Configuration Aerodynamics

William H. Mason
Virginia Tech
Blacksburg, VA

The front cover of the brochure describing the French Exhibit at the Montreal Expo, 1967.

January 2006
W.H. Mason CONTENTS i

CONTENTS
Configuration Aerodynamics
Preface

1. Introduction to Configuration Aerodynamics

1.1 Purpose 1-1

1.2 Examples of innovative concepts 1-1
1.3 Overview of the Material to be Covered 1-7
1.4 What’s left out 1-8
1.5 Exercises 1-8
1.6 References 1-9

2. Getting Ready for Configuration Aerodynamics:

Fluid Mechanics Foundations

2.1 Governing Equations of Fluid Mechanics 2-1

2.2 Derivation of the Governing Equations 2-3
2.2.1 Conservation of Mass: the Continuity Equation 2-5
2.2.2 Conservation of Momentum and the Substantial Derivative 2-8
2.2.3 Energy Equation 2-15
2.3 Boundary Conditions 2-19
2.4 Standard Forms and Terminology of Governing Equations 2-20
2.4.1 Nondimensionalization 2-20
2.4.2 Use of Divergence Form 2-21
2.4.3 Standard Form of the Navier-Stokes Equations: Notation 2-22
2.5 The Gas Dynamics Equation and the Full Potential Equation 2-25
2.5.1 The Gas Dynamics Equation 2-25
2.5.2 Derivation of the Classical Gas Dynamics Eqn-Related Energy Equation 2-27
2.5.3 Full Potential Equation 2-28
2.5.4 Equivalent Divergence Form and Energy Equation 2-28
2.5.5 Derivation of another form of the Related Energy Equation 2-29
2.6 Special Cases 2-31
2.6.1 Small Disturbance Form of the Energy Equation 2-31
2.6.2 Small Disturbance Expansion of the Full Potential Equation 2-32
2.6.3 Transonic Small Disturbance Equation 2-34
2.6.4 Prandtl-Glauert Equation 2-35
2.6.5 Incompressible Irrotational Flow: Laplace’s Equation 2-36
2.6.6 The Boundary Layer Equations 2-36
2.7 Examples of Zones of Application 2-38
2.8 Mathematical Classification or the “Type” of PDEs 2-38
2.8.1 Elaboration on Characteristics 2-41
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2.9 Requirements for a Complete Problem Formulation 2-43

2.10 Exercises 2-44
2.11 References 2-45

3. Drag: An Introduction

3.1 The Importance of Drag 3-1

3.2 Some Different Ways to View Drag - Nomenclature and Concepts 3-3
3.3 Farfield Drag Analysis 3-9
3.4 Induced Drag 3-17
3.5 Program LIDRAG 3-20
3.6 Multiple Lifting Surfaces and Munk's Stagger Theorem 3-20
3.7 Zero Lift Friction and Form Drag Estimation 3-21
3.8 Supersonic Wave Drag: the Farfield Wave Drag Integral and the Area Rule 3-25
3.9 The Leading Edge Suction Concept 3-36
3.10 Trim Drag 3-42
3.11 Current Issues for Drag Calculation using Computational Aerodynamics 3-47
3.12 Exercises 3-47
3.13 References 3-48

4. Aircraft Configuration Design Options

4.1 Overview 4-1
4.2 Configuration Architecture Options 4-4
4.2.1 Wing Sweep 4-4
4.2.2 Why sweep the wing forward 4-5
4.2.3 Why Canards? 4-6
4.2.4 Why a flying wing? 4-7
4.2.5 Three-surface configurations 4-9
4.2.6 Slender Wings 4-10
4.2.7 Variable Sweep 4-11
4.2.8 Winglets 4-12
4.3 Propulsion System Issues 4-13
4.4 Aircraft Control 4-14
4.5 Significant Recent Configuration Concepts 4-14
4.5.1 The Blended Wing Body 4-14
4.5.2 The Strut-Braced Wing 4-15
4.5.3 The Oblique Wing 4-16
4.6 Morphing Airplanes 4-17
4.7 Decision Issues 4-18
4.8 Design Approaches 4-18
4.9 The role of aerodynamics within the overall design process 4-19
4.10 A concluding comment 4-19
4.11 Exercises 4-19
4.12 References 4-20

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5. An Overview of Aerodynamic Design including

the use of Computational Aerodynamics
5.1 Introduction 5-1
5.2 Configuration sizing: Aerodynamic Considerations 5-2
5.3 Overview of the specific aerodynamic design tasks 5-3
5.4 Use of computational aerodynamics in aerodynamic design 5-4
5.4.1 Best practices in solving aerodynamics problems with computers
5.5 A Review of detailed aerodynamic design approaches 5-5
5.5.1 Analysis vs design
5.5.2 Review of the detailed design process, including inverse and optimization
5.5.3 Brief overview of 2D design
5.5.4 Review of 3D transonic design methods
5.5.5 Applications of 3D design methods
5.6 Summary of the status of aerodynamic design 5-19
5.7 Exercises 5-19
5.8 References 5-20

6. Subsonic aerodynamics of airfoils and wings

6.1 Introduction 6-1
6.2 Airfoils 6-2
6.2.1 Program PANEL and other prediction methods: Accuracy/Validation 6-2
6.2.2 Subsonic Airfoil Aerodynamics 6-10
6.2.3Airfoil Selection 6-22
6.3 Wings 6-23
6.3.1 Use and Accuracy of the VLM method 6-23
6.3.2 Tornado 6-30
6.3.3 Aerodynamics of High Aspect Ratio Wings 6-30
6.3.4 The relation between airfoils and swept wings 6-40
6.3.5 Wing/Tail and Canard/Wing Aerodynamics 6-42
6.3.6 Ground Effects using a VLM code 6-44
6.3.7 Low Aspect Ratio “Slender Wings” 6-47
6.4 Exercises 6-50
6.5 References 6-53

7. Transonic aerodynamics of airfoils and wings

7.1 Introduction 7-1
7.2 Physical aspects of flow development with Mach number 7-2
7.3 Technology Issues/developments 7-3
7.3.1 The slotted wall wind tunnel 7-3
7.3.2 Computational challenges/methods 7-4
7.4 Airfoils 7-9
7.4.1 NASA Supercritical Airfoils 7-9
7.5 Wings 7-15
7.6 Exercises 7-21
7.7 References 7-21

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8. Aerodynamics of high lift devices/powered lift

8.1 Introduction: Why High Lift? 8-1
8.2 Types of Trailing Edge Devices 8-3
8.3 Types of Leading edge devices 8-5
8.4 Aerodynamics of Leading and Trailing Edge Devices 8-7
8.5 Computational methods for high lift
8.6 Passive and active boundary layer control 8-15
8.7 A.M.O. Smith’s analysis of the lift: the five considerations 8-15
8.8 Powered lift 8-15
8-9 Configuration Integration issues 8-15
8-10 Exercises 8-15
8-11 References

9. High angle of attack aerodynamics

9.1 Introduction 9-1
9.2 Basic Aerodynamics of Hi-a 9-2
9.2.1 Longitudinal 9-2
9.2.2 Lateral/Directional 9-3
9.3 Flight Mechanics of Hi-a 9-5
9.3.1 Cn beta dynamic 9-6
9.3.2 LCDP: the lateral control departure parameter, 9-7
9.3.3 The spin 9-8
9.4 Control Effectiveness with angle of attack 9-10
9.5 An Example: Putting it all together, the F-22 9-11
9.6 Some configuration issues: Amazing Stories 9-14
9.7 Exercises 9-16
9.8 References 9-16
An F-18 spin movie is available from the NASA Dryden web site.

10. Supersonic aerodynamics

10.1 Introduction 10-1
10.2 Volumetric Wave Drag 10-4
10.2.1 A curious story: 10-6
10.3 The Oblique Wing Concept 10-7
10.4 Wings: lift, drag and aerodynamic center 10-9
10.4.1 Arrow wings 10-13
10.4.2 Modified arrow wings 10-16
10.4.3 The ac shift 10-16
10.4.4 Modifications to linear theory: Attainable Thrust 10-20
10.4.5 Nonlinear aerodynamics of supersonic wings 10-20
10.5 Exercises 10-21
10.6 References 10-21

11. Hypersonic aerodynamics

11.1 Introduction 11-1
11.2 Importance of Temperature/Aerodynamic Heating 11-1

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11.3 Surface pressure estimation 11-3

11.4 Round LE shapes to reduce heat transfer 11-5
11.5. Aerodynamic control 11-5
11.6. Engine-airframe Integration 11-8
11.7 Airbreathing Hypersonic Vehicle Design 11-10
11.8 Exercises 11-10
11.9 References 11-10
We also had a terrific seminar by Walt Engelund on HyperX (X-43)

Appendices

A. Geometry for Aerodynamicists

A.1 Airfoil Geometry A-1
A.2 Classic Bodies of Revolution A-18
A.3 Planform Analysis A-24
A.4 Conical Camber A-29
A.5 Three-Dimensional Wing Geometry A-29
B. Fifteen Minutes of Stealth in Aircraft Design B-1
C. FAR & Mil requirements C-1
D. Examples of aerodynamic design using tools from our software suite. D-1
E. Software for Aerodynamics and Aircraft Design, with manuals. E-1
F. Class Discussion Reading List F-1

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