994) and in the use of professional nurses versus para-
professionals to deliver a home visiting program (Olds et al., 2002).
The two types of studies yield different levels of specificity in defining what
works. The first set of investigations defines “what” at a program level,
whereas the second set of studies targets particular practices or program de-
sign features. Results of research involving planned variation in a key attri-
bute of a particular program are especially informative regarding a poten-
tially best practice, examined within the context of a given intervention
design and population, because other features of the program are controlled.
Experimental designs offer the most rigorous scientific information on
what works in a parenting intervention, and expanded use of randomized
experiments is increasingly recommended for establishing causal relations
in education and human service programs (Mosteller & Boruch, 2002; Na-
tional Research Council, 2002; National Research Council and Institute of
Medicine, 2000). For example, the four major threats to validity set forth by
Donald Campbell (Cook & Campbell, 1979; Shadish, Cook, & Campbell,
2002) are the basis of standards and criteria for selecting research reports
to be included in the aforementioned What Works Clearinghouse spon-
sored by the U.S. Department of Education. The four areas are: construct
validity (were the intervention and outcome properly defined?), internal
validity (was the intervention the cause of the change in the outcome?), ex-
ternal validity (was the intervention tested on targeted participants and en-
vironments?), and statistical conclusion validity (could accurate effect sizes
be derived from the study report?; Valentine & Cooper, 2003).
Random assignment of parents to different conditions is not always feasi-
ble, leading some researchers to randomly assign settings such as Head
Start centers (Webster-Stratton, 1998) or housing projects (Slaughter, 1983)
to either intervention or control conditions, or to different types of parent-
ing interventions. Selection bias problems commonly associated with these
and other quasi-experimental designs can be partially addressed by match-
ing settings on important variables before randomly assigning to different
study conditions. For instance, in two different studies, Webster-Stratton
(1998; Webster-Stratton, Reid, & Hammond, 2001) matched Head Start
centers on key demographic variables (e.g., ethnicity of children) prior to
assigning centers to either a parenting intervention or control condition.
This strategy resulted in few significant differences between the characteris-
tics of parents in intervention and control conditions that could be ex-
350 POWELL
pected by chance (i.e., mothers in the intervention centers had higher de-
pressive symptom scores and a higher likelihood of having a substance
abuse history; Baydar, Reid, & Webster-Stratton, 2003). Nonetheless, the
best (albeit not always politically or logistically feasible) way to eliminate se-
lection bias is to randomly assign participants to either intervention or con-
trol conditions.
Several across-program analyses of outcomes of family-oriented interven-
tions that included parenting components have been conducted recently
with an eye toward identifying critical components of program effective-
ness. One is a study of the Early Head Start Program in 17 different sites
(Love et al., 2002), all of which included a parenting component. The oth-
ers are meta-analyses, one of 665 studies of 260 family support programs,
98% of which offered parenting education (Layzer, Goodson, Bernstein, &
Price, 2001), and a second of 88 preventive interventions aimed at enhanc-
ing parental sensitivity and infant attachment (Bakermans-Kranenburg,
van IJzendoorn, & Juffer, 2003). Random assignment of families to pro-
gram or control conditions was used in each of the Early Head Start sites,
and randomization was employed in studies of 109 of the interventions in-
cluded in the family support program analyses. Cross-program compari-
sons and meta-analyses are inherently limited in the contextual informa-
tion that can be provided in relation to results. Nonetheless, meta-analyses
are particularly useful in helping researchers use all existing data on a topic
of programmatic and policy importance (McCartney & Rosenthal, 2000).
Within-Group Comparisons. Growing interest in the question “For whom

is a parenting program most effective?” has led many researchers to investi-
gate the extent to which there are differential effects for subgroups of pro-
gram participants. In addition to examining a range of demographic and
psychological characteristics as moderators of program effects, researchers
have investigated differences in the quality and/or quantity of program
participation in relation to program outcomes, as noted earlier. The pri-
mary interest here is dosage-response relations.
Occasionally, within-group comparisons are investigated in a post hoc
search for any intervention effects. For example, in an experimental study of
the Mother Child Home Program that found no effects on mothers or chil-
dren, Scarr and McCartney (1988) looked diligently for interactions between
the intervention and a number of child and mother variables “in a fit of post-
hoc frustration” (p. 540). These types of exploratory analyses are appropriate
when overall results are contrary to the findings of other studies (and per-
haps they provide disappointed program stakeholders with assurances that
evaluators left no stone unturned). Nonetheless, the post hoc nature of these
analyses combined with the usual sample confounds encountered in inter-
vention research (see later) compromise the validity of results. Subgroup dif-
ferences detected in this manner warrant further investigation in well de-

signed prospective research. Some researchers recommend that analyses of
within-group comparisons regarding the magnitude of program effects
should use only outcome measures that have demonstrated intervention-
control group differences in the main analyses. Interpretation of differential
effects by different subgroups is problematic if it is not known whether the in-
tervention is effective overall (Korfmacher, Kitzman, & Olds, 1998).
Within-group comparisons typically employ correlational methods and
therefore are unable to establish causality. Strong positive correlations be-
tween indices of program participation and program outcomes are difficult
to interpret, for instance, especially in the absence of data on preinter-
vention differences that may be related to participation-outcome relations.
Are outcomes a function of higher levels of program participation or a par-
ticipant characteristic that influences both program participation and out-
comes? Results of within-group comparisons conducted as part of quasi-
experimental studies are especially problematic due to selection bias con-
founds. True experiments provide the best evidence regarding causal
mechanisms in programs (e.g., random assignment to different levels of
participation).
Correlational designs are far from useless, however. Appropriately de-
signed correlational studies can be used to formulate hypotheses about
causal relation and to inform causal inferences (Thompson, Diamond, Mc-
William, Snyder, & Snyder, 2005). Specifically, structural equation modeling
has been used productively to compare subgroups of intervention partici-
pants. For example, Baydar et al. (2003) investigated whether a parent train-
ing program was effective for parents who have elevated levels of mental
health risk factors by assessing whether program engagement predicted im-
provements in parenting skills for all parents, whether mental health risk fac-
tors predicted program engagement, and whether mothers with mental
health risk factors benefited from a parent training program compared with
mothers with mental health risk factors in the control group.
In most intervention studies, sample sizes seriously limit within-group
comparisons because homogeneous subgroups often cannot be formed
with a sufficient number of participants for adequate statistical power. Even
with relatively large sample sizes, it may be impossible to form fully homo-
geneous subgroups. For example, in an examination of differential inter-
vention effects of the large-scale, multi-site Infant Health and Development
Program for subgroups defined by maternal education and ethnicity, the
percentage of mothers who had a college degree varied significantly in Afri-
can American and European American subgroups (20% and 56%, respec-
tively, among those who attended college; Brooks-Gunn, Gross, Kraemer,
Spiker, & Shapiro, 1997). Accordingly, within-group comparisons in most
intervention studies are exploratory.
352 POWELL
Descriptive Studies. Descriptive research on program processes has fo-

cused on various aspects of program implementation, including the recruit-
ment of program participants, what actually happens in program settings,
changes over time in participation patterns, and staff experiences. Care-
fully designed and conducted descriptive studies can yield valuable under-
standings of the nuances of cultural and social class differences in partici-
pant responses to program content, and the larger contexts in which
parenting interventions are implemented.
Descriptions of program processes cannot determine what works in
parenting interventions, but they can help explain why an intervention was
or was not effective when conducted in concert with a study of intervention
effects. For example, as a companion study to a randomized trial of the Par-
ents as Teachers program (Wagner & Clayton, 1999), Hebbeler and Ger-
lach-Downie (2002) conducted a longitudinal investigation to explore why
the home visiting program was not more effective. Descriptive studies also
can be used to identify variables that warrant inclusion in subsequent ex-
perimental investigations, and to illuminate complex program processes
that need special attention in the design and implementation of parenting
interventions. It is helpful for program implementers to know, for example,
that descriptive studies generally indicate that personal outreach strategies
are far more useful than print and media delivered efforts in recruiting low-
income parents to participate in programs (e.g., Wagner, Spiker, Linn,
Gerlach-Downie, & Hernandez, 2003).
Qualitative research is well suited to identifying the nuances of interven-
tions (e.g., Erickson & Gutierrez, 2002) and, accordingly, descriptive stud-
ies of parenting interventions typically employ qualitative methods, includ-
ing focus groups, interviews, and observations. Quantitative methods also
have been used to describe, for example, stability and change over time in
the content of long-term parenting discussion groups (Powell & Eisenstadt,
1988), and patterns of engagement in a home visiting program (Wagner et
al., 2003).
I turn now to a delineation and description of illustrative studies in each
of three categories of variables: program features, program processes, and
population characteristics. The organization of each section follows the
paths depicted in Fig. 12.1.
PROGRAM FEATURES
Parenting interventions differ in numerous ways. Program features may be

organized into four categories as follows:
There are structural features such as: the mode of delivery (e.g., group,
home-based); the onset, duration, and frequency of program services;
and whether the parenting intervention is part of a larger program that

includes other services (e.g., early childhood education). A related yet
separate feature is a program’s staffing arrangement. Much of the interest
in program staffing has centered on the relative merits of using profes-
sional versus paraprofessional staff to provide parenting interventions. In
many ways, professional versus paraprofessional staffing arrangements are
proxy variables for staff qualities thought to be conducive to forming and
maintaining interpersonal ties with families that support parental growth
and change.
Intervention goals and content represent a third set of program features. A
key distinction here is whether program goals and content focus primarily
on child development, including parental practices in support of child de-
velopment, or on a broader set of issues that includes child development as
well as topics and assistance related to the ecology of individual and family
functioning. Another critical difference in program content is the perspec-
tive on directors or sources of developmental change in the child. Are
the forces regulating developmental change internal to the child (child-
focused), external to the child (parent-focused), or a product of the inter-
action between internal and external forces (parent–child relationship fo-
cused)? (Cowan, 1988). A program’s perspective on the mechanisms by
which parents influence their child’s development results in particular sets
of messages conveyed to parents about appropriate parenting behaviors
and beliefs (Cowan et al., 1998). For instance, programs for parents of pre-
schoolers vary in content when they tell parents that their child’s early read-
ing skills (a) will emerge when the child is ready, or (b) are best supported
through highly structured and repetitive experiences with print, or (c) are
appropriately fostered through frequent parent–child shared book read-
ings in which the child is an active contributor to the story telling and the
parent encourages the child to build on and extend her understandings.
Finally, parenting interventions differ in the pedagogical or clinical strate-
gies employed to support change in parents. Some programs view the inter-
personal relationship between program staff and parents as the primary
means for achieving meaningful change in parents. Process (i.e., relation-
ship building) is a central part of the program content. A primary goal of
one prominent relationship-based intervention with at-risk mothers, for ex-
ample, is to provide the mother with “the experience of a stable trustworthy
relationship that conveys understanding of her situation” and promotes
her sense of self-efficacy (Heinicke, Fineman, Ponce, & Guthrie, 2001, p.
440). In other programs, the staff role is to provide information about child
development and parenting practices, sometimes via demonstration (e.g.,
modeling desired practices in person or via a videotape). Within programs
adhering to more of an instructional approach, a finer distinction can be
made regarding the use of didactic versus nondidactic teaching methods.
354 POWELL
The program features identified above typically are clustered in distinc-

tive patterns. Programs focused on parent–child attachment generally view
the relationship between parent and program worker as a therapeutic alli-
ance that is fundamental to changing a mother’s approach to significant re-
lationships. Programs focused on parents as teachers of their child tend to
employ instructional strategies for disseminating information (Cowan et
al., 1998). In general, staff model behaviors that the programs wish to foster
in parents’ interactions with their child.
Illustrative Studies
Program delivery methods (group- and home-based strategies) and staffing

arrangements have been examined in several important studies. Findings
are summarized later. The duration and frequency of intervention services
also have received significant research attention. Although these structural
program features are an inherent element of a good intervention design,
the actual frequency and duration of program contact with participants are
typically much less than intervention protocols specify. Accordingly, I con-
sider these variables as indicators of program intensity in the section on
program processes. The onset of program services has received limited sys-
tematic study. Limited attention also has been given to intervention goals
and content, and to pedagogical and clinical strategies.
Links to Outcomes (path a). Discussion groups and home visits are time-
honored methods for delivering parenting education and support. Each
has rich practice and theoretical traditions that embrace different assump-
tions about how best to facilitate change in parents, namely the peer learn-
ing and support presumed to exist in discussion groups and the individual-
ization to particular circumstances afforded in home visits.
Research comparing the relative effectiveness of these two delivery meth-
ods spans several decades. Peer discussion groups produced stronger ef-
fects than home visits in an early quasi-experimental study (Slaughter,
1983), and the Layzer et al. (2001) meta-analysis of family support pro-
grams found that parent groups produced stronger effects than home visit-
ing. Specifically, the average effect sizes for parent groups as the primary
method of delivering parent education were .54 when targeted to children
at biological risk and .27 when used with nontargeted populations, com-
pared to average effect sizes for home visiting of .36 when targeted to chil-
dren at biological risk and .09 when used with nontargeted populations.
Further, a cross-program study of Early Head Start found that a combina-
tion of center-based and home-based strategies yielded a stronger pattern
of impacts than center-based or home-based alone (Love et al., 2002). Per-
haps the effectiveness of a program increases when the unique strengths of

multiple delivery methods are maximized concurrently or sequentially.
One cannot offer generalizations about the superiority of peer groups or
the limited impact of home visits from these types of results alone because
program delivery methods are best understood in relation to other pro-
gram features and, as suggested in the meta-analysis results, population
characteristics. A finer grained question needs to be asked: Under what
conditions and for whom is a particular program delivery strategy an effec-
tive method for achieving positive change in parent and child outcomes?
One cost sensitive program feature is the staffing arrangement. Can
paraprofessionals produce positive results in a model home visiting pro-
gram found to be effective when delivered by professionals? This question
was addressed by Olds and his colleagues in a randomized trial of a home
visiting program with first-time, low-income mothers in Denver (Olds et al.,
2002). They found that, when trained in the Nurse Home Visiting Program
model (now known as the Nurse Family Partnership), paraprofessionals
produced small effects that rarely achieved statistical or clinical signifi-
cance, whereas nurses produced significant effects on a wide range of ma-
ternal and child outcomes in a population eligible for Medicaid or without
private health insurance. For most outcomes on which either parapro-
fessionals or nurses produced significant effects, the paraprofessionals typi-
cally had effects that were about half the size of those produced by nurses.
The investigators suggest that perhaps nurses had higher levels of legiti-
macy than paraprofessionals in the eyes of families who have concerns
about complications of pregnancy, labor and delivery, and the care of new-
borns. Nurses are established authorities on this topic and thus may have
more power to engage parents and support adaptive behavior change than
paraprofessionals. In a case study of a young mother’s experiences in the
program, for example, the nurse is viewed by the mother as a trusted au-
thority (“she wouldn’t lie”) with credible suggestions (“I try to do what the
nurse [suggests], because she knows . . .”; Kitzman, Yoos, Cole, Korfma-
cher, & Hanks, 1997).
As a Context of Program Processes (path b). A study of how nurses and

paraprofessionals conducted home visits in the Denver trial described pre-
viously illustrates the benefits of examining a program feature (in this case,
staffing arrangement) as a context of program processes. Nurses and para-
professionals were found to implement the program in substantially differ-
ent ways even though they were provided with a structured and common set
of protocols. For example, nurses spent a greater proportion of home visit
time focused on personal health and parenting issues whereas paraprofes-
sionals devoted a greater proportion of time to topics related to environ-
mental health and safety. Mothers’ ratings of the helping relationship did
356 POWELL
not differ between nurses and paraprofessionals, however (Korfmacher,

O’Brien, Hiatt, & Olds, 1999).
An experimental study of two conceptually different intervention mod-
els by Booth and her colleagues also illustrates the value of studying pro-
gram processes in relation to systematic variation in a program feature
(Booth et al., 1989). One model (labeled Mental Health) was based on a two-
step approach that focused on the mother’s interpersonal competence as
first step toward optimal parenting and on the mother’s parenting knowl-
edge as the second step. Home visitors fostered a therapeutic relationship
with the mothers in this model and demonstrated ways of handling family
relationships and problems. In the contrasting model (labeled Information/
Resource), home visitors provided information on parenting through didac-
tic methods (the second step of the first model). An analysis of program
process data revealed that the two models were blurred in implementation.
Home visitors (nurses in both models) in the Mental Health condition
functioned in ways consistent with the model; 64% of nursing acts were clas-
sified as “providing therapy” and 36% were classified as “informing.” How-
ever, 51% of nursing acts in the Information/Resource condition were clas-
sified as “providing therapy” and 49% were classified as “informing.” These
patterns led the investigators to combine groups in the two conditions for
analyses based on individual differences in the amount of two-step treat-
ment provided (e.g., relative frequency of therapy). Program effects varied
by mother’s social skill, as described in the section on population character-
istics.
PROGRAM PROCESSES
Research attention to program processes is generally approached as a ques-

tion about intervention fidelity: Did parents participate in the program as in-
tended? The lens is defined from the perspective of the program designer,
and the usual strategy is to determine the extent to which indicators of partic-
ipation (e.g., frequency of attendance at group meetings or participation in
home visits) match the thresholds deemed necessary for positive program
outcomes. A parallel approach in medical and clinical interventions concep-
tualizes participation as compliance with the treatment regimen (e.g., pill
counts, missed appointments; Blackwell, 1998). The inevitable variability in
participation found in most programs logically leads to a dose-response per-
spective on the question of what works in an intervention.
Recently investigators have added depth and breadth to their conceptu-
alizations of interventions as they attempt to unpack program processes.
Studies have sought to consider participants’ perspectives on their program
experiences, partly in recognition of the distinction between program de-
livery and program receipt; changes over time in patterns of participation;

individual differences in patterns of participation; how staff approach their
work with parents; and what program staff and parents actually do together
(Powell, Okagaki, & Bojczyk, 2004). Many investigators frame this closer ex-
amination of life in a parenting program as looking inside the “black box”
(e.g., Hebbeler & Gerlach-Downie, 2002). Conceptualizations of program
processes that transcend a view of participation as compliance with a pro-
gram protocol provide an opportunity for researchers to consider parents
as active contributors to the intervention process (Eisenstadt & Powell,
1987) and staff as responsive decision makers about the adaptation of pro-
gram content and resources to specific family circumstances (Kitzman et
al., 1997).
Studies of the multidimensionality of interventions have included meas-
ures of the quality of participation, generally focused on the relationship
between program staff and participants, along with the more common indi-
cators of quantity of participation. The term engagement is increasingly used
to depict parent interactions with program staff, including the quality and
quantity of initial encounters during program recruitment contacts (e.g.,
Gomby et al., 1999).
Descriptions of Program Processes. Studies of patterns of participation in

parenting programs can inform hypotheses about salient aspects of inter-
vention processes. Existing research suggests some dimensions of participa-
tion may be independent of others. A multi-site study of the Parents as
Teachers program found that parents may consistently participate in home
visits but not use program materials and activities in between visits or try
recommended practices with their child (Wagner et al., 2003). Similarly, a
longitudinal observational study of discussion groups serving low-income
mothers found that attendance was not related to the quality of parents’
program participation, such as type of verbal contribution to group discus-
sions (Eisenstadt & Powell, 1987). Another descriptive study of parents’ re-
sponses to a family literacy program found that working-class mothers’ posi-
tive responses at the program site to the intervention’s suggested hands-on
literacy activities with their children (e.g., using Playdough to make story-
book characters and form letters) were not indicative of their true views of
the suggested activities or use of the suggestions at home. In fact, mothers
thought the Playdough was dirty and that their houses became untidy as
children left books, papers, and other literacy artifacts lying around (An-
derson, Fagan, & Cronin, 1998). Together these studies raise questions
about the validity of measures of program participation that rely on staff
358 POWELL
perceptions of parental engagement or response to program ideas, and

also suggest that care must be taken in combining data from multiple meas-
ures of participation.
Descriptive research can work in tandem with outcome studies to iden-
tify possible reasons why a program is or is not effective. Of special interest
here are the roles and behavior of staff in helping parents support their
child’s development. Data on the range of staff actions can yield a useful
chronicle of core messages to parents which may or may not match the in-
tentions of program designers, and may or may not be obvious to parents. A
qualitative study of the Parents as Teachers Program, conducted to shed
light on why the program was not found to be more effective in two ran-
domized trials (Wagner & Clayton, 1999), found that home visitors empha-
sized their social support role and generally did not discuss parenting be-
haviors that seemed to be in need of change or improvement, even though
program goals emphasized both confidence-building and parenting knowl-
edge and skill improvements. Interestingly, parents viewed the time the
home visitor spent interacting with her child as a direct intervention that
would enhance the child’s development (a “vitamin”) whereas the home
visitor saw the same interaction as modeling for the parent (Hebbeler &
Gerlach-Downie, 2002). These findings echo results of the qualitative study
of the Child and Family Resource Program indicating that home visitors
spent little time on child development and parenting (Travers, Irwin, &
Nauta, 1981). An outcome study found no program impact on child out-
comes (Travers, Nauta, & Irwin, 1982). Analyses of other interventions sug-
gest that paraprofessional home visitors may have special difficulty system-
atically addressing parenting behaviors (Halpern, 1992), especially when
parent-clients face issues (e.g., abuse) that are salient in the life history of
the paraprofessional (Musick & Barbera-Stein, 1988).
Links to Outcomes (path c). Numerous studies of parenting programs

have conceptualized program participation as a matter of dosage, examin-
ing differences in program participation frequencies (e.g., Ramey et al.,
1992) or level of parent interest in curriculum content (e.g., Belsky, 1986;
Korfmacher et al., 1998) in relation to child and/or parent outcomes.
There is inconclusive evidence about dosage questions. Many analyses, such
as those described below, indicate that higher levels of contact with parents
yield stronger results than interventions with lower dosage levels. Yet in
contrast to “more is better” patterns of findings, the Bakermans-Kranen-
burg et al. (2003) meta-analysis of interventions designed to enhance pa-
rental sensitivity and infant attachment concluded that “less is more.” They
found that interventions with fewer than five sessions were as effective as in-
terventions with 5 to 16 sessions, but interventions with more than 16 ses-
sions were less effective than interventions with a smaller number of ses-
sions. A serious limitation of most dosage-response analyses is the absence

of experimental study of dosage, as noted later.
The Infant Health and Development Program has been the subject of
more dosage analyses than any other intervention to date. Effects of this in-
tervention for low birth weight, premature infants and their parents were
examined with concurrent randomized trials involving about 1,000 infants
and their families across eight sites (Gross, Spiker, & Haynes, 1997). In the
original analyses of program effects, investigators found that intervention
effects on the child were related to the degree of family participation in the
program as measured by days of child attendance in the child development
center, the number of home visits completed, and the number of parent
group meetings attended (Ramey, Bryant, Wasik, Sparling, Fendt, &
LaVange, 1992). A second set of separate analyses indicated that the rate at
which a curriculum emphasizing adult–child interactions was implemented
in home visits (i.e., number of activities introduced to a parent in a home
visit) and in the child development center added significantly to the predic-
tion of children’s IQ scores at 3 years of age (Sparling et al., 1991). A third
set of analyses by Liaw, Meisels and Brooks-Gunn (1995) examined the rela-
tive contribution of three dimensions of participants’ experiences in the in-
tervention: program exposure (i.e., number of contacts in the home and
child development center); rate (i.e., number of activities presented per
visit to parent in the home or per day to the child at the center); and active
experience (i.e., parent’s interest in the intervention activities at home and
child’s mastery of tasks taught at the center). Indices of active experience
were stronger predictors of child IQ and quality of home environment
scores at age 3 than program exposure or rate of participation. Further, a
higher level of active experience on the part of both parent and child was
more strongly associated with child IQ and home environment quality than
a high level of active experience on the part of the child only or the parent
only or neither.
Results of the three analyses of program process–outcome relations sum-
marized previously are consistent in suggesting that “more is better,” but
they emphasize different answers to the question, “more of what?” The first
two analyses focus on the quantity of participation from a program perspec-
tive; specifically, variations in the frequency of participation in program
components (Ramey et al., 1992) or in the amount of program content de-
livered (Sparling et al., 1991). The third set of analyses emphasizes the
quality and quantity of participation in program components from a partic-
ipant perspective; specifically, level of active engagement of home visit and
child development center components (Liaw et al., 1995).
The attention to quality of program experience in the Liaw et al. (1995)
analyses of participation in the Infant Health and Development Program is
part of a growing empirical literature that links the quality of program par-
360 POWELL
ticipation to program effects. An early study in this area was conducted by

Belsky (1986) in an analysis of the effectiveness of newborn interventions
employing the Brazelton Neonatal Behavioral Assessment Scale as a tool for
influencing parental behavior (Belsky, 1985; see also Worobey & Brazelton,
1986). The sample population was primarily European American and well
educated. Belsky examined within-group variation in the intervention
groups upon finding no differences between intervention and control
groups regarding parent–infant interaction and marital functioning. The
within-group analyses identified short-term positive program effects on
mothers and fathers who were highly engaged in the intervention (i.e., in-
tervener ratings of the parent’s interest in, involvement with, and enjoy-
ment of the intervention) and who jointly participated in the intervention
(vs. the mother participating without the baby’s father). Results of other
within-group analyses of intervention effects suggest that the quality of pa-
rental engagement of the program is linked to program outcomes (e.g.,
Lieberman, Weston, & Pawl, 1991; Pfannenstiel & Seltzer, 1989; Roggman,
Boyce, Cook, & Jump, 2001).
The benefit of measuring multiple dimensions of participation is sug-
gested in the results of an analysis of three dimensions of participation as
predictors of outcomes in the Memphis trial of the Nurse Home Visiting
Program: length of participation, amount of focus on parenting issues, and
the emotional qualities of the relationship between home visitor and pro-
gram participant (Korfmacher et al., 1998). Results varied by the psycholog-
ical resourcefulness of the mother. A positive relation between nurses’ em-
pathy towards their client–mothers and the mothers’ empathy towards
their child was found for mothers with higher levels of psychological re-
sources. In contrast, a positive relation between parenting content focus
during the home visit and quality of the home environment (an outcome
variable) was especially strong for mothers with lower levels of psychologi-
cal resources. The amount of contact mothers had with their nurse home
visitor was predictive of only one outcome—the child’s responsiveness to
the mother.
In addition to examining dose-response relations, program intensity
may be examined as variations in the configuration or types of services of-
fered to families. An experimental study comparing intensive support
(weekly home visits) and less intensive support (less frequent contact pri-
marily via phone and mail) to adolescent mothers found that mothers who
received the more intensive treatment had higher scores on a measure of
the quality of the home environment provided to the infant at 12 months
than mothers who received the less intensive intervention (Luster et al.,
1996). Results of a 17-site study of the Early Head Start Program indirectly
address the question of whether more services offered to families yield
stronger program effects. Program sites that fully implemented key ele-
ments of the Head Start Performance Standards had a stronger pattern of

impacts on children at age 3 years than program sites that did not fully im-
plement all standards (Love et al., 2002).
Most studies of program process–outcome relations acknowledge that
unidentified and unmeasured factors may account for systematic relations
between frequency of participation and program outcomes (e.g., Ramey et
al., 1992). It is common in within-group analyses to statistically control for
person and family variables potentially associated with program participa-
tion and/or outcomes (e.g., Liaw et al., 1995), but this strategy offers less
conclusive information than experimental designs that vary some aspect of
program dosage. It appears that only one set of studies, conducted in Ja-
maica, has systematically varied levels of program frequency, with results in-
dicating that a higher frequency of home visits was associated with positive
effects on children’s mental functioning (Powell & Grantham-McGregor,
1989). In one of the Jamaican studies, poor neighborhood areas were as-
signed to one of two different frequencies of home visits with families
(twice a month, once a month) or a control condition. In a subsequent
study with a different sample, families were randomly assigned to either
weekly home visits or a control condition. Data from these two sets of stud-
ies could not be combined for analyses because different methods were
used to assign families to experimental and control conditions. In the first
study, children in the group receiving bimonthly visits showed small but
statistically significant increases in scores on the Griffiths Mental Develop-
ment Scales, and there were no increases among children in families receiv-
ing monthly or no visits. In the second study, children in the group receiv-
ing weekly home visits showed significant improvements in developmental
functioning compared to children of families in the control group.
POPULATION CHARACTERISTICS
The idea of considering differential effects of an intervention by popula-

tion characteristic holds considerable appeal. The effects of an interven-
tion may depend on a preexisting characteristic of a population. That is, a
preexisting characteristic functions as a moderator of program effects. Ac-
cordingly, one set of parents (e.g., clinically depressed) may respond poorly
to an intervention whereas another set of parents (e.g., not clinically de-
pressed) may derive benefits. Ignoring a key population characteristic in
assessing the impact of an intervention runs the risk of concluding that a
program has no effects when in reality the intervention may be highly bene-
ficial for one group of parents and actually harmful (e.g., adding stress) to
another group of parents (National Research Council and Institute of Med-
icine, 2000).
362 POWELL
A major challenge is to identify the key population characteristic(s).

Ideally researchers examine well defined, a priori moderators that previous
research suggests are linked to the behavioral or cognitive outcomes tar-
geted by the intervention. Far less satisfactory is a random hunt for sub-
group differences in the absence of program effects (National Research
Council and Institute of Medicine, 2000) and/or poorly defined moderator
variables (e.g., a composite measure with no report of internal reliability).
Some investigators have intentionally considered population differences in

sequential intervention trials in order to determine program effects with
different populations and communities. For example, Olds and his col-
leagues conducted randomized trials of the Nurse Home Visitor Program
with primarily African American mothers in Memphis, Tennessee and with
a diverse population, including a sizable percentage of Latino mothers, in
Denver, Colorado after finding positive program effects with primarily Eu-
ropean American mothers in the small, semi-rural community of Elmira,
New York (Olds et al., 1999). Each trial yielded positive intervention effects,
as reported in this chapter, including interactions with population charac-
teristics in Elmira and Memphis trials, as described later. Reid, Webster-
Stratton, and Beauchaine (2001) combined data from three cohorts of
families who participated in prior studies of the effectiveness of the Incredi-
ble Years Parenting Program to compare responses of African American,
Asian American, Caucasian, and Hispanic mothers to the program. Results
indicated the program was effective with each of these populations.
Demographic factors and the parent’s psychological and mental health
characteristics have been examined most often as moderators of program
effects and/or as predictors of program participation. Below I describe rep-
resentative studies in these areas.
As Moderators of Program Effects (path d). Within-group analyses of ef-

fects of the Infant Health and Development Program demonstrate the use-
fulness of considering family characteristics as moderators of program ef-
fects. Exploratory analyses found that the intervention was more effective
for children of mothers with a high school education or less, and the inter-
vention effect on children’s IQ scores at 36 months of age (the end of the
intervention) was much greater for children from lower-quality homes as
measured by the HOME inventory, but this IQ difference declined with age
(Bradley, Burchinal, & Casey, 2001). Also, when children were 36 months
of age, a significant birth weight by intervention interaction was found
among European American mothers with some college, with lighter chil-
dren less influenced by the intervention than comparable low birth weight
children who were heavier. The researchers speculated that there may be a
ceiling effect on the amount of improvement that can be expected in low
birth weight children who were lighter and reside in relatively enriched en-
vironments (Brooks-Gunn et al., 1997). This is one of the few intervention
studies to consider a child characteristic as a moderator of program effects.
The finding that the Infant Health and Development Program was more
effective with higher-risk families is consistent with results of other interven-
tion researches. In studies of the Nurse Home Visiting Program noted
above, treatment differences for child abuse and neglect and emergency
room visits were more significant among women who had a lower sense of
control over their lives in the Elmira, New York trial (Olds, Henderson,
Chamberlin, & Tatelbaum, 1986), and program effects on children’s health
care encounters for injuries and ingestions were focused on children born
to women with few psychological resources in the Memphis, Tennessee trial
(Olds, Henderson, Kitzman, Eckenrode, Cole, & Tatelbaum, 1998). Also,
the experimental study by Booth et al. (1989) of the Mental Health and In-
formation/Resource intervention models, described previously, found the
intervention was more beneficial for mothers who, at the point of program
entry, had low social skills. Further, a quasi-experimental study (no ran-
domization) of a home visiting program for mothers of at-risk infants found
no main effect of the intervention on infant mental development scores,
but a significant interaction effect between intervention and maternal de-
pression. Infants of depressed mothers who received the home visiting in-
tervention achieved significantly higher mental development scores and
were twice as likely to be classified as securely attached than infants of de-
pressed mothers who did not receive the home visiting intervention (Lyons-
Ruth, Connell, Grunebaum, & Botein, 1990).
As Predictors of Program Participation (path e). Factors associated with

parents’ decisions to join and stay in a parenting program warrant investi-
gation in light of the high rates of participant attrition and less-than-
intended levels of participation experienced by interventions serving
high-risk populations. For example, in randomized trials of the Parents as
Teachers program with adolescent mothers there was an average attrition
rate of 57% by 2 years (Wagner & Clayton, 1999), and mothers completed
about half the number of home visits expected by the protocol of the
Nurse Home Visiting program (Korfmacher et al., 1998). Population
characteristics are prime candidates for predicting who will join and re-
main in a program. Early research on this topic found that social network
and demographic characteristics were significant predictors of length of
participation in parenting interventions (Powell, 1984). More recent work
indicates that mothers were significantly less likely to actively engage in
home visits when living in a county that displayed poor community health
364 POWELL
(i.e., infant death rate, low birth weight rate) or when isolated from imme-
diate family and friendship networks (McGuigan, Katzev, & Pratt, 2003).
In a multi-site study of Hawaii’s Healthy Start Program, child and parent
risk factors were predictive of prospective participants’ willingness to enroll
in the paraprofessional home visiting program aimed at improving family
functioning, promoting child health and development, and preventing
child abuse and neglect. Infant biologic risk greatly increased an at-risk
family’s willingness to participate in the program. Adolescent mothers who
had not completed high school also were more likely to initially agree to
participate in the program. Families where the father had multiple risks
were more likely to receive more visits (≥12 visits) than mothers who were
unilaterally violent toward their partner (Duggan et al., 2000).
As Predictors of Program Participation and Moderators of Program Effects

(paths d and e). The preexisting population characteristic that moderates
program effects also may function as a predictor of program participation
patterns, yet few studies have an adequate sample size and/or data on pro-
gram participation to examine this possibility. An exception is the work of
Baydar and colleagues, who studied the role of mental health factors in
Head Start mothers’ participation, and the effects of a parent training pro-
gram focused on children’s social competence and behavior problems
(Baydar et al., 2003). In the Baydar et al. analyses, mothers with mental
health risk factors (i.e., depression, substance abuse) initially exhibited
poorer parenting than mothers without these risk factors, but were en-
gaged in and benefited from the intervention at levels that were compara-
ble to mothers without these risk factors. The results of this study do not
support the persistent concern in the parenting intervention field that par-
ents in greatest need of a parenting program may be the least likely to par-
ticipate.
NEEDED RESEARCH DIRECTIONS FOR IDENTIFYING

CRITICAL INTERVENTION ELEMENTS
This chapter describes conceptual and methodological approaches to de-

termining what works in parenting interventions, and reviews selected re-
search findings in three domains of variables: program features, program
processes, and population characteristics. This second generation of re-
search on parenting interventions is beginning to yield some guidance on
the design and implementation of parenting interventions. The extant lit-
erature is insufficiently robust to specify critical elements of effective inter-
ventions, but the studies reviewed in this chapter point to an emerging set
of promising candidates.
Research Design
Advances in developing a science of parenting interventions require a se-

quencing of research on a particular intervention where, for example, in-
vestigators initially determine whether a theoretically sound program can
be implemented as planned and whether the targeted population will actu-
ally participate. Descriptive research methods, within-group comparison
studies, and quasi-experimental designs have proven to be beneficial for ex-
ploring these basic questions. Evidence suggesting that a program or pro-
gram feature can be implemented and that parents are likely to participate
provides an empirical basis for conducting experimental research to deter-
mine program effects (National Research Council and Institute of Medi-
cine, 2000).
Thresholds should not be set too high for deciding whether results of
initial implementation work warrant an experimental study. Researchers
will rarely find problem-free organizational settings to host an intervention,
consistently uniform implementation of an intervention, or consensus
among program staff on an intervention’s theory of change (Cook & Payne,
2002). Moreover, the ecological validity of results of experimental studies
conducted under optimal conditions is diminished. With sufficient sample
sizes, variability in implementation can be systematically examined as part
of outcome research, as was done in the Early Head Start study (Love et al.,
2002). Although experimental studies should not be postponed in hopes of
finding ideal implementation conditions, it is wasteful to conduct an out-
come study without data suggesting a program or program feature has a
reasonable chance of being implemented. The intentions of program de-
signers do not readily or necessarily become the actions of program staff or
the experiences of program participants.
More broadly, this chapter demonstrates that, individually and collec-
tively, intervention studies need to consider more than one domain of vari-
ables. While it appears increasingly common for practitioners to submit that
“engagement is everything” to achieve positive program effects (Greenstein,
1998, p. 16), it is important to remember that intervention processes occur in
the context of program features and population characteristics that together
seem to set the stage for program participation. To study program participa-
tion independently of population characteristics, or to examine causal rela-
tions between a program feature and participant outcome without regard for
program participation experiences, significantly limits our understanding of
what works in parenting programs. This requires the use of different re-
search designs and methods while also recognizing that experimental de-
signs yield the best evidence on what works in an intervention. As suggested
in this chapter, thoughtful combinations of quantitative and qualitative
methods in study designs are particularly informative.
366 POWELL
Promising Candidates for Critical Elements

of Effective Parenting Interventions
Because the ultimate goal of research on what works is to identify critical el-
ements of effective interventions, future studies should focus on variables
that hold promise of occupying a salient role in the design and implemen-
tation of parenting programs. Promising variables and methodological
approaches are noted later in each of the three domains of variables consid-
ered previously in this chapter. An emerging domain of potential signifi-
cance also is briefly described.
Program Features. The use of professionals as the primary staff for work-
ing with parents is a promising candidate for designation as a critical element
of effective interventions. As reviewed in this chapter, results of a randomized
trial offer compelling evidence about the merits of using professionals (Olds
et al., 2002), and a growing literature, mostly descriptive in nature, points to
challenges encountered by paraprofessionals in working with low-income
and high-risk populations. We cannot however generalize to all parenting in-
terventions from one study demonstrating the benefits of nurses as staff in
prenatal and infancy home visiting programs with low-income, first-time
mothers. There may be different outcomes if paraprofessionals were trained
and consistently supported in a program model uniquely suited to their
backgrounds and abilities (Korfmacher, 2001). Hence, experimental studies
on the staffing status question are needed with other types of professionals
and with group-based interventions targeted at different types of populations
and parenting issues. Further research also is needed on specific practices
(e.g., flexible adaptation of program resources) and conditions (e.g., case-
loads, staff turnover rates, supervision) that enable staff to function effec-
tively with parents. This information is essential to developing research-based
guidance on the supports needed for large-scale adoption of a parenting in-
tervention.
The other program features considered in this chapter—delivery meth-
od, curriculum, and pedagogical or clinical approach—are conceptually in-
teresting and programmatically important but there is insufficient research
information to determine what works. Data are needed to address existing
inferences and assumptions about each of these variables. For example,
there are suggestions that a clear and consistent content focus on child de-
velopment and parenting may yield positive intervention effects on parent-
ing and child outcomes, but currently this idea emanates chiefly from the
inferences of intervention results indicating that the absence of a con-
tent focus on child development and parenting is associated with no mean-
ingful effects on parent and child outcomes (e.g., Hebbeler & Gerlach-
Downie, 2002).
Program features are most appropriately investigated in relation to other

elements of an intervention package and, as argued earlier in this chapter,
the usefulness of results is significantly increased when studies systemati-
cally enhance or adapt a particular element of an intervention found to be
effective in prior investigations. The relative dearth of empirical attention
to the pedagogical or clinical approach is striking in view of the preponder-
ance of theoretical arguments about the merits of reciprocity (e.g., Dunst &
Trivette, 1997), trust (e.g., Heinicke & Ponce, 1999), and caring (e.g.,
Emde & Robinson, 2000) in relationships between staff and parents, and in
view of the considerable amount of time programs presumably devote to se-
lecting and training staff on approaches to working with parents.
Program Processes. Whether the planned program, largely defined by

the program features noted above, is actually the delivered and received
program deserves more than a perfunctory examination of staff records as
an indicator of the fidelity of program implementation. As described ear-
lier in this chapter, researchers increasingly recognize the multidimen-
sionality of parenting interventions, and there is great opportunity and
need for future work to improve the measurement of program processes.
More than 30 years ago, a cross-program analysis of parenting education
programs identified parents’ active participation in the program as a strong
predictor of the magnitude of program effects (Goodson & Hess, 1975)
and results of more recent research (e.g., Korfmacher et al., 1998) con-
tinue to suggest that active engagement of program content is a promising
candidate for designation as a critical element of effective parenting inter-
ventions. Far less is known about program and parent factors associated
with active engagement of program content. Frequent and sustained con-
tact with parents is also commonly cited as an important element of an in-
tervention, but more needs to be understood about how intervention con-
tent and method interact with frequency and duration. Is six months of
weekly direct feedback on a program participant’s observed behavior (via
guided discussion of videotaped observations, for example) equivalent to
one year of attending biweekly group discussions about child rearing?
Each of these variables especially needs further investigation employing
experimental designs. Most of what is known about these variables comes
from nonrandomized studies that do not fully accommodate nagging ques-
tions about population confounds. Program intensity in particular warrants
further research because it is cost sensitive and in need of greater specificity
to be helpful to policymakers and program designers. Existing conceptual-
izations of program intensity described in this chapter offer a range of op-
tions. Future studies of “more is better” hypotheses need a clearly defined
theoretical framework and careful attention to population characteristics
in addition to controls for program features.
368 POWELL
As a general direction for future research on program processes, it ap-

pears that studies would be well served by measuring multiple indicators of
both quantity and quality of program participation, taking care in the de-
velopment of composite measures of participation because some aspects of
participation may be independent of others, and by considering the possi-
bility of change over time in the nature of participation, including parent-
staff relationships.
Population Characteristics. The “for whom” questions, and the within-

group comparisons typically employed to examine population questions,
are the most problematic aspect of research on what works in parenting in-
terventions. There are serious methodological limits on the analysis of pop-
ulation characteristics in intervention research, and investigators need to
select and measure population variable(s) carefully. One criterion to use in
the selection of population variables is the programmatic implication of
possible significant population effects. How might data on how a particular
population responds to an intervention, or how a specific preexisting popu-
lation characteristic moderates intervention effects, help inform improve-
ments in the design and/or delivery of interventions?
Program Context. To date, scant attention has been given to questions

about the conditions or circumstances under which positive effects of a
parenting intervention are realized. Conditions may be conceptualized at
several levels, including the intervention setting (e.g., whether spouse/
partner is a joint participant in the intervention), the organizational setting
(e.g., characteristics of agencies that effectively implement a parenting pro-
gram), and the community setting (e.g., quantity and quality of available
child and family services). Because a small set of variables can be accommo-
dated in good research designs, it is understandable that study of interven-
tion contexts has been limited.
Intervention context variables are likely to receive greater attention in
the future as policymakers and program implementers address the chal-
lenges of taking model programs to scale and as early childhood and wel-
fare-to-work interventions include a parenting program as one of many
components. What types of agencies are best suited to host a parenting in-
tervention? What types of substantive integrations among parenting inter-
vention and other program components (e.g., early childhood education)
are feasible and effective in multiple-component programs? There are pro-
vocative indications in recent studies that organizational cultures and ca-
pacities are associated with variations in the integrity of program imple-
mentation (Kisker, Paulsell, Love, & Raikes, 2002) and with different
approaches to basic program tasks such as client assessment and relations
with families (Duggan et al., 2000). Perhaps this line of investigation will de-
fine the third generation of research on parenting interventions.
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IV
PARENTAL BEHAVIOR
AND CHILDREN’S
DEVELOPMENT
13
Research on Parental
Socialization of Child Outcomes:
Current Controversies
and Future Directions
Lynn Okagaki
Purdue University
Tom Luster
Thirty years ago, Urie Bronfenbrenner (1974) observed that developmen-

tal psychology had become the study of “the behavior of children in strange
situations with strange adults” (p. 3). In response to this lack of attention to
the contexts of development, he proposed “a new theoretical perspective
for research in human development” (p. 3) in his now classic book, entitled
The Ecology of Human Development (1979). This theoretical perspective went
beyond the simplistic acknowledgment that context plays a role in human
development. Bronfenbrenner described the environment as a set of
nested and interacting structures, which countless introductory psychology
students would learn as the microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, and mac-
rosystem, and thereby provided developmental psychologists with a frame-
work for identifying potential influences on human behavior. In subse-
quent years, Bronfenbrenner continued to refine his theory. In 1986, he
observed that “For some years, I harangued my colleagues for avoiding the
study of development in real-life settings. No longer able to complain on
that score, I have found a new bête noir. In place of too much research on de-
velopment ‘out of context,’ we now have a surfeit of studies on ‘context
without development’ ” (p. 288). To put development back into the model,
Bronfenbrenner began writing about development in context as a proc-
ess–person–context–time model that ultimately came to be called the bio-
ecological model of development (Bronfenbrenner & Ceci, 1994; Bronfen-
brenner & Morris, 1998). In the bioecological model, he posited that
377
378 OKAGAKI AND LUSTER
proximal processes are the activities through which human development

occurs—the activities that drive development. Proximal processes are the
“progressively more complex reciprocal interaction between an active,
evolving biopsychological human organism and the persons, objects, and
symbols in its immediate external environment” (Bronfenbrenner & Mor-
ris, 1998, p. 996). In this final chapter, we consider parenting practices as
potential proximal processes for children’s development. We ask the ques-
tion: Does parenting affect child outcomes?
For generations, people have assumed that parenting matters. For devel-
opmental researchers, the question of the causal relation between parent-
ing and child outcomes has traditionally been considered within the con-
text of the nature–nurture debate. From the 1950s through the early 1970s
a dominant theme in developmental research was the influence of environ-
mental factors, including parenting on children’s development. Criticisms
of an unthinking endorsement of environmental effects emerged in the
late 1970s, culminating, in Michael Rutter’s (2002) words, in “an excessive
swing of the pendulum in the opposite directions in terms of a denial of any
substantial environmental effects within the normal range” (p. 9).
Where has the debate on parental socialization of child outcomes led re-
searchers? In this chapter, we conclude that parents do influence the social-
ization of their children, but acknowledge that the evidence for parents’ in-
fluence is weaker than it should be because of the use of weak research
designs. However, socialization researchers do know how to strengthen
their research designs so that we can increase knowledge of parents’ influ-
ence, and this work has already begun. The chapter is primarily intended
for students who may not yet be familiar with the debates surrounding pa-
rental influence on child outcomes. We begin by discussing why questions
arose about the role of parental socialization in children’s development in
the first place. We then discuss how behavioral genetics research and peer
socialization research have challenged the belief that parenting practices
act as important proximal processes in children’s development and served
as an impetus to spur parental socialization researchers to conduct more
rigorous research. Finally, we provide illustrative examples of existing re-
search that documents the effects of parental socialization and suggestions
for moving socialization research forward in ways that may help clarify what-
ever contribution parents’ socialization makes to children’s development.
Why Did Researchers Begin to Question the Role

of Parents in Children’s Development?
Researchers from various disciplines and with various perspectives agree

that parents play an important role in the lives of their children including
meeting basic needs for food, clothing, shelter, protection and security
(Harris, 1998; O’Connor et al., 2000a; Perry, 2002). Studies of children
13. PARENTAL SOCIALIZATION 379
reared in extreme conditions without an opportunity to form a close rela-

tionship with a parent or a small number of parental figures show that these
children have more difficulties than other children in the area of social de-
velopment during childhood and adolescence (Hodges & Tizard, 1989).
Children reared in institutions without adequate intellectual stimulation
and normal relationships with adults tend to lag behind their peers on indi-
cators of cognitive competence (O’Connor et al., 2000a; Spitz, 1945). Par-
ents also can seriously harm their children by maltreating them physically
and emotionally (English, 1998). The relationships that children have with
their parents have much to do with whether children are happy or misera-
ble during childhood (Harris, 1998).
If researchers generally agree that parents play an important role in chil-
dren’s lives, what then is the issue? First, across cultural groups, studies sug-
gest that children with markedly different socialization experiences can
grow into adults who function competently in their respective cultures
(LeVine, 1988). According to LeVine, parents want their child to physically
survive, but what parents do to ensure their child’s survival depends on
their social and physical environment, the challenges they face, and the re-
sources they can access. Parents want their child to gain the skills needed to
assume the roles of adult members of society; the types of skills and educa-
tion the parents might provide their child to accomplish this goal, however,
depend on the types of skills needed to work in their society. Finally,
LeVine posited that parents want their child to be a good person, and what
parents do to accomplish this goal depends very much on the particular
context in which they live.
Within a large and diverse society like the United States, there are also
marked differences among parents in their parenting practices (Bornstein,
2002; McAdoo, 1993). For the most part, researchers generally agree that
there are different approaches to rearing children that are effective for dif-
ferent cultural groups and subgroups, and thus, do not aspire to determine
the ideal formula for parenting that would apply to all people, in all places,
and at all times. Ideas about “good parenting” or “appropriate care of chil-
dren” depend on cultural values, cultural beliefs about parenting and chil-
dren’s development, and contextual factors such as the subsistence tasks of
men and women and the physical environment where children are reared
(Ogbu, 1981). That diverse parenting practices have been associated with
similar positive outcomes for children has led some behavioral scientists to
question a causal relation between specific parenting practices and child out-
comes (e.g., Harris, 1998; Rowe, 1994; Scarr, 1992, 1996).
Second, there is considerable controversy among researchers about the
extent to which individual differences in parenting practices contribute to
individual differences in outcomes such as personality characteristics (Col-
lins, Maccoby, Steinberg, Hetherington, & Bornstein, 2000; Harris, 1995;
Rowe, 1994, 2002; Scarr, 1992). In her memorable presidential address to

the Society for Research in Child Development, Sandra Scarr (1992) ar-
gued that differences among parenting practices that are within the normal
range (i.e., not abusive or neglectful) contribute little to individual differ-
ences in the outcomes of children. Other researchers believe that individ-
ual differences in parenting are important for understanding individual
differences in children on a range of outcomes (e.g., Baumrind, 1993). The
difficulty with determining whether, or the degree to which, parenting
practices contribute to individual differences in child outcomes lies in the
data and the type of studies used to generate the available data.
Critics of socialization research have noted that many researchers have
tended to assume that the outcomes of the children can best be explained
by the way that they were parented, although other explanations are
equally plausible (e.g., Harris, 1998; Scarr, 1992). For the most part, social-
ization researchers (including the authors of this chapter) have relied on
studies using correlational designs to support the thesis that parenting
practices affect child outcomes. Indeed, a plethora of studies using corre-
lational designs have shown that differences in parenting practices are asso-
ciated with individual differences in child outcomes. Of course, one of the
basic methodological principles most of us learned in our first research
methods course was “correlation does not establish causation.” Nonethe-
less, correlational studies continue to be interpreted as supporting the pa-
rental socialization hypothesis.
If the methodological principle did not sufficiently highlight the weak-
ness in the evidence, Bell’s (1968) seminal paper, a reinterpretation of the
direction of the effects in socialization studies, should have prodded social-
ization researchers to take a new tack. Subsequent research, including ex-
perimental studies, have demonstrated child effects on adult behavior. For
example, numerous studies over many years have shown that adults in gen-
eral, and parents in particular, interpret children’s behaviors according to
whether they think the child is a boy or a girl (e.g., Condry & Condry, 1976;
Rubin, Provenzano, & Luria, 1974). (For more recent examples of child ef-
fects on parenting, see Hodapp & Ly, chap. 6, this volume; Karraker &
Coleman, chap. 5, this volume).
Furthermore, Scarr (1992) and others (Harris, 1998; Rowe, 1994) have
argued that most studies examining the relation between parenting prac-
tices and child outcomes are uninterpretable because the studies focus on
families in which the parents and children are biologically related. In bio-
logically related families, it is difficult to disentangle the influence of nature
and nurture on children’s development. For example, aggressive parents
are likely to have aggressive children. It is not, however, clear if the aggres-
sive behavior in the children is due to the genes they share with their par-
ents, the modeling of aggressive behavior in the home by the parents (e.g.,
corporal punishment and marital conflict), or some combination of inher-

ited dispositions and modeled behavior.
Finally, socialization researchers generally overlook the fact that parent-
ing practices, such as those captured by parenting styles measures, are often
correlated with parents’ IQ (Scarr, 1997). Hence, correlations between
parenting styles and children’s intelligence or school achievement may re-
flect, at least in part, the genetic relation between parent and child. For ex-
ample, in DeBaryshe, Patterson, and Capaldi’s (1993) original analysis of
their data on parenting and adolescents’ antisocial behavior and school
achievement, the correlation between parents’ achievement (IQ and edu-
cation) and ineffective disciplinary strategies was −.58; high parental
achievement was associated with better disciplinary tactics. The authors’
best fit model included direct and indirect (mediated through ineffective
discipline, antisocial behavior, and academic engagement) effects of paren-
tal achievement on adolescent achievement with a chi-square of 89.45 and a
Goodness of Fit Index (GFI) of .94. In Scarr’s (1997) re-analysis of the data,
however, a more parsimonious model dropping the measures of parenting
practices (discipline) and adolescent antisocial behavior and only includ-
ing parental achievement, academic engagement (as a mediator), and ado-
lescent achievement obtained a chi-square of 18.26 and a GFI of .97. Her
point? Little, if anything, was gained by including parenting practices in the
model; smarter parents have smarter adolescents.
Thus, the question of whether or not specific parenting practices oper-
ate as proximal processes influencing child outcomes grew out of the recog-
nition that (a) diverse approaches to parenting were associated with the
normal development of children into fully functioning adults, (b) that the
evidence that individual differences in parenting practices were associated
with individual differences in child outcomes was weak, and (c) corre-
lational research documenting association between parenting and child
outcomes did not substantiate a causal relation. In the following two sec-
tions, we briefly review the questions and the data that behavioral genetic
researchers and peer socialization researchers have generated that have
both challenged and evoked stronger parental socialization research.
Genetic Contributions to Child Outcomes
In the 1980s and early 1990s, findings from behavioral genetics research
were cited to raise questions about the extent to which parenting practices
contribute to individual differences in personality and cognitive abilities. For
example, researchers using studies of twins and adopted siblings concluded
that shared environment (experiences that are shared by people who live to-
gether) accounts for little if any (0–10%) of the variance in personality out-
comes (Dunn & Plomin, 1990; Plomin & Daniels, 1987). In addition, studies
of adult identical twins who were reared together or separately indicated that
the correlations for personality tended to be around .50 for both types of
twins (Bouchard, Lykken, McGue, Segal, & Tellegen, 1990). In other words,
identical twins who were reared in the same household tended to be no more
alike in terms of the personality characteristics that were measured than
identical twins who were reared by different parents.
If identical twins who share 100% of their genes and are reared in the
same families are different in terms of personality, behavioral geneticists ar-
gued that personality differences among these twins must be attributed to
nonshared environmental influences (experiences that are unique to indi-
viduals) (Plomin & Daniels, 1987). Unique experiences in a variety of set-
tings could contribute to these differences in personality; differential treat-
ment by parents, siblings, peers, teachers, and other extra-familial adults
could contribute to differences in personality, as could chance events such
as accidents, illnesses, or fortuitous opportunities (being in the right place
at the right time). Some behavioral geneticists concluded that parenting
may contribute to individual differences in personality among children but
however parenting affects children in the same family, it seems to make
them different rather than alike (Dunn & Plomin, 1991; Plomin & Daniels,
1987). Critics of parenting research argued that if parents have different
styles of parenting (e.g., authoritative, authoritarian, or permissive) that
they use with their children and some parenting styles produce more desir-
able outcomes in children than others, why are children who are reared by
the same parents not more alike in the area of personality (Harris, 1995,
1998)?
Whereas researchers were reporting that monozygotic and dizygotic twin
studies indicated that genetic differences among the twins in the samples
typically accounted for less than half of the variance in personality out-
comes (McCartney, Harris, & Bernieri, 1990), studies of cognitive out-
comes generally obtained stronger estimates of heritability effects, and esti-
mates of heritability increased as individuals get older (McCartney, Harris,
& Bernieri, 1990; McGue, Bouchard, Iacono, & Lykken, 1993). For exam-
ple, estimates of heritability in children were around .45 (Neisser et al.,
1996). In contrast, McGue and his colleagues (1993) estimated heritability
of IQ to be approximately .75 among adults (although Neisser and col-
leagues, 1996, observed that adults from the lowest socioeconomic groups
were under-represented in these samples; hence variation due to contex-
tual factors might be less than what would be found in the entire popula-
tion). With respect to cognitive abilities, most scientists agreed that genetics
plays a significant role in accounting for individual differences in cognitive
abilities (Neisser et al., 1996). Indeed, some suggested that further research
to determine the heritability of cognitive traits would make little contribu-
tion to science (McCartney et al., 1990).
Reviewing the behavioral genetic research and the nature-nurture dia-

logue through the 1990s in his 2001 presidential address to the Society for
Research in Child Development, Michael Rutter (2002) essentially said that
we know more at the beginning of the 21st century than we did in the early
1990s, and need to be less simplistic, more accurate, and more current in
discussions of the data. For our purposes, his most critical observation was
that shared environment is more important than was initially thought to be.
For example, Loehlin, Neiderhiser, and Reiss (2003) reporting on data in-
cluding siblings varying in genetic and environmental similarity found sub-
stantial heritability (h2) effects across their six measures of adolescent ad-
justment (h2 ranging from .41 to .86), substantial shared environment
effects for autonomy and sociability (c2 = .46 and .32 for autonomy and so-
ciability, respectively), and relatively small effects for e2 (which includes
nonshared environment, gene × environment interaction, and measure-
ment error; e2 ranging from ranging from .10 to .25). Rutter concluded that
reducing measurement error and taking into account continuities over
time resulted in “much more of a balance between shared and nonshared
effects” (p. 3).
Rutter (2002) re-emphasized that although individual differences are
partially a function of genotype, this fact does not rule out environmental
effects. In an article written in response to early work on the heritability of
intelligence, Bronfenbrenner (1972) observed that when variation in the
environmental context is limited, the degree to which context explains vari-
ation in child outcomes should also be limited, whereas the degree to
which heredity accounts for variance in child outcomes should be greater.
Studies of adoptive children may seriously underestimate the influence of
parenting because the full range of home environments are not likely to be
represented in adoptive families (Stoolmiller, 1999). Adoptive parents are
the only parents who have to apply to be parents, and children are only
placed in homes where good care is expected based on what is known about
the prospective parents. If adoptive homes do not represent the full range
of homes that children experience, then drawing conclusions about paren-
tal influence from adoption designs is problematic. In addition, families
that volunteer to have their twins participate in research studies may not be
representative of all families (Stoolmiller, 1999). Thus, the samples used in
behavioral genetic studies may contribute to the low estimates of shared en-
vironmental influence that have been reported. A recent study by Turk-
heimer and his colleagues (2003) provides support for this assertion.
From a large national sample of U.S. mothers and their children, 114
monozygotic and 205 dizygotic pairs were identified (Turkheimer, et al.,
2003). In typical heritability studies, variation in outcome is distributed
across three components—genotype, shared environment, and non-shared
environment. However, the socioeconomic diversity of this sample, which
included a large proportion of families that were below the poverty level
at the time of the study, allowed the researchers to examine the interac-
tion of SES with genotype, shared environment, and non-shared environ-
ment. At age 7, children’s IQ scores (Wechsler Intelligence Scale for
Children) were obtained. Comparing the extent to which the traditional
main effects model (i.e., only genotype, shared environment, and non-
shared environment) explained variation in IQ scores with an interaction
model (i.e., including the main effects and the interactions of each com-
ponent with SES), the researchers found that the interaction model better
accounted for the variation in child outcomes. Specifically, at higher SES
levels, shared and non-shared environments account for very little of the
variation in IQ scores; however, when SES is low, the opposite is true. To
compare their study to typical analyses, the researchers split the sample
above and below the median SES. For the higher SES group, 72% of the
variation in IQ scores was explained by genotype; shared environment ex-
plained only 15%. In contrast, for the low SES group, genotype accounted
for only 10% of the variation in IQ scores; whereas, shared environment
explained 58%.
Turkheimer and his colleagues (2003) were careful to observe that varia-
tion in SES does not simply reflect an environmental difference, but also
captures genetic differences between parents. Because the twins in this
study lived in the same household, the analyses used in this study cannot
tease apart the environmental and genetic aspects of SES. Nonetheless, the
study supports the contention that we cannot naively assume that herita-
bility is constant across environmental contexts. Why might environmental
factors be more important and genetic factors less important in some con-
texts than in others? Bronfenbrenner posited that in more advantaged en-
vironments heritability effects would be stronger because individuals would
be closer to fully actualizing their potential (Bronfenbrenner & Ceci, 1994;
Bronfenbrenner & Morris, 1998).
Furthermore, as many have observed, even when heritability is high,
there is reason to believe that environment makes a difference (e.g., Bron-
fenbrenner & Ceci, 1994; Ceci, Rosenblum, de Bruyn, & Lee, 1993). In
adoption studies, for example, finding a correlation between biological
mother and adoptive child does not mean that the environment did not in-
fluence the child. In the French adoption study reported by Schiff and his
colleagues (Schiff et al., 1978), children from working class mothers were
adopted early into upper-middle-class families and were later compared to
their non-adopted half-siblings (i.e., both sets of children had the same
biological mothers) and to selected samples of children from the general
population. The average IQ score of the adopted children was 110.6, as
compared to 94.5, the average IQ score of their non-adopted siblings. Com-
parisons of school failure rates indicated that the adopted children did
much better than their non-adopted siblings and were much like other chil-
dren from upper-middle-class homes.
For purposes of providing evidence that parenting makes a difference,
the French adoption study has an obvious flaw. Being raised in upper-
middle-class families meant that the adopted children were exposed to en-
vironmental influences other than just the parents that may have contrib-
uted to the differences in IQ scores. But consider the classic longitudinal
adoption study of Skodak and Skeels (1949). They showed that the correla-
tions between adopted children and their biological mothers, who did not
live together for more than a few months, were significant from early child-
hood through adolescence (rs = .28 to .44); these correlations provide evi-
dence of genetic influence on intellectual development. IQ tests were not
given to the adoptive mothers but their level of education was used as an in-
dicator of their intellectual ability. Correlations between the education
level of the adoptive mothers and the IQ scores of the children hovered
near zero, suggesting little influence of shared environment. Yet from age 2
through age 13 (the last time the children were tested) their IQ scores
tended to be about 20 points higher than the IQ scores of their biological
mothers, and their IQ scores tended to be about a standard deviation above
the mean for the population. Although the higher IQ scores of the children
may not be due solely to the parenting they received from their adoptive
parents, the evidence suggests that their adoptive parents helped put them
on a positive developmental trajectory in early childhood and the children
continued to do well after they entered the world of schools and peer
groups in middle childhood and adolescence. The lack of relation between
the adoptive mothers’ education and children’s IQ scores may be due to a
restricted range on the maternal education variable; on average the adop-
tive mothers had high levels of education relative to other people their age
who lived in the same area. Thus, in this study, the correlational evidence
suggests little or no effect of shared environment on intellectual develop-
ment, but the higher mean scores of the children suggests a substantial en-
vironmental effect; the fact that the higher mean scores were evident when
the children were very young and spent most of their time at home is consis-
tent with the view that parenting played a role in these outcomes.
Where does all of this research leave us in terms of understanding the
role of parental socialization on child outcomes? First, although genotype
has in many cases a substantial influence on development, this does not
mean that environmental factors in general and parental socialization in
particular do not play an important and significant role in development.
Even in studies showing a strong heritability effect, there can be an impor-
tant environmental effect (Schiff et al., 1978; Skodak & Skeels, 1949). Sec-
ond, quantitative genetic data on the degree to which siblings are alike does
not definitively demonstrate the relative effects of shared and nonshared
environments on development (Rutter, 2002). One cannot assume that

what happens within a family has the same effect on all members of the
family. Moreover, contrary to the initial conclusions of behavioral geneti-
cists, some data now suggest that shared environment is more important
than researchers thought.
Peer Influences on Child Outcomes
Many researchers have argued that peers play an important role in develop-
ment (e.g., Berndt, 1999, 2002; Ladd & Burgess, 2001). Building in part on
this research, Judith Rich Harris (1995) proposed the Group Socialization
Theory in which she argued that the variance in child outcomes that is not
explained by genetic differences among individuals can largely be ex-
plained by experiences in peer groups during childhood and adolescence.
According to Harris (1995), “children would develop into the same sort of
adults if we left them in their homes, their schools, their neighborhoods,
and their cultural or subcultural groups, but switched all the parents
around” (p. 461).
Harris (1995, 1998) argued that behavior is very context specific. Chil-
dren learn how to behave inside the home and outside the home, and the
expectations regarding appropriate behavior may be quite different in vari-
ous contexts. Children’s behavior inside the home is influenced consider-
ably by their parents, but children learn how to behave outside the home
from their peer groups. Outside the home, children associate with a peer
group comprised of individuals who tend to be similar to the child on such
characteristics as age, gender, ethnicity, attitudes and interests, and they
tend to adopt the attitudes and behavior of their peer group.
Children want to fit in with and be accepted by their peers. Harris (1995,
1998, 2000, 2002) asserted that if what children learn at home is not ac-
cepted by the peer group, children are likely to adopt the attitudes and be-
havior of the peer group outside the home. For example, if an immigrant
child speaks his parents’ language at home and English in the peer group,
eventually English will become the preferred language of the child. Like-
wise, if parents encourage androgynous behavior on the part of their chil-
dren, and a same-sex peer group has strong rules about behaving in sex-
typed ways, children should display sex-typed behavior outside the home.
Thus, children are socialized in terms of how to behave outside their home
by the peer group they identify with, and what they learn in the peer group
continues to influence their behavior into adulthood. Socialization outside
the home becomes a part of their adult personality (Harris, 1995, p. 467).
With respect to intellectual development, she theorized that children’s atti-
tudes toward school and intellectual achievement are shaped by their
peers. If a child is a member of a group of children who like school and do
well in school, he or she will also like school and do well in school. Children
conform to the norms of their peer group.
If the influence of children’s peers is as strong as Harris (1995) pur-
ported, is there any role for parents to play in Group Socialization Theory?
Even though Harris asserted that parenting practices have no influence on
individual differences in adulthood, she acknowledged that parents have
some influence on their children. For example, children need parents or
parental surrogates to meet their most basic survival needs by providing
food, clothing, shelter, protection and other necessities. Parents set and en-
force the rules for how children behave inside the home influencing what
children do when they are at home. If a parent teaches a child skills and at-
titudes at home that are valued by the peer group, these skills and attitudes
can be helpful to the child outside the home. Parents can also influence
outcomes that the peer group does not care about one way or another (e.g.,
political party preference, adult careers, religious beliefs). According to
Harris, the relationship between parent and child can influence how happy
the child is or how miserable the child is especially in the home context, but
these dyadic relationships typically do not have long-term effects on person-
ality or behavior outside the home. Finally, Harris acknowledged that par-
ents can influence the child’s peer group composition by determining
where the family lives and what schools the children attend and can influ-
ence how peers treat their children by the clothes they buy (cool or not
cool), the names they give their children (common or unusual names), and
things they do to make their children relatively attractive (e.g., braces, acne
treatments, hair styling). Nonetheless, the primary social influence on chil-
dren’s development is their peers.
In response to Harris’ proposal, several researchers have written cri-
tiques of Group Socialization Theory and taken the position that Harris’
contention that parents have relatively little influence on their children’s
long-term development is too extreme (Collins et al., 2000; Vandell, 2000).
Those who have been critical of Harris acknowledge that peers exert con-
siderable influence on the behavior of children and adolescents, but they
believe that parental practices contribute to individual differences in chil-
dren’s outcomes as well. In the following section, we draw upon these
critiques of Group Socialization Theory and other published studies to
summarize some key studies that provide evidence that parents play an im-
portant role in the development of their children in various domains.
Parental Influences on Child Outcomes
One way to assess the importance of parents is to examine what happens to

children when they lack the opportunity for normal parent-child relation-
ships. An example involves children who spent the early months or years in
Romanian orphanages before being adopted into middle-class homes in

Canada and Great Britain. These studies show that the longer the children
had spent in the orphanages, the greater the likelihood of performing
poorly on measures of intellectual ability; in contrast, children who were
adopted in the first six months of life appeared to be developing normally
(O’Connor et al., 2000a). Duration of deprivation was also associated with
the severity of attachment disorder behaviors at age 6 (O’Connor et al.,
2000b). Studies of the Romanian children in Canada also showed that
those who were adopted later had abnormally high levels of cortisol during
normal daily routines (Chisholm, 1998; Chisholm, Carter, Ames, & Morri-
son, 1995), “indicating that the neuroendrocrine system involved in stress
regulation has not developed normally” (Collins et al., 2000, p. 225). Of
course, it may be that there were differences between the two groups of
children prior to adoption. Children who were chosen early to be adopted
may have been, in some way, more personable or brighter, and it was this
trait that attracted the adoptive parents to the child and accounts for later
differences between children.
An earlier study of institutionalized children was conducted by Barbara
Tizard and Jill Hodges (1978; Hodges & Tizard, 1989). The children were
placed in the institutions by their parents who felt unable to care for them
and spent at least two years being cared for by a large number of caregivers
employed at the group homes, who changed frequently because of staff
turnover. Those who lived in the institutions for four years, on average, had
50 different caregivers. As a result of a push for deinstitutionalization, most
of the children eventually left the group homes. Some of these children
were adopted into homes by parents who wanted a child badly enough to
take a child out of an institution; others were restored to their natural par-
ents who were often ambivalent about taking them back. At age 8, the chil-
dren who were adopted or restored were compared with peers in the same
classrooms, and ex-institutional children had more problems with teachers
and peers than children reared in their families. In addition, children who
were restored to their natural parents exhibited more problems than the
adopted children, who tended to have better relationships with their adop-
tive parents. The restored children were much more likely than the
adopted children to be referred for counseling, typically by their teachers.
In the intellectual realm, both the adopted and restored children had IQ
scores in the normal range, but those who were adopted earliest at the
highest IQ scores.
Hodges and Tizard (1989) followed up with the children again at age 16.
Although ex-institutional children still had some problems in relating to
people outside the home, fewer differences were found between the
adopted children and their peers than between the restored children and
their peers. The restored children tended to exhibit many more problem
behaviors than their peers and many more problems than children who
had been adopted into supportive homes. The study by Hodges and Tizard
is interesting because the children being compared had different experi-
ences early in life (institutional rearing vs. rearing in a family) and later in
life (adopted vs. restored). The evidence from both parts of the study sug-
gests that the best outcomes for children are found when they are cared for
by supportive parents who really want them. It is also important to point out
that because of differences in family income, the peer groups of the
adopted and restored children may have also been quite different. Adop-
tive children may have fewer problems than restored children both because
of their adoptive parents and the peers they encounter in more affluent
neighborhoods. Both parents and peer groups, in combination with ge-
netic predispositions, may play significant roles in whether or not children
develop behavior problems.
Neglected infants are another group of children who do not get enough
of what parents are supposed to provide—affection, touch, attention, sen-
sory stimulation, a safe environment, and other basic necessities. Neglected
children show a range of problem outcomes in the cognitive, language, so-
cial, and emotional domains (Perry, 2002). Evidence reviewed by Perry
(2002) shows that severe, global neglect in infancy has a negative effect on
brain development. When neglected children were placed in more sup-
portive foster homes, they showed some degree of recovery, but the amount
of recovery depended upon the length of time that the children had lived
in deprived circumstances. Children who were rescued from their neglect-
ful homes at an earlier age showed greater recovery than those who were
older when the neglectful circumstances were identified. Neuroimaging
techniques suggest that the experiences in Romanian orphanages also af-
fected the brain development of these children (Chugani et al., 2001).
Thus, neglect during infancy seems to fundamentally affect brain develop-
ment; the prospects for recovery appear to be limited for children who ex-
perienced severe neglect for the first two years of their lives.
Animal studies provide experimental evidence of parental influence on
their offspring (O’Connor, 2002); unlike humans, rhesus monkeys can be
randomly assigned to their parents. In 1987, Suomi published an initial re-
port of a rhesus monkey cross-fostering project in which infant rhesus mon-
keys were placed within 96 hours of birth either with foster mothers who
had displayed low levels of punitive behaviors and high levels of nurturing
behaviors with their own offspring or with foster mothers who had dis-
played moderate levels of punitive behaviors with their own offspring. Half
of the infant monkeys were genetically predisposed to be highly reactive;
half were genetically predisposed to be relatively calm. In addition, half of
the foster mothers within each group were highly reactive monkeys; half
were not. During their first 6 months, the infant monkeys were raised by
their foster mothers in their home cages and were only separated from the
mother once each week for a brief 20-minute testing period. Although the
initial report of this research was based on a sample of 12 dyads,1 analyses of
the observations of the dyads during the first 6 months indicated that while
the infant monkeys were in their cage with their foster mother, the best pre-
dictor of their behavior was whether the foster mother was a punitive or a
nurturing mother. At 6 months, the infant monkeys were separated from
their foster mothers for brief periods of times. During separations, the best
predictor of their behavior was whether or not the infant monkey was in the
highly reactive group. At 9 months, the infant monkeys were permanently
separated from their foster mother. Preliminary observations suggested
that the highly reactive infant monkeys who were placed with nurturing
mothers were able to become dominant members of their peer groups, but
that highly reactive monkeys reared by highly reactive or punitive mothers
may not do as well. These observations are consistent with research on hu-
man children that found that children with certain temperamental quali-
ties respond best to certain parenting styles (Kochanska, 1995, 1997).
Suomi (2002) also studied the consequences of growing up without a
mother and other adults on rhesus monkeys who were reared with their
peers. Peer reared monkeys showed less exploratory behavior than mon-
keys raised by their mothers; monkeys reared by their mothers use the
mother as a secure base for exploration much as securely attached human
infants use their mothers. Peer reared monkeys also showed less developed
play behavior and tended to be less competent play partners than monkeys
reared by their mothers. These less competent peer reared monkeys tended
to end up in the bottom of the dominance hierarchies of their social
groups. Peer reared male monkeys were found to be more impulsive and
aggressive than males reared by their mothers. Peer-reared females were
more likely than those reared by their mothers to exhibit neglectful or abu-
sive behavior with their first-born offspring. Females reared in social isola-
tion were even less competent in the parenting role than peer reared fe-
males.
Turning to research on human parenting, we consider a particular hy-
pothesis offered by Harris (1995) that dyadic relationships in general have
little or no long-term influence on behavior outside of the contexts where
the relationships occur. That is, that dyadic relationships, such as parent–
child, teacher–pupil, or best friend–best friend, do not have a lasting influ-
ence on personality and rarely affect behavior in other contexts unless the
peer group also endorses these behaviors; over the long term, behavior and
personality are affected by peer groups (three or more people). Vandell
(2000) addressed this issue proposing that the multiple dyadic relation-
1
1Number of dyads based on personal communication with S. Suomi, November 30, 2004.
ships that children have are important because they meet different develop-
mental needs. Vandell (2000) wrote:
Parents may serve as a source of love, affection, security, protection, advice,

and limit setting. Siblings may offer opportunities related to social under-
standing, conflict management, and differential status. Friendships offer op-
portunities for mutual commitment, support, and trust. Whereas teachers
and caregivers of young children may offer provisions similar to those of par-
ents, teachers of older children may function as sources of expertise and ac-
cess to opportunity. A shortcoming of Harris’s GS theory is its failure to recog-
nize the importance of these different types of relationships for development,
including their possible compensatory or protective functions when other re-
lationships go awry. (p. 705)
Consider the research on self-esteem. If parents have the power to

make children feel miserable or valued at home year after year, should we
expect these experiences to have no long-term effects on self-esteem or
other indicators of psychological well-being? It is difficult to imagine that
parents can make children feel insignificant and unlovable at home and
that this would not affect how they think about themselves or behave once
they step outside the door of the family home. Research by Harter (1988,
1990, 1998) suggests that both accomplishments and relationships with
significant others are predictive of self-esteem in childhood and adoles-
cence. Consistent with Cooley’s looking-glass self theory (1902), children
are sensitive to how significant others view them and incorporate those
views into how they think about themselves; the significant others include
parents, peers, close friends, and teachers. Harter’s work supports the
view that self-esteem is influenced by accomplishments in areas of impor-
tance to the individual, peer acceptance, and dyadic relationships with
parents, close friends, and teachers.
Finally, perhaps the strongest evidence of the effects of parenting comes
from intervention studies designed to change parenting practices and to
examine the effects of those changes on the children. To date, there have
been very few carefully designed intervention studies focusing on parenting
behavior and their effects on children (see Powell, chap. 12, this volume).
Moreover, most of the studies that have been conducted have focused on
children’s behavior in the home following intervention and have not ob-
served children’s behavior in other contexts. If parenting matters, then we
should see effective parenting interventions influence how children behave
in the home in addition to their behavior outside the home, such as at
school or with peers. We provide here examples of four studies that exam-
ine the effects of parenting interventions on child outcomes outside the
home. In the first study, Cowan and Cowan (2002) randomly assigned par-
ents with 4-year-old children to an intervention or control group. The inter-
vention group participated in a 16 week couples group led by psychologists,

social workers, and marriage and family counselors. The couples groups
worked on issues that would help them become more effective parents and
marital partners. Half of the couples in the intervention group were as-
signed to a group that placed a greater emphasis on improving the marital
relationship, and the other half were assigned to a group that placed a
greater emphasis on improving their parenting skills. The couples who
were in the intervention group that emphasized the marital relationship
showed improvements in both the marital relationship and in their parent-
ing. Their children had high achievement test scores and were perceived by
their teachers as showing less aggressive and acting-out behavior than chil-
dren in the control group. The couples in the group that emphasized
parenting showed improvements in their parenting, and their children
showed a decline in shy, withdrawn, depressed behavior from kindergarten
to first grade. A follow-up study of the children showed positive effects of
the intervention were evident through the end of fourth grade—six years
after the intervention program. Importantly, teachers’ ratings were based
on children’s behaviors at school.
In our second example, admittedly, the toddlers are still in the presence
of their mothers, but they are playing with an unfamiliar peer to determine
if the effects of an earlier parental intervention were sustained approxi-
mately three years after the intervention (van den Boom, 1995). Mothers
were enrolled in the study shortly after the birth of their first child and were
randomly assigned to treatment or control group. When their infant was
between 6 and 9 months of age, the mothers in the intervention group re-
ceived three home visits during which the mothers were taught specific
skills to help them understand and be more responsive to their infants’
cues. At 42 months, the mother and toddler completed a number of assess-
ments at their home and in a laboratory setting. Among other findings,
mothers in the intervention group continued to be more responsive to
their child than were mothers in the control group. For the toddler, the as-
sessments included four play periods with an unfamiliar peer in a labora-
tory playroom. The situation was set up for the toddlers to play together;
however, both mothers were present in the room and were able to respond
to the children, but not initiate interactions (except to intervene if neces-
sary). Relative to children of mothers in the control group, the toddlers of
mothers in the intervention were more cooperative with the unfamiliar
peer. At the very least, these data show that different parenting results in
specific child behaviors that the child uses when interacting with a peer,
and that parental socialization is not limited to child behaviors that are di-
rected to the parent or limited to the context of the home.
The third example is an experimental evaluation of the Dialogic Read-
ing program, an intervention designed to teach parents specific skills for
reading with their young child (Whitehurst et al., 1988). In this study,
mothers were randomly assigned to intervention or control conditions.
Those receiving the one-month home-based intervention were taught to use
specific types of questions, to elaborate on their child’s responses, and other
strategies to actively engage their child in the book reading activity and to in-
crease the child’s language development. Not only were the researchers able
to confirm that their intervention changed mothers’ reading behaviors but
were able to detect an effect of the intervention on standardized measures of
children’s language development. That is, when children were tested by a
member of the research team on several standardized measures of language
development, children of mothers in the intervention group behaved differ-
ently from children of mothers in the control group.
The final example of the effects of a parent intervention program on the
behavior of the child comes from David Olds’ work on a home visitation
parent intervention program (Olds et al., 1998). In the late 1970s, young
women who were less than 25 weeks pregnant with no previous live birth,
unmarried or from low income homes were randomly assigned to interven-
tion or comparison conditions. The mothers in the comparison conditions
received regular prenatal and well child care. Mothers in one intervention
group received home visits from nurses during their pregnancy (on aver-
age, nine visits); mothers in the second intervention group received home
visits from nurses during their pregnancy and through the child’s second
birthday (on average, 23 visits). During the home visits, nurses provided
guidance on health-related behaviors, parenting, and maternal personal
development (e.g., family planning, education, jobs). When the offspring
were 15, the investigators conducted a follow-up study collecting data on
the adolescents. Significant differences were obtained between the adoles-
cents whose mothers were in the intervention groups and adolescents
whose mothers were in the comparison condition on a number of variables
representing negative and antisocial behavior. For instance, adolescents
whose mothers received home visits reported fewer arrests and convictions
and fewer violations of probation. These data were corroborated by court
records for those adolescents who had not moved away from the county in
which the study took place; adolescents whose mothers received home visits
through the child’s infancy were less likely to have been adjudicated as a
person in need of supervision. Differences between treatment and compar-
ison groups were more consistent among adolescents whose mothers were
most at risk (both low-SES and unmarried) at the time of intervention.
Does parenting affect children’s behavior outside the parent-child rela-
tionship? The data from these four intervention studies indicates that it
does. Given the importance of this question, however, the data supporting
this conclusion is weaker than it ought to be. Fortunately, we do know how
to strengthen research designs so that we can increase knowledge of par-
ents’ influence. In our final section, we discuss directions we believe would

move the field forward.
Future Directions
Obviously we are not unbiased observers in the debate surrounding paren-

tal influence on children. We would not be doing a book that focuses on
why parents do what they do if we believed that parents were not significant
in their children’s development. However, as we noted in the beginning of
this chapter, we do believe that the evidence of a causal relation between
specific parenting practices and children’s outcomes is much weaker than
it should be. Further we know very little about the conditions under which
specific parenting behaviors are likely to affect children’s behaviors. Devel-
opment is likely to depend upon the interplay of genetic factors and a mul-
titude of environmental factors over time (Bronfenbrenner, 2000). The
models and methods that we employ to study these processes are probably
not nearly as sophisticated or complex as the real life processes that shape
individual lives (Turkheimer, 2000). In this final section, we identify a few
directions that we believe will help move the field forward.
The first area focuses on genetic studies that may increase our under-
standing of the conditions under which parenting practices have greater
and lesser influence on child outcomes. A fruitful strategy that researchers
have already begun to employ is the examination of genotype × environ-
ment interactions. For example, in the Dunedin Multidisciplinary Health
and Development study, researchers observed a genotype × environment
interaction in a cohort of New Zealand children that has been followed
from age 3 through young adulthood (Caspi, et al., 2002). The investigators
examined the hypothesis that the monoamine oxidase A (MAOA) gene
moderates the effect of maltreatment on development of antisocial behav-
ior in males. Prior research has shown that low MAOA enzyme expression
has been associated with increased aggression in mice; data on the relation
between MAOA expression and aggression in humans, however, have been
inconclusive. The analyses indicated a main effect of maltreatment, such
that experiencing maltreatment as a child was associated with increased
likelihood of antisocial behavior, but no significant effect due to MAOA ex-
pression. In addition, a significant genotype × environment interaction was
obtained, such that males with low MAOA expression who experienced
child maltreatment were more likely to develop antisocial behaviors than
their counterparts with high MAOA expression. It seems likely that re-
search on genotype × environment interactions will move the field forward
by enabling us to better understand the conditions under which specific
parenting practices are more likely to be linked to specific negative or posi-
tive outcomes in children.
Molecular genetic approaches to understanding behavior are likely in

time to identify genes associated with vulnerability or risk for specific dis-
eases and psychological problems. For example, molecular genetic re-
search techniques have been used to identify single gene disorders, such as
fragile X mental retardation (Plomin, 1997). Cautiously optimistic about
the advances to our knowledge of human development that will come
through molecular genetic research, Rutter (2002) described a number of
important findings, such as the identification of the link between the
apolipoprotein E4 allele and Alzheimer’s disease (Plassman & Breitner,
1996; Rubinsztein, 1995, as cited in Rutter, 2002) and genes that are associ-
ated with attention deficit disorder with hyperactivity (Levy & Hay, 2001, as
cited by Rutter, 2002). Identifying genes that are associated with specific
problems does not solve the problem or cure the disease, but it will provide
biological researchers with invaluable insights as to where to look for the
causal mechanisms. For those interested in parental socialization, better
identification of vulnerability or risk may enable researchers to look at the
effects of particular parenting practices on children who may be more sen-
sitive to variation in parenting.
One strategy parental socialization researchers might take is to incorpo-
rate behavioral genetic designs into socialization studies. Studies of twins
have typically been used by behavioral genetics researchers to determine if
genetic differences among individuals contribute to individual differences
in phenotypic outcomes such as personality characteristics or IQ scores.
However, genetically sensitive research designs are also useful for studying
environmental influences on development. An excellent example of such a
study is the Environment Risk (E-Risk) Longitudinal Twin Study being con-
ducted in Great Britain. Avshalom Caspi and his colleagues (2004) showed
how the influence of parenting on children’s antisocial behavior could be
studied with this sample in order to avoid some of the shortcomings of ear-
lier research designs. When the children were five years old, the mothers
described each of the monozygotic twins. In addition, both the mothers
and the children’s teachers completed assessments of the children’s antiso-
cial behavior at ages 5 and 7. In many cases, mothers expressed much more
favorable attitudes about one twin over the other. The twin who was more
favorably regarded exhibited fewer behavioral problems at age 7 on ratings
by both the mothers and the teachers. Moreover, there was a relation be-
tween mothers’ expressed emotions and age 7 behavior problems when age
5 behavior problems were controlled. Put another way, changes in twins’
antisocial behavior were associated with maternal expressed emotions two
years earlier; increases in antisocial behavior were associated with maternal
negativity and lack of warmth.
By design, this study addressed a number of concerns raised by critics of
socialization research. First, there were two sources of information—moth-
ers and teachers—and data were collected in two settings—home and

school. Maternal expressed emotions at home were related to teachers’ rat-
ings of behavior in school. Thus the researchers were able to show that what
happened inside the home seemed to have an effect on behavior outside
the home. Second, they ruled out an alternative hypothesis that the rela-
tion between maternal expressed emotion and children’s antisocial behav-
ior was purely a child effect (i.e., child antisocial behavior is causing paren-
tal negativity). Because data were collected longitudinally, they were able to
show that parenting at age 5 was related to child outcomes at age 7, control-
ling for child outcomes at age 5. Children who were viewed negatively
tended to exhibit more problematic behavior two years later. Third, the as-
sociation between maternal expressed emotion and child behavior prob-
lems was not genetically mediated. The twins were genetically identical, and
the researchers focused on how maternal behavior contributed to individ-
ual differences in the identical twins. The design also avoided another flaw
found in between-family designs that study one child per family. The family
background characteristics, such as family income and parental education
level, were the same for the twins in each family. Thus the relation between
maternal expressed emotion and child antisocial behavior cannot be ex-
plained by a third variable that differs between families.
In addition, the study addressed a concern raised by many socialization
researchers about twin studies reported by behavioral geneticists—namely,
the environmental variables are often not measured directly. Many twin
studies have suggested that nonshared environment is important for under-
standing individual differences in an outcome based on partitioning the
variance in the outcome into genetic, shared environment, and nonshared
environment components; in contrast, this study identified how a specific
nonshared environmental experience related to a specific child outcome.
It moves beyond simply saying there is something different in the experi-
ences of children from the same family that contributes to individual differ-
ences in antisocial behavior.
Other types of studies that will enable our understanding of the effects of
parental socialization include research with non-human primates and natu-
ral experiments with humans. Animal studies can provide critical evidence
regarding the general importance of parenting, per se, because we can ran-
domly assign animal babies to parents. These studies have often been over-
looked by socialization researchers. Natural experiments with humans are
those instances in which naturally occurring circumstances or institutions
(perhaps unintentionally) divide people into treatment and comparison
groups in a manner akin to purposeful random assignment. The effects of a
parent/primary caregiver condition versus a no parent/primary caregiver
condition is demonstrated in the studies of Romanian orphans who experi-
enced severe deprivation early in their lives but were later adopted into
families in Great Britain and in Canada and have been compared with chil-
dren who were adopted in early infancy.
In addition, there is a need for more research using experimental and
quasi-experimental designs to test specific and competing hypotheses. Ulti-
mately to determine if specific parenting practices are causally related to
specific child outcomes, we will need more experimental studies in which
parents are randomly assigned to conditions in which they are taught differ-
ent parenting skills or information about parenting and both parent behav-
ior and child behavior are observed before and after the intervention. (see
Powell, chap. 12, this volume). Researchers need to determine whether an
intervention changes specific parenting practices and in turn, whether
there is an effect of the intervention on child outcomes that is mediated
through the parenting practices. In particular, we need studies that assess
the impact of specific parenting practices on measures of child outcomes
assessed outside the home.
Furthermore, to facilitate studies of parent interventions, better meas-
ures of parenting practices are needed. Global measures of parenting, such
as measures of parenting styles, are not likely to be sensitive enough to cap-
ture the effects of specific parenting practices on child outcomes. Re-
searchers need to consider measures of parental behavior that are concep-
tually related to specific child outcomes. For example, in the previously
described experimental evaluation of the Dialogic Reading program
(Whitehurst et al., 1988), the parenting measures were specific measures of
maternal behavior while the mother and child engaged in a book reading
activity and included the frequency with which mothers labeled pictures,
asked specific types of questions, and elaborated on what the child said.
These behaviors, which mothers in the intervention group were taught and
subsequently exhibited, are theoretically related to children’s language de-
velopment. To assess the effects of parenting on child outcomes, we need to
focus on specific parenting behaviors that are conceptually related to the
targeted child outcomes.
Finally, our view of the challenges to parental socialization research from
behavioral geneticists and peer socialization theorists is that such chal-
lenges have made an important contribution to the literature by highlight-
ing some of the limitations of the parental socialization research. Socializa-
tion researchers (including the authors of this chapter) have tended to
interpret the results of their study as parental influence on children with-
out ruling out alternative explanations for the findings. Challenges to the
rigor and interpretation of our work should push those of us doing re-
search on parenting to adopt and develop more rigorous research designs,
including intervention designs, studies of parenting in families in which the
children are adopted (i.e., biologically unrelated to the parents), and stud-
ies of parenting of more than one child in a family. It is through such effort
that the field will move forward.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We very much appreciate the thoughtful and constructive comments we re-

ceived from Tom Berndt, Karen Diamond, and Marc Bornstein on an ear-
lier version of our chapter.
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About the Authors
Jay Belsky, Ph.D., is Founding Director of the Institute for the Study of
Children, Families and Social Issues and Professor of Psychology at Birk-
beck College, University of London. He earned his doctorate in Human
Development and Family Studies at Cornell University, served on the fac-
ulty of Penn State University for 21 years, and was awarded the title of Dis-
tinguished Professor. He currently serves as Research Director on the Na-
tional Evaluation of Sure Start in England. He is an internationally
recognized expert in the field of child development and family studies and
is the author of more than 200 scientific articles and chapters and the au-
thor of several books.
Gary E. Bingham, Ph.D., is an assistant professor in the department of Hu-

man Development at Washington State University. He received his Ph.D.
from Purdue University with an emphasis in early childhood education and
child development. His research focuses on understanding and examining
cultural, family, and early education factors that contribute to children’s
preacademic competence, particularly the development of early literacy
skills.
Catherine P. Bradshaw holds a master’s degree in Counseling Psychology

from the University of Georgia and a doctorate in Developmental Psychol-
ogy from Cornell University. In 2004, she became an Assistant Professor of
Mental Health in the Bloomberg School of Public Health at Johns Hopkins
403
404 ABOUT THE AUTHORS
University. Her research focuses on the development of aggressive and

problem behavior during childhood and adolescence. She is particularly
interested in the influence of maltreatment and neighborhood violence on
problem behavior, as well as community- and school-based prevention and
intervention programs for children and families.
Moncrieff Cochran is a Professor of Human Development and Director of

the Cornell Early Childhood Program in the College of Human Develop-
ment at Cornell University, where he conducts research related to the so-
cial contexts affecting parent and child development, and develops empow-
erment-oriented family support and child care programs based on that
research. He received his bachelors degree in social relations from Harvard
College, and Masters and Ph.D. degrees in education and psychology from
the University of Michigan. The content of Dr. Cochran’s research and pro-
gram development work includes child care, early childhood education,
home–school relations, the social networks of parents and children, and
the empowerment process. In 1990 Dr. Cochran and colleagues published
Extending Families: The Social Networks of Parents and Their Children (Cam-
bridge University Press), which presents the findings from 10 years of social
network research focused on families with young children. His International
Handbook of Child Care Policies and Programs, reporting on developments in
29 different countries, was published by Greenwood Press in May, 1993. An
edited volume, Empowerment and Family Support, was published by Cornell
Media Services in 1995. The 2nd edition of Child Care that Works: A Parent’s
Guide to Finding Quality Child Care, co-authored with Eva Cochran, was pub-
lished by Gryphon House in 2000. Dr. Cochran has just completed Finding
Our Way: American Child Care in Global Perspective, in which he applies lessons
learned from his international child care research project to the U.S. child
care scene. He is a past member of the Governing Board of the National As-
sociation for the Education of Young Children.
Priscilla Coleman, Ph.D. is an Assistant Professor of Human Development

and Family Studies at Bowling Green State University in Ohio. Dr. Coleman
received her Ph.D. in Life-Span Developmental Psychology from West Vir-
ginia University in 1998 and she spent four years as an assistant professor of
psychology and education at the University of the South in TN prior to her
move to BGSU. Dr. Coleman’s recent research has focused on mother–
child interaction, attachment, the development of competency beliefs across
the transition to parenting, and the psychological outcomes of women who
have had an abortion.
Lisa Comparini is Postdoctoral Researcher and Part-time faculty in the Psy-

chology department at Clark University, Worcester, Massachusetts. She
received her B.A. at Austin College, and her M.A. and Ph.D. at Clark Uni-
ABOUT THE AUTHORS 405
versity. Lisa Comparini was Postdoctoral Fellow at the University of Con-

necticut’s School of Family studies. She is a member of the American Psy-
chological Association, the Society for Research in Child Development, and
the American Anthropological Association. Her research interests include
child development as a cultural process, language socialization, and the
study of parent–child interactions.
Ann C. Crouter is Professor of Human Development and Director of the

Center for Work and Family Research at Penn State University. She re-
ceived her B.A. in Psychology and English at Stanford University and Ph.D.
at Cornell University. She arrived at Penn State in 1981. Ann co-organizes,
with sociologist Alan Booth, Penn State’s National Symposium on the Fam-
ily, an annual conference and edited book series. She serves on the edito-
rial boards of Journal of Marriage and the Family, Journal of Research in Adoles-
cence, and the International Journal of Behavioral Development, chairs the
Research and Theory Section of the National Council on Family Relations,
and serves on the Executive Council of the Society for Research in Adoles-
cence. Her research has focused on the connections between mothers’ and
fathers’ work conditions, daily processes in families (such as parent–child
involvement and parental knowledge of children’s activities, whereabouts,
and companions), and the development of school-aged children and ado-
lescents. She has explored these issues with her collaborator, Susan Mc-
Hale, in the context of three longitudinal, federally funded research stud-
ies focused on gender development and dual-earner families. She currently
collaborates on new research to examine similar themes in ethnic minority
families, as well as an investigation of the work and family circumstances of
low-income, rural parents of young children, part of a program project con-
ducted by researchers at the University of North Carolina and Penn State.
Jessica M. Dennis is a Research Associate in the Department of Psychology

at California State University, Los Angeles. Her research interests include
social development with a particular focus on changes in family and peer
relationships during middle childhood, and adolescence and ethnic and
cultural issues.
Frank D. Fincham is Eminent Scholar and Director Florida State University

Family Institute. Educated at University of Natal and University of
Witwatersrand, he obtained a Rhodes Scholarship to study at Oxford Uni-
versity where he obtained his Ph.D. in psychology. He has since held posi-
tions at University of Illinois and University of Wales. A Fellow of the Ameri-
can Psychological Association, British Psychological Society, American
Psychological Society, and National Council on Family Relationships,
Fincham’s research has placed him among the top 25 psychologists in the
world in terms of impact (number of citations per published article) and
has been recognized by numerous awards, including the President’s Award

for Distinguished Contributions to Psychological Knowledge (British Psy-
chological Society). His research interests focus on marital relationships,
the impact of interparental conflict on children, and forgiveness.
Mary L. Flyr is a Research Associate in the Department of Psychology at the

University of California, Riverside. Her research interests include the social
development of children from preschool through middle childhood as in-
fluenced by family and peers, with particular attention to friendship.
James Garbarino, Ph.D. is Elizabeth Lee Vincent Professor of Human De-

velopment at Cornell University. Previously he was President of the Erikson
Institute for Advance Study in Child Development. The author of 20 books,
his most recent are And Words Can Hurt Forever: Protecting Adolescents from
Bullying, Harassment and Emotional Violence, 2002 (with Ellen deLara); Par-
ents Under Seige, 2001 (with Claire Bedard), and Lost Boys: Why Our Sons Turn
Violent and How We Can Save Them, 1999. He was the first recipient of the C.
Henry Kempe Award in 1985 from the National Conference on Child
Abuse and Neglect.
Julie Laser Haddow is an Assistant Professor in the Graduate School of So-

cial Work at the University of Denver. Her research focus is on adolescent
resiliency. In particular, she is interested in investigating the influence of
both internal and ecological protective and risk factors on resilient out-
comes by gender and culture. She recently completed a study of protective
and risk factors influencing resilient outcomes in Japanese youth and is cur-
rently collecting data on Korean youth.
Julie H. Hall is graduate student in the Department of Clinical Psychology

at the University at Buffalo. She received her B.A. from Brown University.
She is a student member of the Association for Advancement of Behavior
Therapy, the American Psychological Association, and Sigma Xi. Her re-
search interests include the study of marriage and romantic relationships,
as well as forgiveness.
Robin L. Harwood got her Ph.D. in 1991 from Yale University. She is cur-
rently a Professor in the Department of Human Development and Family
Studies at Texas Tech University. She has received several major grants
from NIH to study cultural differences in childrearing beliefs and practices,
and is the author of numerous journal articles, as well as a book, Culture and
Attachment: Perceptions of the Child in Context.
Katherine Hildebrandt Karraker is Associate Professor, Director of Gradu-

ate Training, and Coordinator of the Life-Span Developmental Psychology
Doctoral Program in the Department of Psychology at West Virginia Uni-

versity. She received her B.A. in Biology from the University of Colorado
and her M.A. and Ph.D. n Developmental Psychology from Michigan State
University. Her current research interests include parent–infant relation-
ships, infant assessment, parental cognitions (including stereotypes and
parenting self-efficacy), stress and coping in infancy, and the effects of ma-
ternal sleep deprivation. She is the co-editor of Life-Span Developmental Psy-
chology: Life-Span Perspectives on Stress and Coping and Infant Development: Eco-
logical Perspectives.
Robert M. Hodapp is a Professor in Peabody College’s Department of Spe-

cial Education and a member of the Kennedy Center for Research on Hu-
man Development, both at Vanderbilt University. From 1982 to 1992 he
was an Assistant Professor (working with Edward Zigler) at the Yale Child
Study Center. From 1992 to 2003, he was at UCLA’s Graduate School of Ed-
ucation and Information Studies, before moving to Vanderbilt University in
2003. His research focuses on parent behaviors and emotional reactions to
children with genetic conditions such as Down syndrome, Prader-Willi syn-
drome, and Williams syndrome; and behavioral development of children
with each of these genetic mental retardation disorders.
Kathleen Kostelny is Research Associate with the Eikson Institute for Ad-
vanced Study in Child Development in Chicago. She serves as an interna-
tional consultant on issue of children and youth involved in violence and
trauma in war zones around the world. She is co-author of Children in Dan-
ger (1991) and No Place to Be a Child (1992).
Melinda Leidy is a graduate student studying Developmental Psychology at

the University of California, Riverside. She is studying under Dr. Ross D.
Parke. Her research interests include parental influences on children’s
emotional and social development.
Birgit Leyendecker got her doctoral degree in 1991 from the University of
Osnabrueck. She is currently a Research Fellow at the University in
Bochum and she is on the faculty of the University of Dortmund. She is au-
thor of numerous journal articles. Her research interests include cultural
perspectives on child development and parenting; cultural and psychologi-
cal adaptation of immigrant children and their families, and linking quali-
tative and quantitative research.
Tom Luster is a Professor in the Department of Family and Child Ecology at

Michigan State University. He joined the faculty at MSU in 1985 after com-
pleting his doctoral program in the Department of Human Development at
Cornell University. His research has focused primarily on three areas: ado-
lescent mothers and their children; risk and resilience; and influences on
parental behavior. His latest research includes: a 9-year longitudinal study
of adolescent mothers and their children in Flint, Michigan, and a study of
the Sudanese refugees known as the “Lost Boys” who lived for most of their
lives in refugee camps in Ethiopia and Kenya without contact with their par-
ents.
Tran M. Ly is an NSF Post-Doctoral Fellow at UCLA’s Graduate School of

Education and Information Studies. Her research interests involve mater-
nal attributions of their children’s intellectual performance when children
have different genetic syndromes and applications of attribution theory to
children with disabilities and their parents. Her dissertation study exam-
ined maternal attributions of their children’s jigsaw-puzzle performance
when children have Prader-Willi syndrome (generally proficient at jigsaw
puzzles) versus Williams syndrome (generally weak at jigsaw puzzles).
Susan M. McHale is Professor of Human Development at The Pennsylvania

State University. She received her B.A. in Psychology at Bucknell University
and her Ph.D. in Developmental Psychology at the University of North
Carolina at Chapel Hill, and has been on the faculty at Penn State since
1980. She serves on the editorial boards of Child Development, Developmental
Psychology, and Journal of Applied Developmental Science. Her research focuses
on children’s and adolescents’ family relationships, roles and everyday ac-
tivities, highlighting gender dynamics in families and the family conditions
and experiences that foster similarities and differences between sisters and
brothers. Together with her Penn State colleague, Ann C. Crouter, she has
studied these issues in the context of the Penn State Family Relationships
Project, a longitudinal study of families funded by NICHD. Most recently,
her research has extended to examination of the cultural contexts of family
gender dynamics and youth development. In two new studies, also funded
by NICHD, she and Ann Crouter are working with Penn State colleagues,
Drs. Linda M. Burton and Dena P. Swanson and with Dr. Kimberly A.
Updegraff at Arizona State University to study family processes and gender
development in samples of African American and Mexican American fami-
lies.
Kristie L. Morris is a graduate student in the Department of Psychology at

the University of California, Riverside. Her research interests include chil-
dren’s social and emotional development as affected by familial influences.
Lynn Okagaki is professor of Child Development and Family Studies at

Purdue University. She received her bachelor of science degree in applied
behavioral sciences from the University of California at Davis and her doc-
toral degree in developmental psychology from Cornell University. Her re-
search focuses on minority students’ school achievement and on parental

socialization of children’s values. Dr. Okagaki has served as Deputy Direc-
tor for Science, for the Institute of Education Sciences, at the U.S. Depart-
ment of Education; associate dean for research for the School of Consumer
and Family Sciences at Purdue University; a member of the National Sci-
ence Foundation’s Developmental and Learning Sciences panel, and a
member of the National Research Council’s Committee on Early Child-
hood Pedagogy.
Ross D. Parke is Distinguished Professor of Psychology and Director of the

Center for Family Studies at the University of California, Riverside. His re-
search interests include the role of the father in children’s development,
family and peer relationships, and the role of ethnicity in family relation-
ships. He is past editor of Developmental Psychology and is currently complet-
ing his editorship of the Journal of Family Psychology. He has recently served
as President of the Society for Research in Child Development.
Douglas R. Powell is a Distinguished Professor in the Department of Child

Development and Family Studies at Purdue University. He holds a Ph.D.
from Northwestern University and was previously on the faculty at The
Merrill-Palmer Institute and Wayne State University, Detroit. Powell has de-
veloped and studied parenting interventions for diverse populations, and
recently co-developed a parenting education content framework for the
federal Even Start Family Literacy Program. He is principal investigator of
federally funded studies on professional development in early literacy and
on preschool curriculum effects. Powell is former editor of the Early Child-
hood Research Quarterly.
Thomas J. Schofield is currently pursuing his doctoral degree at the Uni-

versity of California, Riverside. His interests center on the family as a resil-
ient, dynamic unit.
Helen Bittmann Sysko, Ph.D. received her Masters of Science in Child De-
velopment and doctorate in Counseling Psychology from the University of
Pittsburgh. As a clinician, she has worked with children and adults in outpa-
tient community mental health programs in child care centers and urban
drug and alcohol treatment facilities. Her research interests include home-
less mothers and family reunification intervention.
Joan Vondra, Ph.D., is Professor of Applied Developmental Psychology at

the University of Pittsburgh. She earned her doctorate in Human Develop-
ment and Family Studies at Penn State University. Her research interests in-
clude risk and resilience and the role of supportive relationships at home
and at school for children from low-income families.
Susan K. Walker is an Assistant Professor of Family Studies at the University

of Maryland, College Park and is a state Family Life specialist with Maryland
Cooperative Extension. She holds a Ph.D. in Child and Family Studies, and
Masters and Bachelors degrees in Nutrition. Her current areas of research
include child care provider professional development, and low income ru-
ral mothers’ use of child care relative to employment and context. For Co-
operative Extension, Dr. Walker oversees continuing education for child
care professionals and is the evaluator for a five-year youth development
project in rural and urban low income areas of the state. Locally, Dr.
Walker is an appointed member of the Montgomery County Commission
on Child Care. She currently serves as co-chair of the Public Policy subcom-
mittee.
Alev Yalç2nkaya is currently affiliated with University of Connecticut,

School of Family Studies as a Research Scientist where she recently com-
pleted a Postdoctoral Fellowship. She received her B.A. in Psychology and
her M.A. in Clinical Psychology at Bosphorus University, Istanbul, Turkey.
After moving to the United States she obtained her Ph.D. in Human Devel-
opment from Boston University where she also worked as a Lecturer. She is
currently a member of the Society for Research in Child Development and
was a member of the American Psychological Society and Eastern Psycho-
logical Association. Her research interests include cross-cultural studies of
family and close relationships, including attachment theory and family vio-
lence. She also works in the field of childrearing among migrant families,
acculturation and ethnic identity development. She is the author of the
chapter “Family Violence in Turkey” in the book International Perspectives on
Family Violence and Abuse: A Cognitive Ecological Approach edited by Kathleen
Malley-Morrison.
Author Index
A Anderson, K. E., 75, 99, 154, 171

Anderson, L., 177, 200
Abidin, R., 186, 197, 221, 227 Anderson, L. L., 177, 197
Ablow, J., 224, 228 Andreas, D., 41, 58, 67, 162, 174
Adams, M., 117, 121, 122, 137, 142 Angelillo, C., 326, 341
Addison, S., 182, 200 Anthony, C., 206, 207, 213, 228
Adelberg, T., 253, 272 Antonis, B., 104, 142
Adler, S., 323, 339 Apfel, N., 80, 82, 101
Ahmeduzzaman, M., 106, 143 Appel, A. E., 213, 227
Albersheim, L., 58, 70 Arbuckle, B., 52, 67
Albus, K., 59, 64 Ardelt, M., 54, 65
Albus, K. E., 59, 64 Arias, I., 215, 227
Alcalay, R., 253, 271 Arkinson, M. K., 47, 65
Aldous, J., 131, 135 Armsden, G. C., 305, 315
Alexander, K. L., 22, 28 Arnold, D. H., 349, 369
Allen, J., 112, 113, 134, 136 Aronson, J., 26, 28
Allen, J. P., 166, 171, 298, 315 Arseneault, L., 395, 399
Almeida, D. M., 285, 295 Asai, M., 9, 33
Almgren, G., 86, 97 Asencio, M., 325, 326, 332, 333, 339
Amato, P., 113, 130, 131, 136, 140, 210, Asendorpf, J., 18, 19, 32, 164, 175
221, 227 Ashmore, R. D., 26, 30
Amato, P. A., 129, 130, 136 Assiter, S., 75, 101
Amato, P. R., 299, 315 Astone, N. M., 321, 322, 339
Amato, R. R., 130, 131, 136 Atkinson, E., 20, 29
Ames, E. W., 388, 399 Atkinson, L., 56, 69, 187, 201
Ammons, P., 256, 257, 272 Attonucci, J., 107, 143
Anderson, J., 357, 369 Auerbach, C. F., 117, 143
411
412 AUTHOR INDEX
Avenevoli, S., 162, 174 Beauchaine, T. P., 362, 372

Avery, L. S., 47, 65 Beck, A. T., 186, 197
Azuma, H., 5, 8, 9, 28 Beckett, C., 378, 379, 388, 400
Beckwith, L., 37, 61
Bedard, C., 298, 313, 316
B Beecroft, E., 306, 307, 308, 317
Behen, M. E., 389, 399
Behrman, R. E., 47, 59, 65, 345, 357, 370
Bacon, M. K., 278, 293
Beitel, A., 107, 112, 113, 136
Bailey, D., 182, 197
Bell, C. C., 300, 302, 315
Bailey, W. T., 128, 136
Bell, K. L., 166, 171
Baker, B., 180, 197
Bell, R. Q., 149, 171, 185, 191, 194, 197,
Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J., 51, 56, 57,
380, 398
70, 350, 358, 369
Belle, D., 239, 259, 271
Baldwin, A. L., 330, 338
Bellugi, U., 185, 190, 197
Baldwin, C., 330, 338
Belsky, J., xii, xiv, 36, 37, 40, 41, 42, 44, 51,
Baltes, M. M., 333, 338
56, 57, 58, 61, 62, 70, 71, 74, 75, 80,
Banaji, M. R., 26, 30
81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 88, 97, 99,
Baradaran, L. P., 52, 67
113, 120, 125, 136, 139, 150, 162,
Barbara-Stein, L., 358, 371
163, 171, 173, 174, 176, 205, 208,
Barclay-McLaughlin, G., 311, 313, 315
210, 213, 215, 216, 217, 220, 222,
Bardone, A. M., 46, 52, 61 223, 227, 230, 280, 294, 358, 360,
Barnard, K. E., 348, 356, 363, 369 369
Barnett, R. C., 127, 136 Bem, D. J., 90, 97
Baron, J. N., 280, 293 Benasich, A. A., 17, 28
Barratt, M. S., 94, 97, 187, 188, 200 Benigni, L., 106, 141
Barrett, K. C., 9, 29 Bennet, D. S., 18, 28
Barry, H., 278, 293 Bennett, D. S., 162, 171
Bartkowski, J. P., 7, 8, 28, 121, 136 Bensley, L., 95, 101
Baruch, G. K., 127, 136 Benson, P., 157, 174
Baskiewicz, A., 181, 198 Benson, P. L., 308, 317
Bass, B., 222, 229 Berglund, P. A., 75, 99
Bates, B., 59, 64 Berg-Nielsen, T. S., 151, 171
Bates, J., 18, 28 Berlin, L. J., 45, 56, 63, 344, 369
Bates, J. E., 18, 32, 43, 52, 64, 68, 162, 171, Berliner, D. C., 346, 369
303, 304, 305, 306, 315, 316 Bernal, G., 50, 67
Bates, K., 162, 171 Berndt, T. J., 386, 398
Bates, L., 80, 81, 87, 93, 94, 99, 101 Bernheimer, L. P., 191, 200
Bates, L. V., 93, 97 Bernieri, F., 382, 400
Bathurst, K., 283, 295 Bernstein, J., 114, 141
Baucom, D. H., 225, 228 Bernstein, L., 350, 354, 371
Baumrind, D., 120, 136, 152, 171, 305, 315, Bernstein, V. J., 94, 101, 239, 259, 272
327, 338, 380, 398 Bertrand, J. M., 185, 190, 200
Bavolek, S., 90, 97 Beyers, J. M., 304, 306, 315
Baydar, N., 350, 351, 364, 369 Bianchi, S. M., 108, 136, 288, 289, 292, 294
Bayles, K., 18, 28 Bidell, T. R., 150, 171
Bayley, H., 180, 198 Bielby, W. T., 280, 293
Beach, S. R., 45, 61, 209, 214, 227, 230 Bierman, K. L., 52, 62
Beal, C. R., 167, 171 Bifulco, A., 49, 66
Beaman, J., 40, 69 Birch, H. G., 149, 150, 172, 176
Bearss, K., 220, 221, 227 Bishop, S. J., 89, 99
Beatty, W. W., 106, 141 Blacher, J., 18, 28, 180, 197
AUTHOR INDEX 413
Black, J. E., 25, 30 Brassard, J., 236, 237, 238, 252, 259, 271
Black, M. M., 92, 99 Braungart, J. M., 157, 171
Blackwell, B., 356, 369 Braungart-Rieker, J., 162, 171
Blasco, P., 182, 197 Braver, S., 117, 142
Blevins-Knabe, B., 15, 32 Brazelton, T., 360, 373
Bliesener, T., 310, 317 Bream, V., 131, 138
Block, A., 221, 227 Breitner, J. C. S., 395, 400
Block, J., 221, 227 Brewster, K., 76, 98
Blue, J., 214, 228 Briggs-Gowan, M., 37, 62
Blum, J. S., 47, 62 Broadhurst, D. D., 300, 318
Blyth, D. A., 308, 317 Broderick, J. E., 224, 232
Bø, I., 254, 271 Brody, G., 40, 43, 62, 67
Bogat, G. A., 258, 272 Brody, G. H., 22, 28, 114, 137, 215, 224,
Bohman, M., 50, 63 227, 304, 306, 315
Boissevain, J., 251, 271 Brody, N., 382, 400
Bojczyk, K., 357, 372 Brodzinsky, D. M., 112, 136
Boles, A. J., 205, 228 Bronfenbrenner, U., xi, xiv, xv, 3, 28, 150,
Bolger, N., 285, 286, 294 153, 159, 172, 195, 196, 197, 205,
Bolton, F., 84, 97 206, 224, 227, 276, 287, 294, 297,
Bonney, J. F., 113, 114, 136 308, 311, 312, 315, 377, 378, 383,
Bontempo, R., 9, 33 384, 394, 398
Boodoo, G., 382, 400 Brooks-Gunn, J., 17, 28, 46, 47, 62, 68, 78,
Boomsma, I., 51, 52, 70 80, 81, 82, 85, 91, 93, 98, 100, 101,
Booth, A., 113, 136 297, 299, 303, 306, 316, 317, 320,
Booth, C. L., 348, 356, 363, 369 323, 324, 338, 344, 348, 350, 351,
Borkowski, J., 79, 80, 81, 82, 84, 86, 89, 91, 354, 359, 361, 363, 365, 369, 371
97, 101 Brott, A., 103, 113, 127, 133, 134, 135,
Borkowski, J. G., 88, 89, 90, 100, 101 142
Bornstead-Bruns, M., 5, 30 Brown, A., 40, 62
Bornstein, M. H., 5, 8, 9, 28, 29, 116, 136, Brown, B. B., 6, 33
147, 151, 171, 297, 315, 322, 338, Brown, G. W., 49, 66
379, 387, 388, 398, 399 Brown, J., 26, 28
Borthwick-Duffy, S., 117, 142 Brown, M., 18, 28
Boruch, R., 349, 371 Brown, M. M., 162, 171
Bosch, J. D., 52, 68 Brownlee, J., 109, 141
Bost, K. K., 47, 62, 242, 255, 271 Brunner, J., 221, 227
Botein, S., 363, 371 Bryant, B., 236, 254, 271
Bott, E., 236, 271 Bryant, D., 48, 62
Bouchard, T., 382, 398 Bryant, D. M., 358, 359, 361, 372
Bouchard, T. J., Jr., 382, 400 Buchanan, A., 131, 138
Bowlby, J., 44, 55, 58, 60, 62 Buchbinder, S., 364, 369, 370
Bowman, T., 187, 201 Buck, M. J., 3, 4, 25, 31
Boyce, L. K., 360, 372 Buehler, C., 206, 207, 211, 212, 213, 228, 231
Boyer, D., 75, 95, 98 Bugaighis, M. A., 209, 232
Boykin, A. W., 382, 400 Bugental, D., 43, 62
Boyum, L., 132, 136 Bugental, D. B., 5, 20, 29, 214, 228
Bradbury, T., 43, 62 Bumpus, M. F., 115, 137, 287, 291, 293,
Bradbury, T. N., 209, 210, 214, 225, 226, 294
227, 230, 231, 232 Burchinal, M., 48, 62
Braddock, D., 177, 200 Burchinal, M. R., 47, 62, 242, 255, 271,
Bradley, R. H., 324, 338, 362, 369 362, 369
Braithwaite, V. A., 117, 137 Burgess, B. J., 122, 123, 136
414 AUTHOR INDEX
Burgess, K. B., 386, 400 Ceci, S. J., 377, 382, 384, 398, 399, 400
Buriel, R., 9, 30, 116, 142 Cen, G., 5, 7, 29, 159, 172
Burks, V. S., 52, 64 Chamberlin, R., 363, 371
Burlingham, D., 302, 316 Champion, L. A., 46, 63
Burman, B., 208, 210, 211, 216, 228, 229 Chan, S. Q., 9, 30
Burns, K., 37, 62 Chandler, M., 149, 175
Burns, W. J., 37, 62 Chao, R., 124, 136
Burton, L., 75, 98 Chao, R. K., 5, 6, 29, 125, 136, 320, 326,
Burts, D. C., 4, 31 336, 338
Busch-Rossnagel, N. A., 17, 33 Chao, W., 40, 69
Bush, K. R., 335, 339 Chapman, R. S., 185, 198
Buss, D. M., 163, 172 Charnov, E. L., 107, 140
Butler, J., 75, 98 Chase-Lansdale, P. L., 91, 101, 113, 137
Byrd, J. E., 284, 295 Chavez, F., 37, 65
Chazan-Cohen, R., 37, 62
Chen, C., 12, 33
C Chen, F., 90, 98
Chen, H., 5, 7, 29, 159, 172
Cabrera, N., 103, 143 Chen, X., 5, 7, 29, 159, 162, 163, 172, 175
Cadenhead, C., 303, 316 Chen, Z. Y., 12, 29
Cadoret, R. J., 50, 62 Chess, S., 149, 150, 158, 160, 172, 176, 256,
Cahill, B. M., 187, 197 271, 272
Cain, R., 39, 71 Chesser, B., 297, 318
Caldera, Y. M., 161, 174 Chethik, L., 37, 62
Callor, S., 41, 42, 43, 67 Chiang, T., 9, 29
Campbell, D. T., 346, 349, 369, 372 Chih-Mei, C., 5, 9, 31
Campbell, S. B., 51, 58, 61, 62, 207, 228 Chilamkurti, C., 53, 67
Cannan, T., 168, 173 Child, I. L., 278, 293
Capaldi, D. M., 381, 399 Child Trends, 73, 74, 78, 98
Cardemil, E. V., 50, 62 Chisholm, K., 388, 399
Carels, R. A., 225, 228 Chorost, A. F., 225, 231
Carlson, E. A., 95, 101 Christal, R. C., 38, 70
Carlson, V. J., 325, 326, 332, 333, 339 Christensen, A., 210, 213, 216, 220, 224,
Carr, J., 189, 197 228, 231
Carroll, R., 166, 175 Christian, J. L., 45, 68
Carson, J., 132, 136 Christiansen, S. L., 128, 137
Carter, A., 37, 62 Chugani, D. C., 389, 399
Carter, M., 388, 399 Chugani, H. T., 389, 399
Casey, P. H., 324, 338, 362, 369 Cicchetti, D., 53, 59, 63, 70
Casey, R. J., 168, 173 Cicognani, E., 18, 29
Cashmore, J., 332, 339 Cioci, M., 309, 317
Caspi, A., 38, 53, 54, 62, 63, 65, 66, 75, 80, 81, Clark, L., 39, 42, 66, 69, 70
82, 83, 84, 85, 99, 394, 395, 398, 399 Clark, L. A., 42, 43, 63, 162, 165, 172
Caspi, D., 46, 52, 61 Clark, R., 37, 62, 284, 294, 295
Cassidy, B., 89, 98 Clarke, G. N., 50, 63
Cassidy, J., 45, 56, 63, 217, 233 Clarke-Stewart, K. A., 105, 137
Cassidy, S. B., 185, 198 Clayton, S. L., 352, 358, 363, 373
Castellino, D., 43, 67 Clements, M., 212, 218, 231
Catalano, R., 298, 318 Clingempeel, G., 222, 229
Cattell, R. B., 38, 63 Clingempeel, W. G., 166, 173
Cauce, A. M., 121, 136, 304, 317 Cloninger, C. R., 50, 63
Ceballo, R., 263, 271, 306, 311, 315 Cobb, S., 237, 259, 271
AUTHOR INDEX 415
Cochran, M., 236, 238, 239, 240, 241, 243, Costigan, C. L., 222, 230
244, 249, 252, 254, 267, 271, 272 Cote, L. R., 5, 29
Coggins, K., 123, 144 Cotterell, J., 262, 272
Cohen, J., 206, 228 Cotton, S., 332, 339
Cohen, M., 56, 70 Cowan, C. P., 125, 126, 127, 137, 205, 212,
Cohen, M. M., 56, 63 213, 216, 222, 223, 224, 225, 228,
Cohn, J. F., 58, 61 231, 345, 353, 370, 391, 399
Coie, J., 75, 100 Cowan, P., 125, 126, 127, 137
Coie, J. D., 52, 63 Cowan, P. A., 126, 137, 205, 212, 213, 216,
Coiro, M. J., 215, 228 222, 223, 224, 225, 228, 231, 276,
Colbert, K. K., 94, 97 295, 345, 353, 370, 391, 399
Cole, R., 346, 355, 357, 370, 371, 393, 400 Cox, M. J., 47, 58, 62, 64, 104, 137, 206,
Cole, R. E., 330, 338, 362, 363, 371 211, 228, 232, 242, 255, 271
Coleman, P., 159, 173 Coysh, W. S., 205, 228
Coleman, P. K., 15, 19, 29, 164, 172 Craig, I. W., 394, 398
Coley, R. L., 113, 137 Crichton, L., 161, 176
Colletta, N., 259, 272 Crick, N. C., 52, 64
Collins, A., 298, 315 Crisafulli, A., 208, 216, 232
Collins, N. L., 47, 63 Crittenden, P., 257, 264, 272
Collins, W. A., 3, 4, 25, 30, 109, 137, 215, Crittenden, P. M., 51, 64
228, 297, 315, 379, 387, 388, 399 Crnic, K., 41, 42, 44, 56, 61, 120, 139, 162,
Coltrane, S., 103, 112, 117, 119, 121, 122, 163, 173, 174, 176, 180, 186, 198,
137, 142, 289, 294 199, 213, 220, 222, 227, 230
Comfort, M., 81, 82, 85, 99 Crockenberg, S., 39, 64, 86, 89, 92, 94, 95,
Compas, B. E., 46, 68 98, 237, 238, 239, 256, 264, 272
Condry, J., 380, 399 Crockenberg, S. B., 162, 165, 172
Condry, S., 380, 399 Cronin, M., 357, 369
Conger, K., 40, 54, 63 Cross, C. E., 54, 65
Conger, R., 40, 54, 63, 64, 69, 114, 137, Cross, P. K., 188, 200
304, 306, 315 Cross, T. L., 123, 137
Conger, R. D., 38, 54, 65, 66, 69, 114, 137, Cross, W., 248, 249, 272
207, 225, 228, 230, 237, 272 Crouter, A., 298, 300, 316
Connell, D. B., 363, 371 Crouter, A. C., 10, 29, 114, 115, 137, 142,
Connell, J. P., 346, 369 160, 172, 275, 276, 281, 282, 286,
Connors, R., 258, 272 287, 289, 290, 291, 293, 294, 296
Conrad, B., 164, 173 Crowell, J., 58, 70
Contrerae, J., 39, 64 Cruzcosa, M., 214, 228
Contreras, J. M., 47, 64 Culp, A., 80, 86, 98, 99
Cook, G. A., 360, 372 Culross, P. L., 47, 59, 65, 345, 357, 370
Cook, T., 297, 302, 303, 304, 316 Cummings, E. M., 51, 64, 104, 113, 137,
Cook, T. D., 346, 349, 365, 369, 370, 372 206, 207, 214, 228, 229
Cooksey, E. C., 115, 137 Cummings, S., 180, 198
Cooley, C. H., 391, 399 Curtis-Boles, H., 205, 228
Cooper, H., 349, 373 Cutrona, C., 156, 172
Cooper, J. E., 117, 137 Cutting, A. L., 148, 172
Cooper, P. J., 37, 67
Copeland, J. M., 209, 232
Coplan, R. J., 20, 29 D
Corns, K. M., 58, 69
Corsaro, W., 330, 338 Daddis, C., 167, 175
Corter, C., 111, 112, 137, 138 Dadds, M. R., 18, 20, 29, 224, 229
Costa, P. T., 39, 64 Daggett, J., 17, 22, 29
416 AUTHOR INDEX
Daglish, L., 105, 143 D’Onofrio, B., 383, 384, 401

Dahl, A. A., 151, 171 Dooley, D., 298, 318
Dalakas, V., 11, 32 Dornbusch, S., 305, 316
Daly, K., 110, 112, 137, 138 Dornbusch, S. M., 6, 30, 33, 118, 140
Dancy, B., 118, 137 Down, H. L., 178, 198
Danieli, Y., 303, 315 Downey, G., 54, 65
Daniels, D., 381, 382, 400 Dozier, M., 59, 64
Danso, H., 4, 7, 29 Drotar, D., 181, 198
Darling, N. E., 305, 316 Dubow, E., 81, 82, 92, 98, 100
David, C. G., 46, 66 Dubrow, N., 300, 302, 303, 316
Davies, P., 206, 214, 228 Dubrow, N. F., 303, 315
Davies, P. T., 51, 64, 206, 207, 214, 216, Duggan, A., 364, 369, 370
228, 229 Dukewich, T., 81, 97
Davis, K., 256, 257, 272, 292, 294 Dumaret, A., 384, 385, 401
Davis-Kean, P. E., 107, 109, 114, 121, 144 Dumas, J. E., 187, 188, 200
Day, R. D., 130, 131, 140 Duncan, G. J., 93, 98, 299, 316, 320, 321,
Deal, J., 160, 172 323, 324, 335, 338, 340
Deal, J. E., 222, 229 Dunifon, R., 303, 304, 316
Deater-Deckard, K., 51, 64, 119, 137, 148, Dunkel-Schetter, C., 47, 63
172, 303, 315, 330, 338 Dunn, J., 148, 159, 161, 166, 172, 174, 381,
DeBaryshe, B. D., 14, 17, 29, 304, 317 382, 399
DeBaryshe, D. B., 381, 393, 397, 399, 401 Dunn, J. F., 104, 142, 157, 172
de Bruyn, E., 384, 399 Dunn, M. G., 37, 64
Deci, E. L., 333, 341 Dunn, P. M., 178, 198
De Cubas, M., 323, 339 Dunst, C. J., 367, 370
DeFrain, J., 297, 318 DuRant, R. H., 303, 316
DeFries, J. C., 156, 157, 174 Durrett, M. E., 113, 138
Delgado-Gaitan, C., 268, 272, 332, 338 Duyme, M., 384, 385, 401
DeLongis, A., 285, 286, 294 Duyvesteyn, M. G. C., 59, 70
Dennis, J., 132, 142
Dvir, R., 106, 143
DePanfilis, D., 47, 64
Dykens, E. M., 178, 181, 185, 186, 189,
DeRubeis, R. J., 51, 69
190, 194, 196, 198, 199
DeVito, C., 212, 229
Diamond, K., 351, 373
DiBlasio, F. A., 89, 91, 93, 95, 101
Dickie, J. R., 113, 137 E
Dickson, N., 46, 52, 61
Dickson, W. J., 282, 296 Eagly, A. H., 26, 30
Dickstein, S., 222, 232 Earls, F., 306, 309, 317
Diener, M., 39, 64, 65 East, P., 75, 98
Dienhart, A., 112, 138 Easterbrooks, M. A., 206, 207, 208, 210,
Dishion, T. J., 304, 305, 315 211, 212, 213, 215, 229, 230
Divecha, D. J., 3, 32, 155, 174, 194, 200 Eaves, L., 50, 69, 178, 200
Dix, T., 5, 29, 43, 64, 155, 172, 226, 229 Eaves, L. J., 51, 64
Dodge, K., 119, 137 Eccles, J., 297, 302, 303, 304, 316
Dodge, K. A., 18, 32, 43, 52, 64, 68, 303, Eckenrode, J., 393, 400
304, 305, 306, 315, 316, 330, 338 Eckenrode, J. J., 362, 363, 371
Doherty, W. E. J., 110, 138 Edelbrock, C., 51, 65
Dollahite, D. C., 18, 32 Edwards, J., 25, 31
Domenech-Rodriquez, M., 121, 136 Egeland, B., 54, 58, 65, 70, 161, 176, 303,
Donahue, M. L., 14, 29 316
Donnelly, B., 40, 70 Eggebeen, D. J., 128, 129, 130, 138
AUTHOR INDEX 417
Eiden, R. D., 37, 58, 65, 69 Fauber, R. L., 207, 208, 213, 229
Eisenstadt, J. W., 352, 357, 370, 372 Fazio, R. H., 26, 30
Elder, G., 40, 54, 63, 114, 137 Feeney, J. A., 209, 229
Elder, G. H., 297, 302, 303, 304, 313, 316 Feinberg, M., 148, 172
Elder, G. H., Jr., 38, 54, 63, 65, 66, 69, Feinberg, M. E., 221, 223, 229
225, 228 Feingold, J., 384, 385, 401
Eley, T. C., 52, 65 Feins, J. D., 306, 307, 308, 317
Elins, J. L., 160, 176 Feiring, C., 58, 67
Elkin, I., 47, 66 Fendt, K. H., 358, 359, 361, 372
Elkins, I. J., 157, 172 Ferguson, M., 86, 97
Ellison, C. G., 7, 8, 28, 30 Festinger, L., 90, 98
Elmen, J. D., 281, 296 Fidler, D. J., 186, 187, 188, 189, 194, 195,
Emde, R. M., 367, 370 198, 199
Emde, R. N., 206, 212, 215, 229 Field, I., 121, 139
Emery, R. E., 207, 212, 215, 217, 228, 229, Field, T. M., 92, 98, 323, 339
233 Fincham, F., 43, 62
Emory, G., 186, 197 Fincham, F. D., 43, 67, 207, 209, 210, 212,
Engfer, A., 44, 65 213, 214, 215, 216, 225, 226, 227,
English, D., 379, 399 229, 230, 231, 232
Entwisle, D. R., 12, 22, 28, 30, 321, 322, Fine, D., 75, 95, 98
339 Fineman, N. R., 353, 370
Epstein, J. N., 349, 369 Finucane, B., 178, 198
Erel, O., 208, 210, 211, 216, 229 Fischel, J. E., 393, 397, 401
Erickson, F., 352, 370 Fischer, C., 240, 241, 242, 243, 244, 272
Erickson Warfield, M., 47, 65 Fischer, K. W., 150, 171
Erikson, E., 127, 138 Fish, M., 125, 136
Erikson, K., 312, 316 Fisher, P. A., 59, 64, 150, 151, 154, 160,
Erikson, M., 110, 138 174
Erikson, M. T., 51, 64 Fiske, S. T., 4, 26, 30
Erwin, L. J., 247, 273 Fisman, S. N., 187, 188, 200, 201
Espinosa, M., 37, 61 Fitzgerald, H., 80, 81, 87, 99
Essex, E. L., 182, 198 Fitzgerald, H. E., 37, 70, 168, 173
Fleming, A. S., 110, 111, 112, 137, 138
Essex, M. J., 162, 174, 284, 294, 295
Fletcher, A. C., 305, 316
Evans, D. W., 185, 199
Flor, F. L., 22, 28
Ey, S., 46, 68
Flouri, E., 131, 138
Eyberg, S., 220, 221, 227
Floyd, F. J., 220, 222, 225, 230, 232
Flyr, M. L., 132, 142
Fogg, L., 164, 173
F Follmer, A., 48, 62
Fonagy, P., 345, 372
Fabricius, W., 117, 142 Fontaine, R., 52, 64
Fagan, J., 114, 121, 133, 134, 138 Forehand, R., 213, 224, 227, 229
Fagan, W. T., 357, 369 Foster, C. L., 75, 99
Fagot, B., 163, 172 Foster, E. M., 54, 65
Fagot, B. I., 164, 168, 172, 173 Fowles, D. C., 163, 172
Falco, F. L., 393, 397, 401 Fracasso, M. P., 332, 340
Faleigh, M. J., 6, 30 Fraiberg, S., 47, 53, 59, 65
Farber, B., 180, 198 Franz, C., 131, 139
Farber, E., 58, 65, 303, 316 Franz, C. E., 132, 138
Farrington, D., 82, 100 Franzetta, K., 75, 100
Fauber, R., 213, 229 Freeman, S. F. N., 189, 199
418 AUTHOR INDEX
Fremmer-Bombik, E., 58, 70, 71 Gelles, R., 303, 316

Frensch, P. A., 5, 12, 13, 22, 32 Gensburg, L. J., 188, 200
Freud, A., 302, 316 Gerard, J. M., 213, 228
Freud, S., 180, 198 Gerlach-Downie, S., 352, 357, 373
Fried, M., 284, 294 Gerlach-Downie, S. G., 352, 357, 358, 366,
Friedman, D. E., 283, 294 370
Friedrich, W., 180, 198 Geronimus, A., 77, 78, 83, 98
Friedrich, W. L., 180, 198 Gerrard, M., 304, 306, 315
Friedrich, W. N., 180, 186, 198, 199 Gershoff, E. T., 5, 7, 30
Fritz, J., 245, 260, 272 Gerson, K., 290, 295
Frodi, A. M., 106, 140 Gervai, J., 57, 66
Frodi, M., 106, 140 Gibbons, F. X., 304, 306, 315
Frommer, E., 49, 65 Gibson, D., 189, 199
Frone, M. R., 116, 138 Gibson, N. M., 22, 28
Frosch, C., 220, 230 Gilbreth, J. G., 129, 130, 136
Frosch, C. A., 220, 222, 232 Gillham, J., 50, 65
Fuddy, L., 364, 369, 370 Gilliom, L. A., 222, 230
Fuligni, A. J., 331, 333, 334, 339 Gilliom, M., 51, 62
Fulker, D. W., 156, 174 Gjerde, P. F., 217, 218, 230
Fung, H., 95, 101 Glidden, L. M., 178, 187, 196, 197, 199
Furstenberg, F., 78, 80, 81, 82, 85, 98 Glie, D., 75, 76, 100
Furstenberg, F. F., 129, 138, 297, 302, 303, Goerge, R., 84, 98
304, 316 Goldberg, W. A., 207, 208, 210, 211, 213,
215, 230, 282, 283, 295
Goldman, M., 42, 66
Goldman-Fraser, J., 14, 31
G Goldsmith, D., 332, 333, 340
Goldsmith, H., 41, 42, 43, 67
Gable, S., 213, 220, 222, 227, 230 Goldstein, L., 39, 65
Gable, S. L., 226, 232 Gomberg, E. S. L., 37, 71
Gadsen, V., 117, 118, 119, 138 Gomby, D. S., 47, 59, 65, 345, 357, 370
Galambos, N. L., 165, 172 Gondoli, D., 40, 65
Galburda, A., 185, 190, 197 Gonzales, N., 304, 317
Gallagher, P. L., 185, 200 Gonzales, N. A., 117, 139
Gallimore, R., 191, 200 Good, C., 26, 28
Galperin, C., 5, 8, 9, 28 Goodall, G. M., 46, 63
Galperin, C. Z., 5, 8, 9, 28 Goodman, R., 157, 173
Garbarino, J., 297, 298, 300, 301, 302, 303, Goodnow, J. J., 3, 4, 9, 13, 15, 18, 22, 25,
304, 313, 315, 316 30, 332, 339
Garcia Coll, C., 326, 327, 335, 339 Goodson, B. D., 350, 354, 367, 370, 371
Garfinkel, I., 130, 138 Goossens, F. A., 37, 66
Garfinkel, L., 107, 138 Gordis, E. B., 207, 216, 219, 220, 221, 223,
Garnier, H. E., 191, 200 230, 231
Garrett, E., 205, 228 Gordon, E. W., 13, 22, 32
Garrity-Roukous, F., 37, 62 Gorman, J. C., 5, 17, 30
Garwood, M. M., 162, 171 Gorman-Smith, D., 117, 118, 138
Gaudin, J., 256, 257, 272 Gotlib, I. H., 46, 65
Gaudin, J. M., 47, 65 Gottesman, I. I., 383, 384, 401
Gautier, M., 178, 200 Gottfried, A. E., 283, 295
Gauvain, M., 163, 172 Gottfried, A. W., 283, 295
Ge, X., 40, 64, 304, 306, 315 Gottman, J. M., 104, 113, 131, 133, 138,
Gelfand, D. M., 156, 161, 173, 176 142, 207, 218, 220, 221, 231, 233
AUTHOR INDEX 419
Graham, S., 190, 199 Halpern, D. F., 382, 400

Grandour, M. J., 161, 176 Halpern, R., 358, 370
Granovetter, M., 239, 272 Hamill, S., 282, 283, 295
Grant, K. E., 46, 68 Hamilton, C. E., 58, 65
Grantham-McGregor, S., 361, 372 Hamilton, S., xi, xv
Gravestock, F. M., 225, 230 Hammond, M., 212, 213, 233, 349, 373
Gray, F. L., 185, 199 Handal, P., 118, 137
Greenbaum, C. W., 11, 31 Handwerker, W. P., 11, 30, 324, 326, 339
Greenberg, M., 180, 198 Hanks, C., 355, 371
Greenberg, M. T., 186, 199, 305, 315 Hanline, M. F., 187, 199
Greenberger, E., 11, 30, 115, 127, 138, Hann, D., 86, 99
139, 282, 283, 295 Hann, D. A., 79, 100
Greene, A., 80, 81, 82, 84, 100 Hans, S. L., 94, 101, 239, 259, 272
Greenfield, P., 327, 331, 333, 334, 339 Hanson, M., 187, 199
Greenstein, B., 365, 370 Hanson, R. F., 53, 66
Greenwald, A. G., 26, 30 Hao, L., 5, 30
Grimm-Thomas, K., 115, 139 Happaney, K., 5, 20, 29
Grogger, J., 82, 99 Haraven, T., 237, 272
Grolnick, W. S., 333, 341 Harding, C., 58, 70
Gross, D., 164, 173, 359, 370 Hargreaves, W. A., 50, 67
Gross, R. T., 351, 363, 369 Harkness, S., 5, 30
Grossman, F. K., 92, 101, 127, 139 Harold, G. T., 207, 230
Grossman, K. E., 58, 71 Harris, J. R., xiv, xv, 150, 173, 306, 316,
Grossmann, K., 58, 70 378, 379, 380, 382, 386, 387, 390,
Grove, K., 304, 317 399
Groves, B. M., 302, 316 Harris, K. M., 129, 138
Gruber, E., 6, 31 Harris, M. J., 382, 400
Gruber-Baldini, A. L., 280, 295 Harris, S., 187, 199
Grunebaum, H. U., 363, 371 Harris, T., 49, 66
Grusec, J. E., 5, 18, 21, 30, 31, 156, 173 Harrison, A. O., 9, 30
Hart, C. H., 131, 132, 139
Grych, J. H., 207, 211, 212, 213, 214, 216,
Harter, K., 211, 228
217, 230
Harter, S., 391, 399
Gunnar, M., 41, 58, 67, 162, 174
Harvey, E., 288, 295
Gunnarsson, L., 239, 240, 241, 243, 244,
Harwood, R. L., 5, 10, 11, 30, 32, 324, 325,
249, 252, 254, 271, 272
326, 332, 333, 336, 339, 340, 341
Guralnick, M. J., 344, 370
Hastings, P., 18, 19, 32, 156, 163, 164, 173,
Gurung, R. A., 46, 47, 69
175
Guthrie, D., 353, 370
Hastings, P. D., 5, 7, 20, 21, 29, 31, 159,
Gutierrez, K., 352, 370
172
Hatch, R. C., 209, 232
Hatfield, E., 168, 173
H Hauser, R. M., 323, 339
Hauser, S. T., 166, 171
Haas, B., 280, 295 Hauser-Cram, P., 47, 65
Haas, L., 284, 295 Haveman, R., 85, 99
Hagan, M. S., 222, 229 Hawkins, A., 112, 113, 134, 136
Hahn, C.-S., 322, 338 Hawkins, A. J., 133, 134, 138
Haight, W. L., 25, 30 Hawkins, W., 50, 63
Haley, A., 383, 384, 401 Hay, D., 395, 400
Halford, W. K., 225, 230 Hayduk, L. A., 12, 30
Hallahan, D. P., 177, 183, 199 Haynes, C. W., 359, 370
420 AUTHOR INDEX
Haynes, O. M., 5, 8, 9, 28, 322, 338 Hofferth, S. L., 107, 108, 109, 114, 119,
Hazelwood, L., 39, 64 121, 122, 139, 143, 144
Head, M. R., 289, 291, 294 Hoffman, L. W., 328, 335, 339
Heath, A. C., 51, 64 Holden, G. W., 3, 4, 5, 7, 17, 24, 25, 30,
Heath, D. H., 126, 127, 139 31, 155, 173, 213, 227
Heath, H. E., 126, 127, 139 Hollingshead, A. B., 320, 339
Heavey, C. L., 216, 228 Hollon, S. D., 51, 69
Hebbeler, K. M., 352, 357, 358, 366, 370 Holman, J., 117, 137
Heinicke, C. M., 212, 230, 353, 367, 370 Holroyd, R. M., 186, 199
Heiss, J., 118, 139 Hommerding, K. D., 58, 70
Helms-Erikson, H., 289, 290, 291, 293, 294 Hooper, F. H., 106, 143
Heming, G., 205, 228 Hooven, C., 131, 138
Hemphill, S. A., 161, 175 Hopkins, J., 212, 229
Henderson, C., Jr., 239, 240, 241, 243, 252, Hoppes, K., 187, 199
254, 271 Hornby, G., 185, 189, 199
Hossain, T., 121, 139
Henderson, C. R., 349, 355, 362, 363, 366,
Hotz, V. J., 75, 76, 77, 78, 99
371, 372
Howard, J., 37, 61
Henderson, C. R., Jr., 393, 400
Howes, P., 216, 230
Hernandez, D. J., 275, 287, 295
Hsieh, K., 223, 227
Hernandez, F., 352, 357, 373
Hsu, H., 265, 272
Hertzig, M. E., 149, 150, 176
Hubbs-Tait, L., 86, 99
Herz, E. J., 89, 100
Huesmann, R. L., 117, 118, 138
Herzog, A., 14, 29
Hughes, C., 148, 172
Hesketh, L. J., 185, 198 Hughes, J. P., 188, 200
Hess, C. R., 92, 99 Hughes, S., 89, 98
Hess, R. D., 5, 9, 31, 367, 370 Hunsberger, B., 4, 7, 29
Hesse, E., 49, 66, 67 Hunter, J. E., 53, 67
Hetherington, E. M., 57, 68, 148, 159, 163, Hurlbut, N., 86, 99
166, 172, 173, 174, 222, 229, 297, Hurrelmann, K., 323, 339
315, 379, 387, 388, 399 Huston, T., 126, 141
Hewitt, J. K., 51, 64 Huston, T. L., 225, 231
Hewlett, B. S., 106, 116, 139 Hwang, C. P., 106, 140
Hiatt, S., 356, 371 Hyde, B. L., 118, 139
Hickok, G., 185, 190, 197 Hyde, J., 284, 294
Hildebrandt, K. A., 154, 168, 173, 175 Hyde, J. S., 284, 295
Hill, J., 22, 32, 46, 47, 68 Hyman, C., 75, 100
Hill, N. E., 335, 339
Hillenmeier, M., 83, 98
Hiller, K. A., 10, 32 I
Hinde, R., 256, 272
Hipwell, A. E., 37, 66 Iacono, W. G., 157, 172, 382, 400
Hiraga, Y., 304, 317 Ianni, F. A., 314, 316
Ho, D. Y. F., 12, 31 Iannotti, R. J., 206, 207, 229
Hochschild, A., 127, 139 Imamoglu, E. O., 329, 335, 339
Hodapp, R. M., 178, 181, 182, 185, 186, Irvin, N., 181, 198
187, 188, 189, 190, 192, 193, 194, Irwin, N., 358, 373
195, 196, 198, 199, 200 Ishii-Kuntz, M., 124, 139
Hodges, J., 379, 388, 400, 401 Isley, S., 131, 139
Hoeksma, J. B., 162, 176 Israelashvilli, R., 41, 42, 67
Hoff, E., 11, 31, 321, 327, 329, 339 Iverson, T. J., 17, 31
AUTHOR INDEX 421
J Kauffman, J. M., 177, 183, 199

Kaufman, J., 53, 66
Jacklin, C. N., 36, 66, 166, 174 Kawaguchi, M. C., 165, 173
Jacob, R., 306, 307, 308, 317 Kawai, H., 124, 143
Jacobs, J. A., 290, 295 Keaveney, L., 378, 379, 388, 400
Jacobson, L., 75, 98 Keefe, N., 266, 272
Jacobvitz, D., 51, 54, 56, 57, 65, 67 Keith, B., 114, 144
Jacoby, T., 214, 233 Kelleher, K. J., 324, 338
Jaffee, S., 75, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 99 Keller, H., 331, 333, 334, 339
Jain, A., 120, 139, 163, 173 Kelley, M. L., 113, 114, 136
Jambunathan, S., 4, 31, 86, 99 Kemp-Fincham, S. I., 209, 230
Janiszewski, S., 37, 64 Kengler, K. S., 46, 66
Jankowiak, W., 124, 125, 139 Kennell, J., 181, 198
Jaycox, L., 50, 65 Keogh, B. K., 191, 200
Jenkins, E. J., 300, 302, 315 Keogh, D., 79, 80, 81, 82, 84, 86, 89, 90,
Jenkins, J. M., 160, 166, 167, 173 91, 101
Jennings, K. D., 258, 272 Keough, K., 26, 28
Jernigan, T., 185, 190, 197 Kerig, P. K., 213, 216, 218, 231
Joe, J., 6, 31 Kerr, M., 51, 69, 289, 295, 296, 305, 316
John, O. P., 38, 66 Kessler, R. C., 46, 66, 75, 99, 285, 286, 294
John, R. S., 207, 210, 213, 216, 219, 220, Kestenbaum, R., 41, 58, 67, 162, 174
221, 223, 228, 230, 231 Key, J. P., 80, 81, 87, 99
Johnson, D., 220, 231 Khounani, P. M., 332, 340
Johnson, J. H., 164, 175 Killen, M., 330, 340
Johnson, V. K., 217, 218, 224, 228, 231 Killian, C., 132, 142
Johnston, C., 44, 66, 161, 174, 214, 228 Kim, H. K., 45, 66
Johnston, F. H., 185, 188, 189, 201 Kim, K., 125, 136
Jokielek, S. M., 115, 137 Kim, K. J., 38, 66
Juang, L., 348, 360, 371 Kim, M., 132, 133, 141, 142
Juffer, F., 59, 70, 350, 358, 369 Kim, S., 40, 62
Juhasz, C., 389, 399 Kim-Cohen, J., 53, 66
Jump, V. K., 360, 372 King, L., 225, 233
Kingston, L., 162, 173
Kinlaw, C. R., 14, 31
K Kirisci, L., 37, 64
Kirsh, S. J., 56, 63
Kaban, B., 107, 143 Kisker, E. E., 348, 350, 354, 361, 365, 368,
Kagitcibasi, C., 329, 332, 333, 334, 335, 340 370, 371
Kahn, J. R., 75, 99 Kitayama, S., 329, 340
Kaleva, M., 50, 69 Kitzman, H., 351, 355, 358, 360, 363, 367,
Kalil, A., 79, 99 371, 393, 400
Kanter, R. M., 277, 295 Kitzman, H. J., 346, 357, 362, 363, 370, 371
Kapp, S., 267, 272 Kitzmann, K. M., 215, 216, 220, 231
Karney, B. R., 210, 214, 231 Klaus, M., 181, 198
Karraker, K. H., 15, 19, 29, 156, 159, 164, Klebanov, P. K., 93, 98, 299, 316
167, 172, 173, 175 Klein, M. H., 284, 294, 295
Kasari, C., 186, 189, 198, 199, 200 Klepinger, D. H., 76, 99
Katz, L., 131, 138 Kline, M., 276, 295
Katz, L. F., 218, 220, 221, 231, 306, 307, Kling, J. R., 306, 307, 308, 317
308, 317 Klocke, A., 323, 339
Katzev, A. R., 364, 371 Kneppers, K., 57, 70
422 AUTHOR INDEX
Knight, G., 117, 139 L

Knight, R., 332, 339
Knoester, C., 128, 138 Ladd, G. W., 265, 272, 386, 400
Kobak, R., 49, 66 Lagace-Seguin, D. G., 20, 29
Kobak, R. R., 45, 63 Lahey, B., 40, 64
Kochanska, G., 17, 31, 42, 43, 63, 66, 162, Lahti, I., 50, 69
163, 165, 172, 390, 400 Laible, D. J., 56, 66
Koestner, R., 131, 139 Laird, R. D., 305, 316
Kohn, M., 115, 139 Lakatos, K., 57, 66
Kohn, M. L., 10, 31, 32, 277, 278, 279, 295, Lake, M. A., 156, 167, 173
329, 335, 340 Lakin, C., 177, 200
Kohnstamm, G. A., 151, 176 Lakin, K. C., 177, 197
Komarovsky, M., 275, 295 Lam, M., 334, 339
Koops, W., 52, 68 Lamb, M. E., 52, 67, 103, 105, 106, 107,
Korenman, S., 77, 78, 83, 98 116, 118, 130, 131, 140, 143, 332,
Korfmacher, J., 344, 351, 355, 356, 358, 333, 336, 340, 345, 371
360, 363, 366, 367, 371 Lamborn, S. D., 6, 33, 118, 140
Korn, S., 149, 150, 176 Lancaster, J., 303, 316
Kostelny, K., 300, 301, 302, 303, 316 Land, D., 298, 315
Kotelchuck, M., 104, 140 Landry, S. H., 247, 273
Kouneski, E. F., 110, 138 Lang, M. E., 205, 227
Kovacs, M., 75, 99 Lang, S., 41, 58, 67, 162, 174
Kowal, A., 148, 173 Langbehn, D., 50, 62
Kowaleski-Jones, L., 303, 304, 316 Langlois, J. H., 168, 173
Kraemer, H. C., 351, 363, 369 Lansford, J. E., 52, 64, 212, 233
Kramer, E., 39, 71 Larner, M., 239, 240, 241, 243, 252, 254,
Kramer, L., 8, 19, 32, 148, 173 271, 272
Krauss, M., 182, 200 Larrance, D. T., 214, 231
Krauss, M. W., 182, 187, 198, 201 Larson, R., 109, 140, 285, 286, 295
Kreppner, J. M., 378, 379, 388, 400 Larson, R. W., 285, 295
Krieger, H., 110, 138 Lasky, K., 50, 69
Krishnakumar, A., 206, 207, 211, 212, 213, Laub, J. H., 47, 66
228, 231 Lauretti, A., 219, 220, 225, 226, 231, 232
Krohn, M. D., 304, 318 Laursen, B., 11, 31, 321, 327, 329, 339
Krol, R. M., 75, 99 LaVange, L. M., 358, 359, 361, 372
Kroll, A. B., 225, 232 Lawrence, E., 225, 227
Kromelow, S., 58, 70 Layzer, J. I., 346, 350, 354, 371, 372
Kropp, F., 11, 32 Leadbeater, B., 78, 80, 85, 93, 99
Kropp, J., 40, 64 Leadbeater, B. J., 89, 99
Krupnick, J. L., 47, 66 Leckman, J. F., 185, 198
Kubisch, A. C., 346, 369 Ledbetter, J. E., 26, 30
Kucera, E., 58, 69 Lee, B. J., 84, 98
Kuczynski, L., 17, 18, 30, 31 Lee, C. D., 325, 326, 340
Kuersten, R., 225, 226, 231 Lee, D. Y., 384, 399
Kuersten-Hogan, R., 220, 232 Lee, S., 9, 12, 33
Kumar, R., 37, 66 Leffert, N., 308, 309, 310, 317
Kunz, J., 79, 99 Lehmann, N., 298, 316
Kurdek, L. A., 212, 231 Leiderman, P. H., 6, 30
Kurtz-Costes, B., 14, 31 Lejeune, J., 178, 200
Kusserow, A. S., 324, 329, 330, 331, 340 LeMare, L. J., 165, 175
Kwak, K., 331, 334, 340 Leonard, K. E., 37, 65
AUTHOR INDEX 423
Lerman, R., 118, 140 Love, J. M., 348, 350, 354, 361, 365, 368,
Lerner, J. V., 92, 99, 158, 173 370, 371
Levant, R. F., 113, 114, 136 Lovejoy, J., 106, 140
Leve, L. D., 164, 173 Lowe, R., 225, 230
Leventhal, T., 297, 303, 306, 316, 317 Lucca, N., 9, 33
Levin, H., 131, 143, 149, 175 Luckey, D., 393, 400
Levine, J., 81, 82, 85, 99 Luckey, D. W., 349, 355, 366, 372
Levine, J. A., 106, 107, 127, 140 Luker, K., 75, 99
Levine, M., 125, 136 Lundberg, S., 76, 99
LeVine, R., 322, 341 Luria, Z., 156, 167, 175, 380, 401
LeVine, R. A., 10, 31, 379, 400 Luster, T., xi, xiii, xv, 75, 80, 81, 82, 87,
Levy, F., 395, 400 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 96, 97, 97, 98,
Levy-Shiff, R., 41, 42, 67 99, 100, 101, 280, 292, 295, 348,
Lewinsohn, P. M., 46, 50, 63, 65 360, 371
Lewis, C. E., 207, 231 Lustina, M. J., 26, 28
Lewis, I., 359, 372 Ly, T. M., 187, 188, 189, 190, 193, 199, 200
Lewis, M., 58, 67 Lykken, D. T., 382, 398, 400
Lewis, M. A., 207, 231 Lynd, H. M., 275, 295
Lewkowicz, K. S., 106, 143 Lynd, R. S., 275, 295
Leyendecker, B., 11, 30, 32, 324, 325, 326, Lyons-Ruth, K., 51, 56, 57, 67, 363, 371
332, 333, 336, 339, 340, 341 Lytton, H., 154, 167, 171, 173
Li, M., 110, 111, 112, 138
Liaw, F., 359, 361, 371
Lichtenstein, P., 52, 65 M
Lieberman, A. F., 53, 59, 67, 360, 371
Liebman, J. B., 306, 307, 308, 317 Maarala, M., 50, 69
Liker, J. K., 54, 65 MacArthur, D., 186, 199
Lindahl, K. M., 212, 216, 218, 231 Maccoby, E. E., 106, 131, 140, 143, 149,
Linder, C. W., 303, 316 166, 167, 174, 175, 297, 315, 327,
Lindsay, L. L., 216, 229 328, 340, 379, 387, 388, 399
Linfield, K. J., 209, 230 MacDonald, K., 105, 132, 140
Linn, M. I., 352, 357, 373 Machamer, A. M., 6, 31
Lipovsky, J. A., 53, 66 MacKinnon-Lewis, C., 43, 52, 67
Little, C., 37, 62 MacPhee, D., 245, 260, 272
Lobato, D., 180, 200 Madden, T., 336, 341
Lobel, M., 47, 63 Maes, H. H., 51, 64
Lochman, J., 75, 100 Magnuson, K. A., 321, 323, 324, 335, 338,
Locke, H. J., 209, 231 340
Loeber, R., 51, 64 Magnusson, D., 52, 69
Loehlin, J. C., 157, 174, 382, 383, 400 Maguire, M. C., 115, 137, 287, 294
Lollis, S., 165, 175 Magyary, D., 348, 369
Long, N., 207, 208, 213, 229 Main, M., 49, 66, 67
Longfellow, C., 40, 67 Maital, S., 5, 8, 9, 28
Longo, L. C., 26, 30 Makhijani, M. G., 26, 30
Lonigan, C. J., 349, 369, 393, 397, 401 Malach, R. S., 6, 31
Lopez, I. R., 47, 64 Malik, N. M., 216, 218, 231
Lopez, M., 11, 33 Malphurs, J. E., 121, 139
Lorenz, F., 40, 54, 63 Mammone, N., 156, 173
Lorenz, F. O., 38, 66, 237, 272 Mandara, J., 118, 120, 140
Losel, F., 310, 317 Manetti, M., 242, 265, 272
Losoya, S., 41, 42, 43, 67 Mangan, T. W., 177, 197
424 AUTHOR INDEX
Mangelsdorf, S., 39, 41, 58, 64, 65, 67, 162, McCullough, M., 84, 100
174, 220, 230 McDermid, S. M., 126, 141
Mangelsdorf, S. C., 220, 222, 232 McDevitt, S. C., 170, 175
Manke, B., 293, 294 McDevitt, T. M., 5, 9, 31
Manlove, J., 73, 75, 100, 101 McDowell, D. J., 132, 133, 141, 142
Manly, J. T., 59, 70 McElroy, S. W., 75, 76, 77, 78, 99
Mansbach, I. V., 11, 31 McFadyen-Ketchum, S. A., 18, 32, 43, 52,
Mantizicopoulos, P. Y., 15, 32 68
Marakovitz, S., 51, 62 McFarlane, E., 364, 369, 370
Marcoen, A., 56, 70 McGillicuddy-De Lisi, A. V., 3, 4, 14, 15,
Margolin, G., 207, 210, 213, 216, 219, 220, 22, 32, 33
221, 223, 224, 228, 230, 231 McGroder, S. M., 37, 67
Markel, K. S., 116, 138 McGue, M., 157, 172, 174, 382, 398, 400
Markman, H., 212, 218, 231 McGuigan, W. M., 364, 371
Markman, H. J., 216, 230 McGuire, S., 148, 159, 174
Marks, L. D., 18, 32 McHale, J., 220, 230
Marks, S. R., 282, 295 McHale, J. P., 219, 220, 221, 225, 226, 231,
Markus, H. R., 329, 340 232
Marshall, L. A., 4, 24, 31 McHale, S., 126, 141
Marshall, N., 266, 272 McHale, S. M., 115, 137, 148, 160, 172,
Marsiglio, W., 110, 130, 131, 140 174, 275, 287, 289, 290, 291, 293,
Martin, J., 394, 398 294
Martin, J. A., 327, 328, 340 McKee, T. R., 132, 139
Martinez, P. E., 302, 317 McKeering, H., 128, 141
Marx, F., 266, 272 Mckenry, P. C., 45, 66
Masciadrelli, B. P., 108, 109, 112, 114, 126, McKinney, M., 348, 360, 371
128, 130, 131, 142 McLanahan, S., 107, 138, 253, 272
Mash, E. J., 161, 174 McLanahan, S. S., 47, 68, 129, 130, 138,
Mason, C. A., 304, 317 141
Mason, P. L., 118, 140 McLoyd, V., 92, 100, 263, 271, 319, 320,
Masten, A. S., 163, 174 323, 324, 340
Matheson, P., 113, 137 McLoyd, V. C., 114, 137, 306, 311, 315
Maughan, A., 59, 70 McMahon, R., 95, 101
Maughan, B., 46, 68 McMahon, R. J., 304, 305, 315
Maumary-Gremaud, A., 75, 100 McNeilly-Choque, M. K., 131, 132, 139
Maxwell, J. A., 117, 140 McNichol, K., 163, 175
Maxwell, S., 90, 101 McWilliam, R., 351, 373
Maynard, A., 331, 333, 334, 339 Meany, M. J., 106, 141
McAdoo, H., 81, 100 Measelle, J., 224, 228
McAdoo, H. P., 379, 400 Meens, L. D., 209, 232
McAdoo, J. L., 118, 119, 140 Mehrabian, A., 47, 62
McAllister, R. A., 20, 29 Meisels, S. J., 359, 361, 371
McAnarney, E. R., 94, 101 Melby, J., 54, 63
McBride, B. A., 112, 126, 140, 142, 161, Melhuish, E. C., 37, 66
163, 174 Melson, G. F., 265, 272
McBride Murry, V., 304, 306, 315 Melzer, W., 323, 339
McCarthy, J., 40, 64 Menaghan, E. G., 114, 115, 137, 141, 275,
McCartney, K., 157, 175, 266, 272, 350, 279, 280, 288, 291, 293, 295, 296
371, 372, 382, 400 Mendell, N. R., 45, 68
McClay, J., 394, 398 Merrick, S., 58, 70
McClelland, D., 132, 138 Mervis, C. B., 185, 190, 200
McCrae, R. R., 39, 64 Meyer, D., 107, 138
AUTHOR INDEX 425
Meyer, J. M., 51, 64 Morrison, D. R., 75, 76, 100

Meyers, B. A., 189, 200 Mosley, J., 131, 141
Meyers, C. E., 18, 28 Mosteller, F., 349, 371
Meyers, J., 75, 101 Mott, F. L., 107, 141
Mezzich, A., 37, 64 Moulton, C. E., 20, 29
Mill, J., 394, 398 Mounts, N. S., 6, 33, 281, 296
Miller, A. M., 325, 326, 332, 333, 339 Mowbray, C. T., 258, 272
Miller, B. C., 75, 76, 100 Moyer, J., 47, 66
Miller, D. D., 278, 296 Muller, B., 58, 68
Miller, J., 10, 32, 185, 200 Muller, R. T., 53, 67
Miller, L. S., 50, 67 Mulligan, G. M., 131, 135
Miller, P. C., 5, 7, 17, 30, 31 Mullins, M. J., 20, 29
Miller, P. J., 330, 337, 340 Mulsow, M., 161, 174
Miller, P. M., 322, 341 Mundform, D. J., 324, 338
Miller, S. A., 15, 32 Mundy, P., 189, 199, 200
Miller-Heyl, J., 245, 260, 272 Muñoz, R. F., 50, 67
Miller-Johnson, S., 75, 100 Murphy, M., 50, 63
Miller-Loncar, C. L., 247, 273 Murray, C. B., 118, 120, 140
Mills, D., 185, 190, 197 Murray, L., 37, 67
Milner, J. S., 53, 67 Murray, R., 178, 200
Minton, H. L., 187, 201 Murry, V., 40, 62
Minuchin, S., 297, 317 Musick, J. S., 75, 76, 100, 358, 371
Miranda, J., 50, 67 Musun-Miller, L., 15, 32
Mirandé, A., 121, 122, 123, 141 Muzik, O., 389, 399
Mishel, L., 114, 141
Mitchell, J. C., 236, 238, 251, 271, 272
Mitchell, S. K., 348, 356, 363, 369
Miwa, S., 124, 141 N
Mize, J., 132, 141
Moffitt, T. E., 53, 66, 75, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, Nagel, S. K., 11, 30, 115, 139
85, 99, 394, 395, 398, 399 Nagin, D., 82, 100
Moffitt, T. W., 46, 52, 61 Nagin, D. S., 47, 66
Monshouwer, H. J., 52, 68 Nagy, F., 389, 399
Montemayer, R., 109, 141 Nauta, M., 358, 373
Moore, G., 51, 58, 61, 62 Neale, M., 50, 69
Moore, K., 80, 81, 82, 84, 100 Neale, M. C., 51, 64
Moore, K. A., 75, 76, 100 Neiderhiser, J. M., 36, 57, 68, 157, 176,
Moore, M., 80, 85, 100 383, 400
Moran, G., 57, 70 Neisser, U., 382, 400
Morelli, G., 332, 333, 340 Neitzel, C., 221, 222, 233
Morenoff, J. D., 306, 317 Nelson, D. A., 131, 132, 139
Morgan, J., 395, 399 Nelson, G. M., 214, 227
Morgan, K. M., 94, 97 Nelson, L. J., 18, 19, 32, 164, 175
Morgan, S., 78, 80, 81, 82, 85, 98 Nemoda, Z., 57, 66
Morgan, S. B., 186, 187, 200 New, R., 106, 141
Moring, J., 50, 69 Newby, K., 51, 62
Morison, S. J., 388, 399 Ney, K., 57, 66
Morris, A. S., 162, 174 Nguyen, T. V., 54, 65
Morris, C. A., 185, 190, 200 Nievar, M. A., 93, 94, 99
Morris, P., 150, 172, 393, 400 Nihira, K., 18, 28
Morris, P. A., 377, 378, 384, 398 Nix, R. L., 18, 32, 43, 52, 68
Morrison, D., 80, 81, 82, 84, 100 Noh, S., 187, 188, 200, 201
426 AUTHOR INDEX
Noller, P., 209, 229 Osborne, L. N., 207, 212, 213, 214, 216,
Noonan, A., 266, 272 230, 232
Norton, R., 209, 232 O’Shea, G., 49, 65
Notaro, P. C., 131, 144 Osofsky, J., 80, 86, 98, 99, 300, 302, 317
Nucci, L., 330, 340 Osofsky, J. D., 79, 100
Nunez, N. N., 9, 29 Ossiander, E., 95, 101
Otaki, M., 113, 138
Overstreet, E. J., 267, 272
O Owen, M. T., 58, 64, 206, 232
Owens, E. B., 56, 70
Oberklaid, F., 166, 175
Obiorah, F. C., 209, 232
O’Brien, M., 17, 22, 29, 80, 98, 226, 232 P
O’Brien, R., 349, 355, 356, 366, 371, 372
O’Connell, M., 108, 141 Pachter, L. M., 326, 327, 335, 339
O’Connor, C., 388, 400 Paff-Bergen, L. A., 209, 232
O’Connor, T. G., 148, 151, 152, 153, 154, Painter, L. M., 5, 8, 9, 28
159, 160, 166, 167, 169, 170, 171, Pakenham, K. I., 128, 141
172, 173, 174, 378, 379, 388, 389, Paley, B., 104, 137, 211, 228
400 Palkovitz, R., 107, 128, 137, 141
Ogaki, L., xiii, xv Pancoast, D., 298, 315
Ogbu, J. U., 10, 32, 277, 278, 296, 379, 400 Panzarine, S., 89, 100
Ogino, M., 5, 8, 9, 28 Papas, M. A., 92, 99
Okagaki, L., 3, 5, 6, 9, 12, 13, 22, 32, 97, Papillo, A. R., 75, 100
100, 155, 174, 194, 200, 292, 295, Papoušek, H., 9, 32
357, 372 Papoušek, M., 9, 32
Olds, D., 346, 351, 356, 357, 358, 360, 363, Parcel, J. L., 114, 141
367, 370, 371, 393, 400 Parcel, T. L., 279, 280, 288, 291, 293, 296
Olds, D. L., 349, 355, 362, 363, 366, 371, Pardo, C., 300, 302, 303, 316
372 Park, S., 162, 171, 174
O’Leary, D. A., 45, 68 Parke, R. D, 56, 63
O’Leary, K. D., 45, 61, 213, 224, 232 Parke, R. D., 25, 30, 103, 104, 105, 106,
O’Leary, S., 44, 69, 213, 214, 232, 233 107, 110, 112, 113, 116, 117, 121,
O’Leary, S. G., 20, 22, 33 122, 125, 127, 130, 131, 132, 133,
Olsen, C. L., 188, 200 134, 135, 136, 137, 139, 140, 141,
Olsen, S. F., 131, 132, 139 142
Olshanksy, S., 182, 200 Pasch, L. A., 225, 226, 232
Olson, D. R., 345, 372 Pascual, L., 5, 8, 9, 28
Oltmanns, T. F., 224, 232 Patenaude, R., 44, 66
O’Neal, C., 344, 369 Paternoster, R., 305, 317
O’Neil, R., 11, 30, 107, 115, 127, 131, 132, Patterson, G., 40, 64, 305, 317
133, 138, 139, 141, 142, 282, 283, Patterson, G. R., 51, 68, 150, 151, 154, 160,
295 174, 304, 317, 381, 399
Ong, A., 336, 341 Paulsell, D., 348, 350, 354, 361, 365, 368,
Ontai, L., 47, 59, 69 370, 371
Ooms, T., 118, 140 Pawl, J., 59, 67
Oppenheimer, D., 332, 333, 340 Pawl, J. H., 59, 67, 360, 371
O’Reilly, A. W., 104, 113, 137 Pawletko, T. M., 148, 174
Orobio de Castro, B., 52, 68 Payne, C., 47, 62, 242, 255, 271
Orr, L., 306, 307, 308, 317 Payne, C. K., 282, 283, 295
Orsmond, G. I., 187, 188, 200 Payne, M. R., 346, 365, 370
AUTHOR INDEX 427
Pearl, R., 14, 29 Ponce, V. A., 353, 367, 370

Pedersen, F., 39, 71 Pope, S. K., 324, 338
Pedersen, F. A., 113, 142 Porter, C. L., 132, 139
Pederson, D., 57, 70 Poulton, R., 394, 398
Peebles, C., 79, 100 Pouquette, C., 219, 232
Pendergrast, R. A., 303, 316 Powell, C., 361, 372
Penner, W., 309, 317 Powell, D., 357, 372
Perez-Stable, E. J., 50, 67 Powell, D. R., 344, 345, 346, 352, 353, 357,
Perloff, R., 382, 400 363, 370, 372
Perlstadt, H., 348, 360, 371 Power, T. G., 104, 105, 113, 142
Perozynski, L., 8, 19, 32 Powers, J., 117, 142, 393, 400
Perry, B. D., 378, 389, 400 Powers, S. I., 165, 173
Perry-Jenkins, M., 114, 115, 139, 142, 286, Pratt, C. C., 364, 371
296 Pratt, M., 4, 7, 29
Peters-Martin, P., 166, 174 Price, C., 350, 354, 371
Peterson, A. C., 46, 68 Price, J. M., 52, 64
Peterson, E., 85, 99 Price, R. H., 309, 317
Petrill, S. A., 148, 172 Price-Bonham, S., 182, 200
Pettit, G. S., 18, 32, 43, 52, 64, 68, 132, Prior, M., 162, 166, 173, 175
141, 303, 304, 305, 306, 315, 316 Prost, J. H., 117, 139
Pettitt, L., 393, 400 Prouty, B., 177, 200
Pettitt, L. M., 349, 355, 366, 372 Prouty, R. W., 177, 197
Peyton, V., 17, 22, 29, 226, 232 Provenzano, F. J., 156, 167, 175, 380, 401
Pezzullo, J. C., 185, 200 Pueschel, S. M., 189, 200
Pfannenstiel, J. C., 311, 317, 360, 372 Pueschel, S. R., 185, 200
Pfluger-Schindlbeck, I., 332, 341 Pursley, M., 161, 174
Philliber, S., 346, 372 Putnam, S., 162, 174, 220, 227
Phinney, J. S., 325, 336, 341 Putnam, S. P., 161, 163, 167, 168, 170, 175
Pickens, J., 121, 139
Pickles, A., 46, 51, 64, 68, 178, 200
Pierce, E. W., 51, 62
Q
Pierce, S., 4, 31
Pike, A., 148, 159, 172, 174
Quinn, D. M., 26, 33
Pilkonis, P. A., 47, 66
Quinn, N., 325, 341
Pinderhughes, E., 112, 136
Quinton, D., 46, 47, 54, 68, 94, 100, 237,
Pinderhughes, E. E., 18, 32, 43, 52, 68
272
Pine, C. J., 9, 30
Quinton, R. L., 111, 143
Pitcairn, T. K., 189, 200
Pittinsky, T. L., 127, 140
Plassman, B. L., 395, 400
Pleck, J., 107, 140 R
Pleck, J. H., 106, 108, 109, 112, 114, 126,
128, 130, 131, 140, 142 Radin, N., 107, 123, 142, 144
Plomin, R., 51, 57, 64, 65, 68, 148, 151, Radin Fox, C. E., 161, 173
156, 157, 159, 161, 166, 172, 174, Radke-Yarrow, M., 17, 31, 37, 68, 207, 229
175, 381, 382, 395, 399, 400 Raikes, H., 368, 370
Plotnick, R. D., 76, 99 Ramey, C. T., 358, 359, 361, 372
Poe-Yamagata, E., 300, 302, 306, 318 Ramsey, E., 304, 317
Pogarsky, G., 82, 100 Rane, T. R., 112, 142, 161, 163, 174
Polansky, N., 256, 257, 272 Rasbash, J., 160, 166, 167, 173
Pollack, B., 106, 143 Rasmussen, J. L., 219, 220, 221, 232
Pollack, H., 81, 82, 85, 99 Rauch-Elnekave, H., 75, 100
428 AUTHOR INDEX
Raudenbush, S. W., 306, 309, 317 Roggman, L. A., 360, 372

Rauh, H., 58, 68 Rogoff, B., 116, 143, 326, 332, 333, 340,
Ravens-Sieberer, U., 323, 339 341
Raver, C. C., 89, 99 Rogosch, F. A., 59, 63, 258, 272
Raymond-Smith, L., 47, 64 Rohde, C., 364, 369, 370
Ready, R., 42, 43, 63, 162, 165, 172 Rohner, R. P., 131, 143
Reichman, N. E., 47, 68 Romney, D. M., 154, 167, 171, 173
Reid, M. J., 349, 350, 351, 362, 364, 369, Roopnarine, J. C., 106, 143
372, 373 Roopnarine, J. L., 106, 124, 143
Reid, W. J., 208, 216, 232 Roosa, M. W., 335, 339
Reifman, A., 161, 174 Roschelle, A., 245, 246, 247, 248, 251, 272
Reis, H. T., 226, 232 Rose, G. M., 11, 32
Reis, J. S., 89, 100 Rosenblatt, J., 110, 111, 143
Reiss, D., 36, 57, 68, 159, 174, 383, 400 Rosenblum, T., 384, 399
Reivich, K., 50, 65 Rosenthal, R., 350, 371
Reivich, K. J., 50, 62 Rosenthal, S., 58, 67
Rende, R., 51, 65 Ross, C. M., 348, 350, 354, 361, 365, 371
Repetti, R., 115, 142, 225, 232 Rostosky, S. S., 165, 173
Repetti, R. L., 114, 115, 142, 283, 285, 286, Roth, A., 345, 372
296 Rothbart, M. K., 161, 163, 167, 168, 170,
Reynolds, C. A., 51, 64 175
Rha, J., 162, 171 Rothstein, K., 47, 64
Rhoades, K., 89, 100, 280, 295 Rovine, M., 113, 125, 136, 205, 210, 215,
Rhodes, J., 39, 64 216, 227
Ricci, L. A., 187, 188, 189, 199 Rowe, D., xiv, xv, 41, 42, 43, 67, 379, 380,
Richards, M., 109, 140, 285, 286, 295 401
Richards, M. P. M., 104, 142 Rowe, D. C., 76, 100
Richards, P., 113, 138 Rubin, J. Z., 156, 167, 175, 380, 401
Richman, A., 322, 341 Rubin, K. H., 5, 7, 18, 19, 29, 32, 159, 162,
Richters, J. E., 302, 317 163, 164, 165, 172, 175
Ridge, B., 18, 28, 162, 171 Ruble, D., 43, 64, 110, 138
Rie, H., 180, 198
Rueter, M. A., 225, 228
Riksen-Walraven, J. M., 37, 70, 163, 176
Rush, A. J., 186, 197
Riley, D., 239, 240, 241, 243, 252, 254, 261,
Ruskin, E. M., 189, 200
271, 272
Russell, A., 18, 32, 105, 109, 137, 143
Riley, D. A., 268, 272
Russell, G., 105, 109, 143
Ritter, J. M., 168, 173
Rutter, M., 46, 47, 49, 50, 51, 54, 63, 64,
Ritter, P. L., 6, 30
68, 69, 94, 100, 157, 175, 178, 200,
Rivera, F., 130, 131, 136
222, 232, 237, 272, 378, 379, 383,
Rivera-Mosquera, E. T., 47, 64
386, 388, 395, 399, 400, 401
Roach, M. A., 94, 97, 187, 188, 200
Ryan, R. M., 333, 341
Roberts, D. F., 6, 30
Ryan, S., 75, 100
Robins, L. N., 46, 68
Rymond-Richmond, W., 303, 317
Robinson, B. F., 185, 190, 200
Robinson, C. C., 131, 132, 139
Robinson, J., 108, 143, 349, 355, 366, 367,
370, 372 S
Rodgers, J. L., 76, 100
Roethlisberger, F., 282, 296 Saarento, O., 50, 69
Rogers, K., 75, 101 Saenz, D., 117, 142
Rogers, S. L., 114, 144 Sagi, A., 106, 143
Rogge, R., 225, 227 St. Pierre, R. G., 346, 372
AUTHOR INDEX 429
Saitzyk, A. R., 225, 232 Scolton, K. L., 56, 63

Saken, J. W., 58, 69 Scott, B. S., 187, 201
Salem, D. A., 131, 144 Scott, D. A., 22, 32
Sameroff, A., 149, 175, 297, 302, 303, 304, Scrimshaw, S., 47, 63
316 Sears, R. R., 131, 143, 149, 175
Sampson, R. J., 47, 66, 306, 309, 317 Sedlak, A. J., 300, 318
Sanbonmatsu, L., 306, 307, 308, 317 Seeley, J. R., 46, 50, 63, 65
Sandberg, J. F., 107, 108, 109, 114, 121, Segal, M., 17, 31
143, 144 Segal, N. L., 382, 398
Sandefur, G., 129, 141 Seginer, R., 12, 33
Sanders, J. L., 186, 187, 200 Seifer, R., 222, 232
Sanders, M. R., 224, 229 Seitamaa, M., 50, 69
Sanders, S. G., 75, 76, 77, 78, 99 Seitz, V., 80, 82, 101, 311, 317
Sanson, A., 161, 166, 175 Seligman, M. E., 225, 232
Sanson, A. V., 161, 163, 167, 168, 170, 175 Seligman, M. E. P., 50, 51, 62, 65, 69
Sarason, B. R., 46, 47, 69 Seltzer, D. A., 360, 372
Sarason, I. G., 46, 47, 69 Seltzer, J., 107, 138
Sasvari-Szekely, M., 57, 66 Seltzer, M. M., 182, 187, 198, 201
Saunders, B. E., 53, 66 Sepulveda, S., 59, 64
Saunders, E., 40, 67 Sessa, F. M., 162, 174
Saunders, W. B., 75, 99 Shadish, W. R., 349, 372
Sawin, D. B., 168, 173 Shapiro, B., 107, 143
Scales, P., 308, 309, 310, 317 Shapiro, S., 351, 363, 369
Scales, P. C., 308, 317 Sharma, A., 157, 174
Scaramella, L. V., 164, 173 Sharps, P., 89, 100
Scarr, S., xiv, xv, 151, 157, 175, 350, 372, Shaw, B. F., 186, 197
379, 380, 381, 401 Shaw, D. S., 51, 56, 58, 62, 70
Schaie, K. W., 280, 295 Sheeber, L. B., 50, 63, 164, 170, 175
Scheerenberger, R. C., 178, 201 Shek, D. L. T., 125, 143
Scheinfeld, D., 304, 317 Shek, D. T., 212, 233
Scheldt, S., 225, 230 Sheldon, K. M., 225, 233
Schellenbach, C., 90, 101 Sheldon, S. B., 267, 272
Schellenbach, C. J., 88, 89, 100 Shennum, W., 43, 62
Scherman, A., 84, 100 Sherkat, D. E., 8, 30
Schiff, M., 384, 385, 401 Sherman, D., 298, 316
Schmitt, J., 114, 141 Shoham, R., 106, 143
Schneewind, K., 44, 65 Shoji, J., 124, 143
Schneider, B. H., 56, 69, 242, 265, 272 Shonkoff, J. P., 47, 65
Schochet, P. Z., 348, 350, 354, 361, 365, Shroder, M., 306, 307, 308, 318
371 Shwalb, D. W., 124, 143
Schoefs, V., 56, 70 Shweder, R. A., 325, 341
Schoelmerich, A., 5, 11, 30, 32, 324, 326, Sia, C., 364, 369, 370
332, 333, 336, 339, 340, 341 Sickmund, M., 300, 302, 306, 318
Schooler, C., 10, 31, 32, 279, 295 Sidora, K., 393, 400
Schoppe, S. J., 161, 163, 174, 220, 222, 232 Siegal, J. M., 207, 231
Schuengel, C., 51, 56, 70 Sigel, I. E., 3, 4, 14, 15, 16, 17, 22, 32, 33,
Schulman, P., 51, 69 346, 372
Schulz, P. A., 5, 30 Sigman, M., 186, 189, 199, 200
Schulze, P. A., 11, 32, 332, 333, 339, 341 Sigvardsson, S., 50, 63
Schumm, W. R., 209, 232 Silberg, J., 50, 69
Schwartz, S., 224, 229 Silberg, J. L., 51, 64
Schwarz, N., 25, 32 Silk, J. S., 162, 174
430 AUTHOR INDEX
Silva, P., 75, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 99 Spieker, S., 348, 369
Silva, P. A., 46, 52, 61 Spieker, S. J., 95, 101, 348, 356, 363, 369
Silverberg, S., 40, 65, 333, 338 Spiker, D., 351, 352, 357, 359, 363, 369,
Silverman, R., 59, 67 370, 373
Silverstein, L. B., 117, 143 Spitz, R. A., 49, 69, 379, 401
Simeonsson, R., 182, 197 Spotts, E. L., 157, 176
Simmens, D., 47, 66 Sprecher, S., 168, 173
Simonof, E., 51, 64 Spritz, B., 56, 61
Simons, R., 40, 54, 63, 69 Srivastava, S., 38, 66
Simons, R. L., 114, 137, 237, 272, 304, 306, Sroufe, L. A., 54, 58, 65, 70, 305, 318
315 Stagg, V., 258, 272
Simpson, K. S., 207, 229 Stallings, J., 111, 138
Sims, K., 348, 360, 371 Stang, P. E., 75, 99
Sinclair, R., 220, 231 Staples, R., 122, 143
Skeels, H., 385, 401 Stark, M., 180, 181, 182, 201
Skeels, H. M., 49, 69 Stattin, H., 51, 52, 69, 289, 295, 296, 305,
Skinner, M. L., 54, 69 316
Skodak, M., 49, 69, 385, 401 Steele, C. M., 26, 28, 33
Slater, E., 89, 100 Steinberg, J., 106, 140
Slaughter, D. T., 349, 354, 372 Steinberg, L., 6, 33, 118, 140, 162, 174,
Slavens, G., 303, 316 281, 296, 297, 298, 304, 305, 315,
Slavin, R. E., 345, 372 316, 318, 379, 387, 388, 399
Slep, A., 44, 69, 213, 232 Steiner, M., 111, 138
Slep, A. M. S., 20, 22, 33 Stemmler, M., 46, 68
Slep, A. S., 214, 233 Stern, M., 154, 156, 167, 175
Small, S., 75, 101 Sternberg, R. J., 6, 9, 32, 382, 400
Small, S. A., 75, 100 Stevenson, H. W., 9, 12, 33
Smart, D., 161, 175 Stevenson, J., 52, 65, 157, 173
Smetana, J. G., 167, 175, 330, 340 Stevenson-Hinde, J., 256, 272
Smith, J., 323, 324, 338 Stevens-Simon, C., 94, 101
Smith, K. E., 247, 273 Stewart, J., 106, 141, 384, 385, 401
Smith, P. K., 105, 143 Stewart, M. A., 50, 62
Smith, R., 85, 101, 163, 176 Stewart, S., 163, 175
Snarey, J., 126, 127, 128, 143 Stewart, S. L., 5, 7, 29, 159, 162, 165, 172,
Snow, M. E., 166, 174 175
Snyder, H. N., 300, 302, 306, 318 Stifter, C., 162, 171
Snyder, J. R., 217, 233 Stigler, J. W., 12, 33
Snyder, P., 351, 373 Stinnett, N., 297, 318
Snyder, S., 351, 373 Stocker, C. M., 162, 175, 206, 233
Solnit, A., 180, 181, 182, 201 Stollak, G., 53, 67
Sommer, K., 90, 101 Stone, G., 206, 207, 213, 228
Sorenson, J. L., 50, 67 Stoolmiller, M., 383, 401
Sorri, A., 50, 69 Storey, A. E., 111, 143
Sotsky, S. M., 47, 66 Stouthamer-Loeber, M., 305, 317
Spagnola, M., 59, 70 Stovall, K. C., 59, 64
Spangler, G., 58, 71 Strauss, C., 325, 341
Spanier, G. B., 209, 233 Stright, A. D., 221, 222, 233
Sparling, J., 359, 372 Suess, G., 58, 70
Sparling, J. J., 358, 359, 361, 372 Sullivan, H. S., 60, 69
Speechley, M., 187, 201 Sullivan, K. T., 214, 231
Spence, J. T., 9, 33 Sumner, G., 348, 369
Spencer, S. J., 26, 33 Sun, L. C., 106, 124, 143
AUTHOR INDEX 431
Sun, Y., 114, 137 Towers, H., 157, 176

Suomi, S. J., 57, 69, 106, 142, 390, 401 Towles-Schwen, T., 26, 30
Super, C., 5, 30 Tracy, E. M., 267, 272
Suwalsky, J., 39, 71 Traub, J., 345, 373
Suwalsky, J. T. D., 322, 338 Trautlein, B., 309, 317
Suzuki, L. K., 327, 339 Travers, J., 358, 373
Swank, P. R., 247, 273 Treboux, D., 58, 70
Swanson, G. E., 278, 296 Triandis, H. C., 9, 33, 341
Swearingen, L., 56, 70 Trivette, C. M., 367, 370
Troughton, E., 50, 62
Troutman, B., 156, 172
T Truett, K. R., 51, 64
Tseng, V., 124, 136, 334, 339
Talbot, J., 219, 232 Tsunematsu, N., 187, 201
Tamis-LeMonda, C. S., 5, 8, 9, 28, 103, 143 Tsunetsugu, K., 124, 143
Tamplin, A., 256, 272 Tucker, C. J., 160, 172
Tuer, M., 212, 229
Taraldson, B. J., 161, 176
Tully, L., 395, 399
Tardif, C., 56, 69
Tupes, E. C., 38, 70
Tardif, T., 11, 31, 321, 327, 329, 339
Turkheimer, E., 383, 384, 394, 401
Tarter, R., 37, 64
Turley, R. N. L., 83, 84, 101
Tatelbaum, R., 363, 371
Turner, P. K., 165, 172
Tatelbaum, R. C., 362, 363, 371
Turpin, R., 178, 200
Tayko, N. P., 11, 33
Twentyman, C. T., 214, 231
Taylor, A., 53, 66, 394, 395, 398, 399
Tyler, R., 37, 61
Taylor, S. E., 4, 26, 30
Tein, J., 117, 139
Tellegen, A., 39, 69, 382, 398
Terman, L., 45, 69 U
Terry, C., 75, 100
Terry, E., 73, 101 Unger, D., 94, 101
Terry-Humen, E., 75, 100 Updegraff, K., 289, 290, 291, 294
Teti, D. M., 58, 69, 156, 161, 173, 176 Upshur, C. C., 47, 65
Texidor, M. S., 118, 139 Urbina, S., 382, 400
Thomas, A., 149, 150, 158, 160, 172, 176, Uttal, D. H., 12, 29
256, 271, 272
Thomas, A. M., 213, 229
Thompson, B., 351, 373 V
Thompson, E., 131, 141
Thompson, E. E., 4, 24, 31 Valdez, E., 122, 137
Thompson, L. A., 51, 65 Valdez-Manchaca, M. C., 393, 397, 401
Thompson, R. A., 47, 56, 58, 59, 66, 69 Valentine, J. C., 349, 373
Thornberry, T. P., 304, 318 Valle, C., 121, 139
Tienari, P., 50, 69 van Bakel, H. J. A., 37, 70, 163, 176
Tizard, B., 379, 388, 400, 401 Vandell, D. L., 387, 390, 391, 401
Tolan, P. H., 117, 118, 138 Vandenbelt, M., 80, 81, 87, 93, 94, 97, 99,
Tolson, T. F. J., 241, 272 101
Tomkiewicz, S., 384, 385, 401 van den Boom, D. C., 162, 176, 392, 401
Toth, I., 57, 66 Van den Oord, E. J., 51, 52, 70
Toth, J. F., 119, 121, 122, 143 Vandewater, E. A., 212, 233
Toth, S. L., 53, 59, 63, 70 van IJzendoorn, M. H., 51, 56, 57, 59, 70,
Touris, M., 58, 70 350, 358, 369
432 AUTHOR INDEX
Vargas, M., 17, 33 Wedemeyer, N., 253, 272

Vaughn, B., 58, 70 Weed, K., 79, 80, 81, 82, 84, 86, 89, 91, 101
Vaughn , B. E., 161, 176 Weinberger, J., 131, 132, 138, 139
Veerman, J. W., 52, 68 Weinfeld, N. S., 58, 70
Ventura-Cook, E., 332, 339 Weiss, C. H., 346, 373
Verhuist, F. C., 51, 52, 70 Wellman, B., 239, 240, 242, 272
Verschueren, K., 56, 70 Welsh, D. P., 165, 173
Vikan, A., 151, 171 Werner, E., 85, 101, 163, 176
Villareal, M. H., 9, 33 Weston, D., 360, 371
Vogel, D. A., 156, 167, 173 Wetherington, E., 285, 286, 294
Voight, J. D., 94, 101, 239, 259, 272 Whipple, E. E., 37, 70
Volling, B., 113, 136, 210, 215, 216, 227 Whitbeck, L., 40, 54, 63
Volling, B. L., 52, 67, 160, 163, 176 White, B. L., 107, 143
von der Lippe, A. L., 11, 33 White, L., 114, 144
Vondra, J., 36, 37, 62, 70 Whitehurst, G. J., 349, 369, 393, 397, 401
Vondra, J. I., 56, 58, 70 Whiteside, L., 324, 338
Voti, L., 75, 99 Whitman, T., 79, 80, 81, 82, 84, 86, 89, 91,
Voydanoff, P., 40, 70 101
Vuchinich, S., 217, 233 Whitman, T. L., 88, 89, 90, 100, 101
Vygotsky, L. S., 150, 176 Whittaker, A. P., 267, 272
Widmayer, S., 323, 339
Wierson, M., 213, 229
Wijnroks, L., 58, 68
W Wild, M. N., 132, 142
Williams, A. R., 11, 33
Wachs, T., 130, 143 Williams, E., 123, 144
Wachs, T. D., 151, 161, 166, 174, 176 Williams, P. D., 11, 33
Wagner, M., 352, 357, 373 Williams, S., 75, 100
Wagner, M. M., 352, 358, 363, 373 Willis, S. L., 280, 295
Wahlberg, K. E., 50, 69 Wilson, B. J., 207, 233
Wakschlag, L. S., 91, 101 Wilson, M. N., 9, 30, 241, 272
Walczynski, P. T., 210, 228 Wilson, S. P., 332, 339
Waldron, M., 383, 384, 401 Wilson, W. J., 298, 299, 300, 318
Walker, S. K., 268, 272 Windham, A., 364, 369, 370
Wallace, K. M., 209, 231 Winn, D. M., 75, 100
Wallace, L. E., 114, 137 Winokur, G., 50, 62
Wallen, K., 106, 140 Wise, S., 92, 101
Waller, W. W., 275, 296 Wishart, J. G., 185, 188, 189, 200, 201
Walsh, C. J., 111, 143 Witkins, J., 47, 66
Walters, E. E., 75, 99 Wodarski, J. S., 47, 65
Wandersman, L. P., 94, 101 Wolf, L. C., 187, 188, 200, 201
Ward, C., 209, 229 Wolfe, B., 85, 99
Ward, H. J., 125, 136 Wong, P. Y., 110, 138
Ward, M. J., 95, 101 Wood, J., 115, 142, 285, 286, 296
Wargo, J. B., 52, 62 Woodworth, G., 50, 62
Wartner, U. G., 58, 70 Woodworth, S., 41, 42, 44, 61, 163, 176
Wasik, B. H., 358, 359, 361, 372 Worobey, J., 360, 373
Waters, E., 58, 70 Wothke, W., 164, 173
Watson, D., 39, 69, 70 Wu, C., 237, 272
Way, N., 78, 80, 85, 93, 99 Wyngaarden Krauss, M., 47, 65
Webster-Stratton, C., 212, 213, 233, 349, Wynne, L. C., 50, 69
350, 351, 362, 364, 369, 372, 373 Wynne-Edwards, K. E., 111, 143
AUTHOR INDEX 433
X, Y Zambarano, R., 43, 64

Zambarano, R. J., 4, 24, 31
Xu, X., 119, 121, 122, 136, 143 Zani, B., 18, 29
Yamashiro, G., 86, 97 Zanolli, K., 17, 22, 29
Yang, R., 40, 64 Zartler, A. S., 185, 200
Yardley, J. K., 116, 138
Zaslow, M., 39, 71
Yates, W. R., 50, 62
Zeanah, C. H., 53, 59, 67
Yeung, W. J., 107, 109, 114, 121, 144
Zelkowitz, P., 40, 67, 71
Ying, Y., 50, 67
Zelli, A., 117, 118, 138
Yirmiya, N., 189, 199
Yoerger, K., 51, 68 Ziegenhain, U., 58, 68
Yoos, H. L., 346, 355, 357, 370, 371 Zigler, E., 53, 66, 311, 317
Youngblade, L., 206, 210, 215, 216, 227, 233 Zimet, D. M., 214, 233
Youngblade, L. M., 51, 71 Zimmerman, M. A., 131, 144
Youngblood, L., 113, 136 Zimmerman, P., 58, 71
Zmich, D. E., 220, 230
Zoccolillo, M., 75, 89, 98, 101
Z
Zucker, R. A., 37, 70, 71
Zahn-Walker, C., 206, 207, 229 Zuravin, S. J., 47, 64, 89, 91, 93, 95, 101
Subject Index
A parent–child, 213–214
Agreeableness, and personality, 42
Academic difficulties, of children born to Alan Guttmacher Institute, 73
adolescent mothers, 81–82 Alliance of Genetic Support Groups, 184t
Adolescent mothers American Association on Mental Retarda-
children of tion, 178
characteristics of, 91–92 The Arc of the United States, 184t
ecological perspective on, 73–101 Asians, and fathering, 123–125
outcomes for, 80–88 Attachment
resilient, 86–88 interventions for, 58–59
ecological perspective on, 73–101 stability of, 58
outcomes for, 76–80 Attitudes
as recurring pattern, 85 parental, 7–8
resilient, 85–86 and childrearing behaviors, 17–18
Advice, personal social networks and, paternal, maternal and, 112–113
261–264
Attributions
Affect, in parent–child interactions,
and close relationships, 43–44
212–213
and depression, 50
Affect-specific processes, 44
African American families, complexity of marital, and parenting, 214–215
social cognitions in, 23 parental, 9
African Americans and childrearing behaviors, 20–21
and early childbearing, 74 Authoritarian parenting, 327–328
and fathering, 117–120 Authoritative parenting, 327–328
Age, of child, and parenting, 166–167 Availability
Aggression definition of, 106–107
origins of, 51–53 emotional, 133
435
436 SUBJECT INDEX
B ecological perspective on, 73–101

outcomes for, 80–88
Beethoven Project, 311 resilient, 86–88
Behavioral phenotypes, 185 characteristics of, xi–xii, 145–201
Behavior problems historical and theoretical views of,
of children born to adolescent mothers, 149–151
82 and parenting, 147–176
support assets and, 308–310, 309t with developmental disabilities,
Beliefs, parental, 5–6 parenting, 177–201
and childrearing behaviors, 14–17 development of
Between-group comparisons father involvement and, 129–133
in developmental disability studies, marital relationship and, 206–219
181–182 parental behavior and, 375–401
in intervention research, 348–350 influences on parents, 154–156
Big Five model of personality, xii, 36–43 evidence for, 160–168
maternal personal social networks and,
Biological generativity, 128
264–266
Child victimization, community influences
on, 300–301
C Chinese parents
attitudes of, 7
Census Bureau, U.S., 116, 118 beliefs of, 6
Center for Successful Child Development, Class
311 and parental expectations, 10–11
Centers for Disease Control, 73 and personal social networks, 242–249
Change, theory of, 346 Clinical strategies, of parenting programs,
Chiao shun, 6 353
Child abuse, of children born to adoles- Close relationships
cent mothers, 84 attributions and, 43–44
Child adjustment, coparenting and, quality of, 45–49
220–223 and parenting, 48–49
Childbearing, early, factors associated with, personality and, 45–48
74–76 CMT. see Child management
Child fearfulness, and parental discipline, Communities
163 and child victimization and infant mor-
Child maltreatment, developmental history tality, 300–301
and, 53–54 high-risk, 300–301
Child management (CMT), 224 challenges of, 301–308
Child outcomes and parenting, 297–318
adolescent mothers and, 80–88 policy on, 312–313
fathering and, processes linking, 132–133 and support, 308–313
genetic factors and, 381–386 Confucian ethics, and parental expecta-
maternal personal social networks and, tions, 12
264–266 Conscientiousness, and personality, 42–43
parental influences on, 387–394 Content, of parenting programs, 353
research directions for, 294–298 Contextual factors
parental socialization and, 375–401 and parent–child relationship, xii,
peer influences on, 386–387 158–160
Childrearing. see Parenting and parenting, 203–373
Children Continuity, conditions of, 58–60
of adolescent mothers Coparenting
characteristics of, 91–92 intervention research on, 223
SUBJECT INDEX 437
as mediator, 221–222 Domestic violence, and adolescent mothers

research directions for, 219–223 and their children, 93
Corporal punishment Down syndrome, 178, 179t
in schools, 311 associated characteristics of, 188–189
social cognitions on, complexity of, and parenting, 185–189
24–25 Web sites on, 184t
Cri du chat syndrome, 179t Down syndrome advantage, 186–189
Web site on, 184t Down syndrome personality, 188–189
Cultural communities, definition of, Dual-earner families, parenting in, 275–296
324–327 Dyadic relationships, influence of, 390–391
Culture
and fathering, research on, deficiencies
in, 116–117 E
and personal social networks, 244–249
and views of developmental disabilities, Early childbearing, factors associated with,
183–184 74–76
Educational attainment, early childbearing
and, 76–77
D Education for All Handicapped Children
Act, 177
Depression Emotional responses, to stressful environ-
early childbearing and, 79 ments, 302–304
origins of, 49–51 Emotional support, personal social net-
Description studies, in intervention re- works and, 259–261
search, 352 Emotional transmission, work–family,
Developmental assessments, of children 285–287
born to adolescent mothers, 80–81 Emotion-based coping, 182
Developmental assets, communities and, Employment
308–310, 309t and father involvement, 114–116
Developmental disabilities of fathers, effects of, 290–292
children with, parenting, 177–201 of mothers, effects of, 288–290
societal changes regarding, 177–178, and parenting, 275–296
183–184 Engagement, 365
type of, attention to, 181 term, 357
Web sites of parent–professional groups Environment
on, 184t levels of, relation of, 195–196
Developmental history mediating influences of, 304–308
and adolescent parenting, 94–96 neighborhoods and communities, and
and adult psychological functioning, parenting, 297–318
49–53 stressful, parental responses to, 302–304
and parenting, 53–55 Ethnicity
role of, 49–55 definition of, 324–327
Developmental stage and parenting, 319–341
and father involvement, 109–110 independence/interdependence ap-
personal social networks and, 253–254 proach and, 334–336
Difficult temperament, and parenting, Etiology general approach, 192–194
161–164 Expectations
Disabilities. see Developmental disabilities of mothers, and fathering, 133–134
Discipline, and parent–child interactions, parental, 9–13
212–213 and childrearing behaviors, 21–22
Discontinuity, conditions of, 58–60 Extraversion, and personality, 41–42
438 SUBJECT INDEX
F and mental retardation, 178, 179t

and parent–child influence, 156–158
Familism, 121 research directions for, 394–395
Family, work influence on, 287–292 Goals
Family background, and early childbearing, parental, 9–13
75 of parenting programs, 353
Family interactions, triadic, 217–219 Grand Canyon models, 346
Fathering Group Socialization Theory, 386–387
applied and policy perspectives on,
133–135
and child outcomes, processes linking,
132–133 H
developmental history and, 54
marital relationships and, 215–217
Health and Human Services, U.S. Depart-
variations in
ment of, 300
consequences of, 125–128
impact of, 130–132 Hispanic Americans
Father involvement, 106–109 and early childbearing, 74
determinants of, 110–133 and fathering, 120–122
biological, 110–112 Hospitalism, 49
cultural, 116–125 Housing and Urban Development (HUD),
ecological, 114–116 U.S. Department of, 306
social, 112–116
Father play style, universality of, 105–106
Fathers
assumptions on, 103–110
I
attitudes of, maternal attitudes and,
112–113 Individualism, and parenting, 329
and children with developmental disabili- Indulgent parenting, 327–328
ties, 182–183 Infant mortality
ecological perspectives on, 103–144 changes in, 313
employment and work hours of, 290–292
community influences on, 300–301
roles of, versus mothers, 104–105
Informational support, personal social net-
Federal Bureau of Investigation, 302
works and, 261–264
Fragile X syndrome, 178, 179t
Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. De-
Web site on, 184t
partment of Education, 345
Institute of Medicine, 349, 361–362, 365
Institutionalized children, outcomes with,
G 387–389
Instrumental support, personal social net-
Gautreaux Program, 307
works and, 259–261
Gender
Interaction, definition of, 106–107
of child, and parenting, 166–168
and coparenting, 221 Intervention research, 343–373. see also Par-
and effects of marital relationships on enting programs
parenting, 215–217 on effects of parenting, 391–393
Generativity, fathering and, 127–128 on marital relationships and parenting,
Genetic disorders, as behavioral proxies, 223–226
191–192 methodology of, 348–352
Genetic factors needs in, 364–369
and child outcomes, 381–386 parameters of, 344–347, 347f
SUBJECT INDEX 439
J Mothers
attitudes of, and father involvement,
Jobs. see Employment 112–113
Justice, U.S. Department of, 300 employment and work hours of, 288–290
marital relationships and, 215–217
personal social networks of, child-related
L outcomes of, 264–266
roles of, versus fathers, 104–105
Latina/os. see Hispanic Americans Moving to Opportunities (MTO) program,
Life events, personal social networks and, 306–308
254–256 Murder, of juveniles, community influences
Logic model, 346 on, 300–301
M
N
MAOA gene. see Monoamine oxidase A
gene National Clearinghouse on Child Abuse
Marital conflict and Neglect Information, 300
definition of, 209–210 National Organization of Rare Disorders
and marital satisfaction, 210 (NORD), 183, 184t
and parenting, 212–214 National Research Council, 53, 345, 349,
research on, 225 361–362, 365
and triadic interaction, 218
Native American parents, beliefs of, 6
Marital power, and triadic interaction,
Native Americans, and fathering, 122–123
218–219
Marital quality, issues in, 208–210 Negative affectivity. see Neuroticism
Marital relationships Neglected children, 389
and child development Neglectful parenting, 327
direct effects, 206–207 Neighborhoods
indirect effects, 208–219 characteristics of, and adolescent moth-
coparenting and, 220–223 ers and their children, 93
and father–child relationships, 113 and parenting, 297–318
fathering and, 126–127 Neuroticism, and personality, 38–41
intervention research on, 223–225 NICHD Early Child Care Research Net-
parenting and, 205–233 work, 39, 108, 114, 121
models of association between, No Child Left Behind Act, 345
210–211
Nonresident fathers, contact with children,
research directions for, 219–226
129–130
Marital satisfaction
NORD. see National Organization of Rare
definition of, 209
Disorders
and marital conflict, 210
and parenting, 211–212
Maternal mourning, 180
Men, development of, fathering and, O
125–128
Mental retardation, genetic forms of, 178,
179t One-parent families, and personal social
Minimum standard of care, maintenance networks, 249–251
of, 312 Openness to experience, and personality,
Monoamine oxidase A (MAOA) gene, 394 42
440 SUBJECT INDEX
P processes of, 356–361

Parents
Parental behavior characteristics of, xii, 1–144
and children’s development, 375–401 adolescent, 89–91
determinants of, xii influences on children, 153–154
social cognitions and, 3–33 questioning in research, 378–381
Parental generativity, 128 research directions for, 394–398
knowledge of, with children with devel-
Parent–child influence
opmental disabilities, 194–195
direction of, 191
social cognitions of
model of, 152–153
complexity of, 23–25
Parenthood transition, personal social net-
contextual influences on, 4–14
works and, 255
and parental behavior, 3–33
Parenting
research on, 23–27
by adolescent mothers, 88–96
socialization of, and child outcomes,
advice on, personal social networks and,
375–401
261–264
Parents as Teachers (PAT) program,
child characteristics and, 147–176
310–311
historical and theoretical views of,
Pathology-negative perspectives, on devel-
149–151
opmental disabilities, 180–181
mechanisms connecting, 152–160
Pedagogical strategies, of parenting pro-
children with developmental disabilities,
grams, 353
177–201
Peer influences, and child outcomes,
changing perspectives on, 180–184
386–387
contextual influences on, 203–373 Perceptions, parental, 8–9
coparenting and, 220–223 and childrearing behaviors, 18–19
developmental history and, 53–55 Personal identity, personal social networks
developmental origins of, 35–71 and, 253
in dual-earner families, 275–296 Personality
ecological perspective on, xi–xv Big Five model of, xii, 36–43
interventions for, effective, 343–373 and parenting, 35–71
and marital relationship, 205–233 processes linking, 43–45
models of association between, 210–211 personal social networks and, 256–258
neighborhood and community influences and relationship quality, 45–48
on, 297–318 Personal social networks
personality and, 35–71 building process, 251–258, 252f
processes linking, 43–45 definition of, 236–237
personal social networks and, 235–273 influences on parents, 258–264
model of, 239–242, 240f and larger social systems, 242–251, 243f
relationship quality and, 48–49 of mothers, child-related outcomes of,
socioeconomic status and ethnicity and, 264–266
319–341 and parenting, 235–273
independence/interdependence ap- model of, 239–242, 240f
proach and, 334–336 and program impacts, 266–269
styles of, 327–328 size of, 258–259
ethnicity and, 336 stability and change over time, 241–242
socioeconomic status and, 328–331 Phenotypes, behavioral, 185
Parenting programs Physical attractiveness, of child, and
features of, 352–356 parenting, 168
impacts of, personal social networks and, Policy changes
266–269 and community risk factors, 312–313
population characteristics and, 361–364 and fathering, 133–135
SUBJECT INDEX 441
Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), envi- goals for, socioeconomic status and,
ronmental stress and, 302–303 328–331
Poverty parental, and child outcomes, 375–401
and adolescent mothers and their chil- Social networks
dren, 92–93 personal, and parenting, 235–273
concentration of, parenting and, versus social support, 237–239
298–300 Social support, and adolescent mothers
Prader–Willi syndrome, 178, 179t and their children, 93–94
and parenting, 185, 189–191 Societal generativity, 128
Web site on, 184t Society, changing views of developmental
Prolactin, and paternal behavior, 111–112 disabilities, 177–178, 183–184
Proximal processes, 375–376 Socioeconomic status (SES). see also Class
Psychological differentiation, 37 versus genetic influences on child out-
Psychological functioning, development in comes, 383–384
childhood, 55–57 measurement of, issues in, 320–324
5p- syndrome, 179t and parental expectations, 10–11
Web site on, 184t and parenting, 319–341
PTSD. see Posttraumatic stress disorder versus ethnicity, 335–337
Puerto Rican families independence/interdependence ap-
goals and expectations in, 10 proach and, 334–336
personal social networks of, 247 and parenting styles, 328–331
Special Olympics International, 184t
Spillover effect, 210–211
R processes in, 211
Staffing arrangements, of parenting pro-
Race, and personal social networks, grams, 353
244–249 Stereotype-threat, 26
Relationship factors, and parenting, 35–71 Stress
Research. see Intervention research on adolescent parents, contextual
Resilience, of adolescent mothers and their sources of, 92–96
children, 85–88 Down syndrome parenting and, 186
Responsibility, definition of, 106–107 environmental, parental responses to,
Restrictive parenting style, high-risk com- 302–304
munities and, 303–304 healthy adaptation to, factors in, 310
work-related, and parenting, 285–287
Stress-buffering hypothesis, 260–261
S Stress-coping perspectives, on developmen-
tal disabilities, 180–181
Scientifically-based research, 345–346 Structural features, of parenting programs,
SES. see Socioeconomic status 352–353
Skill development, workplace and, 281–282 Support
Smith–Magenis syndrome, 179t for adolescent parents, contextual
Web site on, 184t sources of, 92–96
Social cognitions communities and, 308–313
complexity of, 23–25 versus social networks, 237–239
contextual influences on, 4–14 social networks, and parenting, 235–273
and parental behavior, 3–33
research on, 23–27
methodological developments in, T
25–27
Socialization Teen mothers. see Adolescent mothers
442 SUBJECT INDEX
Temperament W
of child, influence on parenting,
161–164 Williams syndrome, 178, 179t
moderators of, 164–166 and parenting, 185, 189–191
definition of, 160–161 Web site on, 184t
Testosterone, and paternal behavior, Within-group comparisons
111–112 in developmental disability studies,
Triadic family interactions, 217–219 181–182
in intervention research, 350–351
Workplace
and acquisition of parenting values,
U 278–280
characteristics of, and childrearing,
University Centers of Excellence, 184 277–287
and family, 287–292
opportunities and constraints for
parenting, 280–284
V policies of, and parenting, 283–284
relationships in, and parenting, 282–283
Values, parenting, work and, 278–280 stress of, and parenting, 285–287

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PARENTING

Borkowski, Ramey, and Bristol-Powers • Parenting and the Child’s World:

Bornstein and Bradley • Socioeconomic Status, Parenting, and Child

Kalil and DeLeire • Family Investments in Children’s Potential: Re-

Cowan, Cowan, Ablow, Johnson, and Measelle • The Family Context of

Luster and Okagaki • Parenting: An Ecological Perspective, Second

Bornstein and Cote • Acculturation and Parent–Child Relationships:

Bornstein • The Parent: Essential Readings (In Preparation)

Goldberg • Father Time: The Timing of Fatherhood in Men’s Lives (In

LAWRENCE ERLBAUM ASSOCIATES, PUBLISHERS

Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc., Publishers

Cover design by Tomai Maridou

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Parenting : an ecological perspective / edited by Tom Luster and Lynn Okagaki.—

Books published by Lawrence Erlbaum Associates are printed on acid-free paper,

Printed in the United States of America

Series Foreword: Monographs in Parenting ix

I CHARACTERISTICS OF THE PARENTS

1 Parents’ Social Cognitions and Their Parenting Behaviors 3

2 Developmental Origins of Parenting: Personality

3 Adolescent Mothers and Their Children:

4 Fathers: Cultural and Ecological Perspectives 103

II CHARACTERISTICS OF THE CHILD

5 The Effects of Child Characteristics on Parenting 147

6 Parenting Children with Developmental Disabilities 177

III CONTEXTUAL INFLUENCES ON PARENTING

7 Parenting and the Marital Relationship 205

8 Parenting and Personal Social Networks 235

9 The Long Arm of the Job Revisited: Parenting

10 Neighborhood and Community Influences on Parenting 297

11 Socioeconomic Status, Ethnicity, and Parenting 319

12 Searches for What Works in Parenting Interventions 343

IV PARENTAL BEHAVIOR AND CHILDREN’S DEVELOPMENT

13 Research on Parental Socialization of Child Outcomes:

About the Authors 403

Author Index 411

Subject Index 435

Biological and adoptive mothers, fathers, single-parents, divorced and re-

WHOM DO PARENTS PARENT?

Parents parent infants, toddlers, children in middle-childhood, and ado-

THE SCOPE OF PARENTING

Parenting includes genetic endowment and direct effects of experience

FACTORS THAT AFFECT PARENTING

Evolution and history; biology and ethology; family configuration; formal

THE NATURE, STRUCTURE, AND MEANING

Parenting is pleasures, privileges, and profits as well as frustrations, fears,

Parenting: An Ecological Perspective was created to answer questions such as:

periences up to that point in time. Proximal processes are also influenced

Bronfenbrenner, U. (2000). Ecological systems theory. In A. E. Kazdin (Ed.), Encyclopedia of

Parents’ Social Cognitions

In this chapter we examine parents’ social cognitions—beliefs, attitudes,

CONTEXTUAL INFLUENCES ON PARENTS’ SOCIAL

Before we examine contextual influences on parents’ social cognitions, we

acteristics or actions of an individual (Bugental & Happaney, 2002). Re-

A fundamental parental belief has to do with what it means to be a parent.

Many studies of cultural variation in parents’ attitudes have compared par-

titudes toward corporal punishment in mainline Protestant, conservative

Less research has examined cultural differences in parents’ perceptions.