Automatic street light control using LDR.

1. 1. Automatic Street Light Control Using Light Dependent Resistor (LDR) By

Fazlur Rahman I Project Report On Automatic Street Light Control Using
Light Dependent Resistor This project paper has been submitted to the
Eastern University of Bangladesh in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the award of the degree of Bachelor of Science in Electrical and
Electronics Engineering. Submitted by Md. Fazlur Rahman ID: 091800101
Supervised by Prof. Dr. Mirza Golam Rabbani Chairperson Department of
Electrical and Electronic Engineering. Faculty of Engineering & Technology
EASTERN UNIVERSITY. Dhanmondi, Dhaka-1205, Bangladesh December,
2013
2. 2. Automatic Street Light Control Using Light Dependent Resistor (LDR) By
Fazlur Rahman II DECLARATION It is hereby declared that the work
presented in this project report is done by the authors under the
supervision of Prof. Dr. Mirza Golam Rabbani, Chairperson, Department of
Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Eastern University. We hereby
declare that the content of this report is the result of work done by us and
has not been submitted to any other University or Institution for a higher
degree or any other purpose. ………………………. Md. Fazlur Rahman ID:
091800101 Supervisor: ……………………………………………… Prof. Dr. Mirza
Golam Rabbani Chairperson Department of Electrical & Electronic
Engineering, Faculty of Engineering & Technology Eastern University,
Dhaka, Bangladesh.
3. 3. Automatic Street Light Control Using Light Dependent Resistor (LDR) By
Fazlur Rahman III EASTERN UNIVERSITY OF BANGLADESH CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the Project report of “Automatic Street Light Control
Using Light Dependent Resistor” is a bona fide record of project work done
by Md. Fazlur Rahman, ID No: 091800101 and others for partial fulfillment
of the requirements for the award of the degree of B.Sc. in Electrical and
Electronics Engineering from the Eastern University of Bangladesh (EU).
This report has been carried out under my guidance and is a record of the
bona fide work has been complete successfully. I wish their every success
in life. Supervisor Prof. Dr. Mirza Golam Rabbani Chairperson Department
of Electrical and Electronic Engineering Eastern University of Bangladesh
Dhaka, Bangladesh.
4. 4. Automatic Street Light Control Using Light Dependent Resistor (LDR) By
Fazlur Rahman IV ACKNOWLEDGMENT At first, we would like to thank and
all praise to “Almighty Allah” the most merciful, the most gracious, the
source of knowledge and wisdom endowed to mankind, who conferred us
with the power mind and capability to take this study of exciting ocean of
knowledge. We express our sincere thanks to our supervisor, Prof. Dr. Mirza
Golam Rabbani for his constant support, motivation and encouragement
without which it would have been very difficult for us to complete the
project. He gave us the freedom to think and made open all the resources
 he had in his personal capacity. We are grateful to our honorable Vice
Chancellor .Prof. Dr. Nurul Islam and also our Dean Prof. Dr. Nurul Islam &
chairman, Prof. Dr. Mirza Golam Rabbani for providing golden opportunity
for achieving our degree of Bachelor of Science in Electrical and
Electronics Engineering and their best cooperation. We would also like to
thanks Kazi Saiful Alam and all teachers in the Department of Electrical
and Electronics Engineering for their constant support, motivation,
sacrifice and their encouragement. Above all we would like to thank our
parents who gave us the moral support. Authors, Md. Fazlur Rahman
5. 5. Automatic Street Light Control Using Light Dependent Resistor (LDR) By
Fazlur Rahman V ABSTRACT The theme of the project is to design the
automatic control of street light with change of the intensity of sunlight
i.e. as the intensity of sunlight decreases, intensity of street light
increases. LDR is used to detect light intensity. Triac controlled circuit is
used to control the intensity of light. In this project there is the necessity
of getting synchronized firing pulses for the gate of the Thyristor. Out of
many variety of firing circuits available, phase angle controls scheme is
used. In this interesting scheme, the supply voltage is first integrated to
obtain a sine wave. The sine wave so obtained is compared with a
reference D.C voltage. The signal at output terminal is synchronized with
the pulse and is delayed from the supply zero crossing signal.
Instrumentation Triac is used to provide a reference voltage to a firing
circuit. And this reference voltage is totally dependent on LDR resistance
whose value change with intensity of light. This circuit is analyzed and
tested in various conditions and it provides an absolute result which
shows the reliability of this circuit. Usually street light remain ON in
morning time due to manual operation, which cause loss of energy and
therefore this project is very beneficial for saving power and energy by
automatic control. This circuit also provides the idea of developing the
driver circuit of LED lamp which is widely used nowadays.
6. 6. Automatic Street Light Control Using Light Dependent Resistor (LDR) By
Fazlur Rahman VI INDEX Page No. Declaration
……………………………………………………………………………. II Examination
Committee ……………………………………………………………. III Certificate
……………………………………………………………………………… IV
Acknowledgement ……………………………………………………………………... V
Abstract ………………………………………………………………………… VI CONTENTS
Chapter 1 LITERATURE REVIEW Page No. 1.1 Introduction
…………………………………………………………… 01 1.2 Scope of This Project .
………………………………………………… 02 1.3 Objectives
……………………………………………………………... 02 Chapter 2 THEORY OF THE
PROJECT 2.1 Introduction …………………………………………………………. 03 2.2
Required Components ………………………………………………. 03 2.3 Light
Dependent Resistor (LDR) ……………………………………. 04 2.3.1 Recovery
Rate ……………………………………………………… 06 2.4 Micro-controller
……………………………………………………… 07 2.5 The PIC16F676
 ………………………………………………………… 08 2.5.1 Block Diagram Of
PIC16F676 ………………………………………… 09 2.5.2 Specification of
Microcontroller ………………………………………… 09 2.5.3 Pin Layout
…………………………………………………………… 11 2.5.4 Pin Description
……………………………………………………….. 12
7. 7. Automatic Street Light Control Using Light Dependent Resistor (LDR) By
Fazlur Rahman VII Chapter 3 THYRISTOR 3.1 Thyristor
……………………………………………………………… 13 3.1.1 Typical Thyristor
Characteristics ………………………………………… 13 3.1.2 Firing Techniques of
Thyristor ………………………………………… 14 3.2 Popular Methods of
Generating firing Pulses ………………………………... 15 3.3 Phase Angle
Control ……………………………………………………… 16 3.4 Introduction of Triac
…………………………………………………… 17 3.4.1Constructionof a Triac
………………………………………………… 18 3.4.2 Operation of a Triac
…………………………………………………….. 18 3.5 Gate Threshold Current
…………………………………………………. 20 3.6 Latching Current
…………………………………………………………. 20 3.7 Holding Current
………………………………………………………… 20 3.8 Phase Angle Control by
Triac ……………………………………………. 21 3.9 Generate Zero-Crossing signal
……………………………………………. 22 3.10 Pulse Width Modulation (PWM)
………………………………………… 23 Chapter 4 OPTOCOUPLER 4.1 Optocoupler
…………………………………………………………... 24 4.1.1 Photo Transistor
Optocoupler …………………………………………. 24 4.1.2 Optocoupler Types
…………………………………………………... 25 4.1.3 Optocoupler Application
……………………………………………… 26 4.2 Optocoupler Triac Control
………………………………………………. 27 4.3 Bi-Polar junction Transistor
……………………………………………... 27 4.4 power Supply
…………………………………………………………... 29 4.5 Step down Transformer
…………………………………………………. 29
8. 8. Automatic Street Light Control Using Light Dependent Resistor (LDR) By
Fazlur Rahman VIII 4.6 Rectifier
……………………………………………………………….. 30 4.6.1 Full Wave Rectifier
…………………………………………………… 31 4.7 Capacitor
……………………………………………………………… 31 4.8 Resistor
……………………………………………………………….. 32 4.9 Light Emitting Diode
(LED) …………………………………………….. 33 4.10 Diode (IN 4007)
……………………………………………………… 34 4.11 Zener Diode
………………………………………………………….. 35 4.12 Rc Snubber
…………………………………………………………… 36 4.13 Voltage Regulator (7805)
………………………………………………. 37 4.14 Push Button Switch
……………………………………………………. 38 4.15 Fuse
………………………………………………………………….. 39 Chapter 5 Design &
Fabrication 5.1 Introduction … …………………………………………………… 41 5.2
Circuit Diagram ………………………………………………………… 41 5.3 PCB Board
Connection Diagram …………………………………………. 42 5.4 Circuit
Descriptions ……………………………………………………... 43 5.5 Flow Chart of
 this Project Program ………………………………………... 44 Chapter 6 Result
Analysis 6.1 Result …………………………………………………………………. 45 6.2
Image of This Project ……………………………………………………. 45 6.3
Advantages & Disadvantages …………………………………………….. 46 6.4
Applications …………………………………………………………….. 46
9. 9. Automatic Street Light Control Using Light Dependent Resistor (LDR) By
Fazlur Rahman IX Chapter 7 Conclusion 7.1 Conclusion
……………………………………………………………... 47 7.2 Future Scope
…………………………………………………………… 47 Appendix
……………………………………………………………… 48 Program Code
………………………………………………………... 48 Reference
……………………………………………………………… 55
10. 10. Automatic Street Light Control Using Light Dependent Resistor (LDR)
By Fazlur Rahman X Figures List SL No Fig. No Figure Name Page No 1 2.1
Light Dependent Resistor 05 2 2.2 Symbol of LDR 05 3 2.3 LDR and its
characteristic graph 05 4 2.4 The Microcontroller 08 5 2.5 Block Diagram
of PIC16F676 09 6 2.6 Pin Layout (PIC16F676) 12 7 3.1 Structure on the
physical and electronic level and thyristor symbol 13 8 3.2 Characteristics
of SCR 14 9 3.3 Basic Idea of Ramp Signal 15 10 3.4 Basic Idea of Sine
Scheme 16 11 3.5 Voltage Phage Angle Control 16 12 3.6 Basic Structure of
Triac 17 13 3.7 Triac Construction 18 14 3.8 Operation of Triac 19 15 3.9
Phase angle control 21 16 3.10 Generating Zero-crossing Signal 22 17 3.11
Zero-crossing signal Circuit 22 18 3.12 Duty Cycle 23 19 4.1 Optocoupler
24 20 4.2 Photo-Transistor Optocoupler 25 21 4.3 Different Types of
Optocoupler 25 22 4.4 Rigid Plastic Tube 26 23 4.5 Optocoupler Triac
Control Circuit 27 24 4.6 Pin Diagram and Symbol of Transistor 28 25 4.7
Step Down Transformer 29 26 4.8 Full-wave Rectifier 31 27 4.9 Capacitor
32
11. 11. Automatic Street Light Control Using Light Dependent Resistor (LDR)
By Fazlur Rahman XI SL No Fig. No Figure Name Page No 28 4.10 Resistor
33 29 4.11 Light Emitting Diode 34 30 4.12 Diode (IN4007) 35 31 4.13 Zener
Diode 36 32 4.14 RC Snubbers 36 33 4.15 LM 7805 Pinout Diagram 37 34
4.16 Push-button Switch 38 35 4.17 Fuse 39 36 5.1 Circuit Diagram 41 37
5.2 PCB Board Diagram 42 38 6.1 Image of the Project 45
12. 12. Automatic Street Light Control Using Light Dependent Resistor (LDR)
By Fazlur Rahman - 1 - Chapter 1 LITERATURE REVIEW 1.1 INTRODUCTION
We need to save or conserve energy because most of the energy sources
we depend on, like coal and natural gas can't be replaced. Once we use
them up, they're gone forever. Saving power is very important, instead of
using the power in unnecessary times it should be switched off. In any city
“STREET LIGHT” is one of the major power consuming factors. Most of the
time we see street lights are ON even after sunrise thus wasting lot of
energy. Over here we are avoiding the problem by having an automatic
system which turns ON & OFF the street lights at given time or when the
ambient light falls below a specific intensity. Each controller has an LDR
which is used to detect the ambient light. If the ambient light is below a
 specific value the lights are turned ON. A light dependent sensor is
interfaced to the pic16f676 microcontroller it is used to track the sun light
and when the sensors goes dark the led will be made on and when the
sensor founds light the led will be made OFF. It clearly demonstrates the
working of transistor in saturation region and cut-off region. The working
of relay is also known Microcontroller and the code is written in c.
Automatic Street Light Control System is a simple yet powerful concept,
which uses transistor as a switch. By using this system manual works are
100% removed. It automatically switches ON lights when the sunlight goes
below the visible region of our eyes. This is done by a sensor called Light
Dependent Resistor (LDR) which senses the light actually like our eyes. It
automatically switches OFF lights whenever the sunlight comes.
13. 13. Study different electrical parts To know the design procedure of
Automatic Street Light Control Using Light Dependent Resistor. Automatic
Street Light Control Using Light Dependent Resistor (LDR) By Fazlur
Rahman - 2 - Aim of this project is to control the street light using LDR.
When the light falling occur means resistance value will be change. There
is no light then the resistance value is change. From this resistance
change the voltage variation can be obtained this value is given to ADC of
PIC. PIC is stand for peripheral interface controller. 1.2 SCOPE OF THE
PROJECT The main scope of the project is to learn the pic microcontroller,
using 10BIT ADC serial communication, with coding system write in win
avr and load the code in pic microcontroller in hex code. 1.3 OBJECTIVE &
To control the lighting system on/off. Study microcontroller program
language.  To measure the light intensity.  Study about PIC
microcontroller. . elements
14. 14. Pushbutton Switch Snubber  Diode Bridge  Heat Sink  Transistor 
Triac  Fuse  Microcontroller (pic16f676)  Opto-Coupler  Zener Diode 
Voltage Regulator (7805)  LED  Resistor  Capacitor  Light Dependent
Resistor Automatic Street Light Control Using Light Dependent Resistor
(LDR) By Fazlur Rahman - 3 - CHAPTER-2 THEORY OF THE PROJECT 2.1
INTRODUCTION To 333 implement of the desire project, our target is to
arrange all required components and module as per circuit design and
practical functioning status observation of components as well as PCB
layout design. The required components and description are as follows –
2.2. REQUIRED COMPONENTS
15. 15. When light falls on the strip, the resistance decreases. In the absence
of light the resistance can be in the order of 10 K ohm to 15 K ohm and is
called the dark resistance. Depending on the exposure of light the
resistance can fall down to value of 500 ohms. The power ratings are
usually smaller and are in the range 50 mw to 0.5 w. Though very sensitive
to light, the switching time is very high and hence cannot be used for high
frequency applications. They are used in chopper amplifiers. Light
dependent resistors are available as discs 0.5 cm to 2.5 cm. The
resistance rises to several Mega ohms under dark conditions. The below
figure shoes that when the torch is turned on, the resistance of the LDR
 falls, allowing current to pass through it is shown in figure. LDR are made
by depositing a film of cadmium sulphide or cadmium selenide on a
substrate of ceramic containing no or very few free electrons when not
illuminated. The longer the strip the more the value of resistance.
Automatic Street Light Control Using Light Dependent Resistor (LDR) By
Fazlur Rahman - 4 - 2.3 LIGHT DEPENDENT RESISTOR (LDR) LDR or Light
Dependent Resistors are very useful especially in light/dark sensor
circuits. Normally the resistance of an LDR is very high, sometimes as high
as 1000000 ohms, but when they are illuminated with light resistance
drops dramatically. Electronic onto sensors are the devices that alter their
electrical characteristics, in the presences of visible or invisible light. The
best-known devices of this type are the light dependent resistor (LDR), the
photo diode and the phototransistors. Light dependent resistor as the
name suggests depends on light for the variation of resistance.
16. 16. Automatic Street Light Control Using Light Dependent Resistor (LDR)
By Fazlur Rahman - 5 - Fig.2.1 LDR. Fig.2.2 Symbol for LDR. The basic
construction and symbol for LDR are shown in above figures respectively.
The device consists of a pair of metal film contacts separated by a
snakelike track of cadmium sulphide film, designed to provide the
maximum possible contact area with the two metal films. The structure is
housed in a clear plastic or resin case, to provide free access to external
light. Practical LDR are available in variety of sizes and packages styles,
the most popular size having a face diameter of roughly 10 mm. practical
LDR and its characteristic graph is shown in below figure. Fig.2.3 LDR and
its characteristic graph
17. 17. Wide ambient temperature range. Wide spectral response.  Light
weight.  High reliability.  Very bright light: Minimum resistance, about 100
ohm. The LDR is a variable resistor whose resistance decreases with the
increase in light intensity. Two cadmium sulphide (cds) photoconductive
cells with spectral response similar to that of the human eye. The cell
resistance falls with increasing light intensity. Some of its features: 
Darkness: Maximum resistance, about 1Mohm. Automatic Street Light
Control Using Light Dependent Resistor (LDR) By Fazlur Rahman - 6 - 2.3.1
RECOVERY RATE When an LDR is brought from a certain illuminating level
into total darkness, the resistance does not increase immediately to the
dark value. The recovery rate is specified in k ohm/second and for current
LDR types it is more than 200 k ohm/second. The recovery rate is much
greater in the reverse direction, e.g. going from darkness to illumination
level of 300 lux, it takes less than 10ms to reach a resistance which
corresponds with a light level of 400 lux. A LDR may be connected either
way round and no special precautions are required when soldering.
18. 18. Automatic Street Light Control Using Light Dependent Resistor (LDR)
By Fazlur Rahman - 7 - 2.4 MICRO CONTROLLER This section provides an
introduction to most common word in the embedded system
“microcontroller”. It is written to familiarize you with microcontroller
terminology and basic microcontroller architecture. A microcontroller is a
 single chip, self-contained computer which incorporates all the basic
components of a personal computer on a much smaller scale.
Microcontrollers are often referred to as single chip devices or single chip
computers. The main consequence of the microcontroller’s small size is
that its resources are far more limited than those of a desktop personal
computer. In functional terms, a microcontroller is a programmable single
chip which controls a process or system. Microcontrollers are typically
used as embedded controllers where they control part of a very larger
system such as an appliance, automobile, scientific instrument or a
computer peripheral. Microcontrollers are designed to be low cost
solutions; therefore using them can drastically reduce part and design
costs for a project. Physically, a microcontroller is an integrated circuit
with pins along each side. The pins presented by a microcontroller are
used for power, ground, oscillator, I/O ports, interrupt request signals, reset
and control. In contrast, the pins exposed by a microprocessor are most
often memory bus signals (rather than I/O ports). A microcontroller has
seven main components: i. Central processing unit (CPU). ii. ROM. iii. RAM.
iv. Input and Output. v. Timer. vi. Interrupt circuitry. vii. Buses.
19. 19. Automatic Street Light Control Using Light Dependent Resistor (LDR)
By Fazlur Rahman - 8 - Fig.2.4 The Microcontroller. Microcontrollers do not
function in isolation. As their name suggests they are designed to control
other devices. 2.5 The PIC16 F676 200 nanosecond instruction execution
only 35 single word instructions CMOS FLASH-based 8-bit microcontroller
packs Microchip's powerful PIC® architecture into 14-pin package and is
upwards compatible with the PIC16F5X, PIC12FXXX and PIC16F7X devices.
The PIC16F676 features 8 channels of 10-bit Analog-to-Digital (A/D)
converter with 2 additional timers, 2 capture/compare/PWM functions and
the synchronous serial port can be configured as either 3- wire Serial
Peripheral Interface or the 2-wire Inter-Integrated Circuit bus and a
Universal Asynchronous Receiver Transmitter (USART). All of these
features make it ideal for more advanced level A/D applications in
automotive, industrial, appliances and consumer applications. PICs are
popular with both industrial developers due to their low cost, wide
availability, large user base, extensive collection of application notes,
availability of low cost or free development tools, and serial programming
(and re-programming with flash memory) capability.
20. 20. Automatic Street Light Control Using Light Dependent Resistor (LDR)
By Fazlur Rahman - 9 - 2.5.1 Block Diagram OF PIC16F676 Fig.2.5 Block
Diagram 2.5.2 Specifications of Microcontroller High Performance Risc
CPU • Only 35 instructions to learn: - All single-cycle instructions except
branches. • Operating speed: - DC - 20 MHz oscillator/clock input. - DC - 200
ns instruction cycle.
21. 21. Automatic Street Light Control Using Light Dependent Resistor (LDR)
By Fazlur Rahman - 10 - • Interrupt capability. • 8-level deep hardware
stack. • Direct, Indirect, and Relative Addressing modes. Special
Microcontroller Features • Internal and external oscillator options: -
 Precision internal 4 MHz oscillator factory calibrated to ±1%. - External
oscillator support for crystals and resonators. - 5μs wake-up from sleep,
3.0V, typical. • Power saving sleep mode. • Wide operating voltage range -
2.0V to 5.5V. • Industrial and extended temperature range. • Low power
power-on Reset (POR). • Power-up timer (PWRT) and oscillator start-up
timer (OST). • Brown-out detects (BOD). • Watchdog timer (WDT) with
independent oscillator for reliable operation. • Multiplexed MCLR/input-pin.
• Interrupt-on-pin change. • Individual programmable weak pull-ups. •
Programmable code protection. • High endurance FLASH/EEPROM cell: -
100,000 write FLASH endurance. - 1,000,000 write EEPROM endurance. -
FLASH/data EEPROM retention: > 40 years. Low Power Features • Standby
current: - 1 nA @ 2.0V, typical. • Operating current: - 8.5μA @ 32 kHz, 2.0V,
typical. - 100μA @ 1 MHz, 2.0V, typical.
22. 22. Automatic Street Light Control Using Light Dependent Resistor (LDR)
By Fazlur Rahman - 11 - • Watchdog timer current - 300 nA @ 2.0V, typical. •
Timer1 oscillator current: - 4μA @ 32 kHz, 2.0V, typical. Peripheral Features
• 12 I/O pins with individual direction control. • High current sink/source for
direct LED drive. • Analog comparator module with: - One analog
comparator. - Programmable on-chip comparator voltage reference
(CVREF) module. - Programmable input multiplexing from device inputs. -
Comparator output is externally accessible. • Analog-to-digital Converter
module (PIC16F676): - 10-bit resolution. - Programmable 8-channel input. -
Voltage reference input. • Timer0: 8-bit timer/counter with 8-bit
programmable prescaler. • Enhanced Timer1: - 16-bit timer/counter with
prescaler. - External gate input mode. - Option to use OSC1 and OSC2 in LP
mode as timer1 oscillator, if INTOSC mode selected. 2.5.3 Pin Layout
Fig.2.6 Pin Layout
23. 23. Automatic Street Light Control Using Light Dependent Resistor (LDR)
By Fazlur Rahman - 12 - 2.5.4 Pin Description Pin Number Description 1 Vdd
- positive power supply 2 RA5/T1CKI/OSC1/CLKIN - port A 3
RA4/T1G/OSC2/AN3/CLKOUT - port A 4 RA3/MCLR/Vpp - port A 5 RC5 - port
C 6 RC4 - port C 7 RC3/AN7 – port C 8 RC2/AN6 – port C 9 RC1/AN5 – port C
10 RC0/AN4 – port C 11 RA2/AN2/COUT/T0CKI/INT - port A 12
RA1/AN1/CIN-/Vref/ICSPCLK - port A 13 RA0/AN0/CIN+/ICSPDAT - port A 14
Vss – Ground
24. 24. Automatic Street Light Control Using Light Dependent Resistor (LDR)
By Fazlur Rahman - 13 - CHAPTER -3 THYRISTOR 3.1 THYRISTOR Thyristor
or silicon controlled rectifiers (SCR) are finding many uses in electronics,
and in particular for power control. Thyristor or silicon controlled rectifiers
(SCRs) have even been called the workhorse of high power electronics.
The thyristor is a four-layered, three terminalsemiconducting devices, with
each layer consisting of alternately N-type or type material, for example P-
N-P-N. The main terminals, labeled anode and cathode, are across the full
four layers, and the control terminal, called the gate, is attached to p-type
material near to the cathode. (Avariant called an SCS— Silicon Controlled
Switch — brings all four layers out to terminals.) The operation of a
 thyristor can be understood in terms of a pair of tightly coupled bipolar
transistors, arranged to cause the self-latching action. Fig.3.1 Structure on
the physical and electronic level, and the thyristor symbol. 3.1.1 TYPICAL
THYRISTOR CHARACTERISTICS Figure 3.2 shows a typical characteristic
curve for a thyristor. It can be seen that in the reverse biased region it
behaves in a similar way to a diode. All current, apart from a small leakage
current is blocked (reverse blocking region) until the reverse
25. 25. Automatic Street Light Control Using Light Dependent Resistor (LDR)
By Fazlur Rahman - 14 - breakdown region is reached, at which point the
insulation due to the depletion layers at the junctions breaks down In the
forward biased mode, unlike a normal diode, no current apart from a small
leakage current flows. This is called the forward blocking mode. If a gating
pulse is applied however, the thyristor "fires" and the forward resistance of
the device falls to a very low value, allowing very large(several amperes)
currents to flow in the forward conducting mode. Thyristor can also be
made to fire by applying a very large forward voltage between anode and
cathode, but this is not desirable as the device is not then being used to
control conduction. Fig.3.2 Characteristics of SCR. 3.1.2 FIRING
TECHNIQUE OF THYRISTOR An SCR can be switched from off state to on
state in several ways and these are: forward voltage triggering,
temperature triggering, light triggering and gate triggering. Gate triggering
is, however, the most common method of turning on the SCRs, because
this method lends itself accurately for turning on the SCR at the desired
instant of time. In addition gate triggering is an efficient and reliable
method.
26. 26. Automatic Street Light Control Using Light Dependent Resistor (LDR)
By Fazlur Rahman - 15 - 3.2 POPULAR METHODS OF GENERATING FIRING
PULSES Using ramp signal: In this scheme a ramp signal is generated in
synchronism with the a.c. supply. The first comparator translates the input
sinusoidal voltage into a square wave voltage. When the square wave
voltage is high, the transistor (P-N-P type) collector-base junction is
forward biased; the transistor is non conducting stage (off) and the
capacitor charges exponentially giving ramp rise of the voltage at the
output. However, as soon as the square voltage is negative, transistor
becomes on due to collector-base junction is reverse biased and the
capacitor discharges sharply giving a saw tooth like waveform as shown in
Fig. 3.2 Fig.3.3 Basic idea of ramp scheme This triangular voltage can now
be compared by the second comparator with a variable reference d.c.
voltage (Vref) to get the firing pulse signal at Y. The value of α can be
varied in the range o α 180 by changing the value of the reference voltage
(Vref).2). Using sine control: In this interesting scheme, the supply voltage
Vs is first integrated to obtain a sine wave as shown in Fig.3.4 The sine
wave so obtained is compared with a reference d.c. voltage (Vref).
Therefore square pulses will be generated at the output terminal of the
comparator. The signal at Y is synchronized with the pulse and is delayed
 from the supply zero crossing by an angle α. obviously, the value of α can
be varied a range of o α 180
27. 27. Automatic Street Light Control Using Light Dependent Resistor (LDR)
By Fazlur Rahman - 16 - Fig.3.4 Basic idea of sine scheme 3.3 PHASE
ANGLE CONTROLL In phase angle control, thyristors are used to halve the
voltage cycle during input. By controlling the phase angle or trigger angle,
the output RMS voltage of the load can be varied. The thyristor is turned
on for every half-cycle and switched off for each remaining half-cycle.
Fig.3.5 Voltage phage angle control The phase angle is the position at
which the thyristor is switched on. TRIACs are often used instead of
thyristors to perform the same function for better efficiency. If the load is
a combination of resistance and inductance, the current cycle lags the
voltage cycle, decreasing overall power output.
28. 28. Automatic Street Light Control Using Light Dependent Resistor (LDR)
By Fazlur Rahman - 17 - 3.4 INTRODUCTION OF TRIAC The triac is another
three-terminal ac switch that is triggered into conduction when a low-
energy signal is applied to its gate terminal. Unlike the SCR, the triac
conducts in either direction when turned on. The triac also differs from the
SCR in that either a positive or negative gate signal triggers it into
conduction. Thus the triac is a three terminal, four layer bidirectional
semiconductor device that controls ac power whereas an SCR controls dc
power or forward biased half cycles of ac in a load. Because of its
bidirectional conduction property, the triac is widely used in the field of
power electronics for control purposes “Triac” is an abbreviation for three
terminal ac switch. ‘Tri’-indicates that the device has three terminals and
‘ac’ indicates that the device controls alternating current or can conduct
in either direction. Fig.3.6 Basic Structure of Triac.
29. 29. Automatic Street Light Control Using Light Dependent Resistor (LDR)
By Fazlur Rahman - 18 - 3.4.1 CONSTRUCTION OF A TRIAC Triac is a three
terminal, four layer bilateral semiconductor device. It incorporates two
SCRs connected in inverse parallel with a common gate terminal in a
single chip device. The arrangement of the triac is shown in figure . As
seen, it has six doped regions. The gate terminal G makes ohmic contacts
with both the N and P materials. This permits trigger pulse of either
polarity to start conduction. Electrical equivalent circuit are shown in
figure 3.7. Since the triac is a bilateral device, the term “anode” and
“cathode” has no meaning, and therefore, terminals are designated as
main terminal 1. (MT1), main terminal 2 (MT2) and gate G. To avoid
confusion, it has become common practice to specify all voltages and
currents using MT1 as the reference. Fig.3.7 Triac Construction 3.4.2
OPERATION OF TRIAC Triac can be turned on without any gate current
provided the supply voltage becomes equal to the break over voltage of
the triac but the normal way to turn on the triac is by applying a proper
gate current. As in case of SCR, here too, the larger the gate current, the
smaller the supply voltage at which the triac is turned on.
30. 30. Automatic Street Light Control Using Light Dependent Resistor (LDR)
By Fazlur Rahman - 19 - Fig.3.8 Operation of Triac Triac can conduct
current irrespective of the voltage polarity of terminals MT1 and MT2 with
respect to each other and that of gate and terminal MT2. Consequently
four different possibilities of operation of triac exist. They are: 1. When
terminal MT2 is positive with respect to terminal MT1 current flows
through path P1-N1-P2-N2. The two junctions P1-N1 and P2-N2 are forward
biased whereas junction N1 P2 is blocked. The triac is now said to be
positively biased. A positive gate with respect to terminal MT1 forward
biases the junction P2-N2 and the breakdown occurs as in a normal SCR.
Shown in figure: 2. Terminal MT2 is positive but gate is negative with
respect to terminal MT1 Though the flow path of current remains the same
as in mode 1 but now junction P2-N3 is forward biased and current carriers
injected into P2 turn on the triac. 3. Terminal MT2 and gate are negative
with respect to terminal MT1 When terminal MT2 is negative with respect
to terminal MT1, the current flow path is P2-N1- P1-N4. The two junctions
P2-N1 and P1 - N4 are forward biased whereas junction N1-P1 is blocked.
The triac is now said to be negatively biased. A negative gate with respect
to terminal MT1 injects current carriers by forward biasing junction P2-N3
and thus initiates the conduction.
31. 31. Automatic Street Light Control Using Light Dependent Resistor (LDR)
By Fazlur Rahman - 20 - 4. Terminal MT2 is negative but gate is positive
with respect to terminal MT1 Though the flow path of current remains the
same as in mode 3 but now junction P2-N2 is forward biased, current
carriers are injected and therefore, the triac is turned on. Generally,
trigger mode 4 should be avoided especially in circuits where high di/dt
may occur. The sensitivity of triggering modes 2 and 3 is high and in case
of marginal triggering capability negative gate pulses should be used.
Though the triggering mode 1 is more sensitive compared to modes 2 and
3, it requires a positive gate trigger. However, for bidirectional control and
uniform gate trigger modes 2 and 3 are preferred. 3.5 GATE THRESHOLD
CURRENT A triac starts conducting when a current flowing into or out of
its gate is sufficient to turn on the relevant junctions in the quadrant of
operation. The minimum current able to do this is called gate threshold
current and is generally indicated by IGT. 3.6 LATCHING CURRENT When
the gate current is discontinued, if the current flowing between the two
main terminals is more than what is called the latching current, the device
keeps conducting, otherwise the device might turn off. Latching current is
the minimum that can make up for the missing gate current in order to
keep the device internal structure latched. 3.7 HOLDING CURRENT In
particular, if the pulse width of the gate current is sufficiently large
(generally some tens of Microseconds), the TRIAC has completed the
triggering process when the gate signal is discontinued and the latching
current reaches a minimum level called holding current. Holding current is
the minimum required current flowing between the two main terminals
 that keeps the device on after it has achieved commutation in every part
of its internal structure.
32. 32. Automatic Street Light Control Using Light Dependent Resistor (LDR)
By Fazlur Rahman - 21 - 3.8 PHASE ANGLE CONTROLL BY TRIAC When
TRIAC switch is connected between the AC power supply and the motor,
the power flow can be controlled by varying the RMS of the AC voltage.
This is called an AC voltage controller. There are two types of control
normally used: _ On-off control – TRIAC switches connect the load to the
AC source for a few cycles and then disconnect it for another few cycles of
the source voltage _ In phase control – TRIAC switches connect the load to
the AC sources for a moment in each cycle. (Fig.3.8) A reliable intensity
control of a AC lamp can be accomplished by combining the
Microcontroller and the phase angle control using a TRIAC. A benefit of
this approach is avoiding non-linearity that is present if using only the
TRIAC. Fig.3.9 Phase angle control.
33. 33. Automatic Street Light Control Using Light Dependent Resistor (LDR)
By Fazlur Rahman - 22 - 3.9 GENERATE ZERO- CROSSING SIGNAL We just
want to control the output phase angle of the sine wave AC signal so that
we can control the lamp brightness easily. Here is a simple wave shape for
understand it easily: Fig.3.10 Generate zero-crossing signal In this case,
we need to know what to do with MCU. Actually we need to sense the zero-
crossing signal Fig.3.11 Zero-crossing signal circuit. So we know the zero-
crossing points. Taking it as an interrupt we can easily design a micro-
controller based system which can generate a gate firing signal. And this
signal will trigger the gate of the TRIAC. But a problem occurs again. The
micro-controller works at 5V DC on the other hand the TRIAC works at
220V AC. So how can I trigger the TRIAC with PIC .So we need a coupler or
Opto-isolator.
34. 34. Automatic Street Light Control Using Light Dependent Resistor (LDR)
By Fazlur Rahman - 23 - 3.10 PULSE-WIDTH MODULATION Pulse-width
modulation (PWM), or pulse-duration modulation (PDM), is a modulation
technique that confirms the width of the pulse, formally the pulse duration,
based on modulator signal information. Although this modulation
technique can be used to encode information for transmission, its main
use is to allow the control of the power supplied to electrical devices,
especially to inertial loads such as light or motors. In addition, PWM is one
of the two principal algorithms used in photovoltaic solar battery chargers,
[1] the other being MPPT. The average value of voltage (and current) fed to
the load is controlled by turning the switch between supply and load on
and off at a fast pace. The longer the switch is on compared to the off
periods, the higher the power supplied to the load is. The PWM switching
frequency has to be much faster than what would affect the load, which is
to say the device that uses the power. Typically switching have to be done
several times a minute in an electric stove, 120 Hz in a lamp dimmer, from
few kilohertz (kHz) to tens of kHz for a motor drive and well into the tens
or hundreds of kHz in audio amplifiers and computer ower supplies. The
 term duty cycle describes the proportion of 'on' time to the regular interval
or 'period' of time; a low duty cycle corresponds to low power, because the
power is off for most of the time. Duty cycle is expressed in percent, 100%
being fully on. The main advantage of PWM is that power loss in the
switching devices is very low. When a switch is off there is practically no
current, and when it is on, there is almost no voltage drop across the
switch. Power loss, being the product of voltage and current, is thus in
both cases close to zero. PWM also works well with digital controls, which,
because of their on/off nature, can easily set the needed duty cycle.
Fig.3.12 Duty Cycle
35. 35. Automatic Street Light Control Using Light Dependent Resistor (LDR)
By Fazlur Rahman - 24 - CHAPTER FOUR OPTOCOUPLER 4.1
OPTOCOUPLER An Optocoupler, also known as an Opto-isolator or Photo-
coupler, are electronic components that interconnect two electrical
circuits by means of an optical interface. The basic design of an
optocoupler consists of an LED that produces infra-red light and a
semiconductor photo-sensitive device that is used to detect this emitted
infra-red light. Both the LED and photo-sensitive device are enclosed in a
light-tight body or package with metal legs for the electrical connections
as shown .An opt coupler or opto-isolator consists of a light emitter, the
LED and a light sensitive receiver which can be a single photo-diode,
photo-transistor, photo-resistor, photo-SCR, or a photo- TRIAC and the basic
operation of an optocoupler is very simple to understand. Fig.4.1
Optocoupler 4.1.1 PHOTO-TRANSISTOR OPTOCOUPLER Assume a photo-
transistor device as shown. Current from the source signal passes through
the input LED which emits an infra-red light whose intensity is proportional
to the electrical signal. This emitted light falls upon the base of the photo-
transistor, causing it to switch-ON and conduct in a similar way to a
normal bipolar transistor. The base connection of the photo-transistor can
be left open for maximum sensitivity
36. 36. Automatic Street Light Control Using Light Dependent Resistor (LDR)
By Fazlur Rahman - 25 - or connected to ground via a suitable external
resistor to control the switching sensitivity making it more stable. When
the current flowing through the LED is interrupted, the infra-red emitted
light is cut-off, causing the photo-transistor to cease conducting. The
photo-transistor can be used to switch current in the output circuit. The
spectral response of the LED and the photo-sensitive device are closely
matched being separated by a transparent medium such as glass, plastic
or air. Since there is no direct electrical connection between the input and
output of an optocoupler, electrical isolation up to10kV is achieved. Fig.4.2
Photo-Transistor Optocoupler 4.1.2 OPTOCOUPLER TYPES Optocoupler are
available in four general types, each one having an infra-red LED source
but with different photo-sensitive devices. The four optocoupler are: photo-
transistor, photo-Darlington, photo-SCR and photo-Triac as shown below.
Fig4.3 Different types of optocoupler
37. 37. Automatic Street Light Control Using Light Dependent Resistor (LDR)
By Fazlur Rahman - 26 - The photo-transistor and photo-Darlington devices
are mainly for use in DC circuits while the photo-SCR and photo-triac allow
AC powered circuits to be controlled. There are many other kinds of
source-sensor combinations, such as LED-photodiode, LED-LASER, lamp-
photo resistor pairs, reflective and slotted optocoupler. Simple home made
optocoupler can be constructed by using individual components. An LED
and a photo-transistor are inserted into a rigid plastic tube or encased in
heat- shrinkable tubing as shown. The tubing can be of any length. Fig.4.4
Rigid plastic tube 4.1.3 OPTOCOUPLER APPLICATIONS Optocoupler and
opto-isolators can be used on their own, or to switch a range of other
larger electronic devices such as transistors and triacs providing the
required electrical isolation between a lower voltage control signal and the
higher voltage or current output signal. Common applications for
optocoupler include microprocessor input/output switching, DC and AC
power control, PC communications, signal isolation and power supply
regulation which suffer from current ground loops, etc. The electrical
signal being transmitted can be either analogue (linear) or digital (pulses).
38. 38. Automatic Street Light Control Using Light Dependent Resistor (LDR)
By Fazlur Rahman - 27 - 4.2 OPTOCOUPLER TRIAC CONTROL This type of
optocoupler configuration forms the basis of a very simple solid state relay
application which can be used to control any AC mains powered load such
as lamps and motors. Also unlike a Thyristor (SCR), a triac is capable of
conducting in both halves of the mains AC cycle with zero-crossing
detection Fig.4.5 Optocoupler Triac Control Circuit. 4.3 BI-POLAR
JUNCTION TRANSISTOR BC547 is an NPN bi-polar junction transistor. A
transistor, stands for transfer of resistance, is commonly used to amplify
current. A small current at its base controls a larger current at collector &
emitter terminals. BC547 is mainly used for amplification and switching
purposes. It has a maximum current gain of 800. Its equivalent transistors
are BC548 and BC549. The transistor terminals require a fixed DC voltage
to operate in the desired region of its characteristic curves. This is known
as the biasing. For amplification applications, the transistor is biased such
that it is partly on for all input conditions. The input signal at base is
amplified and taken at the emitter. BC547 is used in common emitter
39. 39. Automatic Street Light Control Using Light Dependent Resistor (LDR)
By Fazlur Rahman - 28 - configuration for amplifiers. The voltage divider is
the commonly used biasing mode. For switching applications, transistor is
biased so that it remains fully on if there is a signal at its base. In the
absence of base signal, it gets completely off. Fig.4.6 Pin Diagram and
Symbol of Transistor A BC547 transistor is a negative-positive-negative
(NPN) transistor that is used for many purposes. Together with other
electronic components, such as resistors, coils, and capacitors, it can be
used as the active component for switches and amplifiers. Like all other
NPN transistors, this type has an emitter terminal, a base or control
terminal, and a collector terminal. In a typical configuration, the current
 flowing from the base to the emitter controls the collector current. A short
vertical line, which is the base, can indicate the transistor schematic for
an NPN transistor, and the emitter, which is a diagonal line connecting to
the base, is an arrowhead pointing away from the base. There are various
types of transistors, and the BC547 is a bipolar junction transistor (BJT).
There are also transistors that have one junction, such as the junction
field- effect transistor, or no junctions at all, such as the metal oxide field-
effect transistor (MOSFET). During the design and manufacture of
transistors, the characteristics can be predefined and achieved. The
negative (N)-type material inside an NPN transistor has an excess of
electrons, while the positive (P)-type material has a lack of electrons, both
due to a contamination process called doping.
40. 40. Automatic Street Light Control Using Light Dependent Resistor (LDR)
By Fazlur Rahman - 29 - 4.4 POWER SUPPLY For making DC supply circuit,
we use transformer of 230V/18V. This type of transformer provide center
tap for neutral point (0V). Power supply with 5V with neutral point is
obtained. The 5v power supply is to connected to the PIC16F676
microcontroller and the peripheral items and 220V power supply is
connected to the Triac, and AC Lamp. 4.5 STEP DOWEN TRANSFORMER A
transformer is a static electrical device that transfers energy by inductive
coupling between its winding circuits. A varying current in the primary
winding creates a varying magnetic flux in the transformer's core and thus
a varying magnetic flux through the secondary winding. This varying
magnetic flux induces a varying electromotive force (emf) or voltage in the
secondary winding. A transformer whose output voltage is lower than it’s
input voltage. A secondary winding of such a transformer has fewer turns
than the primary. Such a transformer may have multiple secondary
windings. It used, for instance, to decrease the voltage of electricity as it
leaves the transmission system and enters the distribution system. The
output voltage of a step-up transformer is higher than its input voltage.
Also spelled step down transformer. Fig.4.7 Step Down Transformer
41. 41. Automatic Street Light Control Using Light Dependent Resistor (LDR)
By Fazlur Rahman - 30 - This is a step-down transformer, as evidenced by
the high turn count of the primary winding and the low turn count of the
secondary. As a step-down unit, this transformer converts high-voltage,
low-current power into low-voltage, high-current power. The larger-gauge
wire used in the secondary winding is necessary due to the increase in
current. The primary winding, which doesn't have to conduct as much
current, may be made of smaller-gauge wire. Transformers are often
constructed in such a way that it is not obvious which wires lead to the
primary winding and which lead to the secondary. One convention used in
the electric power industry to help alleviate confusion is the use of “H”
designations for the higher-voltage winding and “X” designations for the
lower-voltage winding. Therefore, a simple power transformer will have
wires labeled “H1”, “H2”, “X1”, and “X2” . There is usually significance to
the numbering of the wires, which we'll explore a little later in this chapter.
 The fact that voltage and current get “stepped” in opposite directions (one
up, the other down) makes perfect sense when you recall that power is
equal to voltage times current, and realize that transformers cannot
produce power, only convert it. Any device that could output more power
than it took in would violate the Law of Energy Conservation in physics,
namely that energy cannot be created or destroyed, only converted. 4.6
RECTIFIER A rectifier is an electrical device that converts alternating
current (AC), which periodically reverses direction, to direct current (DC),
which flows in only one direction. The process is known as rectification.
Physically, rectifiers take a number of forms, including vacuum tube
diodes, mercury-arc valves, copper and selenium oxide rectifiers,
semiconductor diodes, silicon-controlled rectifiers and other silicon- based
semiconductor switches. Historically, even synchronous
electromechanical switches and motors have been used. Early radio
receivers, called crystal radios, used a "cat's whisker" of fine wire
pressing on a crystal of galena (lead sulfide) to serve as a point-contact
rectifier or "crystal detector".
42. 42. Automatic Street Light Control Using Light Dependent Resistor (LDR)
By Fazlur Rahman - 31 - 4.6.1 FULL-WAVE RECTIFICATION A full-wave
rectifier converts the whole of the input waveform to one of constant
polarity (positive or negative) at its output. Full-wave rectification converts
both polarities of the input waveform to pulsating DC (direct current), and
yields a higher average output voltage. Two diodes and a center tapped
transformer source (including a transformer without center tap), are n
double diodes with common cathode or common anode, and four
manufactured as single components. For single-phase AC, if the
transformer is center to-cathode or anode-to-anode, depending upon
output polarity required) can form rectifier. Twice as many turns are
required on the transformer secondary to obtain the same output voltage
than for a bridge rectifier, but the power rating is unchanged. Fig.4.8 Full-
wave rectifier. 4.7 CAPACITOR A capacitor (originally known as a
condenser) is a passive two-terminal electrical component used to store
energy electro statically in an electric field. By contrast, batteries store
energy via chemical reactions. The forms of practical capacitors vary
widely, but all contain at least two electrical conductors separated by a
dielectric (insulator); for example, one common construction consists of
metal foils separated by a thin layer of insulating film. Capacitors are
widely used as parts of electrical circuits in many common electrical
devices.
43. 43. Automatic Street Light Control Using Light Dependent Resistor (LDR)
By Fazlur Rahman - 32 - Fig.4.9 Capacitor Capacitors are components that
are used to store an electrical charge and are used in timer circuits. A
capacitor may be used with a resistor to produce a timer. Sometimes
capacitors are used to smooth a current in a circuit as they can prevent
false triggering of other components such as relays. When power is
supplied to a circuit that includes a capacitor - the capacitor charges up.
 When power is turned off the capacitor discharges its electrical charge
slowly. When there is a potential difference (voltage) across the
conductors, a static electric field develops across the dielectric, causing
positive charge to collect on one plate and negative charge on the other
plate. Energy is stored in the electrostatic field. An ideal capacitor is
characterized by a single constant value, capacitance. This is the ratio of
the electric charge on each conductor to the potential difference between
them. The SI unit of capacitance is the farad, which is equal to one
coulomb per volt. Capacitors are widely used in electronic circuits for
blocking direct current while allowing alternating current to pass. In
analog filter networks, they smooth the output of power supplies. In
resonant circuits they tune radios to particular frequencies. In electric
power transmission systems they stabilize voltage and power flow.
44. 44. Automatic Street Light Control Using Light Dependent Resistor (LDR)
By Fazlur Rahman - 33 - 4.8 RESISTOR A resistor is a passive two-terminal
electrical component that implements electrical resistance as a circuit
element. Fig.4.10 Resistor The current through a resistor is in direct
proportion to the voltage across the resistor's terminals. This relationship
is represented by Ohm's law: (4.1) Where I is the current through the
conductor in units of amperes, V is the potential difference measured
across the conductor in units of volts, and R is the resistance of the
conductor in units of ohms. The ratio of the voltage applied across a
resistor's terminals to the intensity of current in the circuit is called its
resistance, and this can be assumed to be a constant (independent of the
voltage) for ordinary resistors working within their ratings. Resistors are
common elements of electrical networks and electronic circuits and are
ubiquitous in electronic equipment. Practical resistors can be made of
various compounds and films, as well as resistance wire (wire made of a
high- resistivity alloy, such as nickel-chrome). Resistors are also
implemented within integrated circuits, particularly analog devices, and
can also be integrated into hybrid and printed circuits
45. 45. Automatic Street Light Control Using Light Dependent Resistor (LDR)
By Fazlur Rahman - 34 - 4.9 LIGHT EMITING DIODE (LED) A light-emitting
diode (LED) is a semiconductor light source. LEDs are used as indicator
lamps in many devices and are increasingly used for other lighting.
Appearing as practical electronic components in 1962, early LEDs emitted
low- intensity red light, but modern versions are available across the
visible, ultraviolet, and infrared wavelengths, with very high brightness.
Fig.4.11 Light Emitting Diode When a light-emitting diode is switched on,
electrons are able to recombine with holes within the device, releasing
energy in the form of photons. This effect is called electroluminescence
and the color of the light (corresponding to the energy of the photon) is
determined by the energy band gap of the semiconductor. An LED is often
small in area (less than 1 mm2 ), and integrated optical components may
be used to shape its radiation pattern. LEDs present many advantages over
incandescent light sources including lower energy consumption, longer
 lifetime, improved physical robustness, smaller size, and faster switching.
However, LEDs powerful enough for room lighting are relatively expensive
and require more precise current and heat management than compact
fluorescent lamp sources of comparable output.
46. 46. Automatic Street Light Control Using Light Dependent Resistor (LDR)
By Fazlur Rahman - 35 - 4.10 DIODE (IN 4007) These diodes are used to
convert AC into DC these are used as half wave rectifier or full wave
rectifier. Three points must he kept in mind while using any type of diode.
1. Maximum forward current capacity 2. Maximum reverse voltage
capacity 3. Maximum forward voltage capacity Fig.4.12 Diode (IN4007) In
electronics, a diode is a two-terminal electronic component with
asymmetric conductance, it has low (ideally zero)resistance to current
flow in one direction, and high (ideally infinite) resistance in the other. A
semiconductor diode, the most common type today, is a crystalline piece
of semiconductor material with a p–n junction connected to two electrical
terminals. A vacuum tube diode has two electrodes, a plate (anode) and a
heated cathode. The most common function of a diode is to allow an
electric current to pass in one direction (called the diode's forward
direction), while blocking current in the opposite direction (the reverse
direction). Thus, the diode can be viewed as an electronic version of a
check valve. This unidirectional behavior is called rectification, and is
used to convert alternating current to direct current, including extraction
of modulation from radio signals in radio receivers—these diodes are forms
of rectifiers..
47. 47. Automatic Street Light Control Using Light Dependent Resistor (LDR)
By Fazlur Rahman - 36 - We used IN 4007 which is a simple, very common
rectifier diode. Often used for reverse voltage protection, the 1N4007 is a
staple for many powers, DC to DC step up, and breadboard projects.
1N4007 is rated for up to 1A/1000V. 4.11 ZENER DIODE A Zener diode is a
diode which allows current to flow in the forward direction in the same
manner as an ideal diode, but also permits it to flow in the reverse
direction when the voltage is above a certain value known as the
breakdown voltage, "zener knee voltage", and Zener voltage “or” avalanche
point. The zener diode's operation depends on the heavy doping of its p-n
junction. The depletion region formed in the diode is very thin (<1 µm) and
the electric field is consequently very high (about 500 kV/m) even for a
small reverse bias voltage of about 5 V, allowing electrons to tunnel from
the valence band of the p-type material to the conduction band of the n-
type material Fig.4.13 Zener Diode 4.12 RC SNUBBER A simple Snubber
uses a small resistor (R) in series with a small capacitor (C). This
combination can be used to suppress the rapid rise in voltage across a
thyristor, preventing the erroneous turn on of the thyristor; it does this by
limiting the rate of rise in voltage (dV/dt) across the thyristor to a value
which will not trigger it. An
48. 48. Automatic Street Light Control Using Light Dependent Resistor (LDR)
By Fazlur Rahman - 37 - appropriately-designed RC snubber can be used
 with either DC or AC loads. This sort of snubber is commonly used with
inductive loads such as electric motors. Fig.4.14 RC Snubbers The voltage
across a capacitor cannot change instantaneously, so a decreasing
transient current will flow through it for a small fraction of a second,
allowing the voltage across the switch to increase more slowly when the
switch is opened. Determination of voltage rating can be difficult owing to
the nature of transient waveforms, and may be defined simply by the
power rating the snubber components and the application. RC snubbers
can be made discretely and are also built as a single component. 4.13
VOLTAGE REGULATOR (7805) The 7805 (sometimes LM7805) is a family of
self-contained fixed linear voltage regulator integrated circuits. The 78xx
family is commonly used in electronic circuits requiring a regulated power
supply due to their ease-of-use and low cost. For ICs within the family, the
xx is replaced with two digits, indicating the output voltage (for example,
the 7805 has a 5 volt output, while the 7812 produces 12 volts). The 78xx
line is positive voltage regulators: they produce a voltage that is positive
relative to a common ground. There is a related line of 79xxdevices which
are complementary negative voltage regulators. 78xx and 79xx ICs can be
used in combination to provide positive and negative supply voltages in
the same circuit.
49. 49. Automatic Street Light Control Using Light Dependent Resistor (LDR)
By Fazlur Rahman - 38 - Fig.4.15 LM7805 Pinout Diagram. 7805 ICs have
three terminals and are commonly found in the TO220 form factor,
although smaller surface-mount and larger TO3 packages are available.
78xx series ICs do not require additional components to provide a
constant, regulated source of power, making them easy to use, as well as
economical and efficient uses of space. Other voltage regulators may
require additional components to set the output voltage level, or to assist
in the regulation process. 4.14 PUSH BUTTON SWITCH A push-button or
simply button is a simple switch mechanism for controlling some aspect of
a machine or a process. Buttons are typically made out of hard material,
usually plastic or metal. The surface is usually flat or shaped to
accommodate the human finger or hand, so as to be easily depressed or
pushed. Buttons are most often biased switches, though even many un-
biased buttons (due to their physical nature) require a spring to return to
their un-pushed state. Different people use different terms for the
"pushing" of the button, such as press, depress, mash, and punch
50. 50. Automatic Street Light Control Using Light Dependent Resistor (LDR)
By Fazlur Rahman - 39 - Fig.4.16 Push-button switch 4.15 FUSE A fuse is an
inexpensive device that can carry only a certain amount of current. When
a fuse is in an electronic circuit and the current exceeds the rated level,
the fuse melts (blows), thus breaking the circuit and preventing the
excessive current from flowing. Fuses are an essential component of any
electrical system that uses line voltage and has the possibility of short-
circuiting or overheating and causing a fire. The most common type of fuse
is the cartridge fuse, which consists of a cylindrical body that’s usually
 made of glass, plastic, or ceramic, with two metal ends. The metal ends
are the two terminals of the fuse. Inside the body is a thin wire conductor
that’s designed to melt away if the current exceeds the rated threshold.
Fig.4.17 Fuse
51. 51. Automatic Street Light Control Using Light Dependent Resistor (LDR)
By Fazlur Rahman - 40 - As long as the current stays below the maximum
level, the conductor passes the current from one metal end to the other.
But when the current exceeds the rated maximum, the conductor melts,
and the circuit is broken. An AGC fuse, which is a small fuse made of glass,
1-1/4″ in length and 1/4″ in diameter. This particular fuse is rated at 2 A, but
you can get AGC fuses in larger ratings, up to 15 A. (AGC stands for
Automotive Glass Cartridge.) Fuses should always be connected to the hot
wire and should be placed before any other component in the circuit. In
most projects, the fuse should be the first thing the hot wire connects to
after it enters your project enclose
52. 52. Automatic Street Light Control Using Light Dependent Resistor (LDR)
By Fazlur Rahman - 41 - CHAPTER FIVE DESIGN AND FABRICATION 5.1
INTRODUCTION Here we present the circuit diagram and PCB board
diagram, also given the circuit description or working principle of this
circuit diagram. 5.2 Circuit Diagram Fig.5.1 Circuit Diagram 5.3 PCB
BOARD CONNECTION DIAGRAM Fig.5.2 PCB Board Diagram 5.4 CIRCUIT
DESCRIPTION The main apparatus of the circuit is PIC16F676
microcontroller. It executes the main function of the control system. It has
14 pins which are connected with the necessary equipments. At first, we
gave input supply to the step-down transformer and to the ac bulb through
a fuse. Here we used a triac to give input supply to the ac bulb. In this
case triac is used for controlling high power. Our Step down transformer
gives us 18 v from 220 v primary supply. It becomes 18 v DC by using a full
wave rectifier. In this project bridge diode is used for zero crossing
53. 53. Automatic Street Light Control Using Light Dependent Resistor (LDR)
By Fazlur Rahman - 42 - signal. We also used a zener diode for sending not
more than 5v of the dc signal to the microcontroller. Otherwise the
microcontroller will be burnt. The microcontroller is operated in 5 v DC and
the 5 v is served by a 7805 voltage regulator. In the circuit we used bridge
diode for dc pulse setting. Here we also use an opto-coupler to interface
between triac and microcontroller. A series snubber and a heat sink are
used to protect the triac. We used an LED to understand the 5v supply in
microcontroller. In auto mode, An LDR is connected with microcontroller to
opt-coupler. LDR is used for sense the intensity of light. In day when the
light is fall upon LDR, then the output light intensity is decreasing and
when light intensity is full then output light intensity becomes off. In other,
when light intensity is decreasing, then the output light will be increasing
and when the dark mode then output light intensity will full. In manual
mode, We also used four push switches in this circuit for controlling the
intensity of two ac bulb, by controlling the firing angle manually. Switch-1
and Switch-4 is used for on or off mode the bulbe-1 and bulbe-2, and
 Switch-3(+) and Switch-4(-) is used for intensity up and down. A fuse is also
used in the circuit to protect the whole system for any kind of damage of
this circuit.
54. 54. Automatic Street Light Control Using Light Dependent Resistor (LDR)
By Fazlur Rahman - 43 - 5.5 FLOW CHART OF THIS PROJECT Initialize
Button Manual Aut o If light is not available If Light is available Lamp
intensity decrease / LDR is OFF Lamp intensity increase / LDR is ON Get
Firing Angle Set Firing Angle Return to previous Program Return to
previous Program Start
55. 55. Automatic Street Light Control Using Light Dependent Resistor (LDR)
By Fazlur Rahman - 44 - Chapter SIX RESULT ANALYSIS 6.1 RESULT The
fastest field of development in the electronic engineering is the field of
embedded systems engineering it is used in a variety of applications. In
this project the designing of the hardware circuit is successfully done. The
hardware designing and the software both are successfully done. 6.2
IMAGE OP THIS PROJECT Fig.6.1 Image of the project
56. 56. Smoke detection. They are also used in some clocks, alarms, and
other electronic devices that are semi-dependent on sunlight.  Photo
resistors are also used in digital cameras to detect how much light camera
sees and adjust the picture quality accordingly.  Photo resistors have
many uses, most of which involve detecting the presence of light. Street
lights use photo resistors to detect whether it is day or night and turn the
light on or off accordingly.  Photo resistors are only sensitive to light and
no other force can power it without risking damage. Also, they are unable
to detect low light levels and may take a few seconds to deliver a charge
while their electrons build up momentum. 6.4 APPLICATIONS  Is sensitive
to ambient light and require careful shielding.  Can be more complicated
to align detector pairs.  They are small enough to fit into virtually any
electronic device and are used all around the world as a basic component
in many electrical systems. Disadvantages  LDRs are sensitive,
inexpensive, and readily available devices. They have good power and
voltage handling capabilities, similar to those of a conventional resistor. 
Easy to set up.  Faster response  Our systems will automatic control the
switch ON/OFF.  No need of any manpower for maintenance. Automatic
Street Light Control Using Light Dependent Resistor (LDR) By Fazlur
Rahman - 45 - 6.3 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES Advantages
57. 57. Automatic Street Light Control Using Light Dependent Resistor (LDR)
By Fazlur Rahman - 46 - CHAPTER SEVEN CONCLUSION 7.1 CONCLUSION
In this project work we have studied and implemented a complete working
model using a PIC microcontroller. The programming and interfering of PIC
microcontroller has been mastered during the implementation. This work
includes the study of energy saving system in many applications. 7.2
FUTURE SCOPE The above project we can develop Solar Street light
system with Automatic street light controller. The system can be powered
from a battery, which can be charged during day time by harvesting the
solar energy through a solar cell. The solar energy harvested from sunlight
 can be stored, inverted from DC voltage to AC voltage using sun tie
converter. The AC voltage can be stepped up and given to the electric grid.
The AC voltage from the electric grid can be stepped down, rectified and
used for powering the circuit. Meanwhile, the street light can also be
powered by the A.C. voltage, which is controlled by a relay switch
connected to the switching part of the circuit. The above mentioned
strategy will enable us to harvest solar energy in an effective way for the
operation of the circuit and for powering the street light also.
58. 58. Automatic Street Light Control Using Light Dependent Resistor (LDR)
By Fazlur Rahman - 47 - APPENDIX Program Code: The algorithm of the
program is very simple. // PIN difine... #define Fan1 RA1_bit #define Fan2
RA2_bit #define Zero RA0_bit #define Plus_Button RC0_bit #define
Minus_Button RA3_bit #define Switch1 RC2_bit #define Switch2 RC3_bit
#define LED1 RC4_bit #define LED2 RC5_bit #define LED3 RA4_bit #define
LED4 RA5_bit #define LDR RA5_bit // global variables unsigned int
current=5; unsigned int ch_cnt=0; unsigned short Lamp1,Lamp2; unsigned
int auto_mode, intensity; unsigned int auto_cnt; unsigned int adc_rd;
unsigned short mode=0;
59. 59. Automatic Street Light Control Using Light Dependent Resistor (LDR)
By Fazlur Rahman - 48 - void Ato_Mode(void); void Manual_Mode(void); //
Interrupt ... void interrupt() { while(Lamp1) { while(Zero==0) { ch_cnt++;
while(ch_cnt<=105-current) { Fan1 = 0; break; } while(ch_cnt>=105-current)
{ Fan1 = 1; break; } break; } while(Zero==1) { Fan1 = 0; ch_cnt = 0; break; }
break; } while(Lamp2) {
60. 60. Automatic Street Light Control Using Light Dependent Resistor (LDR)
By Fazlur Rahman - 49 - while(Zero==0) { ch_cnt++; while(ch_cnt<=105-
current) { Fan2 = 0; break; } while(ch_cnt>=105-current) { Fan2 = 1; break; }
break; } while(Zero==1) { Fan2 = 0; ch_cnt = 0; break; } break; } // Timer
settings TMR0IF_bit = 0; TMR0 = 250; }// interrupt void main() { TRISA =
0b00001001;
61. 61. Automatic Street Light Control Using Light Dependent Resistor (LDR)
By Fazlur Rahman - 50 - PORTA = 0x00; TRISC = 0b00001111; PORTC =
0x00; ANSEL = 0b00100000; // all digital ADCON1 = 0x00;// set ADC clock
CMCON = 0x07; // Comparator off OPTION_REG = 0x81; TMR0 = 250;
INTCON = 0xA0; TMR0IE_bit = 1;// enable timer0 while(1) { while(!Switch1
&& !Switch2) { if(auto_cnt<5)auto_cnt++; Delay_ms(100); break; }
while(auto_cnt>=5) { mode=~mode; auto_cnt = 0; current = 0; break; }
if(mode) { Ato_Mode(void); } else { Manual_Mode(void);
62. 62. Automatic Street Light Control Using Light Dependent Resistor (LDR)
By Fazlur Rahman - 51 - } }// While }// void main void Manual_Mode(void) { //
intensity controll... while(!Minus_Button) { if(current<90) { current+=10;
Delay_ms(20); } else { current = 100; } Delay_ms(100); break; } while(!
Plus_Button) { if(current>11) { current-=10; Delay_ms(20); } else { current =
0; } Delay_ms(100);
63. 63. Automatic Street Light Control Using Light Dependent Resistor (LDR)
By Fazlur Rahman - 52 - break; } // Switch cotroll... while(!Switch1 &&
 Switch2) { Lamp1 = 1; Lamp2 = 0; Delay_ms(200); Fan2 = 0; break; } while(!
Switch2 && Switch1) { Lamp1 = 0; Lamp2 = 1; Fan1 = 0; Delay_ms(200);
break; } // LED bar-graph // LED bar graph... if(current>78) { LED4 = 1; LED3
= 1; LED2 = 1; LED1 = 1; } else if(current > 57 && current < 78) { LED4 = 0;
LED3 = 1; LED2 = 1;
64. 64. Automatic Street Light Control Using Light Dependent Resistor (LDR)
By Fazlur Rahman - 53 - LED1 = 1; } else if(current>24&&current<56) { LED4
= 0; LED3 = 0; LED2 = 1; LED1 = 1; } else { LED4 = 0; LED3 = 0; LED2 = 0;
LED1 = 1; } } // Auto mode void Ato_Mode(void) { ADCON0 = 0b00010101;
adc_rd = ADC_Read(5); current = (1023-adc_rd)/10; Lamp1 = 1; Lamp2 = 1; //
LED indication... LED1 = ~LED1; Delay_ms(10); LED2 = 0; LED3 = 0; LED4 =
0; }
65. 65. Automatic Street Light Control Using Light Dependent Resistor (LDR)
By Fazlur Rahman - 54 - REFERENCE: 1. R. Kamal, “Microcontrollers
Architecture, Programming, Interfacing and System Design”, Pearson
Education, 2005. 2. J. B. Peatman, “Design with PIC Microcontrollers”,
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Electrical Technology” Schand & and Company Ltd. 1999,Ramnagar, New
Delhi. 4. V. K. Mehta, “Principle Of Electronics” 1st Rdition 1959 5. M. H.
Rashid Power Electronics “ Circuit Devices and Application “, 2nd Edition,
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Microcontrollers” ● Websites :