CALCULUS I

RENE E. LEONIDA, Ph.D.

Department of Mathematics
College of Natural Sciences and Mathematics
Mindanao State University
General Santos City

August 2018
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

TITLE PAGE 1

1 LIMITS AND CONTINUITY OF FUNCTIONS 1

2 LIMITS AND CONTINUITY OF TRANCENDENTAL FUNCTIONS 2

3 DERIVATIVE OF A FUNCTION 3

4 APPLICATIONS OF THE DERIVATIVE 4

4.1 Critical Number and Critical Point of a Function . . . . . . . 4
4.2 Maximum and Minimum Values of a Function, The Mean Value
Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
4.3 The First Derivative Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
4.4 The Second Derivative Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
4.5 Applications Involving an Absolute Extremum on a Closed Interval 27
4.6 Additional Applications Involving Absolute Extremum . . . . 33
4.7 The Diferentials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
4.8 Related Rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
 CHAPTER 1

LIMITS AND CONTINUITY OF FUNCTIONS

 CHAPTER 2

LIMITS AND CONTINUITY OF TRANCENDENTAL

FUNCTIONS
 CHAPTER 3

DERIVATIVE OF A FUNCTION
 CHAPTER 4

APPLICATIONS OF THE DERIVATIVE

4.1 Critical Number and Critical Point of a Function

Definition 4.1.1 Let c be a number in the domain of the function f . If

either f 0 (c) = 0 or f 0 (c) does not exist, then c is called a critical number or
a critical value of f . A critical point is a point (c, f (c))) on f corresponding
to the critical number c.

Example 4.1.2 Find the critical numbers and critical points of the function
defined by f (x) = x3 + 7x2 − 5x.

Solution: f 0 (x) = 3x2 + 14x − 5.

Setting the first derivative to zero and solving for x, we obtain

1
3x2 + 14x − 5 = 0 ⇔ (3x − 1)(x + 5) = 0 ⇔ x = 3
or x = −5.
Then 13 , −5 ∈ D(f ). Therefore, the critical numbers of f are x = 1
3
and
x = −5.

If x = 13 , then f ( 13 ) = ( 13 )3 + 7( 13 )2 − 5( 13 ) = 25
27
.

If x = −5, then f (−5) = (−5)3 + 7(−5)2 − 5(−5) = 75.

Therefore, the critical points of f are ( 13 , 27

25
) and (−5, 75). 

Example 4.1.3 Find the critical numbers and critical points of the function
defined by f (x) = x4/3 + 4x1/3 .
 
0 4 1/3 4 −2/3 4 x + 1
Solution: f (x) = x + x = .
3 3 3 x2/3
If x 6= 0, then
 
4 x+1
= 0 ⇔ x + 1 = 0 ⇔ x = −1.
3 x2/3
 5

If x = 0, then

f 0 (0) does not exist.

We have −1, 0 ∈ D(f ). Therefore, the critical numbers of f are x = −1 and

x = 0.

If x = −1, then f (−1) = (−1)4/3 + 4(−1)1/3 = −3.

If x = 0, then f (0) = (0)4/3 + 4(0)1/3 = 0.

Therefore, the critical points of f are (−1, −3) and (0, 0). 

Example 4.1.4 Find the critical numbers and critical points of the function
x2 + 4
defined by f (x) = .
x−2

2x(x − 2) − (x2 + 4)1 x2 − 4x − 4

Solution: f 0 (x) = = .
(x − 2)2 (x − 2)2
If x 6= 2, then
x2 − 4x − 4 2
√ √
= 0 ⇔ x − 4x − 4 = 0 ⇔ x = 2 + 2 2 or x = 2 − 2 2.
(x − 2)2
If x = 2, then

f 0 (2) does not exist.

We have
√ √
2 + 2 2, 2 − 2 2 ∈ D(f ) and 2 ∈
/ D(f ).

Therefore, the critical numbers of f are

√ √
x = 2 + 2 2 and x = 2 − 2 2.
√
If x = 2 + 2 2, then
√ √
√ (2 + 2 2)2 + 4 16 + 4 2 √
f (2 + 2 2) = √ = √ = 2 + 4 2.
2+2 2−2 2 2
√
If x = 2 − 2 2, then
 6
√ √
√ (2 − 2 2)2 + 4 16 − 4 2 √
f (2 − 2 2) = √ = √ = 2 − 4 2.
2−2 2−2 −2 2
√ √ √ √
Therefore, the critical points of f are (2+2 2, 2+4 2) and (2−2 2, 2−4 2).


Example 4.1.5 Find the critical numbers and critical points of the function
defined by f (x) = sin 2x + cos 2x.

Solution: f 0 (x) = 2 cos 2x − 2 sin 2x.

If f 0 (x) = 0, then

2 cos 2x − 2 sin 2x = 0 ⇔ tan 2x = 1 ⇔ 2x = π4 + πk, where k ∈ Z ⇔

x = π8 + π2 k, where k ∈ Z.

We have
π
8
+ π2 k ∈ D(f ) for all k ∈ Z.

Therefore, the critical numbers of f are

π
x= 8
+ π2 k for all k ∈ Z.
π
If x = 8
+ π2 k for all k ∈ Z, then
π π  π π  π π 
f + k = sin 2 + k + cos 2 + k
8 2 π 8 2  π 8 2
= sin + πk + cos + πk
(√ 4 4
2, if k is even
= √
− 2, if k is odd.

Therefore, the critical points of f are

√  √
π  
5π
+ πk, 2 and + πk, − 2 for all k ∈ Z. 
8 8

Example ( 4.1.6 Find the critical numbers and the critical points of the function
2x − 1, if x ≤ 3
f (x) =
8 − x, if 3 < x
 7

Solution: If x < 3, then f (x) = 2x − 1. Thus, f 0 (x) = 2. Hence, f−0 (3) = 2.

If x > 3, then f (x) = 8 − x. Thus, f 0 (x) = −1. Hence, f+0 (3) = −1.

This implies that f 0 (3) does not exist. Therefore, the critical number of f is
x = 3.

If x = 3, then f (3) = 2(3) − 1 = 5. Therefore, the critical point of f is (3, 5).



Example ( 4.1.7 Find the critical numbers and the critical points of the function
x2 , if x < 1
f (x) =
2 − x, if 1 ≤ x

Solution: If x < 1, then f (x) = x2 . Thus, f 0 (x) = 2x. Set f 0 (x) = 0. Then
2x = 0. Thus, x = 0.

Also, f−0 (1) = 2(1) = 2.

If x > 1, then f (x) = 2 − x. Thus, f 0 (x) = −1. Hence, f+0 (1) = −1.

This implies that f 0 (3) does not exist.

Therefore, the critical numbers of f are x = 0 and x = 1.

If x = 0, then f (0) = (0)2 = 0 and if x = 1, then f (1) = 2 − 1 = 1.

Therefore, the critical points of f are (0, 0) and (1, 1). 

Exercises
I. Find the critical numbers and the critical points of the functiion.

1. f (x) = 2x3 − 2x2 − 16x + 1 2. f (x) = x6/5 − 12x1/5

x2 + 2x + 5 2x − 9
3. f (x) = 4. f (x) =
x−1 x2 − 9
5. f (x) = sin 2x cos 2x 6. f (x) = tan2 4x
 8

4.2 Maximum and Minimum Values of a Function, The Mean Value

Theorem

Definition 4.2.1 The function f is a function has a relative maximum

value at the number c if there exists an open interval containing c, on which
f is defined, such that f (c) ≥ f (x) for all x in this interval.

Definition 4.2.2 The function f is a function has a relative minimum

value at the number c if there exists an open interval containing c, on which
f is defined, such that f (c) ≤ f (x) for all x in this interval.

If a function has either a relative maximum or a relative minimum value

at c, then f has a relative extremum at c.

Theorem 4.2.3 If f (x) exists for all x in the open interval (a, b), anf if f has
a relative extremum at c, where a < c < b, and if f 0 (c) exists, then f 0 (c) = 0.

Example 4.2.4 Discuss the function f (x) = x2 + 4 for relative extrema.

Solution: Note that D(f ) = R. f 0 (x) = 2x. Set f 0 (x) = 0. Then 2x = 0.

Thus, x = 0.

The number x = 0 is a critrical number of f . Hence, the function f may have

a relative extremum at x = 0. We construct the following table.
Intervals Value of x f (x) Conclusion
x=0 f (0) = 4
(−∞, 0) x = −1 f (−1) = 5 f (0) < f (x)
(0, +∞) x=1 f (1) = 5 f (0) < f (x)

Therefore, f has a relative minimum value at x = 0. 

Example 4.2.5 Discuss the function f (x) = x3 − x2 − x for relative extrema.

Solution: Note that D(f ) = R. f 0 (x) = 3x2 − 2x − 1. Set f 0 (x) = 0. Then

 9

3x2 − 2x − 1 = 0 ⇔ (3x + 1)(x − 1) = 0 x = − 31 or x = 1.

The numbers x = − 31 and x = 1 are critical number sof f . Hence, the function
may have a relative extrema at x = − 31 and x = 1. Consider the intervals

(−∞, − 13 ), (− 13 , 1), and (1, +∞).

We construct the following table.

Intervals Value of x f (x) Conclusion
x = − 13 5
f (− 13 ) = 27
(−∞, − 13 ) x = −1 f (−1) = −1 f (− 31 ) > f (x)
(− 13 , 1) x=0 f (0) = 0 f (− 31 ) > f (x)
x=1 f (1) = −1
(− 13 , 1) x=0 f (0) = 0 f (1) < f (x)
(1, +∞) x=2 f (2) = 2 f (1) < f (x)

Therefore, f has a relative maximum value at x = − 13 and has a relative

minimum value at x = 1. 

Definition 4.2.6 The function f has an absolute maximum value on an

interval if there is some number c in the interval such that f (c) ≥ f (x) for
all x in the interval. The number f (c) is then the absolute maximum value of
f on the interval.

Definition 4.2.7 The function f has an absolute minimum value on an

interval if there is some number c in the interval such that f (c) ≤ f (x) for
all x in the interval. The number f (c) is then the absolute minimum value of
f on the interval.

An absolute extremum of a function on an interval is either an

absolute maximum value or an absolute minimum value of nthe function on
the interval.

Theorem 4.2.8 (The Extreme Value Theorem) If f is a function defined

on a closed interval [a, b], then there is at least one point in [a, b] where f has
a largest value and there is at least one point in [a, b] where f has a smallest
value.
 10

Procedure for Determining the Absolute Extrema on [a, b]

(1) Find the critical number numbers of f on (a, b).

(2) Find the function values at the critical numbers.
(3) Find the values f (a) and f (b).
(4) The largest of the values from (2) and (3) is the absolute maximum value
of f and the smallest of the values is the absolute minimum value of f .

Example 4.2.9 Given the continuous function f (x) = 3x2 + 6x + 1 on the

interval [−2, 0], find the absolute extrema of f .

Solution: f 0 (x) = 6x + 6.

If f 0 (x) = 0, then

6x + 6 = 0 ⇔ x = −1.

Thus, −1 ∈ [−2, 0]. The number x = −1 is acitical number of f on [−2, 0].

If x = −1, then f (−1) = 3(−1)2 + 6(−1) + 1 = −2.

If x = −2, then f (−2) = 3(−2)2 + 6(−2) + 1 = 1.

If x = 0, then f (0) = 1.

Therefore, the absolute maximum value of f on the interval [−2, 0] is 1 and

the absolute minimum value is −2. 

Example 4.2.10 Given the continuous function f (x) = 13 x3 − x + 2 on the

interval [−2, 2], find the absolute extrema of f .

Solution: f 0 (x) = x2 − 1.

If f 0 (x) = 0, then

x2 − 1 = 0 ⇔ (x + 1)(x − 1) = 0 ⇔ x = −1 or x = 1.

Thus, −1, 1 ∈ [−2, 2]. The numbers x = −1 and x = 1 are critical numbers of
f on [−2, 2].
 11

If x = −1, then f (−1) = 13 (−1)3 − (−1) + 2 = 83 .

If x = 1, then f (1) = 13 (1)3 − 1 + 2 = 43 .

If x = −2, then f (−2) = 13 (−2)3 − (−2) + 2 = 43 .

If x = 2, then f (2) = 13 (2)3 − 2 + 2 = 83 .

8
Therefore, the absolute maximum value of f on the interval [−2, 0] is 3
and
the absolute minimum value is 43 . 

Theorem 4.2.11 (Rolle’s Theorem) Suppose that f is continuous for all

x in [a, b] and that f 0 (x) exists for each x between a and b. If

f (a) = f (b) = 0,

then there is an x0 between a and b such that

f 0 (x0 ) = 0.

Theorem 4.2.12 (The Mean Value Theorem) Suppose that f is continuous

for all x in [a, b] and that f 0 (x) exists for each x between a and b. Then there
is an x0 between a and b such that
f (b) − f (a)
f 0 (x0 ) = .
b−a

Example 4.2.13 Given the continuous function f (x) = x3 − 7x2 + 5x on

the interval [a, b] = [1, 5], find all numbers x0 in (1, 5) such that f 0 (x0 ) =
f (b) − f (a)
.
b−a

Solution: f 0 (x) = 3x2 − 14x + 5 and

f (1) = (1)3 − 7(1)2 + 5(1) = −1, f (5) = (5)3 − 7(5)2 + 5(5) = −25.
 12

Thus,

f (b) − f (a) −25 − (−1)

f 0 (x0 ) = ⇔ 3x20 − 14x0 + 5 =
b−a 5−1
2
⇔ 3x0 − 14x0 + 11 = 0
⇔ (3x0 − 11)(x0 − 1) = 0
11
⇔ x0 = or x0 = 1
3
11 11
We have 3
∈ (1, 5) but 1 ∈
/ (1, 5). Therefore, x0 = 3
. 

x−2
Example 4.2.14 Given the continuous function f (x) = on the interval
x+2
f (b) − f (a)
[a, b] = [0, 1], find all numbers x0 in (0, 1) such that f 0 (x0 ) = .
b−a

1(x + 2) − (x − 2)1 4
Solution: f 0 (x) = = and
x+2 (x + 2)2

0−2 1−2 1
f (0) = 0+2
= −1, f (1) = =− .
1+2 3
Thus,

f (b) − f (a) 4 − 31 − (−1)

f 0 (x0 ) = ⇔ =
b−a (x0 + 2)2 1−0
4 2
⇔ 2
=
(x0 + 2) 3
2
⇔ x0 + 2) = 6
√
⇔ x0 = −2 ± 6
√ √
⇔ x0 = −2 + 6 or x0 = −2 − 6.
√ √ √
We have −2 + 6 ∈ (0, 1) but −2 − 6 ∈
/ (0, 1). Therefore, x0 = −2 + 6. 

Exercises
I. Find the absolute extrema 0f f on the given interval.

f (b) − f (a)
II. Find all numbers x0 in [a, b] such that f 0 (x0 ) = .
b−a
 13

1. f (x) = x2 − 3x − 2, [a, b] = [0, 2]

2. f (x) = x3 − 2x2 − x, [a, b] = [−3, 2]

2x + 3
3. f (x) = , [a, b] = [1, 5]
3x − 2
x2 − 3x − 4
4. f (x) = , [a, b] = [−1, 4]
x+5
√
5. f (x) = 25 − x2 , [a, b] = [−3, 4]

4.3 The First Derivative Test

Definition 4.3.1 A function f defined on an interval is increasing on that

interval if

f (x1 ) < f (x2 ) whenever x1 < x2 ,

where x1 and x2 are any real numbers in the interval.

Definition 4.3.2 A function f defined on an interval is decreasing on that

interval if

f (x1 ) > f (x2 ) whenever x1 < x2 ,

where x1 and x2 are any real numbers in the interval.

Example 4.3.3 The function f (x) = x2 + 4 is increasing on the interval

(0, +∞).

Solution: Let x1 , x2 ∈ (0, +∞) such that x1 < x2 . Then 0 < x1 < x2 . Thus,

x21 < x22 ⇔ x21 + 4 < x22 + 4 ⇔ f (x1 ) < f (x2 ).

Therefore, f is increasing on the interval (0, +∞). 

 14

Example 4.3.4 The function f (x) = x2 + 4 is decreasing on the interval

(−∞, 0).

Solution: Let x1 , x2 ∈ (−∞, 0) such that x1 < x2 . Then x1 < x2 < 0. Thus,
0 < −x2 < −x1 . Hence,

x22 < x21 ⇔ x22 + 4 < x21 + 4 ⇔ f (x1 ) > f (x2 ).

Therefore, f is decreasing on the interval (−∞, 0). 

Theorem 4.3.5 Let the function f be continuous on an open interval (a, b)

and f 0 (x) 6= 0 for all x in (a, b). Then f 0 (x) > 0 for all x in (a, b) or f 0 (x) < 0
for all x in (a, b).

Theorem 4.3.6 Let the function f be continuous on the closed interval [a, b]
and differentiable on the open interval (a, b).
(i) If f 0 (x) > 0 for all x in (a, b), then f is increasing on [a, b].
(ii) If f 0 (x) < 0 for all x in (a, b), then f is decreasing on [a, b].

Example 4.3.7 Let f (x) = x2 + 4 be continuous and differentiable on its

domain. Then f is increasing on the interval [0, +∞).

Solution: f 0 (x) = 2x. Thus,

x ∈ (0, +∞) ⇔ x > 0 ⇔ 2x > 0 ⇔ f 0 (x) > 0.

Therefore, f is increasing on the interval [0, +∞). 

Example 4.3.8 Let f (x) = x2 + 4 be continuous and differentiable on its

domain. Then f is decreasing on the interval (−∞, 0].

Solution: f 0 (x) = 2x. Thus,

x ∈ (−∞, 0) ⇔ x < 0 ⇔ 2x < 0 ⇔ f 0 (x) < 0.

Therefore, f is decreasing on the interval (−∞, 0]. 

 15

Theorem 4.3.9 (The First derivative Test for Relative Extrema) Let
the function f be continuous on the open interval (a, b) containing the number
c and suppose that f 0 exists at all points of (a, b) except possibly at c.
(i) If f 0 (x) > 0 for all x in some open interval having c as its right
endpoint, and if f 0 (x) < 0 for all x in some open interval having c as its left
endpoint, then f has a relative maximum value at c.
(ii) If f 0 (x) < 0 for all x in some open interval having c as its right
endpoint, and if f 0 (x) > 0 for all x in some open interval having c as its left
endpoint, then f has a relative maximum value at c.

Example 4.3.10 Let f (x) = x2 − 4x − 1 be continuous and differentiable on

its domain. Determine the intervals on which f is increasing, the intervals on
which f is decreasing, and the relative extrema. Sketch the graph.

Solution: Note that D(f ) = R. The derivative of f is f 0 (x) = 2x − 4. Set

f 0 (x) = 0. Then
2x − 4 = 0 ⇔ x = 2.
The critical number of f is x = 2. Consider the intervals
(−∞, 2) and (2, +∞).
We construct the following table.
Interval x f 0 (x) f is Rel. Extrema of f
0
(−∞, 2) x=0 f (0) = −4 < 0 decreasing
x=2 f 0 (2) = 0 f has a rel. min. at 2
(2, +∞) x=3 f 0 (3) = 2 > 0 increasing

Example 4.3.11 Let f (x) = x3 − x2 − x be continuous and differentiable on

its domain. Determine the intervals on which f is increasing, the intervals on
which f is decreasing, and the relative extrema. Sketch the graph.

Solution: Note that D(f ) = R. f 0 (x) = 3x2 − 2x − 1. Set f 0 (x) = 0. Then

3x2 − 2x − 1 = 0 ⇔ (3x + 1)(x − 1) = 0 x = − 31 or x = 1.
The critical numbers are x = − 31 and x = 1. Consider the intervals
 16

(−∞, − 31 ), (− 13 , 1), and (1, +∞).

We construct the following table.

Interval x f 0 (x) f is Rel. Extrema of f

0
(−∞, − 13 ) x = −1 f (−1) = 4 > 0 increasing
x = − 31 f 0 (− 13 ) = 0 f has a rel. max. at − 13
(− 13 , 1) x=0 f 0 (0) = −1 < 0 decreasing
x=1 f 0 (1) = 0 f has a rel. min. at 1
(1, +∞) x=2 f 0 (2) = 7 > 0 increasing

Example 4.3.12 Let f (x) = 4x − 6x2/3 be continuous and differentiable on

its domain. Determine the intervals on which f is increasing, the intervals on
which f is decreasing, and the relative extrema. Sketch the graph.

Solution: Note that D(f ) = R. The derivative of f is

√ 
0 −1/3
3
x−1
f (x) = 4 − 4x =4 √ .
3
x
Set f 0 (x) = 0. Then
√  √
3
x−1 3
x−1
4 √ =0 ⇔ √ = 0.
3
x 3
x
√
If x 6= 0, then 3 x − 1 = 0. Hence, x = 1.
If x = 0, then f 0 (x) does not exist.

The critical numbers of f are x = 0 and x = 1. Consider the intervals

(−∞, 0), (0, 1), and (1, +∞).

We construct the following table.

Interval x f 0 (x) f is Rel. Extrema of f

(−∞, 0) x = −1 f 0 (−1) = 8 > 0 increasing
x=0 f 0 (0) does not exist f has a rel. max. at 0
(0, 1) x = 81 f 0 ( 18 ) = −4 < 0 decreasing
x=1 f 0 (1) = 0 f has a rel. min. at 1
(1, +∞) x=8 f 0 (8) = 2 > 0 increasing
 17

√ 1
Example 4.3.13 Let f (x) = x + √ be continuous and differentiable on
x
its domain. Determine the intervals on which f is increasing, the intervals on
which f is decreasing, and the relative extrema. Sketch the graph.

Solution: Note that D(f ) = R+ . The derivative of f is

1 1 1 1 x−1
f 0 (x) = x−1/2 − x−3/2 = √ − √ = √ .
2 2 2 x 2x x 2x x
Set f 0 (x) = 0. Then
x−1
√ = 0.
2x x
If x 6= 0, then x − 1 = 0. Hence, x = 1.
If x = 0, then f 0 (x) does not exist.

But 0 ∈
/ D(f ). The critical number of f is x = 1. Consider the intervals

(0, 1), and (1, +∞).

We construct the following table.

Interval x f 0 (x) f is Rel. Extrema of f
(0, 1) x = 41 f 0 ( 14 ) = −3 < 0 decreasing
x=1 f 0 (1) = 0 f has a real. min. at 1
0 3
(1, +∞) x=4 f (4) = 16 >0 increasing

√ 1
Example 4.3.14 Let f (x) = x − √ be continuous and differentiable on
x
its domain. Determine the intervals on which f is increasing, the intervals on
which f is decreasing, and the relative extrema. Sketch the graph.

Solution: Note that D(f ) = R+ . The derivative of f is

1 1 1 1 x+1
f 0 (x) = x−1/2 + x−3/2 = √ + √ = √ .
2 2 2 x 2x x 2x x
Set f 0 (x) = 0. Then
x+1
√ = 0.
2x x
 18

If x 6= 0, then x + 1 = 0. Henxe, x = −1.

If x = 0, then f 0 (x) does not exist.

But −1, 0 ∈/ D(f ). The function f has no critical number. Therefore, f has
no relative extremum.

Consider D(f ), that is, the interval

(0, +∞).

We construct the following table.

Interval x f 0 (x) f is
(0, +∞) x=4 f 0 (4) = 16 5
>0 increasing

x−2
Example 4.3.15 Let f (x) = be continuous and differentiable on its
x+2
domain. Determine the intervals on which f is increasing, the intervals on
which f is decreasing and the relative extrema. Sketch the graph.

Solution: Note that D(f ) = {x ∈ R : x 6= 2}. The derivative of f is

1(x + 2) − (x − 2)1 4
f 0 (x) = 2
= .
(x + 2) (x + 2)2
Set f 0 (x) = 0. Then
4
= 0.
(x + 2)2
If x 6= −2, then the equation has no solution.
If x = −2, then f 0 (x) does not exist.

But −2 ∈ / D(f ). The function f has no critical number. Therefore, f has no

relative extremum.

Consider D(f ), that is, the intervals

(−∞, −2) and (−2, +∞).

We construct the following table.

 19

Interval x f 0 (x) f is
(−∞, −2) x = −3 f 0 (−3) = 4 > 0 increasing
(−2, +∞) x=0 f 0 (0) = 1 > 0 increasing

Example 4.3.16 Let f be continuous and differentiable on its domain. Determine

the intervals on which f is increasing, the intervals on which f is decreasing
and the(relative extrema. Sketch the graph.
x2 , if x < 1
f (x) =
2 − x, if 1 ≤ x

Solution: If x < 1, then f (x) = x2 . Thus, f 0 (x) = 2x. Set f 0 (x) = 0. Then
2x = 0. Thus, x = 0.

Also, f−0 (1) = 2(1) = 2.

If x > 1, then f (x) = 2 − x. Thus, f 0 (x) = −1. Hence, f+0 (1) = −1.

This implies that f 0 (1) does not exist.

The critical numbers of f are x = 0 and x = 1. Consider the following intervals

(−∞, 0), (0, 1), and (1, +∞).

We construct the following table.

Interval x f 0 (x) f is Rel. Extrema of f

(−∞, 0) x = −1 f 0 (−1) = −2 < 0 decreasing
x=0 f 0 (0) = 0 f has a rel. min. at 0
0
(0, 1) x = 0.5 f (0.5) = 1 > 0 increasing
0
x=1 f (1) does not exist f has a rel. max. at 1
(1, +∞) x=2 f 0 (2) = −1 < 0 decreasing

Exercises
I. Given the function f , determine the intervals on which f is increasing, the
intervals on which f is decreasing, and the relative extrema. Sketch the graph.

1. f (x) = x3 − 3x2 − 9x 2. f (x) = 14 x4 − x3 + x2

 20

1 1
3. f (x) = x + 4. f (x) = 2x +
x2 2x
√
5. f (x) = 2x 3 − x 6. f (x) = 2 − 3(x − 4)1/3

7. f (x) = (x2 − 4)2 8. f (x) = 3 csc 2x; x ∈ [−π, π]

(
2x + 9, if x ≤ −2
9. f (x) = 4 csc 12 x; x ∈ [−2π, 2π] 10. f (x) =
x2 + 1, if 2 < x

3x + 5, if x < −1
( 
5 − 2x, if x < 3
11. f (x) = 12. f (x) = x2 + 1, if −1 ≤ x < 2
3x − 10, if 3 ≤ x 
7 − x, if 2 ≤ x


4.4 The Second Derivative Test

Definition 4.4.1 The graph of the function f is said to be concave upward

on an interval I, if at each point of I the graph of f remains above the line
tangent to the curve at this point.

Definition 4.4.2 The graph of the function f is said to be concave downward

on an interval I, if at each point of I the graph of f remains below the line
tangent to the curve at this point.

Theorem 4.4.3 (Second Derivative Test for Concavity) Let f be a

function such that f 00 (x) exists for every x in some open interval I.
(i) If f 00 (x) > 0 for all x in I, then the graph of f is concave upward
on I;
(ii) if f 00 (c) < 0 for all x in I, then the graph of f is concave downward
on I.

Definition 4.4.4 The point (c, f (c)) is a point of inflection of the graph
of the function f if the graph has a tangent line there, and if there exists an
open interval I containing c such that if x is in I, then either
(i) if f 00 (x) < 0 if x < c and f 00 (x) > 0 if x > c; or
(ii) if f 00 (x) > 0 if x < c and f 00 (x) < 0 if x > c.
 21

Theorem 4.4.5 Suppose that the function f is differentiable on some open

interval containing c and (c, f (c)) is a point of inflection of the graph of f . If
f 00 (c) exists, then f 00 (c) = 0.

Remark 4.4.6 The converse of Theorem 4.4.5 is not true. That is, if f 00 (c) =
0, then it is not always true that (c, f (c)) is a point of inflection of the graph
of f .

Example 4.4.7 Let f (x) = x4 +1. Find the point of inflection of the graph of
f and determine where the graph is concave upward and concave downward.

Solution:
f 0 (x) = 4x3 and f 00 (x) = 12x2 .
Set f 00 (x) = 0. Then
12x2 = 0 ⇔ x = 0.
Thus,
f (0) = (0)4 + 1 = 1.
The graph of f may have a point of inflection at (0, 1). Consider the intervals
(−∞, 0), and (0, +∞).
We construct the following table.
Interval x f 00 (x) The graph of f is
(−∞, 0) x = −1 f 00 (−1) = 12 > 0 concave upward
(0, +∞) x=1 f 00 (1) = 12 > 0 concave upward
Therefore, f has no point of inflection. the graph is concave upward on
(−∞, +∞). 

Remark 4.4.8 From Definition 4.4.4 and Theorem 4.4.5, it follows that (c, f (c))
is a point of inflection of the graph of f if
(i) f 00 (c) = 0 or f 00 (c) does not exists, and
(ii) the graph of f is concave upward on one side of (c, f (c)) and concave
downward on the other.
 22

Example 4.4.9 Let f (x) = x3 − 6x2 + 9x + 2. Find the point of inflection of

the graph of f and determine where the graph is concave upward and concave
downward.

Solution:

f 0 (x) = 3x2 − 12x + 9 and f 00 (x) = 6x − 12.

Set f 00 (x) = 0. Then

6x − 12 = 0 ⇔ x = 2.

If x = 2, then

f (2) = (2)3 − 6(2)2 + 9(2) + 2 = 4.

The graph of f may have a point of inflection at (2, 4). Consider the intervals

(−∞, 2), and (2, +∞).

We construct the following table.

Interval x f 00 (x) The graph of f is
(−∞, 2) x=0 f 00 (0) = −12 < 0 concave downward
(2, +∞) x=3 f 00 (3) = 6 > 0 concave upward

Therefore, (2, 4) is a point of inflection, the graph of f is concave downward

on (−∞, 2) and concave upward on (2, +∞). 

Example 4.4.10 Let f (x) = x4 − 6x2 . Find the point of inflection of the
graph of f and determine where the graph is concave upward and concave
downward.

Solution:

f 0 (x) = 4x3 − 12x and f 00 (x) = 12x2 − 12.

Set f 00 (x) = 0. Then

12x2 − 12 = 0 ⇔ (x + 1)(x − 1) = 0 ⇔ x = −1 or x = 1.

Thus,

f (−1) = (−1)4 − 4(−1)3 = 5 and f (1) = (1)4 − 4(1)3 = −3.

 23

The graph of f may have points of inflection at (−1, 5) and (1, −3). Consider
the intervals
(−∞, −1), (−1, 1), and (1, +∞).
We construct the following table.
Interval x f 00 (x) The graph of f is
(−∞, −1) x = −2 f 00 (−2) = 36 > 0 concave upward
(−1, 1) x=0 f 00 (0) = −12 < 0 concave downward
(1, +∞) x=2 f 00 (2) = 36 > 0 concave upward

Therefore, (−1, 5) and (1, −3) are points of inflection, the graph of f is concave
upward on (−∞, 2), concave downward on (−1, 1), and concave upward on
(1, +∞). 

3
Example 4.4.11 Let f (x) = 2x + (x + 1) 5 . Find the point of inflection of
the graph of f and determine where the graph is concave upward and concave
downward.

Solution:
3 2 6 7 6
f 0 (x) = 2 + (x + 1)− 5 and f 00 (x) = − (x + 1)− 5 = − 7 .
5 25 25(x + 1) 5
Set f 00 (x) = 0. Then
6
− 7 = 0.
25(x + 1) 5
If x 6= −1, then the equation has no solution.

If x = −1, then f 00 (−1) does not exist. Also, −1 ∈ D(f ) = R.

Thus,
3
f (−1) = 2(−1) + (−1 + 1) 5 = −2.
The graph of f may have a point of inflection at (−1, −2). Consider the
intervals
(−∞, −1), and (−1, +∞).
We construct the following table.
 24

Interval x f 00 (x) The graph of f is

(−∞, −1) x = −2 f 00 (−2) = 25 6
>0 concave upward
00 6
(−1, +∞) x=0 f (0) = − 25 < 0 concave downward
Therefore, (−1, −2) is a point of inflection, the graph of f is concave upward
on (−∞, −1) and concave downward on (−1, +∞). 

4 1
Example 4.4.12 Let f (x) = x 3 + 4x 3 . Find the point of inflection of the
graph of f and determine where the graph is concave upward and concave
downward.

Solution:
4 1 4 2 4 2 8 5 4x − 8
f 0 (x) = x 3 + x− 3 and f 00 (x) = x− 3 − x− 3 = 5 .
3 3 9 9 9x 3
Set f 00 (x) = 0. Then
4x − 8
5 = 0.
9x 3
If x 6= 0, then 4x − 8 = 0. Hence, x = 2.

If x = 0, then f 00 (0) does not exist.

We have 0, 2 ∈ D(f ) = R. Thus,

4 1 4 1 √3
f (0) = (0) 3 + 4(0) 3 = 0 and f (2) = (2) 3 + 4(2) 3 = 6 2.
√
The graph of f may have points of inflection at (0, 0) and (2, 6 3 2). Consider
the intervals
(−∞, 0), (0, 2), and (2, +∞).
We construct the following table.
Interval x f 00 (x) The graph of f is
00 4
(−∞, 0) x = −1 f (−1) = 3 > 0 concave upward
00 4
(0, 2) x=1 f (1) = − 3 < 0 concave downward
(2, +∞) x = 3 f 00 (3) = 814√ 3
3
>0 concave upward
√
Therefore, (0, 0) and (2, 6 3 2) are points of inflection, the graph of f is concave
upward on (−∞, 0), concave downward on (0, 2), and concave upward on
(2, +∞). 
 25

Theorem 4.4.13 (Second Derivative Test for Relative Extrema) Let

c be a critical number of a function f and let f 00 (x) exists for all x in some
open interval containing c.
(i) If f 00 (c) > 0, then f has a relative minimum value at c.
(ii) If f 00 (c) < 0, then f has a relative maximum value at c.

Note that if f 00 (c) = 0, then the above test does not apply.

Example 4.4.14 Let f (x) = x2 − 4x − 1.Discuss for relative extrema.

Solution: We have f 0 (x) = 2x − 4. Set f 0 (x) = 0. Then

2x − 4 = 0 ⇔ x = 2.

Thus,

f (2) = (2)2 − 4(2) − 1 = −5.

The critical number of f is x = 2 and the critical point is (2, −5).

We have f 00 (x) = 2. Then

f 0 (2) = 2 > 0.

Therefore, f has a relative minimum value at x = 2 and (2, −5) is the relative
minimum point. 

Example 4.4.15 Let f (x) = x3 − x2 − x. Discuss for relative extrema.

Solution: We have f 0 (x) = 3x2 − 2x − 1. Set f 0 (x) = 0. Then

3x2 − 2x − 1 = 0 ⇔ (3x + 1)(x − 1) = 0 x = − 13 or x = 1.

Thus,

f (− 31 ) = (− 13 )3 − (− 31 )2 − (− 13 ) = 5
27
and f (1) = (1)3 − (1)2 − 1 = −1.

The critical numbers are x = − 31 and x = 1 and the critical points are (− 13 , 27
5
)
and (1, −1).

We have f 00 (x) = 6x − 2. We construct the following table.

 26

Crit. Value f 00 (x) f has a

x = − 13 f 00 (− 13 ) = −4 < 0 rel. max. (− 13 , 27
5
) is a rel. max. pt.
x=1 f 00 (1) = 4 > 0 rel. min. (1, −1) is a rel. min. pt.

Example 4.4.16 Let f (x) = 3x5 − 5x3 + 1. Discuss for relative extrema.

Solution: We have

f 0 (x) = 15x4 − 15x2 .

Set f 0 (x) = 0. Then

15x4 − 15x2 = 0 ⇔ 15x2 (x + 1)(x − 1) = 0 ⇔ x = 0 or x = −1 or x = 1.

Thus,

f (−1) = 3(−1)5 − 5(−1)3 + 1 = 3, f (0) = 3(0)5 − 5(0)3 + 1 = 1, and

f (1) = 3(1)5 − 5(1)3 + 1 = −1.

The critical numbers of f are x = −1, x = 0, and x = 1 and the critical points
are (−1, 3), (0, 1) and (1, −1).

We have f 00 (x) = 60x3 − 30x. We construct the following table.

Crit. Value f 00 (x) f has a

x = −1 f 00 (−1) = −30 < 0 rel. max. (−1, 3) is a rel. max. pt.
x=0 f 00 (0) = 0 (test fails)
00
x=1 f (1) = 30 > 0 rel. min. (1, −1) is a rel. min. pt.

We apply the First Derivative Test to the critical number x = 0.

Consider the following intervals

(−1, 0) and (0, 1).

We construct the following table.

Interval x f 0 (x) f is
(−1, 0) x = − 21 f 0 (− 21 ) = − 45 16
<0 decreasing
0 1
(0, 1) x = 12 45
f ( 2 ) = − 16 < 0 decreasing
 27

Therefore, f has no relative extremum at x = 0. 

Exercises
I. Given the function f , find any points of inflection of the graph of f and
determine where the graph is concave upward and concave downward.

1. f (x) = x3 − 3x2 − 9x 2. f (x) = x4 − 8x3

2
3. f (x) = 4. f (x) = 3 cos 2x; x ∈ [−π, π]
x2 +3
( (
x2 − 1, if x < 2 x3 , if x < 0
5. f (x) = 6. f (x) =
7 − x2 , if 2 ≤ x x4 , if 0 ≤ x

II. Given the function f , find the relative extrema by applying the Second
Derivative Test.

1. f (x) = −4x3 + 3x2 + 18x 2. f (x) = x4 − 13 x3 − 32 x2

3. f (x) = 51 x5 − 23 x3 4. f (x) = 2 sin 4x; x ∈ [0, π2 ]

4.5 Applications Involving an Absolute Extremum on a Closed

Interval

We now apply the Extreme Value Theorem to problems involving an

absolute extremum of a function on a closed interval. The theorem asuures
us that a function that is continuous on a closed interval has an absolute
maximum value and an absolute minimum value on the closed interval.

Elementary Geometric Formulas

(1) Circle of radius r: A = πr2 , C = 2πr.

(2) Circular sector of radius r and central angle α in radians: A = 12 r2 α.

(3) Triangle of base b and altitude h: A = 12 bh.

 28

(4) Square of side x: A = x2 , P = 4x.

(5) Rectangle of length l and width w: A = lw, P = 2l + 2w.

(6) Trapezoid of bases b and B and altitude h: A = 21 (B + b)h.

(7) Rectangular box of length l, width w, and altitude h:

V = lwh
A = 2lw + 2lh + 2wh (closed rectangular box)
A = lw + 2lh + 2wh (open top, closed bottom)
A = 2lh + 2wh (open top and bottom)

(8) Right circular cylinder of base radius r and altitude h:

V = πr2 h
A = 2πrh (open top and bottom)
A = 2πrh + πr2 (open top, closed bottom)
A = 2πrh + 2πr2 (closed top and bottom)

(9) Right circular cone of base√radius r and altitude h:

V = 13 πr2 h, A = πr r2 + h2

(10) Sphere of radius r: V = 34 πr3 , A = 4πr2 .

Example 4.5.1 Find two nonnegative numbers whose sum is 12 such that
their product is an absolute maximum.

Solution: Let x and y be the two numbers, and let P be their product. Then

P = xy.

Since x + y = 12, we have y = 12 − x. Thus,

P = x(12 − x) = 12x − x2 .

Hence, P is a function of x given by

P (x) = 12x − x2 , where x ∈ [0, 12].

The first derivative of P is

P 0 (x) = 12 − 2x.
 29

Set P 0 (x) = 0. Then

12 − 2x = 0 ⇔ x = 6.

Therefore, 6 ∈ [0, 12] and

P (6) = 12(6) − (6)2 = 36, P (0) = 0, and P (12) = 12(12) − (12)2 = 0.

The absolute maximum value of P on [0, 12] is 36 obtained when x = 6.

Solving for y, we get y = 12 − 6 = 6.

Conclusion: The absolute maximum product is 36, obtained when the two
numbers are both 6. 

Example 4.5.2 A rectangular field is to be fenced off along the bank of a

river where no fence is required along the bank. If the fencing material is 1200
m, what should the dimensions of the field be in order to enclosed the largest
possible area?

Solution: Let x be the the length of the end of the field, y be the lenth of the
side parallel to the river, and A be the area of the field. Then

A = xy.

The perimeter of the fence is P = 2x + y. Thus,

2x + y = 1200, ⇔ y = 1200 − 2x.

Hence,

A = xy = x(1200 − 2x) = 1200x − 2x2 .

The area A is a function of x given by

A(x) = 1200x − 2x2 , where x ∈ [0, 600].

The first derivative of A is

A0 (x) = 1200 − 4x.

Set A0 (x) = 0. Then

1200 − 4x = 0 ⇔ x = 300.

Since 300 ∈ [0, 600], we have

 30

A(300) = 1200(300) − 2(300)2 = 180000, A(0) = 0, and

A(600) = 1200(600) − 2(600)2 = 0.

The absolute maximum value of A on [0, 600] is 180000, obtained when x =

300. Solving for y, we get y = 1200 − 2(300) = 600.

Conclusion: The largest possible area that can be enclosed by 1200 m of

fencing material is 180000 m2 , obtained when the side parallel to the river is
600 m long and the ends are both 300 m long. 

Example 4.5.3 An open meteal pan is to be made by cutting out squares of

the same size from the corners of a rectangular piece of metal 10 in by 16 in
and turning up the sides. What should be the size of the squares cut out if
the box is to have as large as volume as possible?

Solution: Let x be the size of the square cut out. Then width of the metal pan
is 10 − 2x, the length is 16 − 2x, and the altitude is x. Thus,volume V of the
metal pan is

V = lwh = (16 − 2x)(10 − 2x)x = 4x3 − 52x2 + 160x.

The volume V of the metal pan is a function of x given by

V (x) = 4x3 − 52x2 + 160x, where x ∈ [0, 5].

The first derivative of V is

V 0 (x) = 12x2 − 104x + 160.

Set V 0 (x) = 0. Then

20
12x2 − 104x + 160 = 0 ⇔ 4(3x − 20)(x − 2) = 0 ⇔ x = 3
or x = 2.
20
Since 3
∈
/ [0, 5] and 2 ∈ [0, 5], the critical number of V is x = 2. Hence,

V (2) = 144, V (0) = 0, and V (5) = 0.

The absolute maximum value of V on [0, 5] is 144, obtained when x = 2.

Conclusion: The largest possible volume of the metal pan is 144 in3 , obtained
when the size of the square cut out is 2 in. 
 31

Example 4.5.4 A lighthouse is at point A, 4 km offshore from the nearest

point O of a straight beach; a store is at point B, 4 km down the beach from
O. If the lighthouse keeper can row 4 km/hr and walk 5 km/hr, how should
he proceed in order to get from the lighthouse to the store in the least possible
time?

Solution: The lighthouse keeper will row to some point on the beach between
O and the store B and then walk the rest of the way. Let C be the point on
the beach where he lands and let x be the distance from O to C. Denote by
T the time of the trip from A to B. Thus,
T = time of trip along AC + time of trip along CB
AC| |CB|
= +
√4 5
x2 + 16 4 − x
= + .
4 5
Hence, T is a function of x given by
√
T (x) = 14 x2 + 16 + 15 (4 − x), where x ∈ [0, 4].
The first derivative of T is
1 1 x 1
T 0 (x) = (x2 + 16)−1/2 (2x) − = √ − .
8 5 4 x2 + 16 5
Set T 0 (x) = 0. Then
x 1
√ − = 0 ⇔ 9x2 = 256 ⇔ x = ± 16
3
.
4 x2 + 16 5
Since ± 16
3
∈
/ [0, 4], T has no critical number on [0, 4]. Hence, we calculate the
values of T at the endpoints.
√
T (0) = 95 and T (4) = 2.
√
The absolute minimum value of T on [0, 4] is 2, obtained when x = 4.

Conclusion: The fastest method (least possible time) for the lighthouse
keeper is to row directly to the store B and do no walking. 

Example 4.5.5 Find the dimensions of the right circular cylinder of greatest
volume that can be inscribed in a right circular cone with a radius of 5 cm
and an altitude of 12 cm.
 32

Solution: Let r be the radius of the right circular cylinder, h be the altitude of
the right circular cylinder, and V be the volume of the right circular cylinder.
Then

V = πr2 h.

By similar triangles (draw a diagram),

12 − h 12 60 − 12r
= ⇔ h= .
r 5 5
Thus,

V = πr2 h
 
2 60 − 12r
= πr
5
12
= π(5r2 − r3 ).
5
The volume V is a function of r given by
12
V (r) = π(5r2 − r3 ), where r ∈ [0, 5].
5
The first derivative of V is
12
V 0 (r) = π(10r − 3r2 ).
5
Set V 0 (r) = 0. Then
12
π(10r − 3r2 ) = 0 ⇔ r(10 − 3r) = 0 ⇔ r = 0 or r = 10
3
.
5
Since 0, 10
3
∈ [0, 5], both r = 0 and r = 10
3
are critical numbers of V on [0, 5].
Hence,

V (0) = 0 , V ( 10
3
)= 12
5
π(5( 10
3
)2 − ( 10
3
)3 ) = 400
9
π, and V (5) = 0.
400 10
The absolute maximum value of V on [0, 5] is 9
π, obtained when r = 3
.
Solving for h, we get
60 − 12( 10
3
)
h= = 4.
5
 33

Conclusion: The greatest volume of an inscribed cylinder in the given cone

is 400
9
π cm3 , obtained when the radius is 10
3
cm and the altitude is 4 cm. 

Exercises

1. Find the dimensions of the rectangle of maximum area that can be inscribed
in a circle of radius 4.
2. A window is in the shape of a rectangle surmounted by a semicircle. Find
the dimensions when the perimeter is 10 meters and the area is as large as
possible.
3. Find the dimensions of the right circular cylinder of greatest volume that
can be inscribed in a sphere of radius 6 meters.
4. Find the dimensions of the right circular cylinder of greatest lateral area
that can be inscribed in a sphere of radius R.
5. A piece of wire 10 ft long is cut into two pieces. One piece is bent into the
shape of a circle and the other into the shape of a square. How should the wire
be cut so that (a) the combined area of the two figures is as small as possible;
(b) the combined area of the two figures is as large as possible?
6. Solve Exercise 5 if one piece of wire is bent into the shape of an equilateral
triangle and the other piece is bent into the shape of a square.
7. Find the area of the largest rectangle having two vertices on the x-axis and
two vertices on or above the x-axis and the parabola y = 9 − x2 .

4.6 Additional Applications Involving Absolute Extremum

In this section, we deal with applications involving absolute extrema

for which the Extreme Value Theorem cannot be applied.

Theorem 4.6.1 Let f be a function continuous on the interval I containing

the real number c. If f (c) is a relative extremum of f on I and c is the only
number in I for which f has a relative extremum, then f (c) is an absolute
extremum of f on I.

Example 4.6.2 A closed box with a square base is to have a volume of 2000
in3 . The material for the top and bottom of the box is to cost 4 pesos per
square inch and the material for the sides is to cost 2 pesos per equare inch.
Find the dimensions of the box so that the total cost of material is least.
 34

Solution: Let x be the length of the side of the square base, y be the height of
the box, and C be the total cost of the material.

The area of the top and bottom is 2x2 and the area of the sides is 4xy. Thus,
the total cost C of the material is
C = 4(2x2 ) + 2(4xy) = 8x2 + 8xy.
The volume of the box is
2000 = x2 y.
Solving for y, we get
2000
y= .
x2
Thus,
 
2 2000 16000
C = 8x + 8x = 8x2 + .
x2 x
The total cost of the material is a function of x given by
16000
C(x) = 8x2 + , where x ∈ (0, +∞).
x
The first derivative of C(x) is
16000 16x3 − 16000
C 0 (x) = 16x − = .
x2 x2
Set C 0 (x) = 0. Then
16x3 − 16000
= 0.
x2
If x 6= 0, then
16x3 − 16000 = 0 ⇔ x = 10.
If x = 0, then
C 0 (0) does not exist.
But 0 ∈
/ (0, +∞) and 10 ∈ (0, +∞). The critical number of C in (0, +∞) is
x = 10. We apply the Second Derivative Test to x = 10. The second derivative
of C(x) is
 35

32000
C 00 (x) = 16 + .
x3
Hence,
32000
C 00 (10) = 16 + > 0.
(10)3
The total cost C of the material has a relative minimum value at x = 10.
By Theorem 4.6.1, this relative minimum value of C is the absolute minimum
value. Solving for y, we get
2000
y= = 20.
(10)2
Conclusion: The total cost of the material will be least when the side of the
base is 10 in. and the height is 20 in. 

Example 4.6.3 A manufacturer makes plastic cups of volume 10 cm3 in the

form of a right circular cylinder open at the top. Find the radius which use
the least material.

Solution: Let r be the radius of the right circular cylinder, h be the altitude
of the right circular cylinder, and A be the surface area of the right circular
cylinder open at the top. Then

A = 2πrh + πr2 .

The volume of the right circular cylinder is given by

10 = πr2 h.

Solving for h, we get

10
h= .
πr2
Thus,
 
2 10 20
A = 2πrh + πr = 2πr + πr2 = + πr2 .
πr2 r
The surface area A is a function of r given by
20
A(r) = + πr2 , where r ∈ (0, +∞).
r
 36

The first derivative of A is

20 2πr3 − 20
A0 (r) = − + 2πr = .
r2 r2
Set A0 (r) = 0. Then
2πr3 − 20
= 0.
r2
If r 6= 0, then
r
10
2πr3 − 20 = 0 ⇔ r =
3
.
π
If r = 0, then

A00 (0) does not exist.

q
But 0 ∈/ (0, +∞) and 3 10
π
∈ (0, +∞). The critical number of A in (0, +∞) is
q
3 10
π
. We apply the Second Derivative Test. The second derivative of A(r) is

40
A00 (r) = + 2π.
r3
Hence,
r !
10 40
A00
3
= q 3 + 2π > 0.
π 3 10
π
q
The surface area A has a relative minimum value at r = 3 10 π
. By Theorem
4.6.1, this relative minimum value of A is the absolute minimum value.

Conclusion:
q The least material to be used is obtained when the radius of the
cup is 3 10
π
cm. 

Example 4.6.4 Find the dimensions of a right circular cone of maximum

volume which can be inscribed in a sphere of radius a.

Solution: Let r be the radius of the right circular cone, h be the altitude of the
right circular cone, and V be the volume of the right circular cylinder. Then
 37

V = 13 πr2 h.

From the figure and from the Pythagorean Theorem (draw the firgure),

r2 + (h − a)2 = a2 .

Solving for r2 , we get

r2 = a2 − (h − a)2 = 2ah − h2 .

Thus,
1 1 1
V = πr2 h = π(2ah − h2 )h = π(2ah2 − h3 ).
3 3 3
The volume V is a function of h given by
1
V (r) = π(2ah2 − h3 ), where h ∈ (0, 2a).
3
The first derivative of V is
1
V 0 (h) = π(4ah − 3h2 ).
3
Set V 0 (h) = 0. Then
1 4a
3
π(4ah − 3h2 ) = 0 ⇔ h(4a − 3h) = 0 ⇔ h = 0 or h = 3
.

/ (0, 2a) and 4a

But 0 ∈ 3
∈ (0, 2a). The critical number of V in (0, 2a) is h = 4a
3
.
We apply the Second Derivative Test. The second derivative of V (h) is
1
V 00 (h) = π(4a − 6h).
3
Hence,
    
00 4a 1 4a 4aπ
V = π 4a − 6 =− < 0.
3 3 3 3

The volume V has a relative maximum value at h = 4a 3

. By Theorem 4.6.1,
this relative maximum value of V is the absolute minimum value. Solving for
r, we get
   2 √
2 4a 4a 8a2 2 2a
r = 2a − = ⇔ r= .
3 3 9 3
 38

Conclusion: The maximum volume of a cone that can be inscribed √ in a

sphere of radius a is obtained when the radius of the cone is 2 32a and the
height is 4a
3
.

Example 4.6.5 A sign containing 50 m2 of printed materials is required to

have margins of 4 m at the top and bottom and 2 m on each side. What are
the dimensions of the sign of least area?

Solution: Let x be the horizontal length of the sign, y be the vertical length
of the sign, and A be the area of the sign. Then
A = xy.
The area of the printed material is
50 = (x − 4)(y − 8).
Solving for y, we get
50
y= + 8.
x−4
Thus,
 
50 16000
A = xy = x +8 = 8x2 + .
x−4 x
The total cost of the material is a function of x given by
16000
C(x) = 8x2 + , where x ∈ (0, +∞).
x
The first derivative of C(x) is
16000 16x3 − 16000
C 0 (x) = 16x − = .
x2 x2
Set C 0 (x) = 0. Then
16x3 − 16000
= 0.
x2
If x 6= 0, then
16x3 − 16000 = 0 ⇔ x = 10.
If x = 0, then
 39

C 0 (0) does not exist.

But 0 ∈
/ (0, +∞) and 10 ∈ (0, +∞). The critical number of C in (0, +∞) is
x = 10. We apply the Second Derivative Test to x = 10. The second derivative
of C(x) is
32000
C 00 (x) = 16 + .
x3
Hence,
32000
C 00 (10) = 16 + > 0.
(10)3
The total cost C of the material has a relative minimum value at x = 10.
By Theorem 4.6.1, this relative minimum value of C is the absolute minimum
value. Solving for y, we get
2000
y= = 20.
(10)2
Conclusion: The total cost of the material will be least when the side of the
base is 10 in. and the height is 20 in. 
Exercises

1. A right circular cylinder is to be inscribed in a sphere of radius R. Find the

ratio of the height to the base radius of the cylinder having the largest lateral
surface area.
2. A right circular cone has a volume of 120 cm3 . what shape should it be in
order to have the smallest lateral surface area?
3. The product of two positive numbers is 16. Determine them so that the
square of one plus the cube of the other is as small as possible.
4. Find the the dimensions of a right circular cone of minimum volume which
can be circumscribed about a sphere of radius R.
5. A silo is to be built in the form of a right circular cylinder surmounted by a
hemisphere. If the cost of the material per square meter is the same for floor,
walls, and top, find the most economical proportions for the given capacity V .
6. A closed right circular cylinder has a surface area of 100 cm2 . What should
the dimensions be in order to provide the largest possible volume?
 40

4.7 The Diferentials

Let f be a function defined by y = f (x) and let ∆x denote the increment

of x. further, let ∆y be the corresponding increment f (x + ∆x) − f (x). If f
is differentiable at x, then
f (x + ∆x) − f (x) ∆y
f 0 (x) = lim = lim .
∆x→0 ∆x ∆x→0 ∆x

Definition 4.7.1 Let f be a function defined by y = f (x). Then the differential

of y, denoted by dy, is given by
dy = f 0 (x)∆x,
where x is in the domain of f 0 and ∆x is an arbitrary increment of x.

Definition 4.7.2 Let f be a function defined by y = f (x). Then the differential

of x, denoted by dx, is given by
dx = ∆x,
where x is in the domain of f 0 and ∆x is an arbitrary increment of x.

Theorem 4.7.3 Let f be a function defined by y = f (x). If f 0 (x) exists, then

dy = f 0 (x)dx,
whether or not x is an independent variable.

Example 4.7.4 Let y = (x3 − 4x2 + 5)3 . Find the differential dy.

Solution: Let f (x) = (x3 − 4x2 + 5)3 . Then

f 0 (x) = 3(x3 − 4x2 + 5)2 (3x2 − 8x) = (9x2 − 24x)(x3 − 4x2 + 5)2 .
Therefore,
dy = (9x2 − 24x)(x3 − 4x2 + 5)2 dx. 
 41
q
x+1
Example 4.7.5 Let y = x−1
. Find the differential dy.
r
x+1
Solution: Let f (x) = . Then
x−1
 − 21
0 1 x+1 1(x − 1) − (x + 1)1 1
f (x) = · = − p .
2 x−1 (x − 1)2 (x − 1) (x + 1)(x − 1)
Therefore,
1
dy = − p dx. 
(x − 1) (x + 1)(x − 1)

Example 4.7.6 Let y = cos 3x + tan 2x. Find the differential dy.

Solution: Let f (x) = cos 3x + tan 2x. Then

f 0 (x) = −3 sin 3x + 2 sec2 2x.
Therefore,
dy = (−3 sin 3x + 2 sec2 2x)dx. 

Example 4.7.7 Suppose that x and y are functions that satisfy the relation
dy
x2 − y 3 + 5 = 0. Find dx by the method of differentials.

Solution: Take diferentials:

2xdx − 3y 2 dy = 0.
Therefore,
dy 2x
= 2,
dx 3y
where dx 6= 0 and y 6= 0. 

Example 4.7.8 Suppose that x and y are functions that satisfy the relation
dy
2x3 + xy 2 − 3y 3 + 5x − 3y = 0. Find dx by the method of differentials.

Solution: Take diferentials:

 42

6x2 dx + (1dx)y 2 + x(2ydy) − 9y 2 dy + 5dx − 3dy = 0.

Then

(6x2 + y 2 + 5)dx + (2xy − 9y 2 − 3)dy =.

Therefore,
dy 2xy − 9y 2 − 3
=− 2 ,
dx 6x + y 2 + 5
where dx 6= 0 and 6x2 + y 2 + 5 6= 0. 

Example 4.7.9 Suppose that x and y are functions that satisfy the relation
dy
x2 sin2 y + x3 y 2 + 4 = 0. Find dx by the method of differentials.

Solution: Take diferentials:

(2xdx) sin2 y + x2 (2 sin y cos ydy) + (3x2 dx)y 2 + x3 (2ydy) = 0.

Then

(2x sin2 y + 3x2 y 2 )dx + (2x2 sin y cos y + 2x3 y)dy = 0.

Therefore,
dy 2x sin2 y + 3x2 y 2
=− 2 ,
dx 2x sin y cos y + 2x3 y
where dx 6= 0 and 2x2 sin y cos y + 2x3 y 6= 0. 

4.8 Related Rates

In this section, let us consider problems where every quantity is a

function of time. Hence, we take derivatives of each quantity with respect
to time t. This derivative is called rate of change. Therefore, related rates
are problems involving rates of change of related variables.

Some Guidelines in Solving Problems Involving Related Rates

 43

(1) Draw a diagram. Label any numerical quantities which remain fixed
throughout the problem.
(2) Denote all quantities which change with time by letters. a relation/s is
found among the quantities which vary and these relations must hold for all
time t.
(3) Take differentials of the relation/s found in (2) and divide by dt to obtain
a relation among the derivatives.
(4) Insert the values of the known quantities to get the desired result.

Convention. Let s be a function of time t.

ds
(i) If s increases with time t, then the rate carries a positive sign.
dt
ds
(ii) If s decreases with time t, then the rate carries a negative sign.
dt

Example 4.8.1 Water is flowing into a vertical cylindrical tank of radius 3

meters at the rate of 18 cubic meters per minute. How fast is the water level
rising?

Solution: Let r be the radius of the cylindrical water tank. At time t, h be

the depth of the water in the cylindrical tank and V the volume of the water
in the cylindrical tank. Then the volume of the water is

V = πr2 h
= π(3)2 h
= 9πh.

Taking differentials,
dV = (9π)dh,
and dividing by dt, we obtain
dV dh
= (9π) .
dt dt

dV
When = 18 m3 /min, we have
dt
dh
18 = (9π) .
dt
Therefore,
 44

dh
= 2 m/min. 
dt

Example 4.8.2 Water is flowing at the rate of 4 m3 /min into a tank inn the
form of an inverted cone radius 10 m and altitude 20 m. How fast is the water
level rising when the water is 6 m deep?

Solution: At time t, let r be the radius of the water, h be the altitude of the
water, and V be the volume of the water in the conical tank. Then the volume
of the water is
V = 13 πr2 h.
By similar triangles (see figure),

r 10 h
h
= 20
⇔ r= .
2
Thus,
 2
1 h 1
V = π h = πh3 .
3 2 12
Taking differentials,
 
1 2
dV = πh dh,
4
and dividing by dt, we obtain
 
dV 1 2 dh
= πh .
dt 4 dt

dV
When h = 6 m and = 4 m3 /min, we have
dt
 
1 2 dh
4 = π(6) .
4 dt
Therefore,
dh 4
= m/min. 
dt 9π
 45

Example 4.8.3 At noon of a certain day, ship A is 20 km due south of ship

B. Ship A sails east at 4 km/hr and ship B sail south at 3 km/hr. How rapidly
the distance between them changing 3 hr later?

Solution: At time t, let s be the distance between ships A and B, x be the

distance travelled by ship A, and y be the distance travelled by ship B (draw
a figure). Then

s2 = x2 + (20 − y)2 .

Taking differentials,

2sds = 2xdx − 2(20 − y)dy,

and dividing by dt and simplifying, we obtain

ds dx dy
s = x − (20 − y) .
dt dt dt
p
√ When t = 3, x = 4(3) = 12, y = 3(3) = 9, and s = (12)2 + (9)2 =
225 = 15. Also, dx
dt
= 4 and dy
dt
= 3. Hence,
ds
15 = 12(4) − (20 − 9)3.
dt
Therefore,
ds
= 1 km/hr. 
dt

Example 4.8.4 The top of 25 foot ladder, leaning against a wall, is slipping
down the wall at the rate of 1 ft/sec. how fast is the bottom of the ladder
slipping along the ground when the bottom of the ladder is 7 ft away from the
base of the wall?

Solution: At time t, let x be the distance of the bottom of the ladder from the
base of the wall and y be the distance of the top of the ladder from the ground
(draw a figure). Then

x2 + y 2 = (25)2 .

Taking differentials,
 46

2xdx + 2ydy = 0,

and dividing by dt and simplifying, we obtain

dx dy
x +y = 0.
dt dt
p √ dy
When x = 7, y = (25)2 − (7)2 = 576 = 24. Also, dt
= −1. Hence,
dx
7 + 24(−1) = 0.
dt
Therefore,
dx 24
= ft/sec. 
dt 7

Example 4.8.5 A trough is 10 m long has its ends are isosceles triangles with
altitude 2 m and base 2 m, their vertices being at the bottom. If water is let
into the trough at the rate of 3 m3 /min, how fast is the water level rising when
it is 1 m deep?

Solution: At time t, let x be the width of the water across the top, y be the
height of the water, and V the volume of the water (draw a figure). Then the
volume of the water is

V = 12 xy(10) = 5xy.

From the figure and from similar triangles, x = y. Thus,

V = 5y 2 .

Taking differentials,

dV = 10ydy,

and dividing by dt, we obtain

dV dy
= 10y .
dt dt

dV
When y = 1 and dt
= 3, we have
 47

dy
3 = 10(1) .
dt
Therefore,
dy 3
= m/min. 
dt 10

Exercises

1. Two automobiles start from the same point at hte same time. One travels
west at 60 km/hr and the other travels south at 35 km/hr. How fast is the
distance between them increasing 3 hr later?
2. A street light is 5 m above a sidewalk. A man 2 m tall walks away from the
point under the light at the rate of 2 m/sec. How fast is his shadow lengthening
when he is 7 m away fromm the point under the light?
3. Sand is isssuing from a spout at the rate of 3 m3 /min and falling on a
conical pile whose diameter at the base is always three times the altitude. At
what rate is the altitude increasing when the altitude is 4 m?
4. Water is leaking out of a conical tank (vertex down) at the rate of 0.5
m3 /min. The tank is 30 m across the top and 10 m deep. If the water level
is rising at the rate of 1.5 m/min, at what rate is water being poured into the
tank from the top?
5. The surface area of the sphere is increasing at the rate of 6π square inches
per second. How fast is the volume changing when the volume of the sphere
is 9π
2
cubic inches?
6. A light is on the ground 40 m from the building. A man 2 m tall walks
from the light toward the building at 2 m/sec. How rapidly is his shadow on
the building growing shorter when he is 20 m from the building?
7. A balloon is being inflated at the rate of 15 m3 /min. At what rate is the
diameter increasing after 5 min? Assume that the diameter is zero at time
zero.
8. A rhombus with an acute angle of 45o has sides which are growing at the
rate of 2 cm/min, while always retaining the same shape. How fast is the area
changing when the sides are 10 cm?