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Level 1 Level 2 Level 3 Level 4

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DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS & DATA PRESENTATION*

Created for Psychology 41, Research Methods

by Barbara Sommer, PhD
Psychology Department
[email protected]

Instructions: This is a practice review, based on Ch. 18 which must be

read and understood first.

Have a pencil and some scratch paper on hand as you go through this.

When you see a statement or question in blue, try to answer or

anticipate the information before you bring it onscreen.

You can use the right-pointing arrow key on your keyboard to move
forward and the left-pointing arrow to move back.

At the top menu in Acrobat Reader, select Window > Show bookmarks.
A menu bar will appear on the left and permit you to directly access a
section - useful for review.

* permission granted for educational use only, please credit the source.
Contents
 Contents

Definitions & use

 Contents

Definitions & use

Selecting appropriate statistics

 Contents

Definitions & use

Selecting appropriate statistics

Specify variables
 Contents

Definitions & use

Selecting appropriate statistics

Specify variables
Is outcome categorical or continuous?
 Contents

Definitions & use

Selecting appropriate statistics

Specify variables
Is outcome categorical or continuous?

Descriptive statistics for categorical outcomes

 Contents

Definitions & use

Selecting appropriate statistics

Specify variables
Is outcome categorical or continuous?

Descriptive statistics for categorical outcomes

Percentages based on contingency tables
 Contents

Definitions & use

Selecting appropriate statistics

Specify variables
Is outcome categorical or continuous?

Descriptive statistics for categorical outcomes

Percentages based on contingency tables

Descriptive statistics for continuous outcomes

 Contents

Definitions & use

Selecting appropriate statistics

Specify variables
Is outcome categorical or continuous?

Descriptive statistics for categorical outcomes

Percentages based on contingency tables

Descriptive statistics for continuous outcomes

Central tendency
 Contents

Definitions & use

Selecting appropriate statistics

Specify variables
Is outcome categorical or continuous?

Descriptive statistics for categorical outcomes

Percentages based on contingency tables

Descriptive statistics for continuous outcomes

Central tendency
Variability, dispersion
 Contents

Definitions & use

Selecting appropriate statistics

Specify variables
Is outcome categorical or continuous?

Descriptive statistics for categorical outcomes

Percentages based on contingency tables

Descriptive statistics for continuous outcomes

Central tendency
Variability, dispersion
What is a standard deviation?
 Contents

Definitions & use

Selecting appropriate statistics

Specify variables
Is outcome categorical or continuous?

Descriptive statistics for categorical outcomes

Percentages based on contingency tables

Descriptive statistics for continuous outcomes

Central tendency
Variability, dispersion
What is a standard deviation?

Why bother with descriptive statistics?

 Contents

Definitions & use

Selecting appropriate statistics

Specify variables
Is outcome categorical or continuous?

Descriptive statistics for categorical outcomes

Percentages based on contingency tables

Descriptive statistics for continuous outcomes

Central tendency
Variability, dispersion
What is a standard deviation?

Why bother with descriptive statistics?

To provide a quantitative
description of a SAMPLE
DEFINITIONS
DEFINITIONS

group of interest to researcher

DEFINITIONS

group of interest to researcher

POPULATION
DEFINITIONS

group of interest to researcher

POPULATION

subset of a population
DEFINITIONS

group of interest to researcher

POPULATION

subset of a population
SAMPLE
DEFINITIONS

group of interest to researcher

POPULATION

subset of a population
SAMPLE

quantitative characteristic of a population

DEFINITIONS

group of interest to researcher

POPULATION

subset of a population
SAMPLE

quantitative characteristic of a population

PARAMETER!
DEFINITIONS

group of interest to researcher

POPULATION

subset of a population
SAMPLE

quantitative characteristic of a population

PARAMETER!

quantitative characteristic of a sample

DEFINITIONS

group of interest to researcher

POPULATION

subset of a population
SAMPLE

quantitative characteristic of a population

PARAMETER!

quantitative characteristic of a sample

STATISTIC
DEFINITIONS

group of interest to researcher

POPULATION

subset of a population
SAMPLE

quantitative characteristic of a population

PARAMETER!

quantitative characteristic of a sample

STATISTIC

Commit these to memory right now.

Define:

STATISTIC
Define:

STATISTIC quantitative characteristic of a sample

Define:

STATISTIC quantitative characteristic of a sample

SAMPLE
Define:

STATISTIC quantitative characteristic of a sample

SAMPLE subset of a population

Define:

STATISTIC quantitative characteristic of a sample

SAMPLE subset of a population

POPULATION
Define:

STATISTIC quantitative characteristic of a sample

SAMPLE subset of a population

POPULATION group of interest to researcher

Define:

STATISTIC quantitative characteristic of a sample

SAMPLE subset of a population

POPULATION group of interest to researcher

PARAMETER!
Define:

STATISTIC quantitative characteristic of a sample

SAMPLE subset of a population

POPULATION group of interest to researcher

PARAMETER! quantitative characteristic of a population

Choosing the correct descriptive statistics - KEY question
Choosing the correct descriptive statistics - KEY question

Is the OUTCOME (Dependent variable) categorical or continuous?

Choosing the correct descriptive statistics - KEY question

Is the OUTCOME (Dependent variable) categorical or continuous?

If the levels/values of the variable in question differ in quality or kind,

then it is a ____?___ variable.
Choosing the correct descriptive statistics - KEY question

Is the OUTCOME (Dependent variable) categorical or continuous?

If the levels/values of the variable in question differ in quality or kind,

then it is a ____?___ variable.

Ans: CATEGORICAL
Choosing the correct descriptive statistics - KEY question

Is the OUTCOME (Dependent variable) categorical or continuous?

If the levels/values of the variable in question differ in quality or kind,

then it is a ____?___ variable.

Ans: CATEGORICAL

Examples:
Choosing the correct descriptive statistics - KEY question

Is the OUTCOME (Dependent variable) categorical or continuous?

If the levels/values of the variable in question differ in quality or kind,

then it is a ____?___ variable.

Ans: CATEGORICAL

Examples:
Choosing the correct descriptive statistics - KEY question

Is the OUTCOME (Dependent variable) categorical or continuous?

If the levels/values of the variable in question differ in quality or kind,

then it is a ____?___ variable.

Ans: CATEGORICAL

Examples:

or
Choosing the correct descriptive statistics - KEY question

Is the OUTCOME (Dependent variable) categorical or continuous?

If the levels/values of the variable in question differ in quality or kind,

then it is a ____?___ variable.

Ans: CATEGORICAL

Examples:

YES
or
Choosing the correct descriptive statistics - KEY question

Is the OUTCOME (Dependent variable) categorical or continuous?

If the levels/values of the variable in question differ in quality or kind,

then it is a ____?___ variable.

Ans: CATEGORICAL

Examples:

YES
or
NO
Choosing the correct descriptive statistics - KEY question

Is the OUTCOME (Dependent variable) categorical or continuous?

If the levels/values of the variable in question differ in quality or kind,

then it is a ____?___ variable.

Ans: CATEGORICAL

Examples:

YES
or
NO

DON’T KNOW
CONTINUOUS VARIABLES are those whose levels or values vary ________ .
CONTINUOUS VARIABLES are those whose levels or values vary ________ .

Ans: along a quantitative dimension

CONTINUOUS VARIABLES are those whose levels or values vary ________ .

Ans: along a quantitative dimension

Examples:
CONTINUOUS VARIABLES are those whose levels or values vary ________ .

Ans: along a quantitative dimension

Examples:

Number of hours spent

watching TV
CONTINUOUS VARIABLES are those whose levels or values vary ________ .

Ans: along a quantitative dimension

Examples:

Number of hours spent

watching TV

Enjoyment - on a scale of 1 to 10
EXAMPLE: the Reasoner Hypothesis: A woman crosses her legs within
30 seconds of sitting down.
EXAMPLE: the Reasoner Hypothesis: A woman crosses her legs within
30 seconds of sitting down.

Examine hypothesis or question and specify variables

EXAMPLE: the Reasoner Hypothesis: A woman crosses her legs within
30 seconds of sitting down.

Examine hypothesis or question and specify variables

The hypothesis implies that men do not cross their legs within 30 seconds
of sitting down.
EXAMPLE: the Reasoner Hypothesis: A woman crosses her legs within
30 seconds of sitting down.

Examine hypothesis or question and specify variables

The hypothesis implies that men do not cross their legs within 30 seconds
of sitting down.

The condition in question (the predictor or independent variable) is . . .

EXAMPLE: the Reasoner Hypothesis: A woman crosses her legs within
30 seconds of sitting down.

Examine hypothesis or question and specify variables

The hypothesis implies that men do not cross their legs within 30 seconds
of sitting down.

The condition in question (the predictor or independent variable) is . . .

GENDER
EXAMPLE: the Reasoner Hypothesis: A woman crosses her legs within
30 seconds of sitting down.

Examine hypothesis or question and specify variables

The hypothesis implies that men do not cross their legs within 30 seconds
of sitting down.

The condition in question (the predictor or independent variable) is . . .

GENDER
Levels?
EXAMPLE: the Reasoner Hypothesis: A woman crosses her legs within
30 seconds of sitting down.

Examine hypothesis or question and specify variables

The hypothesis implies that men do not cross their legs within 30 seconds
of sitting down.

The condition in question (the predictor or independent variable) is . . .

GENDER
Levels? male
female
EXAMPLE: the Reasoner Hypothesis: A woman crosses her legs within
30 seconds of sitting down.

Examine hypothesis or question and specify variables

The hypothesis implies that men do not cross their legs within 30 seconds
of sitting down.

The condition in question (the predictor or independent variable) is . . .

GENDER
Levels? male
female

Dependent Variable (outcome)?

EXAMPLE: the Reasoner Hypothesis: A woman crosses her legs within
30 seconds of sitting down.

Examine hypothesis or question and specify variables

The hypothesis implies that men do not cross their legs within 30 seconds
of sitting down.

The condition in question (the predictor or independent variable) is . . .

GENDER
Levels? male
female

Dependent Variable (outcome)? LEG CROSS

EXAMPLE: the Reasoner Hypothesis: A woman crosses her legs within
30 seconds of sitting down.

Examine hypothesis or question and specify variables

The hypothesis implies that men do not cross their legs within 30 seconds
of sitting down.

The condition in question (the predictor or independent variable) is . . .

GENDER
Levels? male
female

Dependent Variable (outcome)? LEG CROSS

Levels?
EXAMPLE: the Reasoner Hypothesis: A woman crosses her legs within
30 seconds of sitting down.

Examine hypothesis or question and specify variables

The hypothesis implies that men do not cross their legs within 30 seconds
of sitting down.

The condition in question (the predictor or independent variable) is . . .

GENDER
Levels? male
female

Dependent Variable (outcome)? LEG CROSS

Yes (within 30 seconds)

Levels?
No (> 30 seconds or not at all)
EXAMPLE: the Reasoner Hypothesis: A woman crosses her legs within
30 seconds of sitting down.

Examine hypothesis or question and specify variables

The hypothesis implies that men do not cross their legs within 30 seconds
of sitting down.

The condition in question (the predictor or independent variable) is . . .

GENDER
Levels? male
female

Dependent Variable (outcome)? LEG CROSS

Yes (within 30 seconds)

Levels?
No (> 30 seconds or not at all)

Note: these are

operational definitions
Is the independent (predictor) variable categorical or continuous?
Is the independent (predictor) variable categorical or continuous?

The levels of gender are male and female. These are discrete categories,
therefore gender is categorical.
Is the independent (predictor) variable categorical or continuous?

The levels of gender are male and female. These are discrete categories,
therefore gender is categorical.

Is the dependent variable (outcome) categorical or continuous?

Is the independent (predictor) variable categorical or continuous?

The levels of gender are male and female. These are discrete categories,
therefore gender is categorical.

Is the dependent variable (outcome) categorical or continuous?

The levels of leg cross are yes and no. These are discrete categories,
therefore in this example, the dependent variable, leg cross, is categorical.
Is the independent (predictor) variable categorical or continuous?

The levels of gender are male and female. These are discrete categories,
therefore gender is categorical.

Is the dependent variable (outcome) categorical or continuous?

The levels of leg cross are yes and no. These are discrete categories,
therefore in this example, the dependent variable, leg cross, is categorical.

What if the outcome were measured in time (minutes and seconds) rather than
YES vs. NO?
Is the independent (predictor) variable categorical or continuous?

The levels of gender are male and female. These are discrete categories,
therefore gender is categorical.

Is the dependent variable (outcome) categorical or continuous?

The levels of leg cross are yes and no. These are discrete categories,
therefore in this example, the dependent variable, leg cross, is categorical.

What if the outcome were measured in time (minutes and seconds) rather than
YES vs. NO?

In that case the dependent variable would be a continuous measure.

Your research assistant has collected observational data.
Now it is up to you to make sense of it.
Your research assistant has collected observational data.
Now it is up to you to make sense of it.

The first step is to enter each COUNT in the appropriate cell on a CONTINGENCY
TABLE. Here is an example:
Your research assistant has collected observational data.
Now it is up to you to make sense of it.

The first step is to enter each COUNT in the appropriate cell on a CONTINGENCY
TABLE. Here is an example:

cells
Your research assistant has collected observational data.
Now it is up to you to make sense of it.

The first step is to enter each COUNT in the appropriate cell on a CONTINGENCY
TABLE. Here is an example:

Put the independent variable (predictor) along the top, and the dependent
variable (outcome) along the side.

cells
Your research assistant has collected observational data.
Now it is up to you to make sense of it.

The first step is to enter each COUNT in the appropriate cell on a CONTINGENCY
TABLE. Here is an example:

Put the independent variable (predictor) along the top, and the dependent
variable (outcome) along the side.

GENDER
female male

cells
Your research assistant has collected observational data.
Now it is up to you to make sense of it.

The first step is to enter each COUNT in the appropriate cell on a CONTINGENCY
TABLE. Here is an example:

Put the independent variable (predictor) along the top, and the dependent
variable (outcome) along the side.

GENDER
female male
CROSS
Yes
within 30
seconds
No

cells
Your research assistant has collected observational data.
Now it is up to you to make sense of it.

The first step is to enter each COUNT in the appropriate cell on a CONTINGENCY
TABLE. Here is an example:

Put the independent variable (predictor) along the top, and the dependent
variable (outcome) along the side.

GENDER
female male
CROSS
Yes 232
within 30
seconds
No

cells
Your research assistant has collected observational data.
Now it is up to you to make sense of it.

The first step is to enter each COUNT in the appropriate cell on a CONTINGENCY
TABLE. Here is an example:

Put the independent variable (predictor) along the top, and the dependent
variable (outcome) along the side.

GENDER
female male
CROSS
Yes 232 96
within 30
seconds
No

cells
Your research assistant has collected observational data.
Now it is up to you to make sense of it.

The first step is to enter each COUNT in the appropriate cell on a CONTINGENCY
TABLE. Here is an example:

Put the independent variable (predictor) along the top, and the dependent
variable (outcome) along the side.

GENDER
female male
CROSS
Yes 232 96
within 30
seconds
No 129

cells
Your research assistant has collected observational data.
Now it is up to you to make sense of it.

The first step is to enter each COUNT in the appropriate cell on a CONTINGENCY
TABLE. Here is an example:

Put the independent variable (predictor) along the top, and the dependent
variable (outcome) along the side.

GENDER
female male
CROSS
Yes 232 96
within 30
seconds
No 129 251

cells
Your research assistant has collected observational data.
Now it is up to you to make sense of it.

The first step is to enter each COUNT in the appropriate cell on a CONTINGENCY
TABLE. Here is an example:

Put the independent variable (predictor) along the top, and the dependent
variable (outcome) along the side.

GENDER
female male
CROSS
Yes 232 96
within 30
seconds
No 129 251

cells margins
(totals)
Your research assistant has collected observational data.
Now it is up to you to make sense of it.

The first step is to enter each COUNT in the appropriate cell on a CONTINGENCY
TABLE. Here is an example:

Put the independent variable (predictor) along the top, and the dependent
variable (outcome) along the side.

GENDER
female male
CROSS
Yes 232 96
within 30
seconds
No 129 251

361
cells margins
(totals)
Your research assistant has collected observational data.
Now it is up to you to make sense of it.

The first step is to enter each COUNT in the appropriate cell on a CONTINGENCY
TABLE. Here is an example:

Put the independent variable (predictor) along the top, and the dependent
variable (outcome) along the side.

GENDER
female male
CROSS
Yes 232 96
within 30
seconds
No 129 251

361 347
cells margins
(totals)
Your research assistant has collected observational data.
Now it is up to you to make sense of it.

The first step is to enter each COUNT in the appropriate cell on a CONTINGENCY
TABLE. Here is an example:

Put the independent variable (predictor) along the top, and the dependent
variable (outcome) along the side.

GENDER
female male
CROSS
Yes 232 96 328
within 30
seconds
No 129 251

361 347
cells margins
(totals)
Your research assistant has collected observational data.
Now it is up to you to make sense of it.

The first step is to enter each COUNT in the appropriate cell on a CONTINGENCY
TABLE. Here is an example:

Put the independent variable (predictor) along the top, and the dependent
variable (outcome) along the side.

GENDER
female male
CROSS
Yes 232 96 328
within 30
seconds
No 129 251 380

361 347
cells margins
(totals)
Your research assistant has collected observational data.
Now it is up to you to make sense of it.

The first step is to enter each COUNT in the appropriate cell on a CONTINGENCY
TABLE. Here is an example:

Put the independent variable (predictor) along the top, and the dependent
variable (outcome) along the side.

GENDER
female male
CROSS
Yes 232 96 328
within 30
seconds
No 129 251 380

361 347
cells margins
(totals)

N = 708 (check to see that the

marginal totals add up correctly)
The General Case - contingency tables can have 2 or more columns and rows.
Beyond 4 or 5 of either makes interpretation difficult.
The General Case - contingency tables can have 2 or more columns and rows.
Beyond 4 or 5 of either makes interpretation difficult.

On the table below, indicate a cell.

The General Case - contingency tables can have 2 or more columns and rows.
Beyond 4 or 5 of either makes interpretation difficult.

On the table below, indicate a cell.

cell
The General Case - contingency tables can have 2 or more columns and rows.
Beyond 4 or 5 of either makes interpretation difficult.

On the table below, indicate a cell.

And a margin.

cell
The General Case - contingency tables can have 2 or more columns and rows.
Beyond 4 or 5 of either makes interpretation difficult.

On the table below, indicate a cell.

And a margin.

cell
margins
The General Case - contingency tables can have 2 or more columns and rows.
Beyond 4 or 5 of either makes interpretation difficult.

On the table below, indicate a cell.

And a margin.

Where does the independent (or predictor) variable and its levels belong?

cell
margins
The General Case - contingency tables can have 2 or more columns and rows.
Beyond 4 or 5 of either makes interpretation difficult.

On the table below, indicate a cell.

And a margin.

Where does the independent (or predictor) variable and its levels belong?

PREDICTOR Variable (INDEPENDENT Variable)

Level 1 Level 2

cell
margins
The General Case - contingency tables can have 2 or more columns and rows.
Beyond 4 or 5 of either makes interpretation difficult.

On the table below, indicate a cell.

And a margin.

Where does the independent (or predictor) variable and its levels belong?

And the outcome (dependent variable)?

PREDICTOR Variable (INDEPENDENT Variable)

Level 1 Level 2

cell
margins
The General Case - contingency tables can have 2 or more columns and rows.
Beyond 4 or 5 of either makes interpretation difficult.

On the table below, indicate a cell.

And a margin.

Where does the independent (or predictor) variable and its levels belong?

And the outcome (dependent variable)?

PREDICTOR Variable (INDEPENDENT Variable)

OUTCOME Level 1 Level 2
(Dependent Level 1
variable)
Level 2 cell
margins
Level 3
Returning to the Reasoner data N = 708
Returning to the Reasoner data N = 708

GENDER
female male
CROSS
within 30Yes 232 96 328
seconds
129 251 380
No
361 347
Returning to the Reasoner data N = 708

GENDER
female male
CROSS
within 30Yes 232 96 328
seconds
129 251 380
No
361 347

The contingency table shows the raw data.

You need to refine it a bit more for presentation.
A good way to summarize counts such as these is to transform them into __?__.
A good way to summarize counts such as these is to transform them into __?__.
PERCENTAGES
A good way to summarize counts such as these is to transform them into __?__.
PERCENTAGES

Make a table showing the results using percentages (calculate from preceding
slide).
A good way to summarize counts such as these is to transform them into __?__.
PERCENTAGES

Make a table showing the results using percentages (calculate from preceding
slide).

Table 1
Percentage of women and men who crossed their legs
within 30 seconds of sitting down.

Women Men
(n = 361) (n = 347)
64.3% 27.7%
A good way to summarize counts such as these is to transform them into __?__.
PERCENTAGES

Make a table showing the results using percentages (calculate from preceding
slide).

Table 1
Percentage of women and men who crossed their legs
within 30 seconds of sitting down.

Women Men
(n = 361) (n = 347)
64.3% 27.7%

Note: The percentages are the descriptive statistics.

A good way to summarize counts such as these is to transform them into __?__.
PERCENTAGES

Make a table showing the results using percentages (calculate from preceding
slide).

Table 1
Percentage of women and men who crossed their legs
within 30 seconds of sitting down.

Women Men
(n = 361) (n = 347)
64.3% 27.7%

Note: The percentages are the descriptive statistics.

A descriptive statistic is _____________.

A good way to summarize counts such as these is to transform them into __?__.
PERCENTAGES

Make a table showing the results using percentages (calculate from preceding
slide).

Table 1
Percentage of women and men who crossed their legs
within 30 seconds of sitting down.

Women Men
(n = 361) (n = 347)
64.3% 27.7%

Note: The percentages are the descriptive statistics.

A descriptive statistic is _____________.

Ans: A quantitative characteristic of a sample.

A narrative description can be used within report or talk. State the
results in words.
A narrative description can be used within report or talk. State the
results in words.

Sixty-four percent of the women (n = 361) and 28 percent of the men

(n = 347) crossed their legs within 30 seconds of sitting down.
Draw a graph of the results.
Draw a graph of the results.

70
60
50
% 40
30
20
10
0
Draw a graph of the results.

70
60
50
% 40
30
20
10
0
Women
GENDER
Draw a graph of the results.

70
60
50
% 40
30
20
10
0
Women Men
GENDER
Draw a graph of the results.

70
60
50
% 40
30
20
10
0
Women Men
GENDER

Figure 1. Percent of women (n=361) and men (n=347)

crossing within 30 seconds.
Draw a graph of the results.

70
60
50
% 40
30
20
10
0
Women Men
GENDER

Figure 1. Percent of women (n=361) and men (n=347)

crossing within 30 seconds.

Note: Using APA style, table titles are placed above the table,
and figure titles are placed below the figure.
You would not use all three in a single report. Pick the one that best illustrates
your findings.
You would not use all three in a single report. Pick the one that best illustrates
your findings.

Here is another example using additional data.

You would not use all three in a single report. Pick the one that best illustrates
your findings.

Here is another example using additional data.

Table 2
Of those who crossed their legs, percentage showing each type of
cross, by gender.

Gender
Type! Women! Men
! (n=252)! (n=122)

Knee-to-knee! 50.4! 9.0

Ankle-to-ankle! 17.1! 49.2
Ankle-to-knee! 10.3! 26.2
Cross-legged! 19.8! 13.9
Other! 2.4! 1.6
You would not use all three in a single report. Pick the one that best illustrates
your findings.

Here is another example using additional data.

Table 2
Of those who crossed their legs, percentage showing each type of
cross, by gender.

Gender
Type! Women! Men
! (n=252)! (n=122)

Knee-to-knee! 50.4! 9.0

Ankle-to-ankle! 17.1! 49.2
Ankle-to-knee! 10.3! 26.2
Cross-legged! 19.8! 13.9
Other! 2.4! 1.6

Note that the sample sizes (n) are provided so that the reader could
reconstruct the actual numbers.
When outcome variable is CONTINUOUS,
When outcome variable is CONTINUOUS,
for example, enjoyment - on a scale of 1 to 10,
or score on an exam,
When outcome variable is CONTINUOUS,
for example, enjoyment - on a scale of 1 to 10,
or score on an exam,

what two major aspects of the data need to be described [in

addition to the sample size (N)]?
When outcome variable is CONTINUOUS,
for example, enjoyment - on a scale of 1 to 10,
or score on an exam,

what two major aspects of the data need to be described [in

addition to the sample size (N)]?

Hint: One begins with “central”

When outcome variable is CONTINUOUS,
for example, enjoyment - on a scale of 1 to 10,
or score on an exam,

what two major aspects of the data need to be described [in

addition to the sample size (N)]?

Hint: One begins with “central”

Ans: central tendency and variability.

When outcome variable is CONTINUOUS,
for example, enjoyment - on a scale of 1 to 10,
or score on an exam,

what two major aspects of the data need to be described [in

addition to the sample size (N)]?

Hint: One begins with “central”

Ans: central tendency and variability.

What are the three measures of central tendency?

When outcome variable is CONTINUOUS,
for example, enjoyment - on a scale of 1 to 10,
or score on an exam,

what two major aspects of the data need to be described [in

addition to the sample size (N)]?

Hint: One begins with “central”

Ans: central tendency and variability.

What are the three measures of central tendency?

Mean
When outcome variable is CONTINUOUS,
for example, enjoyment - on a scale of 1 to 10,
or score on an exam,

what two major aspects of the data need to be described [in

addition to the sample size (N)]?

Hint: One begins with “central”

Ans: central tendency and variability.

What are the three measures of central tendency?

Mean
Median
When outcome variable is CONTINUOUS,
for example, enjoyment - on a scale of 1 to 10,
or score on an exam,

what two major aspects of the data need to be described [in

addition to the sample size (N)]?

Hint: One begins with “central”

Ans: central tendency and variability.

What are the three measures of central tendency?

Mean
Median
Mode
EXAMPLE: Scores on a 10-point quiz: Scores are 2, 10, 6, 2, 4, 8, 3
EXAMPLE: Scores on a 10-point quiz: Scores are 2, 10, 6, 2, 4, 8, 3

Put them in order with the proper label at the top.

EXAMPLE: Scores on a 10-point quiz: Scores are 2, 10, 6, 2, 4, 8, 3

Put them in order with the proper label at the top.

X
10
8
6
4
3
2
2
EXAMPLE: Scores on a 10-point quiz: Scores are 2, 10, 6, 2, 4, 8, 3

Put them in order with the proper label at the top.

X
10
8
6
4
3
2
2

Calculate the following and also show the

appropriate statistical symbol.
EXAMPLE: Scores on a 10-point quiz: Scores are 2, 10, 6, 2, 4, 8, 3

Put them in order with the proper label at the top.

X
10
8
6
4
3
2
2

Calculate the following and also show the

appropriate statistical symbol.

Sample size
EXAMPLE: Scores on a 10-point quiz: Scores are 2, 10, 6, 2, 4, 8, 3

Put them in order with the proper label at the top.

X
10
8
6
4
3
2
2

Calculate the following and also show the

appropriate statistical symbol.

Sample size
N =7
EXAMPLE: Scores on a 10-point quiz: Scores are 2, 10, 6, 2, 4, 8, 3

Put them in order with the proper label at the top.

X
10
8
6
4
3
2
2

Calculate the following and also show the

appropriate statistical symbol.

Sample size Mode (no symbol)

N =7
EXAMPLE: Scores on a 10-point quiz: Scores are 2, 10, 6, 2, 4, 8, 3

Put them in order with the proper label at the top.

X
10
8
6
4
3
2
2

Calculate the following and also show the

appropriate statistical symbol.

Sample size Mode (no symbol)

N =7 =2
EXAMPLE: Scores on a 10-point quiz: Scores are 2, 10, 6, 2, 4, 8, 3

Put them in order with the proper label at the top.

X
10
8
6
4
3
2
2

Calculate the following and also show the

appropriate statistical symbol.

Sample size Mode (no symbol)

N =7 =2

Median
EXAMPLE: Scores on a 10-point quiz: Scores are 2, 10, 6, 2, 4, 8, 3

Put them in order with the proper label at the top.

X
10
8
6
4
3
2
2

Calculate the following and also show the

appropriate statistical symbol.

Sample size Mode (no symbol)

N =7 =2

Median

Mdn = 4
EXAMPLE: Scores on a 10-point quiz: Scores are 2, 10, 6, 2, 4, 8, 3

Put them in order with the proper label at the top.

X
10
8
6
4
3
2
2

Calculate the following and also show the

appropriate statistical symbol.

Sample size Mode (no symbol)

N =7 =2

Median Mean

Mdn = 4
EXAMPLE: Scores on a 10-point quiz: Scores are 2, 10, 6, 2, 4, 8, 3

Put them in order with the proper label at the top.

X
10
8
6
4
3
2
2

Calculate the following and also show the

appropriate statistical symbol.

Sample size Mode (no symbol)

N =7 =2

Median Mean

Mdn = 4 M or X = 5
Here is another set of scores. These have frequencies (f) listed --
meaning that there might be more than one of any given score.

X! f
10! 1
9! 0
8! 1
7! 0
6! 1
5! 0
4! 1
3! 1
2! 2
Here is another set of scores. These have frequencies (f) listed --
meaning that there might be more than one of any given score.

X! f
10! 1
9! 0 Median?
8! 1
7! 0
6! 1
5! 0
4! 1
3! 1
2! 2
Here is another set of scores. These have frequencies (f) listed --
meaning that there might be more than one of any given score.

X! f
10! 1
9! 0 Median?
8! 1
7! 0 Mdn = 4
6! 1
5! 0
4! 1
3! 1
2! 2
Here is another set of scores. These have frequencies (f) listed --
meaning that there might be more than one of any given score.

X! f
10! 1
9! 0 Median?
8! 1
7! 0 Mdn = 4
6! 1
5! 0
4! 1
3! 1
2! 2

If you didn’t get it right, make a list of all of

the individual scores.
Here is another set of scores. These have frequencies (f) listed --
meaning that there might be more than one of any given score.

X! f
10! 1
9! 0 Median?
8! 1
7! 0 Mdn = 4
6! 1
5! 0
4! 1
3! 1
2! 2

If you didn’t get it right, make a list of all of

the individual scores.

X
10
8
6
4
3
2
2
Here is another set of scores. These have frequencies (f) listed --
meaning that there might be more than one of any given score.

X! f
10! 1
9! 0 Median?
8! 1
7! 0 Mdn = 4
6! 1
5! 0
4! 1
3! 1
2! 2

If you didn’t get it right, make a list of all of

the individual scores.

X
10 Find the middle score.
8
That will be the median.
6
4
3
2
2
Here is another set of scores. These have frequencies (f) listed --
meaning that there might be more than one of any given score.

X! f
10! 1
9! 0 Median?
8! 1
7! 0 Mdn = 4
6! 1
5! 0
4! 1
3! 1
2! 2

If you didn’t get it right, make a list of all of

the individual scores.

X
10 Find the middle score.
8
That will be the median.
6
4
3
2
2
Recap: We are reviewing necessary descriptive statistics for continuous
variables. The first aspect of describing quantitative findings along a
continuous variable is central tendency.
Recap: We are reviewing necessary descriptive statistics for continuous
variables. The first aspect of describing quantitative findings along a
continuous variable is central tendency.

The other important aspect is

Recap: We are reviewing necessary descriptive statistics for continuous
variables. The first aspect of describing quantitative findings along a
continuous variable is central tendency.

The other important aspect is VARIABILITY

Recap: We are reviewing necessary descriptive statistics for continuous
variables. The first aspect of describing quantitative findings along a
continuous variable is central tendency.

The other important aspect is VARIABILITY

Variability refers to the ______ of the scores.

Recap: We are reviewing necessary descriptive statistics for continuous
variables. The first aspect of describing quantitative findings along a
continuous variable is central tendency.

The other important aspect is VARIABILITY

Variability refers to the ______ of the scores. SPREAD or DISPERSION

Recap: We are reviewing necessary descriptive statistics for continuous
variables. The first aspect of describing quantitative findings along a
continuous variable is central tendency.

The other important aspect is VARIABILITY

Variability refers to the ______ of the scores. SPREAD or DISPERSION

Two indicators of variability are

Recap: We are reviewing necessary descriptive statistics for continuous
variables. The first aspect of describing quantitative findings along a
continuous variable is central tendency.

The other important aspect is VARIABILITY

Variability refers to the ______ of the scores. SPREAD or DISPERSION

Two indicators of variability are

Range
Standard Deviation (SD)
Recap: We are reviewing necessary descriptive statistics for continuous
variables. The first aspect of describing quantitative findings along a
continuous variable is central tendency.

The other important aspect is VARIABILITY

Variability refers to the ______ of the scores. SPREAD or DISPERSION

Two indicators of variability are

Range
Standard Deviation (SD)

X
Calculate the range of 10
these scores. 8
6
4
3
2
2
Recap: We are reviewing necessary descriptive statistics for continuous
variables. The first aspect of describing quantitative findings along a
continuous variable is central tendency.

The other important aspect is VARIABILITY

Variability refers to the ______ of the scores. SPREAD or DISPERSION

Two indicators of variability are

Range
Standard Deviation (SD)

X
Calculate the range of 10
these scores. 8
6
4
3
2
2

Range = 10 - 2 = 8
What is so special about the standard deviation?
What is so special about the standard deviation?
It shows how closely scores group around the mean.
What is so special about the standard deviation?
It shows how closely scores group around the mean.

As a set of scores become more spread out from the mean, the
standard deviation _____ (increases or decreases?)
What is so special about the standard deviation?
It shows how closely scores group around the mean.

As a set of scores become more spread out from the mean, the
standard deviation _____ (increases or decreases?)

Increases.
Larger SD = greater variability
What is the Standard Deviation? Here is the long way to calculate it (so you
can see where it comes from). Using the formula is easier.

X
10
8
6
4
3
2
2
M=5
What is the Standard Deviation? Here is the long way to calculate it (so you
can see where it comes from). Using the formula is easier.

X (X-M)
10
8
6
4
3
2
2
M=5
What is the Standard Deviation? Here is the long way to calculate it (so you
can see where it comes from). Using the formula is easier.

X (X-M)
10 - 5 = 5
8
6
4
3
2
2
M=5
What is the Standard Deviation? Here is the long way to calculate it (so you
can see where it comes from). Using the formula is easier.

X (X-M)
10 - 5 = 5
8 -5= 3
6
4
3
2
2
M=5
What is the Standard Deviation? Here is the long way to calculate it (so you
can see where it comes from). Using the formula is easier.

X (X-M)
10 -5= 5
8 -5= 3
6 -5= 1
4
3
2
2
M=5
What is the Standard Deviation? Here is the long way to calculate it (so you
can see where it comes from). Using the formula is easier.

X (X-M)
10 -5= 5
8 -5= 3
6 -5= 1
4 - 5 = -1
3
2
2
M=5
What is the Standard Deviation? Here is the long way to calculate it (so you
can see where it comes from). Using the formula is easier.

X (X-M)
10 -5= 5
8 -5= 3
6 -5= 1
4 - 5 = -1
3 - 5 = -2
2
2
M=5
What is the Standard Deviation? Here is the long way to calculate it (so you
can see where it comes from). Using the formula is easier.

X (X-M)
10 -5= 5
8 -5= 3
6 -5= 1
4 - 5 = -1
3 - 5 = -2
2 - 5 = -3
2
M=5
What is the Standard Deviation? Here is the long way to calculate it (so you
can see where it comes from). Using the formula is easier.

X (X-M)
10 -5= 5
8 -5= 3
6 -5= 1
4 - 5 = -1
3 - 5 = -2
2 - 5 = -3
2 - 5 = -3
M=5
What is the Standard Deviation? Here is the long way to calculate it (so you
can see where it comes from). Using the formula is easier.

X (X-M)
Note that each individual score is
10 -5= 5 being subtracted from the mean.
8 -5= 3 We can’t do much with these
6 -5= 1 numbers because if we add them,
4 - 5 = -1 they will total 0. That is the nature of
3 - 5 = -2 the mean. A solution is to square
each difference score, and then
2 - 5 = -3
add them.
2 - 5 = -3
M=5
What is the Standard Deviation? Here is the long way to calculate it (so you
can see where it comes from). Using the formula is easier.

X (X-M)
Note that each individual score is
10 -5= 5 being subtracted from the mean.
8 -5= 3 We can’t do much with these
6 -5= 1 numbers because if we add them,
4 - 5 = -1 they will total 0. That is the nature of
3 - 5 = -2 the mean. A solution is to square
each difference score, and then
2 - 5 = -3
add them.
2 - 5 = -3
M=5

2
(X-M)
25
What is the Standard Deviation? Here is the long way to calculate it (so you
can see where it comes from). Using the formula is easier.

X (X-M)
Note that each individual score is
10 -5= 5 being subtracted from the mean.
8 -5= 3 We can’t do much with these
6 -5= 1 numbers because if we add them,
4 - 5 = -1 they will total 0. That is the nature of
3 - 5 = -2 the mean. A solution is to square
each difference score, and then
2 - 5 = -3
add them.
2 - 5 = -3
M=5

2
(X-M)
25
9
What is the Standard Deviation? Here is the long way to calculate it (so you
can see where it comes from). Using the formula is easier.

X (X-M)
Note that each individual score is
10 -5= 5 being subtracted from the mean.
8 -5= 3 We can’t do much with these
6 -5= 1 numbers because if we add them,
4 - 5 = -1 they will total 0. That is the nature of
3 - 5 = -2 the mean. A solution is to square
each difference score, and then
2 - 5 = -3
add them.
2 - 5 = -3
M=5

2
(X-M)
25
9
1
What is the Standard Deviation? Here is the long way to calculate it (so you
can see where it comes from). Using the formula is easier.

X (X-M)
Note that each individual score is
10 -5= 5 being subtracted from the mean.
8 -5= 3 We can’t do much with these
6 -5= 1 numbers because if we add them,
4 - 5 = -1 they will total 0. That is the nature of
3 - 5 = -2 the mean. A solution is to square
each difference score, and then
2 - 5 = -3
add them.
2 - 5 = -3
M=5

2
(X-M)
25
9
1
1
What is the Standard Deviation? Here is the long way to calculate it (so you
can see where it comes from). Using the formula is easier.

X (X-M)
Note that each individual score is
10 -5= 5 being subtracted from the mean.
8 -5= 3 We can’t do much with these
6 -5= 1 numbers because if we add them,
4 - 5 = -1 they will total 0. That is the nature of
3 - 5 = -2 the mean. A solution is to square
each difference score, and then
2 - 5 = -3
add them.
2 - 5 = -3
M=5

2
(X-M)
25
9
1
1
4
What is the Standard Deviation? Here is the long way to calculate it (so you
can see where it comes from). Using the formula is easier.

X (X-M)
Note that each individual score is
10 -5= 5 being subtracted from the mean.
8 -5= 3 We can’t do much with these
6 -5= 1 numbers because if we add them,
4 - 5 = -1 they will total 0. That is the nature of
3 - 5 = -2 the mean. A solution is to square
each difference score, and then
2 - 5 = -3
add them.
2 - 5 = -3
M=5

2
(X-M)
25
9
1
1
4
9
What is the Standard Deviation? Here is the long way to calculate it (so you
can see where it comes from). Using the formula is easier.

X (X-M)
Note that each individual score is
10 -5= 5 being subtracted from the mean.
8 -5= 3 We can’t do much with these
6 -5= 1 numbers because if we add them,
4 - 5 = -1 they will total 0. That is the nature of
3 - 5 = -2 the mean. A solution is to square
each difference score, and then
2 - 5 = -3
add them.
2 - 5 = -3
M=5

2
(X-M)
25
9
1
1
4
9
9
What is the Standard Deviation? Here is the long way to calculate it (so you
can see where it comes from). Using the formula is easier.

X (X-M)
Note that each individual score is
10 -5= 5 being subtracted from the mean.
8 -5= 3 We can’t do much with these
6 -5= 1 numbers because if we add them,
4 - 5 = -1 they will total 0. That is the nature of
3 - 5 = -2 the mean. A solution is to square
each difference score, and then
2 - 5 = -3
add them.
2 - 5 = -3
M=5

2
(X-M)
25
9
1
1
4
9
9

58
What is the Standard Deviation? Here is the long way to calculate it (so you
can see where it comes from). Using the formula is easier.

X (X-M)
Note that each individual score is
10 -5= 5 being subtracted from the mean.
8 -5= 3 We can’t do much with these
6 -5= 1 numbers because if we add them,
4 - 5 = -1 they will total 0. That is the nature of
3 - 5 = -2 the mean. A solution is to square
each difference score, and then
2 - 5 = -3
add them.
2 - 5 = -3
M=5

2
(X-M)
25
9
1
1
4
9
9

58 58
7
What is the Standard Deviation? Here is the long way to calculate it (so you
can see where it comes from). Using the formula is easier.

X (X-M)
Note that each individual score is
10 -5= 5 being subtracted from the mean.
8 -5= 3 We can’t do much with these
6 -5= 1 numbers because if we add them,
4 - 5 = -1 they will total 0. That is the nature of
3 - 5 = -2 the mean. A solution is to square
each difference score, and then
2 - 5 = -3
add them.
2 - 5 = -3
M=5

2
(X-M)
25
9
1
1
4
9
9

58 58 = 8.286
7
What is the Standard Deviation? Here is the long way to calculate it (so you
can see where it comes from). Using the formula is easier.

X (X-M)
Note that each individual score is
10 -5= 5 being subtracted from the mean.
8 -5= 3 We can’t do much with these
6 -5= 1 numbers because if we add them,
4 - 5 = -1 they will total 0. That is the nature of
3 - 5 = -2 the mean. A solution is to square
each difference score, and then
2 - 5 = -3
add them.
2 - 5 = -3
M=5

2
(X-M)
25
9
1
1
4
9
9
This is a sort of
58 58 = 8.286 average of the
7 spread (squared).
What is the Standard Deviation? Here is the long way to calculate it (so you
can see where it comes from). Using the formula is easier.

X (X-M)
Note that each individual score is
10 -5= 5 being subtracted from the mean.
8 -5= 3 We can’t do much with these
6 -5= 1 numbers because if we add them,
4 - 5 = -1 they will total 0. That is the nature of
3 - 5 = -2 the mean. A solution is to square
each difference score, and then
2 - 5 = -3
add them.
2 - 5 = -3
M=5

2
(X-M)
25
9
1
1
4
9
9
This is a sort of
58 58 = 8.286 average of the
7 spread (squared).

Unsquare it (take
square root) 8.286 =
What is the Standard Deviation? Here is the long way to calculate it (so you
can see where it comes from). Using the formula is easier.

X (X-M)
Note that each individual score is
10 -5= 5 being subtracted from the mean.
8 -5= 3 We can’t do much with these
6 -5= 1 numbers because if we add them,
4 - 5 = -1 they will total 0. That is the nature of
3 - 5 = -2 the mean. A solution is to square
each difference score, and then
2 - 5 = -3
add them.
2 - 5 = -3
M=5

2
(X-M)
25
9
1
1
4
9
9
This is a sort of
58 58 = 8.286 average of the
7 spread (squared).

Unsquare it (take
square root) 8.286 = 2.88 = SD
Some Greek
Some Greek
Σ =
Some Greek
Σ = Sum of
Some Greek
Σ = Sum of
σ=
Some Greek
Σ = Sum of
σ = standard deviation for the population
Some Greek
Σ = Sum of
σ = standard deviation for the population

Standard deviation can also be

abbreviated as SD or StDev
Some Greek
Σ = Sum of
σ = standard deviation for the population

Standard deviation can also be

abbreviated as SD or StDev

Formula for the standard deviation

Some Greek
Σ = Sum of
σ = standard deviation for the population

Standard deviation can also be

abbreviated as SD or StDev

Formula for the standard deviation

2
ΣΧ − (ΣΧ)
2
= Ν
Ν−1
Some Greek
Σ = Sum of
σ = standard deviation for the population

Standard deviation can also be

abbreviated as SD or StDev

Formula for the standard deviation

2
ΣΧ − (ΣΧ)
2
= Ν
Ν−1

Calculators often have 2 formulas for the Standard Deviation, one for
the sample (shown as N or s) and the other for the population (shown
as N-1 or σ).

Use the population (N-1or σ) formula.

List three symbols or abbreviations for the standard deviation
List three symbols or abbreviations for the standard deviation

σ
SD
StDev
List three symbols or abbreviations for the standard deviation

σ
SD
StDev

Describe each of the following arithmetic operations

(i.e., how do you calculate these?).
List three symbols or abbreviations for the standard deviation

σ
SD
StDev

Describe each of the following arithmetic operations

(i.e., how do you calculate these?).

ΣX
List three symbols or abbreviations for the standard deviation

σ
SD
StDev

Describe each of the following arithmetic operations

(i.e., how do you calculate these?).

ΣX
Add up the scores.
List three symbols or abbreviations for the standard deviation

σ
SD
StDev

Describe each of the following arithmetic operations

(i.e., how do you calculate these?).

ΣX
Add up the scores.

2
ΣΧ
List three symbols or abbreviations for the standard deviation

σ
SD
StDev

Describe each of the following arithmetic operations

(i.e., how do you calculate these?).

ΣX
Add up the scores.

2
ΣΧ
Square each score and then add them.
List three symbols or abbreviations for the standard deviation

σ
SD
StDev

Describe each of the following arithmetic operations

(i.e., how do you calculate these?).

ΣX
Add up the scores.

2
ΣΧ
Square each score and then add them.

2
(ΣΧ)
List three symbols or abbreviations for the standard deviation

σ
SD
StDev

Describe each of the following arithmetic operations

(i.e., how do you calculate these?).

ΣX
Add up the scores.

2
ΣΧ
Square each score and then add them.

2
(ΣΧ)
Add the scores and then square the total.
Fill-in the proper statistic.
Fill-in the proper statistic.

When describing an outcome based on a continuous variable,

always include ____.
Fill-in the proper statistic.

When describing an outcome based on a continuous variable,

always include ____.
N (sample size)
Fill-in the proper statistic.

When describing an outcome based on a continuous variable,

always include ____.
N (sample size)

In most cases, also provide the____ and the ____.

Fill-in the proper statistic.

When describing an outcome based on a continuous variable,

always include ____.
N (sample size)

In most cases, also provide the____ and the ____.

Mean . . . Standard Deviation
Fill-in the proper statistic.

When describing an outcome based on a continuous variable,

always include ____.
N (sample size)

In most cases, also provide the____ and the ____.

Mean . . . Standard Deviation

If the distribution of scores is skewed (see textbook), then use

the____ and the ____.
Fill-in the proper statistic.

When describing an outcome based on a continuous variable,

always include ____.
N (sample size)

In most cases, also provide the____ and the ____.

Mean . . . Standard Deviation

If the distribution of scores is skewed (see textbook), then use

the____ and the ____.

Median . . . Range
Fill-in the proper statistic.

When describing an outcome based on a continuous variable,

always include ____.
N (sample size)

In most cases, also provide the____ and the ____.

Mean . . . Standard Deviation

If the distribution of scores is skewed (see textbook), then use

the____ and the ____.

Median . . . Range

Only use the Standard Deviation when presenting the Mean

(no SD with the Median or Mode).
Here are the students’ results for a 10-point quiz described earlier.

N=7
M=5
SD = 2.88
Here are the students’ results for a 10-point quiz described earlier.

N=7
M=5
SD = 2.88

How would you state these results in a research report?

Here are the students’ results for a 10-point quiz described earlier.

N=7
M=5
SD = 2.88

How would you state these results in a research report?

Seven students took a 10-point quiz (M=5, SD = 2.88).

or
The mean for the 10-point quiz was 5 (N=7, SD = 2.88)
REVIEW
REVIEW

Examine outcome variable (dependent variable) and select the

proper descriptive statistics.
REVIEW

Examine outcome variable (dependent variable) and select the

proper descriptive statistics.

Outcome variable ! Descriptive statistics

REVIEW

Examine outcome variable (dependent variable) and select the

proper descriptive statistics.

Outcome variable ! Descriptive statistics

Categorical
REVIEW

Examine outcome variable (dependent variable) and select the

proper descriptive statistics.

Outcome variable ! Descriptive statistics

Percentages based on
Categorical
numbers in contingency table
REVIEW

Examine outcome variable (dependent variable) and select the

proper descriptive statistics.

Outcome variable ! Descriptive statistics

Percentages based on
Categorical
numbers in contingency table

Continuous
REVIEW

Examine outcome variable (dependent variable) and select the

proper descriptive statistics.

Outcome variable ! Descriptive statistics

Percentages based on
Categorical
numbers in contingency table

Continuous Mean & Standard Deviation

REVIEW

Examine outcome variable (dependent variable) and select the

proper descriptive statistics.

Outcome variable ! Descriptive statistics

Percentages based on
Categorical
numbers in contingency table

Continuous Mean & Standard Deviation

Always include
REVIEW

Examine outcome variable (dependent variable) and select the

proper descriptive statistics.

Outcome variable ! Descriptive statistics

Percentages based on
Categorical
numbers in contingency table

Continuous Mean & Standard Deviation

Always include Ns (sample sizes)

REVIEW

Examine outcome variable (dependent variable) and select the

proper descriptive statistics.

Outcome variable ! Descriptive statistics

Percentages based on
Categorical
numbers in contingency table

Continuous Mean & Standard Deviation

Always include Ns (sample sizes)

End

Please send comments or suggestions to

Barbara Sommer [email protected]