LECTURE NOTES

ON
THEORY OF PLATES AND SHELLS
( BST003)

M. Tech I year I semester

(Regulation- R18)

Mr. Gude Ramakrishna

Associate Professor

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

INSTITUTE OF AERONAUTICAL NGINEERING

(Autonomous)
DUNDIGAL, HYDERABAD - 500 043
 UNIT-I
INTRODUCTION

Shells in engineering structures

Thin shells as structural elements occupy a leadership position in engineering and, in

particular, in civil, mechanical, architectural, aeronautical, and marine engineering.
Examples of shell structures in civil and architectural engineering are large-span
roofs, liquid-retaining structures and water tanks, containment shells of nuclear power
plants, and concrete arch domes. In mechanical engineering, shell forms are used in
piping systems, turbine disks, and pressure vessels technology. Aircrafts, missiles,
rockets, ships, and submarines are examples of the use of shellsin aeronautical and
marine engineering. Another application of shell engineering is in the field of
biomechanics: shells are found in various biological forms, such as the eye and the skull,
and plant and animal shapes. This is only a small list of shell forms in engineering and
nature.

Advantages
1. Efficiency of load-carrying behavior.

2. High degree of reserved strength and structural integrity.

3. High strength : weight ratio. This criterion is commonly used to estimate a

structural component efficiency: the larger this ratio, the more optimal is a structure.
According to this criterion, shell structures are much superior to other structural systems
having the same span and overall dimensions.

4. Very high stiffness.

5. Containment of space.

In addition to these mechanical advantages, shell structures enjoy the unique

position of having extremely high aesthetic value in various architectural designs.
 Shell structures support applied external forces efficiently by virtue of their
geometrical form, i.e., spatial curvatures; as a result, shells are much stronger and stiffer
than other structural forms.
GENERAL DEFINITIONS AND FUNDAMENTALS OF SHELLS
We now formulate some definitions and principles in shell theory. The term
shell is applied to bodies bounded by two curved surfaces, where the distance between
the surfaces is small in comparison with other body dimensions fig shown below

The locus of points that lie at equal distances from these two curved surfaces
defines the middle surface of the shell. The length of the segment, which is perpendicular
to the curved surfaces, is called the thickness of the shell and is denoted by h. The
geometry of a shell is entirely defined by specifying the form of the middle surface and
thickness of the shell at each point. In this book we consider mainly shells of a constant
thickness. Shells have all the characteristics of plates, along with an additional one –
curvature. The curvature could be chosen as the primary classifier of a shell because a
shell’s behavior under an applied loading is primarily governed by curvature . Depending
on the curvature of the surface, shells are divided into cylindrical (noncircular and
circular), conical, spherical, ellipsoidal, paraboloidal, toroidal, and hyperbolic
paraboloidal shells. Owing to the curvature of the surface, shells are more complicated
than flat plates because their bending cannot, in general, be separated from their
stretching. On the other hand, a plate may be considered as a special limiting case of a
shell that has no curvature; consequently, shells are sometimes referred to as curved
plates. This is the basis for the adoption of methods from the theory of plates, discussed
in Part I, into the theory of shells. There are two different classes of shells: thick shells
and thin shells. A shell is called thin if the maximum value of the ratio h=R (where R is
the radius of curvature of the middle surface) can be neglected in comparison with unity.
For an engineering accuracy, a shell may be regarded as thin if [1] the following
condition is satisfied:
 Max (h/ R) <or=1/20

Hence, shells for which this inequality is violated are referred to as thick shells.
For a large number of practical applications, the thickness of shells lies in the range

(1/1000) <or=(h/R)<or=1/20
THE LINEAR SHELL THEORIES

The most common shell theories are those based on linear elasticity concepts. Linear
shell theories predict adequately stresses and deformations for shells exhibiting small
elastic deformations; i.e., deformations for which it is assumed that the equilibrium
equation conditions for deformed shell surfaces are the same as if they were not
deformed, and Hooke’s law applies.
For the purpose of analysis, a shell may be considered as a three-dimensional body,
and the methods of the theory of linear elasticity may then be applied. However, a
calculation based on these methods will generally be very difficult and complicated. In
the theory of shells, an alternative simplified method is therefore employed. According
to this method and adapting some hypotheses the 3D problem of shell equilibrium and
straining may be reduced to the analysis of its middle surface only, i.e. the given shell, as
discussed earlier as a thin plate, may be regarded as some 2D body. In the development
of thin shell theories, simplification is accomplished by reducing the shell problems to the
study of deformations of the middle surface.

Shell theories of varying degrees of accuracy were derived, depending on the degree
to which the elasticity equations were simplified. The approximations necessary for the
development of an adequate theory of shells have been the subject of
considerable discussions among investigators in the field. We present below a brief
outline of elastic shell theories in an historical context.
A second class of thin elastic shells, which is commonly referred to as higherorder
pproximation, has also been developed. To this grouping it is possible to assign all linear
shell theories in which one or another of the Kirchhoff–Love hypotheses are suspended.
First, we consider some representative theories in which the thinness assumption is
delayed in derivation while the rest of the postulates are
retained. In this case, the order of a particular approximate theory will be established by
the order of the terms in the thickness coordinate that is retained in the strain and
constitutive equations.
The small-defection shell theories discussed above were formulated from the classical
linear theory of elasticity. It is known that the equations of these theories, which are
based on Hooke’s law and the omission of nonlinear terms in both the equations for strain
components and equilibrium equations, have a unique solution in every case. In other
words, a linear shell theory determines a unique position of equilibrium for every shell
with prescribed load and constraints. In reality, however,
a solution of physical shell problems is not always unique. A shell under identical
conditions of loading and constraints may have several possible positions of equilibrium.
A theory that takes into account finite or large deformations is referred to as a
geometrically nonlinear theory of thin shells. Additionally, a shell may be physically
nonlinear with respect to the stress–strain relations.
The membrane stress condition is an ideal state at which a designer should aim. It
should be noted that structural materials are generally far more efficient in an extensional
rather in a flexural mode because:
1. Strength properties of all materials can be used completely in tension (or
compression), since all fibers over the cross section are equally strained and
load-carrying capacity may simultaneously reach the limit for the whole section
of the component.
2. The membrane stresses are always less than the corresponding bending
stresses for thin shells under the same loading conditions.
Thus, the momentless or membrane stress conditions determine the basic advantages
of shells compared with beams, plates, etc.

The highest efficiency of a shell, as a structural member, is associated with its

curvature and thinness. Owing to the shell curvature, the projections of the direct forces
on the normal to the middle surface develop an analog of an ‘‘elastic foundation’’ under
the shell. So, it can be said that a shell resists an applied transverse loading as a flat plate
resting on an elastic foundation. This phenomenon can explain an essential increase in
strength and stiffness of a shell compared with a plate. Thus, as a result of the curvature
of the surface, a shell acquires a spatial stiffness that gives to it a larger load-carrying
capacity and develops the direct stresses. Owing to its thinness, a shell may balance an
applied transverse loading at the expense of the membrane stresses mainly, with bending
actions minimized.
As mentioned above, shell thinness demonstrates the high efficiency of shells. It is
associated with the shell’s low weight and simultaneously its high strength. However, a
shell’s thinness is, at the same time, a weak point because all the advantages mentioned
earlier hold for a tensile state of stress. In this case, a shell material is stretched and its
strength properties are used completely. On the other hand, a thinness of shells manifests
itself in compression. External forces, as before, are effectively transformed in the
constant membrane stresses over the shell thickness. However, the trouble is that the
level of the critical stresses at buckling be sufficiently low. This level is just determined
by the shell thickness. The thinner the shell, the lower is the level of the critical stresses.
The latter can be many factors smaller than the proportional limit of the shell material. In
this case, the efficiency of thin shells can be reduced co nsiderably. To avoid the
possibility of buckling, a shell structure should be designed in such a way that a dominant
part of the structure is in tension.

COORDINATE SYSTEM OF THE SURFACE

A surface _ can be defined as a locus of points whose position vector, r, directed

from the origin 0 of the global coordinate system, OXYZ, is a function of two
independent parameters α and β
 If the α- and β -coordinate lines are mutually perpendicular at all points on a
surface Ω _ (i.e., the angles between the tangents to these lines are equal to 90), the
curvilinear coordinates are said to be orthogonal.
The derivatives of the position vector r with respect to the curvilinear coordinates
and are given by the following:

where we have introduced the comma notation to denote partial derivatives with
respect to α and β

Strains and displacements

Assume that the elastic body shown in Fig. below is supported in such a way that
rigid body displacements (translations and rotations) are prevented. Thus, this body
deforms under the action of external forces and each of its points has small elastic
displacements. For example, a point M had the coordinates x; y, and z in initial
unreformed state. After deformation, this point moved into position M0and its
coordinates became the following where u, v, and w are
projections of the displacement vector of point M, vector MM0, on the coordinate axes x,
y and z. In the general case, u, v, and w are functions of x, y, and z.

Again, consider an infinitesimal element in the form of parallelepiped enclosing point

of interest M. Assuming that a deformation of this parallelepiped is small, we can
represent it in the form of the six simplest deformations shown in Fig. a,b,c,d. define the
elongation (or contraction) of edges of the parallelepiped in the direction of the
coordinate axes and can be defined as

And they are called the normal or linear strains.

the increments delta dx can be expressed by the second term in the Taylor series, i.e.,
thus, we can write

Since we have confined ourselves to the case of very small deformations, we may omit
the quantities in the denominator of the last expression, as being negligibly
small compared with unity. Finally, we obtain
 Similarly, we can obtain _xz and _yz. Thus, the shear strains are given by

Similar to the stress tensor (1.1) at a given point, we can define a strain tensor as

It is evident that the strain tensor is also symmetric because of

Constitutive equations
The constitutive equations relate the stress components to strain components. For
the linear elastic range, these equations represent the generalized Hooke’s law. In the
case of a three-dimensional isotropic body, the constitutive equations are given by

where E, _, and G are the modulus of elasticity, Poisson’s ratio, and the shear modulus,
respectively. The following relationship exists between E and G:

Equilibrium equations

The stress components introduced previously must satisfy the following differential
equations of equilibrium:
 where Fx; Fy; and Fz are the body forces (e.g., gravitational, magnetic forces). In
deriving these equations, the reciprocity of the shear stresses, Eqs
, has been used.

Numerical Problem

Design a (‗waist slab‘ type) dog-legged staircase for an office building, given the
following data:
• Height between floor = 3.2 m;
• Riser = 160 mm, tread = 270 mm;
• Width of flight = landing width = 1.25 m
• Live load = 5.0 kN/m2
• Finishes load = 0.6 kN/m2
Assume the stairs to be supported on 230 mm thick masonry walls at the outer edges of
the landing, parallel to the risers [Fig. 12.13(a)]. Use M 20 concrete and Fe 415 steel.
Assume mild exposure conditions.

Solution

Given: R = 160 mm, T = 270 mm ⇒+RT22

= 314 mm Effective span = c/c distance between supports = 5.16 m [Fig below].
• Assume a waist slab thickness ≈l20 = 5160/20 = 258 →260 mm.
Assuming 20 mm clear cover (mild exposure) and 12 θ main bars,
effective depth d = 260 – 20 – 12/2 = 234 mm.
The slab thickness in the landing regions may be taken as 200 mm, as the bending
moments are relatively low here.

Loads on going [fig. below] on projected plan area:

(1) self-weight of waist slab @ 25 × 0.26 × 314/270 = 7.56 kN/m2
(2) self-weight of steps @ 25 × (0.5x0.16) = 2.00 kN/m2
(3) finishes (given) = 0.60 kN/m2
(4) live load (given) = 5.00 kN/m2
Total =15.16 kN/m2
⇒Factored load = 15.16 × 1.5 = 22.74 kN/m2
• Loads on landing
(1) self-weight of slab @ 25 × 0.20 = 5.00 kN/m2
(2) finishes @ 0.6 kN/m2
(3) live loads @ 5.0 kN/m2
Total =10.60 kN/m2
⇒Factored load = 10.60 × 1.5 = 15.90 kN/m2
• Design Moment [Fig. below]
Reaction R= (15.90x1.365)+(22.74x2.43)/2 = 49.33 kN/m
Maximum moment at midspan:
Mu = (49.33 × 2.58) – (15.90 × 1.365) × (2.58 – 1.365/2)
– (22.74) × (2.58 – 1.365)2/2
= 69.30 kNm/m

• Maiinforcement

Assuming fck = 20 MPa, fy = 415 MPa,

⇒
Required spacing of 12 θ bars = 127 mm
Required spacing of 16 θ bars = 225 mm
Provide 16 θ @ 220c/c
• Distributors

spacing 10 θ bars = 251 mm

Provide 10 θ @ 250c/c as distributors.

The superstructure is placed on the top of the foundation structure, designated as

substructure as they are placed below the ground level. The elements of the
superstructure transfer the loads and moments to its adjacent element below it and finally
all loads and moments come to the foundation structure, which in turn, transfers them to
the underlying soil or rock. Thus, the foundation structure effectively supports the
superstructure. However, all types of soil get compressed significantly and cause the
structure to settle. Accordingly, the major requirements of the design of foundation
structures are the two as given below (see cl.34.1 of IS 456)
:
1. Foundation structures should be able to sustain the applied loads, moments, forces and
induced reactions without exceeding the safe bearing capacity of the soil.

2. The settlement of the structure should be as uniform as possible and it should be within
the tolerable limits. It is well known from the structural analysis that differential
settlement of supports causes additional moments in statically indeterminate structures.
Therefore, avoiding the differential settlement is considered as more important than
maintaining uniform overall settlement of the structure.

Figure 3.3 presents the three modes of failure of columns with different slenderness ratios
when loaded axially. In the mode 1, column does not undergo any lateral deformation and
collapses due to material failure. This is known as compression failure. Due to the
combined effects of axial load and moment a short column may have material failure of
mode 2. On the other hand, a slender column subjected to axial load only undergoes
deflection due to beam-column effect and may have material failure under the combined
action of direct load and bending moment. Such failure is called combined compression
and bending failure of mode 2. Mode 3 failure is by elastic instability of very long
column even under small load much before the material reaches the yield stresses. This
type of failure is known as elastic buckling.
The slenderness ratio of steel column is the ratio of its effective length le to its least
radius of gyration r. In case of reinforced concrete column, however, IS 456 stipulates the
slenderness ratio as the ratio of its effective length le to its least lateral dimension. As
mentioned earlier in sec. 3.1(a), the effective length le is different from the unsupported
length, the rectangular reinforced concrete column of cross-sectional dimensions b and D
shall have two effective lengths in the two directions of b and D. Accordingly, the
column may have the possibility of buckling depending on the two values of slenderness
ratios as given below:
Slenderness ratio about the major axis = lex/D
Slenderness ratio about the minor axis = ley/b

Factored concentric load applied on short tied columns is resisted by concrete of

area Ac and longitudinal steel of areas Asc effectively held by lateral ties at intervals.
Assuming the design strengths of concrete and steel are 0.4fck and 0.67fy, respectively,
we can write
Pu = 0.4fck Ac + 0.67fy Asc (1)
Where Pu = factored axial load on the member,
fck = characteristic compressive strength of the concrete,
Ac = area of concrete,
fy = characteristic strength of the compression reinforcement, and
Asc = area of longitudinal reinforcement for columns.
The above equation, given in cl. 39.3 of IS 456, has two unknowns Ac and Asc to be
determined from one equation. The equation is recast in terms of Ag, the gross area of
concrete and p, the percentage of compression reinforcement employing
Asc = pAg/100 (2)
Ac = Ag(1 – p/100) (3)
Accordingly, we can write
Pu/Ag = 0.4fck + (p/100) (0.67fy – 0.4fck) (4)
Equation 4 can be used for direct computation of Ag when Pu, fck and fy are known by
assuming p ranging from 0.8 to 4 as the minimum and maximum percentages of
longitudinal reinforcement. Equation 10.4 also can be employed to determine Ag and p in
a similar manner by assuming p.
 The superstructure is placed on the top of the foundation structure, designated as
substructure as they are placed below the ground level. The elements of the
superstructure transfer the loads and moments to its adjacent element below it and finally
all loads and moments come to the foundation structure, which in turn, transfers them to
the underlying soil or rock. Thus, the foundation structure effectively supports the
superstructure. However, all types of soil get compressed significantly and cause the
structure to settle. Accordingly, the major requirements of the design of foundation
structures are the two as given below (see cl.34.1 of IS 456)
:
1. Foundation structures should be able to sustain the applied loads, moments, forces and
induced reactions without exceeding the safe bearing capacity of the soil.

2. The settlement of the structure should be as uniform as possible and it should be within
the tolerable limits. It is well known from the structural analysis that differential
settlement of supports causes additional moments in statically indeterminate structures.
Therefore, avoiding the differential settlement is considered as more important than
maintaining uniform overall settlement of the structure.

3.The foundation structure effectively supports the superstructure. However, all types of
soil get compressed significantly and cause the structure to settle. Accordingly, the major
requirements of the design of foundation structures are the two as given below (see
cl.34.1 of IS 456)

Factored concentric load applied on short tied columns is resisted by concrete of

area Ac and longitudinal steel of areas Asc effectively held by lateral ties at intervals.
Assuming the design strengths of concrete and steel are 0.4fck and 0.67fy, respectively,
we can write
Pu = 0.4fck Ac + 0.67fy Asc (1)
Where Pu = factored axial load on the member,
fck = characteristic compressive strength of the concrete,
Ac = area of concrete,
fy = characteristic strength of the compression reinforcement, and
Asc = area of longitudinal reinforcement for columns.
The above equation, given in cl. 39.3 of IS 456, has two unknowns Ac and Asc to be
determined from one equation. The equation is recast in terms of Ag, the gross area of
concrete and p, the percentage of compression reinforcement employing
Asc = pAg/100 (2)
Ac = Ag(1 – p/100) (3)
Accordingly, we can write
Pu/Ag = 0.4fck + (p/100) (0.67fy – 0.4fck) (4)
Equation 4 can be used for direct computation of Ag when Pu, fck and fy are known by
assuming p ranging from 0.8 to 4 as the minimum and maximum percentages of
longitudinal reinforcement. Equation 10.4 also can be employed to determine Ag and p in
a similar manner by assuming p.

The superstructure is placed on the top of the foundation structure, designated as

substructure as they are placed below the ground level. The elements of the
superstructure transfer the loads and moments to its adjacent element below it and finally
all loads and moments come to the foundation structure, which in turn, transfers them to
the underlying soil or rock. Thus, the foundation structure effectively supports the
superstructure. However, all types of soil get compressed significantly and cause the
structure to settle. Accordingly, the major requirements of the design of foundation
structures are the two as given below (see cl.34.1 of IS 456)
:
1. Foundation structures should be able to sustain the applied loads, moments, forces and
induced reactions without exceeding the safe bearing capacity of the soil.

2. The settlement of the structure should be as uniform as possible and it should be within
the tolerable limits. It is well known from the structural analysis that differential
settlement of supports causes additional moments in statically indeterminate structures.
Therefore, avoiding the differential settlement is considered as more important than
maintaining uniform overall settlement of the structure.
 UNIT – II

STATIC ANALYSIS OF PLATES

INTRODUCTION

We begin the application of the developed plate bending theory with thin
rectangular plates. These plates represent an excellent model for development and as a
check of various methods for solving the governing differential equation

In this chapter we consider some mathematically ‘‘exact’’ solutions

in the form of double and single trigonometric series applied to rectangular plates with
various types of supports and transverse loads, plates on an elastic foundation, continuous
plates, etc.

THE ELEMENTARY CASES OF PLATE BENDING

Let us consider some elementary examples of plate bending of great importance
for understanding how a plate resists the applied loads in bending. In addition, these
elementary examples enable one to obtain closed-form solutions of the governing

differential equation

Cylindrical bending of a plate

Consider an infinitely long plate in the y axis direction. Assume that the plate is
subjected to a transverse load which is a function of the variable x only, i.e., p ¼ pðxÞ

In this case all the strips of a unit width parallel to the x axis and isolated from the plate
will bend identically. The plate as a whole is found to be bent over the
cylindrical surface w ¼ wðxÞ. Setting all the derivatives with respect to y equal zero in

Eq we obtain the following equation for the deflection:

An integration of Eq. (3.1) should present no problems. Let, for example, p ¼ p0xa,
then the general solution of Eq. (3.1) is of the following form:

Pure bending of plates

Consider a rectangular plate with a free boundary and assume that this plate is subjected
to istributed bending moments over its edgesMx ¼ m1 ¼ const andMy ¼ m2 ¼ const
(Fig. 3.2). In this particular case, the governing differential equation

becomes

This equation will be satisfied if we make

The constants of integration C1 and C2 may be evaluated from the following boundary
conditions:
Using Eqs (2.13), (3.8), and (3.9), we obtain

Substituting the above into Eq. (3.8) yields the deflection surface, as shown below:

Hence, in all sections of the plate parallel to the x and y axes, only the constant bending
moments Mx ¼ m1 and My ¼ m2 will act. Other stress resultants and stress couples are
zero, i.e.,

This case of bending of plates may be referred to as a pure bending.

Let us consider some particular cases of pure bending of plates

(a)
Then,

This is an equation of the elliptic paraboloid of revolution. The curved plate in this
case represents a part of a sphere because the radii of curvature are the same at all the
planes and all the points of the plate.

Then,

A surface described by this equation has a saddle shape and is called the hyperbolic
paraboloid of revolution (Fig. 3.3). Horizontals of this surface are hyperbolas, asymptotes
of which are given by the straight lines x As is seen, due to the Poisson effect
the plate bends not only in the plane of the applied bending moment Mx =m1 =m but it
also has an opposite bending in the perpendicular plane

Then

Thus, a part of the plate isolated from the whole plate and equally inclined to the x
and y axes will be loaded along its boundary by uniform twisting moments of intensity m.
Hence, this part of the plate is subjected to pure twisting (Fig. 3.4b). Let us replace the
twisting moments by the effective shear forces Vα rotating these moments through 90
(see Sec. 2.4). Along the whole sides of the isolated part we obtain Vα=0, but at the
corner points the concentrated forces S ¼ 2m are applied. Thus, for the model of
Kirchhoff’s plate, an application of self-balanced concentrated forces at corners of a
rectangular plate produces a deformation of pure torsion because over the whole surface

of the plate

NAVIER’S METHOD (DOUBLE SERIES SOLUTION)

In 1820, Navier presented a paper to the French Academy of Sciences on the solution of
bending of simply supported plates by double trigonometric series [1].
Consider a rectangular plate of sides a and b, simply supported on all edges and subjected
to a uniform load pðx; yÞ: The origin of the coordinates is placed at the upper left corner
as shown in Fig. 3.5. The boundary conditions for a simply supported plate are the
following (see Eqs (2.35):

In this case, the solution of the governing differential equation (2.24), i.e., the expressions
of the deflection surface, wðx; yÞ, and the distributed surface load, pðx; yÞ, have to be
sought in the form of an infinite Fourier series (see Appendix B), as follows:

where wmn and pmn represent coefficients to be determined. It can be easily verified that
the expression for deflections (3.15a) automatically satisfies the prescribed boundary
conditions (3.14).
Let us consider a general load configuration. To determine the Fourier coefficients pmn,
each side of Eq. (3.15b) is multiplied by sin l_x a sin k_y b and integrated twice between
the limits 0;a and 0;b, as follows (see Appendix B):
It can be shown by direct integration that

The coefficients of the double Fourier expansion are therefore the following

Since the representation of the deflection (3.15a) satisfies the boundary conditions (3.14),
then the coefficients wmn must satisfy Eq. (2.24). Substitution of Eqs (3.15) into Eq.
(2.24) results in the following equation

This equation must apply for all values of x and y. We conclude therefore that

from which
Substituting the above into Eq. (3.15a), one obtains the equation of the deflected surface,
as follows:

where pmn is given by Eq. (3.17). It can be shown, by noting that and
for every x and y and for every m and n, that the series (3.19) is convergent.
Substituting wðx; yÞ into the Eqs (2.13) and (2.27), we can find the bending moments
and the shear forces in the plate, and then using the expressions (2.15), determine the
stress components. For the moments in the plate, for instance, we obtain the following

The infinite series solution for the deflection (3.19) generally converges quickly; thus,
satisfactory accuracy can be obtained by considering only a few terms. Since the stress
resultants and couples are obtained from the second and third derivatives of the deflection
wðx; yÞ, the convergence of the infinite series expressions of the internal forces and
moments is less rapid, especially in the vicinity of the plate edges. This slow convergence
is also accompanied by some loss of accuracy in the process of calculation. The accuracy
of solutions and the convergence of series expressions of stress resultants and couples can
be improved by considering more terms in the expansions and by using a special
technique for an improvement of the convergence of Fourier’s series (see Appendix B
and Ref. [2]).

RECTANGULAR PLATES SUBJECTED TO A CONCENTRATED LATERAL

FORCE P

Let us consider a rectangular plate simply supported on all edges of sides a and b and
subjected to concentrated lateral force P applied at as shown in Fig. 3.7.
 Assume first that this force is uniformly distributed over the contact area of sides u
and v (Fig. 3.6) i.e., its load intensity is defined as

Substituting the above into Eq. (3.22), one obtains

Now we must let the contact area approach zero by permitting u ! 0 and v ! 0. In order to
be able to use the limit approach first, Eq. (3.24) must be put in a more suitable form. For
this purpose, the right-hand side is multiplied and divided by ab, giving the following:

The deflected middle surface equation (3.27) in this case becomes

Furthermore, if the plate is square (a ¼ b), the maximum deflection, which occurs at the
center, is obtained from Eq. (3.28), as follows
Retaining the first nine terms of this series

we obtain

The ‘‘exact’’ value is and the error is thus 1.5% [3].

This very simple Navier’s solution, Eq. (3.28), converges sufficiently rapidly for
calculating the deflections. However, it is unsuitable for calculating the bending moments

and stresses because the series for the second derivatives and obtained by
differentiating the series (3.28) converge extremely slowly. These series for bending
moment, and consequently for stresses as well as for the shear forces, diverge directly at
a point of application of a concentrated force, called a singular point. Thus, to calculate
stress components in the vicinity of a concentrated force, it is necessary to use a more
efficient technique, especially since the maximum stresses occur in the immediate
vicinity of the singular point. Therefore, the problem of determining a correct stress
distribution near such types of singular points is of practical interest
We now consider one approach for determining the bending moment distribution
near the above-mentioned singular point. Let us write the solution (3.27) in the form
LEVY’S SOLUTION (SINGLE SERIES SOLUTION)

In the preceding sections it was shown that the calculation of bending moments
and shear forces using Navier’s solution is not very satisfactory because of slow
convergence of the series.
In 1900 Levy developed a method for solving rectangular plate bending problems
with simply supported two opposite edges and with arbitrary conditions of supports on
the two remaining opposite edges using single Fourier series [8]. This method is more
practical because it is easier to perform numerical calculations for single series that for
double series and it is also applicable to plates with various
boundary conditions.

Levy suggested the solution of Eq. (2.24) be expressed in terms of complementary,wh;

and particular, wp, parts, each of which consists of a single Fourier series where
unknown functions are determined from the prescribed boundary conditions. Thus, the
solution is expressed as follows:

Consider a plate with opposite edges, x ¼ 0 and x ¼ a, simply supported, and two
remaining opposite edges, y ¼ 0 and y ¼ b, which may have arbitrary supports.
The boundary conditions on the simply supported edges are

As mentioned earlier, the second boundary condition can be reduced to the following
form:

The complementary solution is taken to be

where fmðyÞ is a function of y only; wh also satisfies the simply supported boundary
conditions (3.41). Substituting (3.42) into the following homogeneous differential
equation

Gives

which is satisfied when the bracketed term is equal to zero. Thus,

The solution of this ordinary differential equation can be expressed as

Substituting the above into Eq. (3.44), gives the following characteristic equation

According to the obtained values of the characteristic exponents, the solution of the
homogeneous equation can be expressed in terms of either exponential functions

or hyperbolic functions

The second form, Eq. (3.49), is more convenient for calculations.

The complementary solution given by Eq. (3.42) becomes

where the constants Am; Bm;Cm; and Dm are obtained from the boundary conditions on
the edges y =0 and y =b:
The particular solution, wp, in Eq. (3.40), can also be expressed in a single Fourier
series as

The lateral distributed load pðx; yÞ is taken to be the following (see Appendix B):
where

Substituting Eqs (3.51) and (3.52) into Eq. (3.44), gives

Solving this equation, we can determine gmðyÞ and, finally, find the particular
solution, wpðx; yÞ. The complementary components of the stress resultants and stress
couples, Mxh;Myh;Mxyh; and Vxh;Vyh; can be expressed in terms of fmðyÞ by
substituting Eq. (3.50) into Eqs (2.13) and (2.39), as follows

CONTINUOUS PLATES

When a uniform plate extends over a support and has more than one span along its
length or width, it is termed continuous. Such plates are of considerable practical interest.
Continuous plates are externally statically indeterminate members (note that a plate itself
is also internally statically indeterminate). So, the well-known methods developed in
structural mechanics can be used for the analysis of continuous plates. In this section, we
consider the force method which is commonly used for the analysis of statically
indeterminate systems. According to this method, the continuous plate is
subdivided into individual, simple-span panels between intermediate supports by
removing all redundant restraints. It can be established, for example, by introducing some
fictitious hinges above the intermediate supports. In this way, the redundant moments
acting along the intermediate supports are eliminated. Similar fictitious hinges can be
used at the ends if those are fixed. The simple-span panel obtained in such a way is
referred to as a primary plate. In order to restore the rejected restraints, the unknown
redundant moments are applied to the primary plate. These moments can be determined
from the solution of simultaneous algebraic equations expressing the compatibility of the
slopes between the adjoining panels produced by both external loads and unknown
redundant moments. In our further discussion we assume that the supports are unyielding.
For the sake of simplicity, we confine ourselves to a rectangular plate continuous in one
direction only and having the same flexural rigidity. Obviously, the general procedure of
the force method discussed below can be applied to plates continuous in both directions.

subdivided into individual, simple-span panels between intermediate supports by

removing all redundant restraints. It can be established, for example, by introducing some
fictitious hinges above the intermediate supports. In this way, the redundant moments
acting along the intermediate supports are eliminated. Similar fictitious hinges can be
used at the ends if those are fixed. The simple-span panel obtained in such a way is
referred to as a primary plate. In order to restore the rejected restraints, the unknown
redundant moments are applied to the primary plate. These moments can be determined
from the solution of simultaneous algebraic equations expressing the compatibility of the
slopes between the adjoining panels produced by both external loads and unknown
redundant moments. In our further discussion we assume that the supports are unyielding.
For the sake of simplicity, we confine ourselves to a rectangular plate continuous in one
direction only and having the same flexural rigidity. Obviously, the general procedure of
the force method discussed below can be applied to plates continuous in both directions.
Consider the three-span simply supported continuous plate. The plate is subjected to a
uniform load of intensities p1; p2, and p3 as shown in Fig. 3.14a. Figure 3.14b illustrates
the primary plate obtained by introducing the fictitious hinges above the intermediate
supports; _1ðyÞ and _2ðyÞ are the redundant, unknown distributed moments replacing
the removed restraints at the intermediate supports. These unknown bending moments
may be represented by the following Fourier series:
primary plate consists of individual simple-span panels subjected to a given loading and
the distributed edge moments _1ðyÞ and _2ðyÞ, as shown in Fig. 3.14c. The deflected
surface of each simply supported individual panel may be obtained by application of
Levy’s method. The general solution for individual panels simply supported on all edges
is given by Eqs (3.50) and (3.56a) if y is replaced by xi, x by y, and a by b. We have the
following:

The boundary conditions of each panel as well as the compatibility of deformations

between any two panels across a common boundary (slopes continuity at the intermediate
supports) are used to determine the constants in the solution (3.64) and the coefficients in
the Fourier series (3.63). The boundary conditions for the plates 1, 2, and 3 are
represented as follows:
The compatibility conditions are expressed as follows

Let us consider the middle panel 2 (Fig. 3.14c). Application of the edge conditions (b) to
Eq. (3.64) for i =2 leads to the following values of the constants
The coefficients and are also given by Eqs (e) if p2 is
replaced by by _1m and letting _1m ¼ 0. Similarly, the coefficients
Að3Þ m ; Bð3Þ m ;Cð3Þ m ; and Dð3Þ m can be obtained by replacing c2 by c3, p2 by
p3, _1m by _2m and letting _2m ¼ 0. Introducing Eqs (3.64) for i ¼ 1 and i ¼ 2 into the
compatibility conditions (d), we obtain the following two additional equations

Having coefficients available, from Eqs (f) we obtain the

moment coefficients _1m and _2m. Equations (3.64) then give the deflection of the
continuous plate from which the moments and stresses can also be computed.

Application of Navier’s solution

Let us consider a simply supported rectangular plate of sides a x b on an elastic

foundation (Fig. 3.17). The deflection wðx; yÞ and a given loading pðx; yÞ can be
expressed in the form of a double trigonometric series in the form of the expressions
(3.15), as follows. Substituting the above expressions into the governing differential
equation of the problem (3.67), we obtain the unknown amplitudes of the deflections,
wmn, for a specific set of m and n values, as follows
which substituted into Eq. (3.15a) yields

If a plate is subjected to a uniform load of intensity p0, then Eq. (3.69) becomes
If a plate is loaded by a concentrated force P applied at a point then the deflected
surface equation of the plate can be represented by the following form:

Having the deflection of the plate produced by a concentrated force, the deflection
produced by any kind of lateral loading is obtained by the method of superposition.

Application of Levy’s method

If any two opposite edges of the plate on an elastic foundation are simply supported,
say, the edges x = 0 and x = a, then Levy’s solution presented earlier in Sec. 3.5 can be
applied advantageously. The general solution of the governing differential equation of the
plate on an elastic foundation, Eq. (3.67), may be represented again in the form of the
sum of particular and complementary solutions, i.e.,

Expressing the complementary solution by the Fourier series, yields

Substituting the above into the homogeneous part of Eq. (3.66) and solving it for ,
we obtain

Where
Substituting (3.74) into (3.73), we can obtain the expression for complementary solution
wh. Similarly, if we express the particular solution as

and the applied load as

and then we substitute these equations into Eq. (3.66), we obtain

Solving Eq. (3.78) for gm, we can find the particular solution wp. Therefore, Eq. (3.76)
together with Eqs (3.73) and (3.74) describes the deflected surface of the plate.

BENDING OF PLATES WITH SMALL INITIAL CURVATURE

Let us assume that a plate has an initial curvature of its middle surface, i.e., there is
an initial deflection w0 at any point of the above surface. It is assumed that w0 is small
compared with the plate thickness. If the plate is subject to lateral load and then an
additional deflection w1 occurs, the total deflection is thus

Here w1 is the solution of Eq. (2.24) set up for the flat plate, i.e., without the
abovementioned initial deflection. It will be valid if the small initial deflection, w0, is
considered as a result of the action of some fictitious lateral load. Then, applying the
superposition principle (recall that the above principle cannot be applied for large
deflections), it is possible to determine the total deflection.
If besides the lateral load, the direct forces are also applied to an initially curved
plate, then these forces produce bending also, which depends not only on w1 but also on
w0. In order to determine the total deflection, w, we introduce w ¼ w0 þ w1 into the right
hand side of Eq. (3.92). The left-hand side of this equation takes into account a change in
curvature from the initial curved state due to the given lateral load. Therefore, w1 has to
be substituted for w on the left-hand side of Eq. (3.92). Thus, Eq. (3.92) for the initially
curved plate is of the following

As mentioned previously, the influence of the initial curvature on the total deflection of
the plate is equivalent to the influence of some fictitious lateral load of intensity pf equal
to

Hence, an initially curved plate will experience a bending under action of the direct
forces, lying in the plate middle surface only.

The critical section for checking the development length in a footing slab shall be
the same planes as those of bending moments in part (c) of this section. Moreover,
development length shall be checked at all other sections where they change abruptly.
The critical sections for checking the development length are given in cl.34.2.4.3 of IS
456, which further recommends to check the anchorage requirements if the reinforcement
is curtailed, which shall be done in accordance with cl.26.2.3 of IS 456
.
The distribution of the total tensile reinforcement, calculated in accordance with the
moment at critical sections, as specified in part (c) of this section, shall be done as given
below for one-way and two-way footing slabs separately.
(i) In one-way reinforced footing slabs like wall footings, the reinforcement shall be
distributed uniformly across the full width of the footing i.e., perpendicular to the
direction of wall. Nominal distribution reinforcement shall be provided as per cl. 34.5 of
IS 456 along the length of the wall to take care of the secondary moment, differential
settlement, shrinkage and temperature effects.
(ii) In two-way reinforced square footing slabs, the reinforcement extending in each
direction shall be distributed uniformly across the full width/length of the footing.

iii) In two-way reinforced rectangular footing slabs, the reinforcement in the long
direction shall be distributed uniformly across the full width of the footing slab. In the
short direction, a central band equal to the width of the footing shall be marked along the
length of the footing, where the portion of the reinforcement shall be determined as given
in the equation below. This portion of the reinforcement shall be distributed across the
central band

Structural Classification

Structurally, staircases may be classified largely into two categories, depending

on the predominant direction in which the slab component of the stair undergoes flexure:
1. Stair slab spanning transversely (stair widthwise);
2. Stair slab spanning longitudinally (along the incline).

The slab component of the stair (whether comprising an isolated tread slab, a tread-riser
unit or a waist slab) is supported on its side(s) or cantilevers laterally from a central
support. The slab supports gravity loads by bending essentially in a transverse vertical
plane, with the span along the width of the stair.
In the case of the cantilevered slabs, it is economical to provide isolated treads (without
risers). However, the tread-riser type of arrangement and the waist slab type are also
sometimes employed in practice, as cantilevers. The spandrel beam is subjected to torsion
(‗equilibrium torsion‘), in addition to flexure and shear.

When the slab is supported at the two sides by means of ‗stringer beams‘ or masonry
walls, it may be designed as simply supported, but reinforcement at the top should be
provided near the supports to resist the ‗negative‘ moments that may arise on account of
possible partial fixity.

In this case, the supports to the stair slab are provided parallel to the riser at two
or more locations, causing the slab to bend longitudinally between the supports. It may be
noted that longitudinal bending can occur in configurations other than the straight stair
configuration, such as quarter-turn stairs, dog-legged stairs, open well stairs and
helicoidal stairs .
The slab arrangement may either be the conventional ‗waist slab‘ type or the ‗tread-
riser‘ type. The slab thickness depends on the ‗effective span‘, which should be taken as
the centre-to-centre distance between the beam/wall supports, according to the Code (Cl.
33.1a, c).In certain situations, beam or wall supports may not be available parallel to the
riser at the landing. Instead, the flight is supported between the landings, which span
transversely, parallel to the risers. In such cases, the Code(Cl. 33.1b) specifies that the
effective span for the flight (spanning longitudinally) should be taken as the going of the
stairs plus at each end either half the width of the landing or one metre, whichever is
smaller.

Types of Structures

Shallow foundations are used when the soil has sufficient strength within a short
depth below the ground level. They need sufficient plan area to transfer the heavy loads
to the base soil. These heavy loads are sustained by the reinforced concrete columns or
walls (either of bricks or reinforced concrete) of much less areas of cross-section due to
high strength of bricks or reinforced concrete when compared to that of soil. The strength
of the soil, expressed as the safe bearing capacity of the soil is normally supplied by the
geotechnical experts to the structural engineer. Shallow foundations are also designated
as footings. The different types of shallow foundations or footings are discussed below.

As mentioned earlier, the shallow foundations need more plan areas due to the
low strength of soil compared to that of masonry or reinforced concrete. However,
shallow foundations are selected when the soil has moderately good strength, except the
raft foundation which is good in poor condition of soil also. Raft foundations are under
the category of shallow foundation as they have comparatively shallow depth than that of
deep foundation. It is worth mentioning that the depth of raft foundation is much larger
than those of other types of shallow foundations.
However, for poor condition of soil near to the surface, the bearing capacity is very less
and foundation needed in such situation is the pile foundation. Piles are, in fact, small
diameter columns which are driven or cast into the ground by suitable means. Precast
piles are driven and cast-in-situ are cast. These piles support the structure by the skin
friction between the pile surface and the surrounding soil and end bearing force, if such
resistance is available to provide the bearing force. Accordingly, they are designated as
frictional and end bearing piles. They are normally provided in a group with a pile cap at
the top through which the loads of the superstructure are transferred to the piles.
Piles are very useful in marshy land where other types of foundation are impossible to
construct. The length of the pile which is driven into the ground depends on the
availability of hard soil/rock or the actual load test. Another advantage of the pile
foundations is that they can resist uplift also in the same manner as they take the
compression forces just by the skin friction in the opposite direction.
However, driving of pile is not an easy job and needs equipment and specially trained
persons or agencies. Moreover, one has to select pile foundation in such a situation where
the adjacent buildings are not likely to be damaged due to the driving of piles. The choice
of driven or bored piles, in this regard, is critical.
Exhaustive designs of all types of foundations mentioned above are beyond the scope of
this course. Accordingly, this module is restricted to the design of some of the shallow
footings, frequently used for normal low rise buildings only.
subdivided into individual, simple-span panels between intermediate supports by
removing all redundant restraints. It can be established, for example, by introducing some
fictitious hinges above the intermediate supports. In this way, the redundant moments
acting along the intermediate supports are eliminated. Similar fictitious hinges can be
used at the ends if those are fixed. The simple-span panel obtained in such a way is
referred to as a primary plate. In order to restore the rejected restraints, the unknown
redundant moments are applied to the primary plate. These moments can be determined
from the solution of simultaneous algebraic equations expressing the compatibility of the
slopes between the adjoining panels produced by both external loads and unknown
redundant moments. In our further discussion we assume that the supports are unyielding.
For the sake of simplicity, we confine ourselves to a rectangular plate continuous in one
direction only and having the same flexural rigidity. Obviously, the general procedure of
the force method discussed below can be applied to plates continuous in both directions.
 UNIT – III
CIRCULAR PLATES

INTRODUCTION
Circular plates are common in many structures such as nozzle covers, end closures
in pressure essels, pump diaphragms, turbine disks, and bulkheads in submarines and
airplanes, etc. When circular plates are analyzed, it is convenient to express the governing
differential equation (2.24) in polar oordinates. This can be readily accomplished by a
coordinate transformation. An alternative approach based on the procedure presented in
Chapter 3 for rectangular plates to derive the basic relationships for the lateral deflections
of circular plates may be used also.

BASIC RELATIONS IN POLAR COORDINATES

As mentioned earlier, we use the polar coordinates r and ’ in solving the bending
problems for circular plates. If the coordinate transformation technique is used, the
following geometrical relations between the Cartesian and polar coordinates are
applicable (see Fig. 4.1a):

Referring to the above

Inasmuch as the deflection is a function of r and ’, the chain rule together with the
relations (4.2) lead to the following

To evaluate the expression we can repeat the operation (4.3) twice. As a result, we
obtain
Similarly,

Adding term by term the relations (4.4a) and (4.4b), yields

After repeating twice the operation the governing differential equation for the plate
deflection (2.26) in polar coordinates becomes

or in the expended form

Let us set up the relationships between moments and curvatures. Consider now the state
of moment and shear force on an infinitesimal element of thickness h, described in polar
coordinates, as shown in Fig. 4.1b. Note that, to simplify the derivations, the x axis is
taken in the direction of the radius r, at ’ ¼ 0 (Fig. 4.1b). Then, the radialMr, tangential
Mt, twisting Mrt moments, and the vertical shear forces Qr;Qt will have the same values
as the moments Mx;My; and Mxy, and shears Qx;Qy at the same point in the plate. Thus,
transforming the expressions for moments (2.13) and shear forces (2.27) into polar
coordinates, we can write the following:
Similarly, the formulas for the plane stress components, from Eqs (2.15), are written in
the following form:

where Mr;Mt and Mtr are determined by Eqs (4.7). Clearly the maximum stresses take
place on the surfaces z ¼ _h=2 of the plate.
Similarly, transforming Eqs (2.38) and (2.39) into polar coordinates gives the
effective transverse shear forces. They may be written for an edge with outward normal
in the r and ’ directions, as follows:

The boundary conditions at the edges of a circular plate of radius a may readily be written
by referring to Eqs. (2.48), namely:
 (a) Clamped edge r = a

(b) Simply supported edge r = a

If we use the transformations given by Eqs (4.1)–(4.4), the strain energy for a circular
plate is

This has two situations: (a) when Df /xu does not exceed 0.43, the full
depth of flange is having the constant stress (Fig. 5.10.9), and (b) when Df /xu >
0.43, the constant stress is for a part of the depth of flange

(Fig. 5.10.10).

(i) Neutral axis is in the web and the section is over-reinforced (xu > xu,max>
Df), (Figs. 5.10.7 and 8 a to e)

As mentioned earlier, the value of xu is then taken as xu,max when xu> xu,max.
Therefore, this case also will have two situations depending on Df /d not
exceeding 0.2 or > 0.2 as in (ii) above. The governing equations of the four
different cases are now taken up.

Governing Equations
 The following equations are only for the singly reinforced T-beams.

Additional terms involving Mu,lim, Mu2, Asc , Ast1 and Ast2 are to be included from Eqs. 4.1
to 4.8 of sec. 4.8.3 of Lesson 8 depending on the particular case.

Applications of these terms are explained through the solutions of numerical problems of
doubly reinforced T-beams in Lessons 11 and 12.

Case (i): When the neutral axis is in the flange (xu < Df ), (Figs. 5.10.6 a to c)

Concrete below the neutral axis is in tension and is ignored. The steel
reinforcement takes the tensile force (Fig. 5.10.6). Therefore, T and L-beams are
considered as rectangular beams of width bf and effective depth d. All the equations of
singly and doubly reinforced rectangular beams derived in Lessons 4 to 5 and 8
respectively, are also applicable here.
Case (ii): When the neutral axis is in the web and the section is balanced (xu,max > Df
), (Figs. 5.10.7 and 8 a to e)

(a) When Df /d does not exceed 0.2, (Figs. 5.10.7 a to e)

As explained in sec. 5.10.3, the depth of the rectangular portion of the stress block
(of constant stress = 0.446 fck) in this case is greater than Df (Figs. 5.10.7 a, b and c). The
section is split into two parts: (i) rectangular web of width bw and effective depth d, and
(ii) flange of width (bf - bw) and depth Df (Figs.
5.10.7 d and e).

Total compressive force = Compressive force of rectangular beam of width bw and depth
d + Compressive force of rectangular flange of width (bf - bw) and depth Df .

Thus, total compressive force

The lever arm of the rectangular beam (web part) is (d - 0.42 xu, max) and the same for the
flanged part is (d - 0.5 Df ).

So, the total moment = Moment due to rectangular web part + Moment due to rectangular
flange part

Equation 5.7 is given in G-2.2 of IS 456.

(b) When Df /d > 0.2, (Figs. 5.10.8 a to e)

In this case, the depth of rectangular portion of stress block is within the flange
(Figs. 5.10.8 a, b and c). It is assumed that this depth of constant stress
(0.45 fck) is yf, where

yf = 0.15 xu, max + 0.65 Df, but not greater than Df

(5.8)

The above expression of yf is derived in sec. 5.10.4.5.

As in the previous case (ii a), when Df /d does not exceed 0.2, equations of C, T
and M u are obtained from Eqs. 5.5, 6 and 7 by changing Df to yf. Thus, we have (Figs.
5.10.8 d and e)

C = 0.36 fck bw xu, max + 0.45 fck (bf - bw) yf

T = 0.87 fy A st (5.10)

The lever arm of the rectangular beam (web part) is (d - 0.42 xu, max same for the flange
part is (d - 0.5 yf ). Accordingly, the expression of follows:

Mu = 0.36(xu, max /d){1 - 0.42( xu, max/d)} fck bw d2 + 0.45 fck(bf - bw) yf(d - yf

/2)
 Since Df does not exceed 0.43 xu and h (depth of fibre where the strain is 0.002) is
at a depth of 0.43 xu, the entire flange will be under a constant stress of 0.45 fck (Figs.
5.10.9 a, b and c). The equations of C, T and Mu can be written in the same manner as in
sec. 5.10.4.2, case (ii a). The final forms of the equations are obtained from Eqs. 5.5, 6
and 7 by replacing xu, max by xu. Thus, we have (Figs. 5.10.9 d and e)

C = 0.36 fck bw xu + 0.45 fck (bf - bw) Df

T = 0.87 fy Ast

(5.13)

Mu = 0.36(xu /d){1 - 0.42( xu /d)} fck bw d2 + 0.45 fck(bf - bw) Df (d - Df /2)

(5.14)

(b) When Df / xu > 0.43, (Figs. 5.10.10 a to e)

Since Df > 0.43 xu and h (depth of fibre where the strain is 0.002) is at a depth of
0.43 xu, the part of the flange having the constant stress of 0.45 fck is assumed as yf (Fig.
5.10.10 a, b and c). The expressions of yf , C, T and Mu can be written from Eqs. 5.8, 9,
10 and 11 of sec. 5.10.4.2, case (ii b), by replacing xu,max by xu. Thus, we have (Fig.
5.10.10 d and e)

yf = 0.15 xu + 0.65 Df, but not greater than Df

(5.15)

C = 0.36 fck bw xu + 0.45 fck (bf - bw) yf

(5.16)

T = 0.87 fy Ast
(5.17)

Mu = 0.36(xu /d){1 - 0.42( xu /d)} fck bw d2 + 0.45 fck(bf - bw) yf (d - yf /2)

(5.18)

to 5.7 and 5.9 to 5.11, respectively of sec. 5.10.4.2 (Figs. 5.10.7 and 8). The expression of
yf for (b) is the same as that of Eq. 5.8.
It is clear from the above that the over-reinforced beam will not have additional
moment of resistance beyond that of the balanced one. Moreover, it will prevent steel
failure. It is, therefore, recommended either to re-design or to go for doubly reinforced
flanged beam than designing over-reinforced flanged beam.

Whitney's stress block has been considered to derive Eq. 5.8. Figure

5.10.11 shows the two stress blocks of IS code and of Whitney.

yf = Depth of constant portion of the stress block when Df /d > 0.2. As yf is a

function of xu and Df and let us assume

yf = A xu + B Df

(5.19)

where A and B are to be determined from the following two conditions:

Using the conditions of Eqs. 5.20 and 21 in Eq. 5.19, we get A = 0.15 and B = 0.65. Thus,
we have
yf = 0.15 xu + 0.65 Df

• When beam depth is restricted and the moment the beam has to carry is greater than
the moment capacity of the beam in concrete failure.
• When B.M at the section can change sign.

• When compression steel can substantially improve the ductility of beams and its
use is therefore advisable in members when larger amount of tension steel becomes
necessary for its strength.

• Compression steel is always used in structures in earthquake regions to increase

their ductility.

• Compression reinforcement will also aid significantly in reducing the long-term

deflections of beams.

Case (i): When the neutral axis is in the flange (xu < Df ), (Figs. 5.10.6 a to c)

Concrete below the neutral axis is in tension and is ignored. The steel
reinforcement takes the tensile force (Fig. 5.10.6). Therefore, T and L-beams are
considered as rectangular beams of width bf and effective depth d. All the equations of
singly and doubly reinforced rectangular beams derived in Lessons 4 to 5 and 8
respectively, are also applicable here.

Case (ii): When the neutral axis is in the web and the section is balanced (xu,max > Df
), (Figs. 5.10.7 and 8 a to e)

(a) When Df /d does not exceed 0.2, (Figs. 5.10.7 a to e)

As explained in sec. 5.10.3, the depth of the rectangular portion of the stress block
(of constant stress = 0.446 fck) in this case is greater than Df (Figs. 5.10.7 a, b and c). The
section is split into two parts: (i) rectangular web of width bw and effective depth d, and
(ii) flange of width (bf - bw) and depth Df (Figs.
5.10.7 d and e).
Total compressive force = Compressive force of rectangular beam of width bw and depth
d + Compressive force of rectangular flange of width (bf - bw) and depth Df .

Thus, total compressive force

The lever arm of the rectangular beam (web part) is (d - 0.42 xu, max) and the same for the
flanged part is (d - 0.5 Df ).

So, the total moment = Moment due to rectangular web part + Moment due to rectangular
flange part

Equation 5.7 is given in G-2.2 of IS 456.

(b) When Df /d > 0.2, (Figs. 5.10.8 a to e)

In this case, the depth of rectangular portion of stress block is within the flange
(Figs. 5.10.8 a, b and c). It is assumed that this depth of constant stress
(0.45 fck) is yf, where

yf = 0.15 xu, max + 0.65 Df, but not greater than Df

(5.8)

The above expression of yf is derived in sec. 5.10.4.5.

As in the previous case (ii a), when Df /d does not exceed 0.2, equations of C, T
and M u are obtained from Eqs. 5.5, 6 and 7 by changing Df to yf. Thus, we have (Figs.
5.10.8 d and e)

C = 0.36 fck bw xu, max + 0.45 fck (bf - bw) yf

T = 0.87 fy A st (5.10)

The lever arm of the rectangular beam (web part) is (d - 0.42 xu, max same for the flange
part is (d - 0.5 yf ). Accordingly, the expression of follows:
 Mu = 0.36(xu, max /d){1 - 0.42( xu, max/d)} fck bw d2 + 0.45 fck(bf - bw) yf(d - yf

/2)
Since Df does not exceed 0.43 xu and h (depth of fibre where the strain is 0.002) is
at a depth of 0.43 xu, the entire flange will be under a constant stress of 0.45 fck (Figs.
5.10.9 a, b and c). The equations of C, T and Mu can be written in the same manner as in
sec. 5.10.4.2, case (ii a). The final forms of the equations are obtained from Eqs. 5.5, 6
and 7 by replacing xu, max by xu. Thus, we have (Figs. 5.10.9 d and e)

C = 0.36 fck bw xu + 0.45 fck (bf - bw) Df

T = 0.87 fy Ast

(5.13)

Mu = 0.36(xu /d){1 - 0.42( xu /d)} fck bw d2 + 0.45 fck(bf - bw) Df (d - Df /2)

(5.14)

(b) When Df / xu > 0.43, (Figs. 5.10.10 a to e)

Since Df > 0.43 xu and h (depth of fibre where the strain is 0.002) is at a depth of
0.43 xu, the part of the flange having the constant stress of 0.45 fck is assumed as yf (Fig.
5.10.10 a, b and c). The expressions of yf , C, T and Mu can be written from Eqs. 5.8, 9,
10 and 11 of sec. 5.10.4.2, case (ii b), by replacing xu,max by xu. Thus, we have (Fig.
5.10.10 d and e)
yf = 0.15 xu + 0.65 Df, but not greater than Df

(5.15)

C = 0.36 fck bw xu + 0.45 fck (bf - bw) yf

(5.16)
 T = 0.87 fy Ast

(5.17)
Mu = 0.36(xu /d){1 - 0.42( xu /d)} fck bw d2 + 0.45 fck(bf - bw) yf (d - yf /2)

(5.18)

to 5.7 and 5.9 to 5.11, respectively of sec. 5.10.4.2 (Figs. 5.10.7 and 8). The expression of
yf for (b) is the same as that of Eq. 5.8.
It is clear from the above that the over-reinforced beam will not have additional
moment of resistance beyond that of the balanced one. Moreover, it will prevent steel
failure. It is, therefore, recommended either to re-design or to go for doubly reinforced
flanged beam than designing over-reinforced flanged beam.

Whitney's stress block has been considered to derive Eq. 5.8. Figure

5.10.11 shows the two stress blocks of IS code and of Whitney.

yf = Depth of constant portion of the stress block when Df /d > 0.2. As yf is a

function of xu and Df and let us assume

yf = A xu + B Df
(5.19)
where A and B are to be determined from the following two conditions:
Using the conditions of Eqs. 5.20 and 21 in Eq. 5.19, we get A = 0.15 and B = 0.65. Thus,
we have
yf = 0.15 xu + 0.65 Df

• When beam depth is restricted and the moment the beam has to carry is greater than
the moment capacity of the beam in concrete failure.

• When B.M at the section can change sign

 UNIT – IV
STATIC ANALYSIS OF SHELLS: MEMBRANE THEORY OF
SHELLS

CLASSIFICATION OF SHELL SURFACES

We define here some of the surfaces that are commonly used for shell structures in
engineering practice. There are several possible classifications of these surfaces. One
such classification, associated with the Gaussian curvature, was discussed in Sec. 11.6.
Following Ref. [4], we now discuss other categories of shell surfaces associated with
their shape and geometric develop ability.

Classification based on geometric form

(a) Surfaces of revolution (Fig. 11.9)

As mentioned previously, surfaces of revolution are generated by rotating a plane curve,

called the meridian, about an axis that is not necessarily intersecting the meridian.
Circular cylinders, cones, spherical or elliptical domes, hyperboloids of revolution, and
toroids (see Fig. 11.9) are some examples of surfaces of revolution. It can be seen that for
the circular cylinder and cone (Fig. 11.9a and b), the meridian is a straight line, and
hence, k1 ¼ 0, which gives _¼ 0. These are shells of zero
Gaussian curvature. For ellipsoids and paraboloids of revolution and spheres (Fig. 11.9c,
d, and e), both the principal curvatures are in the same direction and, thus, these surfaces
have a positive Gaussian curvature (_ > 0). They are synclastic surfaces. For the
hyperboloid of revolution (Fig. 11.9f), the curvatures of the meridian and the second line
of curvature are in opposite directions (i.e., the principal radii R1 and R2 lie on opposite
sides of the surface for all points on the surface). For
the toroid (Fig. 11.9g), the Gaussian curvature changes from positive to negative as we
move along the surface.
(b) Surfaces of translation (Fig. 11.10)

A surface of translation is defined as the surface generated by keeping a plane curve

parallel to its initial plane as we move it along another plane curve. The two planes
containing the two curves are at right angles to each other. An elliptic paraboloid is
shown in Fig. 11.10 as an example of such a type of surfaces. It is obtained by translation
of a parabola on another parabola; both parabolas have their curvatures in the same
direction. Therefore, this shell has a positive Gaussian curvature. For this surface sections
x ¼ const and y ¼ const are parabolas, whereas a section z ¼ const represents an ellipse:
hence its name, ‘‘elliptic paraboloid.’’

(c) Ruled surfaces (Fig. 11.11)

Ruled surfaces are obtained by the translation of straight lines over two end curves (Fig.
11.11). The straight lines are not necessarily at right angles to the planes containing the
end curves. The frustum of a cone can thus be considered as a ruled surface, since it can
be generated by translation of a straight line (the generator) over two curves at its ends.
It is also, of course, a shell of revolution. The hyperboloid of revolution of one sheet,
shown in Fig. 11.11a, represents another example of ruled surfaces. It can be generated
also by the translation of a straight line over two circles at its ends. Figure 11.11b shows
a surface generated by a translation of a straight line on a circular curve at one end and on
a straight line at the other end. Such surfaces are referred to as conoids. Both surfaces
shown in Fig. 11.11 have negative Gaussian curvatures. 11.7.2 Classification based on
shell curvature

Classification based on shell curvature

(a) Singly curved shells

These shells have a zero Gaussian curvature. Some shells of revolution (circular
cylinders, cones), shells of translation, or ruled surfaces (circular or noncircular cylinders
and cones) are examples of singly curved shells.
(b) Doubly curved shells of positive Gaussian curvature
Some shells of revolution (circular domes, ellipsoids and paraboloids of revolution) and
shells of translation and ruled surfaces (elliptic paraboloids, paraboloids of revolution)
can be assigned to this category of surfaces.

(c) Doubly curved shells of negative Gaussian curvature

This category of surfaces consists of some shells of revolution (hyperboloids of
revolution of one sheet) and shells of translation or ruled surfaces (paraboloids,conoids,
hyperboloids of revolution of one sheet).It is seen from this classification that the same
type of shell may appear in more than one category.

Classification based on geometrical develop ability

(a) Developable surfaces

Developable surfaces are defined as surfaces that can be ‘‘developed’’ into a plane form
without cutting and/or stretching their middle surface. All singly curved surfaces are
examples of developable surfaces.
(b) Non-developable surfaces

A non-developable surface is a surface that has to be cut and/or stretched in order to be

developed into a planar form. Surfaces with double curvature are usually nondevelopable.
The classification of shell surfaces into developable and non-developable has a certain
mechanical meaning. From a physical point of view, shells with non-developable
surfaces require more external energy to be deformed than do developable shells, i.e., to
collapse into a plane form. Hence, one may conclude that non-developable shells are, in
general, stronger and more stable than the corresponding developable
shells having the same overall dimensions. On the other hand, developable shells have
some advantages associated with their technological effectiveness.
SPECIALIZATION OF SHELL GEOMETRY
It is shown in the next chapter that the governing equations and relations of the general
theory of thin shells are formulated in terms of the Lame´ parameters A and B as well as
of the principal curvatures _1 ¼ 1=R1 and _2 ¼ 1=R2. In the general case of shells
having an arbitrary geometry of the middle surface, the coefficients of the first and
second quadratic forms and the principal curvatures are some functions of the curvilinear
coordinates. We determine the Lame´ parameters for some shell geometries that are
commonly encountered in engineering practice

Shells of revolution
The shells of revolution were discussed in Secs 11.2 and 11.7. As for the curvilinear
coordinate lines and , the meridians and parallels may be chosen: they are the lines of
principal curvatures and form an orthogonal mesh on the shell middle surface. Figure
11.12a shows a surface of revolution where R1 is the principal radius of the meridian, R2
is the principal radius of the parallel circle (as shown in Sec.11.2, R2 is the distance along
a normal to the meridional curve drawn from a point of interest to the axis of revolution
of the surface), and r is the radius of the parallel circle.
There are several possibilities for a choice of the curvilinear coordinates and .b
The overall goal is to be able to design reinforced concrete structures that are:
• Safe
• Economical
• Efficient

Reinforced concrete is one of the principal building materials used in engineered

structures because:
• Low cost
• Weathering and fire resistance
• Good compressive strength
• Formability

• identify the regions where the beam shall be designed as a flanged and where it
will be rectangular in normal slab beam construction,

• define the effective and actual widths of flanged beams,

• state the requirements so that the slab part is effectively coupled with the flanged
beam,
 • write the expressions of effective widths of T and L-beams both for continuous
and isolated cases,

• derive the expressions of C, T and Mu for four different cases depending on the
location of the neutral axis and depth of the flange.

Reinforced concrete slabs used in floors, roofs and decks are mostly cast
monolithic from the bottom of the beam to the top of the slab. Such rectangular beams
having slab on top are different from others having either no slab (bracings of elevated
tanks, lintels etc.) or having disconnected slabs as in some pre-cast systems (Figs. 5.10.1
a, b and c). Due to monolithic casting, beams and a part of the slab act together. Under
the action of positive bending moment, i.e., between the supports of a continuous beam,
the slab, up to a certain width greater than the width of the beam, forms the top part of the
beam. Such beams having slab on top of the rectangular rib are designated as the flanged
beams - either T or L type depending on whether the slab is on both sides or on one side
of the beam (Figs. 5.10.2 a to e) . Over the supports of a continuous beam, the bending
moment is negative and the slab, therefore, is in tension while a part of the rectangular
beam (rib) is in compression. The continuous beam at support is thus equivalent to a
rectangular beam (Figs. 5.10.2 a, c, f and g).
Loads
Loads that act on structures can be divided into three general categories:
Dead Loads
(i) Sufficient development length of the reinforcement shall be provided to transfer the
compression or tension to the supporting member in accordance with cl.26.2 of IS 456,
when transfer of force is accomplished by reinforcement of column (cl.34.4.2 of IS 456).
(ii) Minimum area of extended longitudinal bars or dowels shall be 0.5 per cent of the
cross-sectional area of the supported column or pedestal (cl.34.4.3 of IS 456).
(iii) A minimum of four bars shall be provided (cl.34.4.3 of IS 456).
(iv) The diameter of dowels shall not exceed the diameter of column bars by more than 3
mm.
(v) Column bars of diameter larger than 36 mm, in compression only can be doweled at
the footings with bars of smaller size of the necessary area. The dowel shall extend into
the column, a distance equal to the development length of the column bar and into the
footing, a distance equal to the development length of the dowel, as stipulated in cl.34.4.4
of IS 456.
Clause 34.5.1 of IS 456 stipulates the minimum reinforcement and spacing of the bars in
footing slabs as per the requirements of solid slab (cls.26.5.2.1 and 26.3.3b(2) of IS 456,
respectively).

The staircase is an important component of a building, and often the only means
of access between the various floors in the building. It consists of a flight of steps, usually
with one or more intermediate landings (horizontal slab platforms) provided between the
floor levels. The horizontal top portion of a step (where the foot rests) is termed tread and
the vertical projection of the step (i.e., the vertical distance between two neighbouring
steps) is called riser [Fig. 2.10]. Values of 300 mm and 150 mm are ideally assigned to
the tread and riser respectively — particularly in public buildings. However, lower values
of tread (up to 250 mm) combined with higher values of riser (up to 190 mm) are resorted
to in residential and factory buildings. The width of the stair is generally around 1.1 –
1.6m, and in any case, should normally not be less than 850 mm; large stair widths are
encountered in entrances to public buildings. The horizontal projection (plan) of an
inclined flight of steps, between the first and last risers, is termed going. A typical flight
of steps consists of two landings and one going, as depicted in Fig. 2.10(a). Generally,
risers in a flight should not exceed about 12 in number. The steps in the flight can be
designed in a number of ways: with waist slab, with tread-riser arrangement (without
waist slab) or with isolated tread slabs — as shown in Fig. 2.10(b), (c), (d) respectively.

Geometrical Configurations
A wide variety of staircases are met with in practice. Some of the more common
geometrical configurations are depicted in Fig. 2.11. These include:
• straight stairs (with or without intermediate landing) [Fig. 2.11 (a)]
• quarter-turn stairs [Fig. 2.11 (b)]
• dog-legged stairs [Fig. 2.11 (c)]
open well stairs [Fig. 2.11 (d)]
• spiral stairs [Fig. 2.11 (e)]
• helicoidal stairs [Fig. 2.11 (f)]

Design Considerations
(a) Minimum nominal cover
The minimum nominal cover for the footings should be more than that of other structural
elements of the superstructure as the footings are in direct contact with the soil. Clause
26.4.2.2 of IS 456 prescribes a minimum cover of 50 mm for footings. However, the
actual cover may be even more depending on the presence of harmful chemicals or
minerals, water table etc.

(b) Thickness at the edge

The minimum thickness at the edge of reinforced and plain concrete footings shall be at
least 150 mm for footings on soils and at least 300 mm above the top of piles for footings
on piles, as per the stipulation in cl.34.1.2 of IS 456.
footings with bars of smaller size of the necessary area. The dowel shall extend into the
column, a distance equal to the development length of the column bar and into the
footing, a distance equal to the development length of the dowel, as stipulated in cl.34.4.4
of IS 456.
Clause 34.5.1 of IS 456 stipulates the minimum reinforcement and spacing of the bars in
footing slabs as per the requirements of solid slab (cls.26.5.2.1 and 26.3.3b(2) of IS 456,
respectively).

The staircase is an important component of a building, and often the only means
of access between the various floors in the building. It consists of a flight of steps, usually
with one or more intermediate landings (horizontal slab platforms) provided between the
floor levels. The horizontal top portion of a step (where the foot rests) is termed tread and
the vertical projection of the step (i.e., the vertical distance between two neighbouring
steps) is called riser [Fig. 2.10]. Values of 300 mm and 150 mm are ideally assigned to
the tread and riser respectively — particularly in public buildings. However, lower values
of tread (up to 250 mm) combined with higher values of riser (up to 190 mm) are resorted
to in residential and factory buildings. The width of the stair is generally around 1.1 –
1.6m, and in any case, should normally not be less than 850 mm; large stair widths are
encountered in entrances to public buildings. The horizontal projection (plan) of an
inclined flight of steps, between the first and last risers, is termed going. A typical flight
of steps consists of two landings and one going, as depicted in Fig. 2.10(a). Generally,
risers in a flight should not exceed about 12 in number. The steps in the flight can be
designed in a number of ways: with waist slab, with tread-riser arrangement (without
waist slab) or with isolated tread slabs — as shown in Fig. 2.10(b), (c), (d) respectively.

Geometrical Configurations
A wide variety of staircases are met with in practice. Some of the more common
geometrical configurations are depicted in Fig. 2.11. These include:
• straight stairs (with or without intermediate landing) [Fig. 2.11 (a)]
• quarter-turn stairs [Fig. 2.11 (b)]
• dog-legged stairs [Fig. 2.11 (c)]
open well stairs [Fig. 2.11 (d)]
• spiral stairs [Fig. 2.11 (e)]
• helicoidal stairs [Fig. 2.11 (f)]

Design Considerations

(a) Minimum nominal cover

The minimum nominal cover for the footings should be more than that of other structural
elements of the superstructure as the footings are in direct contact with the soil. Clause
26.4.2.2 of IS 456 prescribes a minimum cover of 50 mm for footings. However, the
actual cover may be even more depending on the presence of harmful chemicals or
minerals, water table etc.

(b) Thickness at the edge

The minimum thickness at the edge of reinforced and plain concrete footings shall be at
least 150 mm for footings on soils and at least 300 mm above the top of piles for footings
on piles, as per the stipulation in cl.34.1.2 of IS 456.

For plain concrete pedestals, the angle α (see Fig.11.28.1) between the plane passing
through the bottom edge of the pedestal and the corresponding junction edge of the
column with pedestal and the horizontal plane shall be determined from the following
expression (cl.34.1.3 of IS 456)

where qa = calculated maximum bearing pressure at the base of pedestal in N/mm2, and
fck = characteristic strength of concrete at 28 days in N/mm2.

(c) Bending moments

1. It may be necessary to compute the bending moment at several sections of the

footing depending on the type of footing, nature of loads and the distribution of pressure
at the base of the footing. However, bending moment at any section shall be determined
taking all forces acting over the entire area on one side of the section of the footing,
which is obtained by passing a vertical plane at that section extending across the footing
(cl.34.2.3.1 of IS 456).

2. The critical section of maximum bending moment for the purpose of designing an
isolated concrete footing which supports a column, pedestal or wall shall be:
(i) at the face of the column, pedestal or wall for footing supporting a concrete column,
pedestal or reinforced concrete wall, and
(ii) halfway between the centre-line and the edge of the wall, for footing under masonry
wall. This is stipulated in cl.34.2.3.2 of IS 456.
The maximum moment at the critical section shall be determined as mentioned in 1
above.
For round or octagonal concrete column or pedestal, the face of the column or pedestal
shall be taken as the side of a square inscribed within the perimeter of the round or
octagonal column or pedestal (see cl.34.2.2 of IS 456 and Figs.11.28.13a and b).

(d) Shear force

Footing slabs shall be checked in one-way or two-way shears depending on the
nature of bending. If the slab bends primarily in one-way, the footing slab shall be
checked in one-way vertical shear. On the other hand, when the bending is primarily two-
way, the footing slab shall be checked in two-way shear or punching shear. The
respective critical sections and design shear strengths are given below:
One-way shear has to be checked across the full width of the base slab on a vertical
section located from the face of the column, pedestal or wall at a distance equal to
(i) effective depth of the footing slab in case of footing slab on soil, and
(ii) half the effective depth of the footing slab if the footing slab is on piles.
The design shear strength of concrete without shear reinforcement is given in Table 19 of
cl.40.2 of IS 456.
punching shear shall be checked around the column on a perimeter half the effective
depth of the footing slab away from the face of the column or pedestal.
The permissible shear stress, when shear reinforcement is not provided, shall not exceed ,
where ks = (0.5 + cβ), but not greater than one, cβ being the ratio of short side to long
side of the column, and = 0.25(fck)1/2 in limit state method of design, as stipulated in

Normally, the thickness of the base slab is governed by shear. Hence, the necessary
thickness of the slab has to be provided to avoid shear reinforcement.

Reinforcement in the central band = {2/(β+1)} (Total reinforcement in the short

direction)
Where β is the ratio of longer dimension to shorter dimension of the footing slab
(Fig.3.10).
Each of the two end bands shall be provided with half of the remaining reinforcement,
distributed
uniformly across the respective end band.

All forces and moments acting at the base of the column must be transferred to
the pedestal,
if any, and then from the base of the pedestal to the footing, (or directly from the base of
the
column to the footing if there is no pedestal) by compression in concrete and steel and
tension
in steel. Compression forces are transferred through direct bearing while tension forces
are
transferred through developed reinforcement. The permissible bearing stresses on full
area of
concrete shall be taken as given below from cl.34.4
br = 0.45fck , in limit state method
The stress of concrete is taken as 0.45fck
while designing the column. Since the area of
footing is much larger, this bearing stress of concrete in column may be increased
considering the dispersion of the concentrated load of column to footing. Accordingly,
the
permissible bearing stress of concrete in footing is given by (cl.34.4 of IS 456):
br = 0.45fck(A1/A2)1/2
with a condition that
(A1/A2)1/22.0 (11.8) ≤ 2
where A1= maximum supporting area of footing for bearing which is geometrically imilar
to and concentric with the loaded area A2
.A2= loaded area at the base of the column.

The above clause further stipulates that in sloped or stepped footings, A1 may be taken as
the area of the lower base of the largest frustum of a pyramid or cone contained wholly
within the footing and having for its upper base, the area actually loaded and having side
slope of one vertical to two horizontal.
If the permissible bearing stress on concrete in column or in footing is exceeded,
reinforcement shall be provided for developing the excess force (cl.34.4.1 of IS 456),
either by extending the longitudinal bars of columns into the footing (cl.34.4.2 of IS 456)
or by providing dowels as stipulated in cl.34.4.3 of IS 456 and given below:

(i) A doubly reinforced concrete beam is reinforced in both compression and tension
faces.

4.8.2 When depth of beam is restricted, strength available from a singly reinforced
beam is inadequate.
4.8.3 At a support of a continuous beam, the bending moment changes sign, such a
situation may also arise in design of a ring beam.

1 Analysis of a doubly reinforced section involves determination of moment of

resistance with given beam width, depth, area of tension and compression steels
and their covers.

2 In doubly reinforced concrete beams the compressive force consists of two parts;
both in concrete and steel in compression.

3 Stress in steel at the limit state of collapse may be equal to yield stress or less
depending on position of the neutral axis.

Design Steps

Determine the limiting moment of resistance Mum for the given cross-section using
the equation for a singly reinforced beam

Mlim = 0.87fy.Ast,1 [d - 0.42xm] = 0.36 fck.b.xm [d - 0.42xm]

(i) If the factored moment Mu exceeds Mlim, a doubly reinforced section is required (Mu
- Mlim) = Mu2
Additional area of tension steel Ast2 is obtained by considering the equilibrium of
force of compression in comp. steel and force of tension T2 in the additional tension
steel

Asc = compression steel.

σcc = Comp. stress in conc at the level of comp. steel = 0.446fck.

Reasons
(ii) When beam section is shallow in depth, and the flexural strength obtained using
balanced steel is insufficient i.e. the factored moment is more than the limiting
 ultimate moment of resistance of the beam section. Additional steel enhances the
moment capacity.

(iii) Steel bars in compression enhances ductility of beam at ultimate strength.

Compression steel reinforcement reduces deflection as moment of inertia of the beam
section also increases.

(iv) Long-term deflections of beam are reduced by compression steel.

(v) Curvature due to shrinkage of concrete are also reduced.

(vi) Doubly reinforced beams are also used in reversal of external load
Examples

(i) A single reinforced rectangular beam is 400mm wide. The effective depth of the beam
section is 560mm and its effective cover is 40mm. The steel reinforcement consists of
4 MS 18mm diameter bars in the beam section. The grade of concrete is M20. Locate
the neutral axis of the beam section.

(ii) In example 1, the bending moment at a transverse section of beam is 105 kN-m.
Determine the strains at the extreme fibre of concrete in compression and steel bars
provided as reinforcement in tension. Also determine the stress in steel bars.

(iii) In example 2, the strain in concrete at the extreme fibre in compression εcu is
0.00069 and the tensile stress in bending in steel is 199.55 N/mm2. Determine the
depth of neutral axis and the moment of resistance of the beam section.

(iv) Determine the moment of resistance of a section 300mm wide and 450mm deep up to
the centre of reinforcement. If it is reinforced with (i) 4-12mm fe415 grade bars, (ii)
6-18mm fe415 grade bars.
(i) A rectangular beam section is 200mm wide and 400mm deep up to the centre of
reinforcement. Determine the reinforcement required at the bottom if it has to resist
a factored moment of 40kN-m. Use M20 grade concrete and fe415 grade steel.

(ii) A rectangular beam section is 250mm wide and 500mm deep up to the centre of
tension steel which consists of 4-22mm dia. bars. Find the position of the neutral
axis, lever arm, forces of compression and tension and safe moment of resistance if
concrete is M20 grade and steel is Fe500 grade.

(iii) A rectangular beam is 200mm wide and 450 mm overall depth with an effective
cover of 40mm. Find the reinforcement required if it has to resist a moment of 35
kN.m. Assume M20 concrete and Fe250 grade steel.

• explain the need to check for the limit state of serviceability after designing the
structures by limit state of collapse,

• differentiate between short- and long-term deflections,

• state the influencing factors to both short- and long-term deflections,

• select the preliminary dimensions of structures to satisfy the requirements as per

IS 456,

• calculate the short- and long-term deflections of designed beams.

Introduction

Structures designed by limit state of collapse are of comparatively smaller

sections than those designed employing working stress method. They, therefore, must be
checked for deflection and width of cracks. Excessive deflection of a structure or part
thereof adversely affects the appearance and efficiency of the structure, finishes or
partitions. Excessive cracking of concrete also seriously affects the appearance and
durability of the structure. Accordingly, cl. 35.1.1 of IS 456 stipulates that the designer
should consider all relevant limit states to ensure an adequate degree of safety and
serviceability. Clause 35.3 of IS 456 refers to the limit state of serviceability comprising
deflection in cl. 35.3.1 and cracking in cl. 35.3.2. Concrete is said to be durable when it
performs satisfactorily in the working environment during its anticipated exposure
conditions during service. Clause 8 of IS 456 refers to the durability aspects of concrete.
Stability of the structure against overturning and sliding (cl. 20 of IS

456), and fire resistance (cl. 21 of IS 456) are some of the other importance issues to be
kept in mind while designing reinforced concrete structures.

This lesson discusses about the different aspects of deflection of beams and the
requirements as per IS 456. In addition, lateral stability of beams is also taken up while
selecting the preliminary dimensions of beams. Other requirements, however, are beyond
the scope of this lesson.
Short- and Long-term Deflections

As evident from the names, short-term deflection refers to the immediate

deflection after casting and application of partial or full service loads, while the long-term
deflection occurs over a long period of time largely due to shrinkage and creep of the
materials. The following factors influence the short-term deflection of structures:

(ii) magnitude and distribution of live loads,

(iii) span and type of end supports,

(iv) cross-sectional area of the members,
(v) amount of steel reinforcement and the stress developed in the
reinforcement,
(vi) characteristic strengths of concrete and steel, and
(vii) amount and extent of cracking.
The long-term deflection is almost two to three times of the short-term deflection. The
following are the major factors influencing the long-term deflection of the structures.
4.8.4 humidity and temperature ranges during curing,
4.8.5 age of concrete at the time of loading, and
(c) type and size of aggregates, water-cement ratio, amount of compression
reinforcement, size of members etc., which influence the creep and shrinkage of
concrete.
Control of Deflection
Clause 23.2 of IS 456 stipulates the limiting deflections under two heads as given below:
The maximum final deflection should not normally exceed span/250 due to all loads
including the effects of temperatures, creep and shrinkage and measured from the as-cast
level of the supports of floors, roof and all other horizontal members.The maximum
deflection should not normally exceed the lesser of span/350 or 20 mm including the
effects of temperature, creep and shrinkage occurring after erection of partitions and the
application of finish. It is essential that both the requirements are to be fulfilled for every
structure.
Selection of Preliminary Dimension.

The two requirements of the deflection are checked after designing the members.
However, the structural design has to be revised if it fails to satisfy any one of the two or
both the requirements. In order to avoid this, IS 456 recommends the guidelines to
assume the initial dimensions of the members which will generally satisfy the deflection
limits. Clause 23.2.1 stipulates different span to effective depth ratios and cl. 23.3
recommends limiting slenderness of
beams, a relation of b and d of the members, to ensure lateral stability. They are given
below:
For the deflection requirements
Different basic values of span to effective depth ratios for three different support
conditions are prescribed for spans up to 10 m, which should be modified under any or all
of the four different situations: (i) for spans above 10 m, (ii) depending on the amount
and the stress of tension steel reinforcement, (iii) depending on the amount of
compression reinforcement, and (iv) for flanged beams. These are furnished in Table 7.1.

(B) For lateral stability

The lateral stability of beams depends upon the slenderness ratio and the support
conditions. Accordingly cl. 23.3 of IS code stipulates the following:

For simply supported and continuous beams, the clear distance between the lateral
restraints shall not exceed the lesser of 60b or 250b2/d, where d is the effective depth and
b is the breadth of the compression face midway between the lateral restraints.

For cantilever beams, the clear distance from the free end of the cantilever to the lateral
restraint shall not exceed the lesser of 25b or 100b2/d.

Calculation of Short-Term Deflection

Clause C-2 of Annex C of IS 456 prescribes the steps of calculating the short-term
deflection. The code recommends the usual methods for elastic deflections using the
short-term modulus of elasticity of concrete Ec and effective moment of inertia Ieff given
by the following equation:
Mr = cracking moment equal to ( fcr Igr)/yt , where fcr is the modulus of rupture of
concrete, Igr is the moment of inertia of the gross section about the centroidal axis
neglecting the reinforcement, and yt is the distance from centroidal axis of gross section,
neglecting the reinforcement, to extreme fibre in tension,

M = maximum moment under service loads,

z = lever arm,

x = depth of neutral axis,

d = effective depth,

bw = breadth of web, and

b = breadth of compression face.

For continuous beams, however, the values of Ir, Igr and Mr are to be modified by the
following equation:

Figure 3.3 presents the three modes of failure of columns with different slenderness ratios
when loaded axially. In the mode 1, column does not undergo any lateral deformation and
collapses due to material failure. This is known as compression failure. Due to the
combined effects of axial load and moment a short column may have material failure of
mode 2. On the other hand, a slender column subjected to axial load only undergoes
deflection due to beam-column effect and may have material failure under the combined
action of direct load and bending moment. Such failure is called combined compression
and bending failure of mode 2. Mode 3 failure is by elastic instability of very long
column even under small load much before the material reaches the yield stresses. This
type of failure is known as elastic buckling.
The slenderness ratio of steel column is the ratio of its effective length le to its least
radius of gyration r. In case of reinforced concrete column, however, IS 456 stipulates the
slenderness ratio as the ratio of its effective length le to its least lateral dimension. As
mentioned earlier in sec. 3.1(a), the effective length le is different from the unsupported
length, the rectangular reinforced concrete column of cross-sectional dimensions b and D
shall have two effective lengths in the two directions of b and D. Accordingly, the
column may have the possibility of buckling depending on the two values of slenderness
ratios as given below:
Slenderness ratio about the major axis = lex/D
Slenderness ratio about the minor axis = ley/b

Factored concentric load applied on short tied columns is resisted by concrete of area Ac
and longitudinal steel of areas Asc effectively held by lateral ties at intervals. Assuming
the design strengths of concrete and steel are 0.4fck and 0.67fy, respectively, we can
write
Pu = 0.4fck Ac + 0.67fy Asc (1)
Where Pu = factored axial load on the member,
fck = characteristic compressive strength of the concrete,
Ac = area of concrete,
fy = characteristic strength of the compression reinforcement, and
Asc = area of longitudinal reinforcement for columns.
The above equation, given in cl. 39.3 of IS 456, has two unknowns Ac and Asc to be
determined from one equation. The equation is recast in terms of Ag, the gross area of
concrete and p, the percentage of compression reinforcement employing
Asc = pAg/100 (2)
Ac = Ag(1 – p/100) (3)
Accordingly, we can write
Pu/Ag = 0.4fck + (p/100) (0.67fy – 0.4fck) (4)
Equation 4 can be used for direct computation of Ag when Pu, fck and fy are known by
assuming p ranging from 0.8 to 4 as the minimum and maximum percentages of
longitudinal reinforcement. Equation 10.4 also can be employed to determine Ag and p in
a similar manner by assuming p.

The superstructure is placed on the top of the foundation structure, designated as

substructure as they are placed below the ground level. The elements of the
superstructure transfer the loads and moments to its adjacent element below it and finally
all loads and moments come to the foundation structure, which in turn, transfers them to
the underlying soil or rock. Thus, the foundation structure effectively supports the
superstructure. However, all types of soil get compressed significantly and cause the
structure to settle. Accordingly, the major requirements of the design of foundation
structures are the two as given below (see cl.34.1 of IS 456)
:
1. Foundation structures should be able to sustain the applied loads, moments, forces and
induced reactions without exceeding the safe bearing capacity of the soil.

2. The settlement of the structure should be as uniform as possible and it should be within
the tolerable limits. It is well known from the structural analysis that differential
settlement of supports causes additional moments in statically indeterminate structures.
Therefore, avoiding the differential settlement is considered as more important than
maintaining uniform overall settlement of the structure.
 UNIT – V
SHELLS OF REVOLUTION: WITH BENDING RESISTANCE

INTRODUCTION
As mentioned, shells of revolution belong to a highly general class of shells frequently used in
ngineering. One representative of this class, cylindrical shells, was considered in Chapter 15,
and we will not dwell on these shells. The shell types analyzed in this chapter are subclasses
of shells of revolution having non-zero Gaussian curvature. As mentioned in Sec. 11.7, such
shells have non-developable surfaces. Hence, they are stronger, stiffer, and more stable than
shells with zero Gaussian curvature. These shells are frequently used to cover the roofs of
sport halls and large liquid storage tanks. The containment shield structures of nuclear power
plants also have dome-like roofs. Various pressure vessels are either completely composed of
a single rotational shell or have shells of revolution at their end caps. Conical shells with zero
Gaussian curvature are also representative of this class of shells: they are used to cover liquid
storage tanks and the nose cones of missiles and rockets.
In the membrane analysis of shells of revolution considered in Chapters 13 and 14, we
saw that the membrane theory alone cannot accommodate all the loads, support conditions,
and geometries in actual shells. Thus, in a general case, shells of revolution experience both
stretching and bending to resist an applied loading, which distinguishes significantly the
bending of shells from the elementary behavior of plates (see also Sec. 10.4).
However, the character of bending deformation may be different. If a shell of revolution
is subjected to a concentrated force (Fig. 16.1a), bending exerts a crucial effect on its strength,
because, in this case, the bending deformation increases with a growth of the forces until the
load-carrying capacity of the shell structure is exhausted. In places of junction of a shell with
its supports (Fig. 16.1b) or other structural members (shell of another geometry, ring beam,
etc.), or in places of jump change in the radii of curvature (Fig. 16.1c), the bending has
another character; here, bending
propagates only if it is needed to eliminate the discrepancies between the membrane
displacements or to satisfy the conditions of statics. If a shell material is ductile, the bending
deformations of the latter type are usually decreased and do not practically influence the load-
carrying capacity of shell structures. If the material of the shell is brittle, the bending
deformations remain proportional to the applied loads until failure and can result in a
significant decrease in the strength of the shell structure

76
 In this chapter we consider the bending theory of shells of revolution. It should be noted
that the solutions of the governing differential equations involve many difficulties for a
general shell of revolution, and therefore, we solve these equations for some particular shell
geometries and load configurations that are frequently used in engineering practice.

Dead loads are those that are constant in magnitude and fixed in location throughout the
lifetime of the structure such as: floor fill, finish floor, and plastered ceiling for buildings and
wearing surface, sidewalks, and curbing for bridges
Live Loads
Live loads are those that are either fully or partially in place or not present at all, may also
change in location; the minimum live loads for which the floors and roof of a building should
be designed are usually specified in building code that governs at the site of construction (see
Table1 - “Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structure.”)

Environmental Loads
Environmental Loads consist of wind, earthquake, and snow loads. such as wind,
earthquake, and snow loads.
Serviceability
Serviceability requires that
• Deflections be adequately small;
• Cracks if any be kept to a tolerable limits;
• Vibrations be minimized

77
Safety
A structure must be safe against collapse; strength of the structure must be dequate for all
loads that might act on it. If we could build buildings as designed, and if the loads and their
internal effects can be predicted accurately, we do not have to worry about safety. But there
are uncertainties in:
• Actual loads;
• Forces/loads might be distributed in a manner different from what we assumed;
• The assumptions in analysis might not be exactly correct;
• Actual behavior might be different from that assumed;
• etc.
Finally, we would like to have the structure safe against

Concrete
Concrete is a product obtained artificially by hardening of the mixture of cement, sand, gravel
and water in predetermined proportions.
Depending on the quality and proportions of the ingredients used in the mix the properties of
concrete vary almost as widely as different kinds of stones.
Concrete has enough strength in compression, but has little strength in tension. Due to this,
concrete is weak in bending, shear and torsion. Hence the use of plain concrete is limited
applications where great compressive strength and weight are the principal requirements and
where tensile stresses are either totally absent or are extremely low.

Properties of Concrete
The important properties of concrete, which govern the design of concrete mix are as follows
(i) Weight
The unit weights of plain concrete and reinforced concrete made with sand, gravel of crushed
natural stone aggregate may be taken as 24 KN/m3 and 25 KN/m3 respectively.

(ii) Compressive Strength

With given properties of aggregate the compressive strength of concrete depends primarily on
age, cement content and the water cement ratio are given Table 2 of IS 456:2000.
Characteristic strength are based on the strength at 28 days. The strength at 7 days is about

78
two-thirds of that at 28 days with ordinary portland cement and generally good indicator of
strength likely to be obtained.
(iii) Increase in strength with age
There is normally gain of strength beyond 28 days. The quantum of increase depends upon
the grade and type of cement curing and environmental conditions etc.

(iv) Tensile strength of concrete

The flexure and split tensile strengths of various concrete are given in IS 516:1959 and IS
5816:1970 respectively when the designer wishes to use an estimate of the tensile strength
from compressive strength, the following formula can be used
Flexural strength, fcr=0.7√fck N/mm2

(v) Elastic Deformation

The modulus of elasticity is primarily influenced by the elastic properties of the aggregate and
to lesser extent on the conditions of curing and age of the concrete, the mix proportions and
the type of cement. The modulus of elasticity is normally related to the compressive
characteristic strength of concrete
Ec=5000√fck N/mm2
Where Ec= the short-term static modulus of elasticity in N/mm2
fck=characteristic cube strength of concrete in N/mm2

(vi) Shrinkage of concrete

Shrinkage is the time dependent deformation, generally compressive in nature. The
constituents of concrete, size of the member and environmental conditions are the factors on
which the total shrinkage of concrete depends. However, the total shrinkage of concrete is
most influenced by the total amount of water present in the concrete at the time of mixing for
a given humidity and temperature. The cement content, however, influences the total
shrinkage of concrete to a lesser extent. The approximate value of the total shrinkage strain
for design is taken as 0.0003 in the absence of test data (cl. 6.2.4.1).

(vii) Creep of concrete

79
The effective modulus of Ece of concrete is used only in the calculation of creep deflection. It
is seen that the value of creep coefficient θ is reducing with the age of concrete at loading. It
may also be noted that the ultimate creep strain does not include short term strain.

• Properties of concrete

• Water/cement ratio

• Humidity and temperature of curing

• Humidity during the period of use

• Age of concrete at first loading

• Magnitude of stress and its duration

• Surface-volume ratio of the member

Concrete has very good compressive strength and almost negligible tensile strength. Hence,
steel reinforcement is used on the tensile side of concrete. Thus, singly reinforced beams
reinforced on the tensile face are good both in compression and tension. However, these
beams have their respective limiting moments of resistance with specified width, depth and
grades of concrete and steel. The amount of steel reinforcement needed is known as Ast,lim.
Problem will arise, therefore, if such a section is subjected to bending moment greater than its
limiting moment of resistance as a singly reinforced section.

There are two ways to solve the problem. First, we may increase the depth of the beam, which
may not be feasible in many situations. In those cases, it is possible to increase both the
compressive and tensile forces of the beam by providing steel reinforcement in compression
face and additional reinforcement in tension face of the beam without increasing the depth
(Fig. 4.8.1). The total compressive force of such beams comprises (i) force due to concrete in
compression and (ii) force due to steel in compression. The tensile force also has two
components: (i) the first provided by Ast,lim which is equal to the compressive force of
concrete in compression. The second part is due to the additional steel in tension - its force
will be equal to the compressive force of steel in compression.

Such reinforced concrete beams having steel reinforcement both on tensile and compressive
faces are known as doubly reinforced beams.

80
Doubly reinforced beams, therefore, have moment of resistance more than the singly
reinforced beams of the same depth for particular grades of steel and concrete. In many
practical situations, architectural or functional requirements may restrict the overall depth of
the beams. However, other than in doubly reinforced beams compression steel reinforcement
is provided when:

(viii) some sections of a continuous beam with moving loads undergo change
of sign of the bending moment which makes compression zone as tension zone or vice versa.

(ix) the ductility requirement has to be followed.

(x) the reduction of long term deflection is needed.

It may be noted that even in so called singly reinforced beams there would be longitudinal
hanger bars in compression zone for locating and fixing stirrups.

GOVERNING EQUATIONS

We present below the governing differential equations of the moment theory of shells of
revolution of an arbitrary shape. As curvilinear coordinates and of a point on the shell
middle surface, it is convenient to take the spherical coordinates, introduced in Sec. 11.8, and
used in the membrane theory of shells of revolution in Chapters 13 and 14. Thus, we take
¼ ’ and ¼ _. As before, the angle ’ defines the location of a point along the meridian,
whereas _ characterizes the location of a point along the parallel circle (see Fig. 11.12). Let
R1 and R2 be the principal radii of curvature of the meridian and parallel circle, respectively.
Obviously, R1 and R2 will be functions of ’ only, i.e., R1 ¼ R1ð’Þ and R2 ¼ R2ð’Þ. The
Lame´ parameters in this case are determined by the following formulas (see Sec. 11.8):

The Codazzi and Gauss conditions are given by Eqs (11.41). Let us consider the kinematic
elations of the moment theory of shells of revolution. Displacement components of the middle
surface along the given coordinate axes are u (in the meridional direction), v (in the
circumferential direction), and w (in the normal direction to the middle surface). The strain–
displacement relations (12.23) and (12.24) of the general shell theory – taking into account
Eqs (16.1) and (11.41) – take the following form for shells of revolution

81
where "1 and "2 are in-plane meridional and circumferential strain components in the middle
surface, _12 characterizes a shear of the middle surface; _1 and _2 represent the changes in
curvature of the coordinate lines in the middle surface due to its bending, and _12
characterizes a twist of the middle surface. The rotations of the shell edges that coincide with
the coordinate lines _ and ’, respectively, can be obtained from Eqs (12.2) using the relations
(16.1) and (11.41). We obtain

Equations of static equilibrium (12.41) and (12.42) with regard to relations (12.43),
(11.41), and (16.2) take the form

Taking into account the relations for the effective shear forces (in-plane and
out-of-plane) introduced in Sec. 12.5, the following static quantities can be assigned
on a boundary coinciding with the edge parallel circle

82
Where

The constitutive relations are found to be in the form of Eqs (12.45) and (12.46). The
governing equations and relations introduced above allow one to determine the stress and
displacement components that occur in a shell of revolution supported along its edges and
subjected to given external loads. The unknown functions characterizing the state of stress
and strain (deformations and stress resultants and couples) depend upon variables _ and ’ in
Eqs (16.3), (16.5), and (12.45), (12.46). These unknowns are periodic functions of variable _
for shells of revolution. Thus, one can apply the separation of variables method for solving the
governing differential equations of shells of revolution. This method implies that all loads,
displacements, and stress resultants and couples may be represented in the form

here by functions fi are meant the functions p1; p3; u; w; "1; "2; #1; _1; _2;N1;N2; M1; M2;
and Q1, and by functions _i are meant the functions p2; v; _12; #2; S;H; and Q2. It can be
seen that the functions having the superscripts s and a correspond to symmetric and skew-
symmetric of the above-mentioned functions about a zero meridian, respectively. It is easily
verified that the symmetric and skewsymmetric components of the displacements, stress
resultants, etc., determined by the same system of equations. Therefore, we present the
corresponding relations
and equations for functions having the superscript s only, without using this index. So,
substituting the expressions (16.7) into the kinematic relations (16.2) and (16.3), equilibrium
equations (16.5), and eliminating the shear forces, Q1 and Q2, we obtain some systems of
ordinary differential equations for unknown functions of deformations, and stress resultants
and couples. Note that the constitutive equations (12.45) and (12.46) remain unchanged. It is
required only to provide all the quantities involving in these equations with the index k. Let us
present these equations:

Kinematic equations (strain–displacement relations)

83
Equations of static equilibrium

Equations (16.8) and (16.9), together with the constitutive equations (12.45) and (12.46)
and proper boundary conditions, form the closed eight-order system of the ordinary
differential equations for each kth harmonic of the expansion (16.7). This system of the
governing equations describes the state of stress and strain for the general moment theory of
shells of revolution having a meridian of an arbitrary shape. This system of ordinary equations
may be solved by applying the standard numerical methods intended for a solution of ordinary
differential equations and introduced, for example, in Refs. [1,2]. The finite element method
can also be applied to the analysis of the state of stress and strain for shells of revolution of a
general shape [3,4].

84
 It should be noted that numerical difficulties associated with a solution of the differential
equations (16.8) and (16.9) may be partially eliminated for some specific shapes of shells of
revolution and loading.

As mentioned in sec. 4.8.1, the moment of resistance Mu of the doubly reinforced beam
consists of (i) Mu,lim of singly reinforced beam and (ii) Mu2 because of equal and opposite
compression and tension forces (C2 and T2) due to additional steel reinforcement on
compression and tension faces of the beam

(Figs. 4.8.1 and 2). Thus, the moment of resistance Mu of a doubly reinforced beam is

The additional moment Mu2 can be expressed in two ways (Fig. 4.8.2): considering (i) the
compressive force C2 due to compression steel and (ii) the tensile force T2 due to additional
steel on tension face. In both the equations, the lever arm is (d - d'). Thus, we have

Since the additional compressive force C2 is equal to the additional tensile force T2,
we have
Asc (fsc - fcc) = Ast2 (0.87 fy)

(4.6)

Any two of the three equations (Eqs. 4.4 - 4.6) can be employed to determine Asc and
Ast2.

It is seen that the values of fsc and fcc should be known before calculating Asc. The following
procedure may be followed to determine the value of fsc and fcc for the design type of
problems (and not for analysing a given section). For

the design problem the depth of the neutral axis may be taken as xu,max as shown in Fig. 4.8.2.
From Fig. 4.8.2, the strain at the level of compression steel
reinforcement εsc may be written as

85
The stress in compression steel fsc is corresponding to the strain εsc of Eq. 4.9 and is
determined for (a) mild steel and (b) cold worked bars Fe 415 and 500 as given below:

The strain at the design yield stress of 217.39 N/mm2 (fd =

0.87 fy
) is

0.0010869 (= 217.39/Es). The fsc is determined from the idealized stress-strain diagram of
mild steel (Fig. 1.2.3 of Lesson 2 or Fig. 23B of IS 456) after computing the value of ε sc from
Eq. 4.9 as follows:

(i) If the computed value of εsc ≤ 0.0010869, fsc = εsc Es = 2 (105) εsc

The relative stretching in the circumferential direction is

Using the above relation (a) and Eqs (16.13), the second boundary condition (Eq. (16.38a))
can be rewritten as follows

86
(ii) If the computed value of εsc > 0.0010869, fsc = 217.39 N/mm2.

The stress-strain diagram of these bars is given in Fig. 1.2.4 of Lesson 2 and in Fig. 23A of IS
456. It shows that stress is proportional to strain up to a stress of 0.8 fy. The stress-strain curve
for the design purpose is obtained by
substituting fyd for fy in the figure up to 0.8 fyd. Thereafter, from 0.8 fyd to fyd, Table A of SP-16
gives the values of total strains and design stresses for Fe 415

and Fe 500. Table 4.1 presents these values as a ready reference here.

The above procedure has been much simplified for the cold worked bars by presenting the
values of fsc of compression steel in doubly reinforced beams for different values of d'/d only

87
taking the practical aspects into consideration. In most of the doubly reinforced beams, d'/d
has been found to be between 0.05 and 0.2. Accordingly, values of fsc can be computed from
Table 4.1 after determining the value of εsc from Eq. 4.9 for known values of d'/d as 0.05,
0.10, 0.15 and 0.2. Table F of SP-16 presents these values of fsc for four values of d'/d (0.05,
0.10, 0.15 and 0.2) of Fe 415 and Fe 500. Table 4.2 below, however, includes Fe 250 also
whose fsc values are computed as laid down in sec.

4.8.4(a) (i) and (ii) along with those of Fe 415 and Fe 500. This table is very

Here, there is only elastic component of the strain without any inelastic strain.

Minimum and maximum steel in compression

There is no stipulation in IS 456 regarding the minimum compression steel in doubly

reinforced beams. However, hangers and other bars provided up to 0.2% of the whole area of
cross section may be necessary for creep and shrinkage of concrete. Accordingly, these bars
are not considered as compression reinforcement. From the practical aspects of
consideration, therefore, the minimum steel as compression reinforcement should be at least
0.4% of the area of concrete in compression or 0.2% of the whole cross -sectional area of the
beam so that the doubly reinforced beam can take care of the extra loads in addition to
resisting the effects of creep and shrinkage of concrete.

The maximum compression steel shall not exceed 4 per cent of the whole area of cross-
section of the beam as given in cl. 26.5.1.2 of IS 456.

Minimum and maximum steel in tension

As stipulated in cl. 26.5.1.1(a) and (b) of IS 456, the minimum amount of tensile
reinforcement shall be at least (0.85 bd/fy) and the maximum area of tension reinforcement
shall not exceed (0.04 bD).

It has been discussed in sec. 3.6.2.3 of Lesson 6 that the singly reinforced

beams shall have Ast normally not exceeding 75 to 80% of Ast,lim so that xu remains less than
xu,max with a view to ensuring ductile failure. However, in the

88
case of doubly reinforced beams, the ductile failure is ensured with the presence of
compression steel. Thus, the depth of the neutral axis may be taken as xu, max if the beam is
over-reinforced. Accordingly, the Ast1 part of tension steel can go

up to Ast, lim and the additional tension steel Ast2 is provided for the additional moment M u -
Mu, lim. The quantities of Ast1 and Ast2 together form the total Ast, which shall not exceed 0.04
bD.

ypes of problems and steps of solution

Similar to the singly reinforced beams, the doubly reinforced beams have two types of
problems: (i) design type and (ii) analysis type. The different steps of solutions of these
problems are taken up separately.

Design type of problems

In the design type of problems, the given data are b, d, D, grades of concrete and steel. The
designer has to determine Asc and Ast of the beam from the given factored moment. These
problems can be solved by two ways: (i) use of the equations developed for the doubly
reinforced beams, named here as direct computation method, (ii) use of charts and tables of
SP-16.

(a) Direct computation method

Step 1: To determine Mu, lim and Ast, lim from Eqs. 4.2 and 4.8, respectively.

Step 2: To determine Mu2, Asc, Ast2 and Ast from Eqs. 4.1, 4.4, 4.6
and

4.7, respectively.

Step 3: To check for minimum and maximum reinforcement in compression and tension as
explained in sec. 4.8.5.

89
Step 4: To select the number and diameter of bars from known values of
Asc and Ast.

(b) Use of SP table

tensile reinforcement shall be at least (0.85 bd/fy) and the maximum area of tension
reinforcement shall not exceed (0.04 bD).

It has been discussed in sec. 3.6.2.3 of Lesson 6 that the singly reinforced

beams shall have Ast normally not exceeding 75 to 80% of Ast,lim so that xu remains less than
xu,max with a view to ensuring ductile failure. However, in the

case of doubly reinforced beams, the ductile failure is ensured with the presence of
compression steel. Thus, the depth of the neutral axis may be taken as xu, max if the beam is
over-reinforced. Accordingly, the Ast1 part of tension steel can go

up to Ast, lim and the additional tension steel Ast2 is provided for the additional moment M u -
Mu, lim. The quantities of Ast1 and Ast2 together form the total Ast, which shall not exceed 0.04
bD.

ypes of problems and steps of solution

Similar to the singly reinforced beams, the doubly reinforced beams have two types of
problems: (i) design type and (ii) analysis type. The different steps of solutions of these
problems are taken up separately.

Design type of problems

In the design type of problems, the given data are b, d, D, grades of concrete and steel. The
designer has to determine Asc and Ast of the beam from the given factored moment. These
problems can be solved by two ways: (i) use of the equations developed for the doubly
reinforced beams, named here as direct computation method, (ii) use of charts and tables of
SP-16.

(a) Direct computation method

90
Step 1: To determine Mu, lim and Ast, lim from Eqs. 4.2 and 4.8, respectively.

Step 2: To determine Mu2, Asc, Ast2 and Ast from Eqs. 4.1, 4.4, 4.6
and

4.7, respectively.

Step 3: To check for minimum and maximum reinforcement in compression and tension as
explained in sec. 4.8.5.

Step 4: To select the number and diameter of bars from known values of
Asc and Ast.

(b) Use of SP table

Tables 45 to 56 present the pt and pc of doubly reinforced sections for d'/d = 0.05, 0.10, 0.15
and 0.2 for different fck and fy values against Mu /bd2. The values of pt and pc are obtained
directly selecting the proper table with known values of Mu/bd2 and d'/d.

Analysis type of problems

In the analysis type of problems, the data given are b, d, d', D, fck, fy, Asc and Ast . It is required
to determine the moment of resistance Mu of such beams.

These problems can be solved: (i) by direct computation method and (ii) by using tables of
SP-16.

(a) Direct computation method

Step 1: To check if the beam is under-reinforced or over-reinforced.

91
First, xu,max is determined assuming it has reached limiting
stage using

The beam is under-reinforced or over-reinforced if εst is less than or more than the
yield strain.

Step 2: To determine Mu,lim from Eq. 4.2 and Ast,lim from the pt, lim given in Table 3.1 of Lesson
5.

Step 3: To determine Ast2 and Asc from Eqs. 4.7 and 4.6, respectively.

Step 4: To determine Mu2 and Mu from Eqs. 4.4 and 4.1, respectively.

(b) Use of tables

As mentioned earlier Tables 45 to 56 are needed for the doubly reinforced beams. First, the
needed parameters d'/d, pt and pc are calculated. Thereafter, Mu/bd2 is computed in two stages:
first, using d'/d and pt and then using d'/d and pc . The lower value of Mu is the moment of
resistance of the beam.

The actual width of the flange is the spacing of the beam, which is the same as the distance
between the middle points of the adjacent spans of the slab, as shown in Fig. 5.10.2 b.
However, in a flanged beam, a part of the width less than the actual width, is effective to be
considered as a part of the beam. This width of the slab is designated as the effective width of
the flange.

The following requirements (cl. 23.1.1 of IS 456) are to be satisfied to ensure the combined
action of the part of the slab and the rib (rectangular part of the beam).

4.8.6 The slab and the rectangular beam shall be cast integrally or they shall be
effectively bonded in any other manner.

92
4.8.7 Slabs must be provided with the transverse reinforcement of at least 60 per cent of
the main reinforcement at the mid span of the slab if the main reinforcement of the slab is
parallel to the transverse beam (Figs. 5.10.3 a and b).

The variation of compressive stress (Fig. 5.10.4) along the actual width of the flange shows
that the compressive stress is more in the flange just above the rib than the same at some
distance away from it. The nature of variation is complex and, therefore, the concept of
effective width has been introduced. The effective width is a convenient hypothetical width of
the flange over which the compressive stress is assumed to be uniform to give the same
compressive

orce as it would have been in case of the actual width with the true variation of compressive
stress.

Clause 23.1.2 of IS 456 specifies the following effective widths of T and L-beams:

(a) For T-beams, the lesser of

(i) bf = lo/6 + bw + 6 Df

(iii) bf=Actual width of the flange

For isolated T-beams, the lesser of

bf=Actual width of the flange

ForL-beams, the lesser of

(i) bf = lo/12 + bw + 3 Df

bf=Actual width of the flange

For isolated beams, the lesser of

93
(ii) bf = Actual width of the flange

where bf = effective width of the flange,

lo = distance between points of zero moments in the beam, which is the effective span for
simply supported beams and 0.7 times the effective span for continuous beams and frames,

bw = beadth of the web,

Df = thickness of the flange,

and b = actual width of the flange.

Four Different Cases

The neutral axis of a flanged beam may be either in the flange or in the web depending on the
physical dimensions of the effective width of flange bf, effective width of web bw, thickness of
flange Df and effective depth of flanged beam d (Fig. 5.10.4). The flanged beam may be
considered as a rectangular beam of width bf and effective depth d if the neutral axis is in the
flange as the concrete in tension is ignored. However, if the neutral axis is in the web, the
compression is taken by the flange and a part of the web.

All the assumptions made in sec. 3.4.2 of Lesson 4 are also applicable for the flanged beams.
As explained in Lesson 4, the compressive stress remains constant between the strains of
0.002 and 0.0035. It is important to find the depth h of the beam where the strain is 0.002
(Fig. 5.10.5 b). If it is located in the web, the whole of flange will be under the constant stress
level of 0.446 fck. The

ollowing gives the relation of Df and d to facilitate the determination of the depth h where the
strain will be 0.002.

94
The same relation is obtained below from the values of strains of concrete and steel of Fig.
5.10.5 b.
following gives the relation of Df and d to facilitate the determination of the depth h where the
strain will be 0.002.

The same relation is obtained below from the values of strains of concrete and steel of Fig.
5.10.5 b.

It is now clear that the three values of h are around 0.2 d for the three grades of steel. The
maximum value of h may be Df, at the bottom of the flange where the strain will be 0.002, if
Df /d = 0.2. This reveals that the thickness of the flange may be considered small if Df /d does
not exceed 0.2 and in that case, the position of the fibre of 0.002 strain will be in the web and
the entire flange will be under a constant compressive stress of 0.446 fck .

On the other hand, if Df is > 0.2 d, the position of the fibre of 0.002 strain will be in the
flange. In that case, a part of the slab will have the constant stress of 0.446 fck where the strain
will be more than 0.002.

Thus, in the balanced and over-reinforced flanged beams (when xu = xu , max ), the ratio of Df /d
is important to determine if the rectangular stress block is for the full depth of the flange
(when Df /d does not exceed 0.2) of for a part of the flange (when Df /d > 0.2). Similarly, for
the under-reinforced flanged beams, the ratio of Df /xu is considered in place of Df /d. If Df /xu
does not exceed

0.43 (see Eq. 5.1), the constant stress block is for the full depth of the flange. If Df /xu > 0.43,
the constant stress block is for a part of the depth of the flange.

Based on the above discussion, the four cases of flanged beams are as follows:

The superstructure is placed on the top of the foundation structure, designated as substructure
as they are placed below the ground level. The elements of the superstructure transfer the
loads and moments to its adjacent element below it and finally all loads and moments come to

95
the foundation structure, which in turn, transfers them to the underlying soil or rock. Thus, the
foundation structure effectively supports the superstructure. However, all types of soil get
compressed significantly and cause the structure to settle. Accordingly, the major
requirements of the design of foundation structures are the two as given below (see cl.34.1 of
IS 456)
:
1. Foundation structures should be able to sustain the applied loads, moments, forces and
induced reactions without exceeding the safe bearing capacity of the soil.

2. The settlement of the structure should be as uniform as possible and it should be within the
tolerable limits. It is well known from the structural analysis that differential settlement of
supports causes additional moments in statically indeterminate structures. Therefore, avoiding
the differential settlement is considered as more important than maintaining uniform overall
settlement of the structure.

Factored concentric load applied on short tied columns is resisted by concrete of area Ac and
longitudinal steel of areas Asc effectively held by lateral ties at intervals. Assuming the design
strengths of concrete and steel are 0.4fck and 0.67fy, respectively, we can write
Pu = 0.4fck Ac + 0.67fy Asc (1)
Where Pu = factored axial load on the member,
fck = characteristic compressive strength of the concrete,
Ac = area of concrete,
fy = characteristic strength of the compression reinforcement, and
Asc = area of longitudinal reinforcement for columns.
The above equation, given in cl. 39.3 of IS 456, has two unknowns Ac and Asc to be
determined from one equation. The equation is recast in terms of Ag, the gross area of
concrete and p, the percentage of compression reinforcement employing
Asc = pAg/100 (2)
Ac = Ag(1 – p/100) (3)
Accordingly, we can write
Pu/Ag = 0.4fck + (p/100) (0.67fy – 0.4fck) (4)
Equation 4 can be used for direct computation of Ag when Pu, fck and fy are known by
assuming p ranging from 0.8 to 4 as the minimum and maximum percentages of longitudinal

96
reinforcement. Equation 10.4 also can be employed to determine Ag and p in a similar manner
by assuming p.
The superstructure is placed on the top of the foundation structure, designated as substructure
as they are placed below the ground level. The elements of the superstructure transfer the
loads and moments to its adjacent element below it and finally all loads and moments come to
the foundation structure, which in turn, transfers them to the underlying soil or rock. Thus, the
foundation structure effectively supports the superstructure. However, all types of soil get
compressed significantly and cause the structure to settle. Accordingly, the major
requirements of the design of foundation structures are the two as given below (see cl.34.1 of
IS 456):
1. Foundation structures should be able to sustain the applied loads, moments, forces and
induced reactions without exceeding the safe bearing capacity of the soil.

2. The settlement of the structure should be as uniform as possible and it should be within the
tolerable limits. It is well known from the structural analysis that differential settlement of
supports causes additional moments in statically indeterminate structures. Therefore, avoiding
the differential settlement is considered as more important than maintaining uniform overall
settlement of the structure.

(ii)If the computed value of εsc > 0.0010869, fsc = 217.39 N/mm2.
The stress-strain diagram of these bars is given in Fig. 1.2.4 of Lesson 2 and in Fig. 23A of IS
456. It shows that stress is proportional to strain up to a stress of 0.8 fy. The stress-strain curve
for the design purpose is obtained by
substituting fyd for fy in the figure up to 0.8 fyd. Thereafter, from 0.8 fyd to fyd, Table A of SP-16
gives the values of total strains and design stresses for Fe 415

and Fe 500. Table 4.1 presents these values as a ready reference here.
The above procedure has been much simplified for the cold worked bars by presenting the
values of fsc of compression steel in doubly reinforced beams for different values of d'/d only
taking the practical aspects into consideration. In most of the doubly reinforced beams, d'/d
has been found to be between 0.05 and 0.2. Accordingly, values of fsc can be computed from
Table 4.1 after determining the value of εsc from Eq. 4.9 for known values of d'/d as 0.05,
0.10, 0.15 and 0.2. Table F of SP-16 presents these values of fsc for four values of d'/d (0.05,
0.10, 0.15 and 0.2) of Fe 415 and Fe 500. Table 4.2 below, however, includes Fe 250 also
whose fsc values are computed as laid down in sec.

97
4.8.4(a) (i) and (ii) along with those of Fe 415 and Fe 500. This table is very

Here, there is only elastic component of the strain without any inelastic strain.
Minimum and maximum steel in compression
There is no stipulation in IS 456 regarding the minimum compression steel in doubly
reinforced beams. However, hangers and other bars provided up to 0.2% of the whole area of
cross section may be necessary for creep and shrinkage of concrete. Accordingly, these bars
are not considered as compression reinforcement. From the practical aspects of
consideration, therefore, the minimum steel as compression reinforcement should be at least
0.4% of the area of concrete in compression or 0.2% of the whole cross -sectional area of the
beam so that the doubly reinforced beam can take care of the extra loads in addition to
resisting the effects of creep and shrinkage of concrete.

The maximum compression steel shall not exceed 4 per cent of the whole area of cross-
section of the beam as given in cl. 26.5.1.2 of IS 456.

Minimum and maximum steel in tension

The superstructure is placed on the top of the foundation structure, designated as
substructure as they are placed below the ground level. The elements of the superstructure
transfer the loads and moments to its adjacent element below it and finally all loads and
moments come to the foundation structure, which in turn, transfers them to the underlying soil
or rock. Thus, the foundation structure effectively supports the superstructure. However, all
types of soil get compressed significantly and cause the structure to settle. Accordingly, the
major requirements of the design of foundation structures are the two as given below (see
cl.34.1 of IS 456)
:
1. Foundation structures should be able to sustain the applied loads, moments, forces and
induced reactions without exceeding the safe bearing capacity of the soil.

2. The settlement of the structure should be as uniform as possible and it should be within the
tolerable limits. It is well known from the structural analysis that differential settlement of
supports causes additional moments in statically indeterminate structures. Therefore, avoiding
the differential settlement is considered as more important than maintaining uniform overall
settlement of the structure.

98
Columns are classified into the three following types based on the loadings:
(i) Columns subjected to axial loads only (concentric), as shown in Fig. 3.2a.
(ii) Columns subjected to combined axial load and uniaxial bending, as shown in Fig. 3.2b.
(iii) Columns subjected to combined axial load and bi-axial bending, as shown in Fig. 3.2c.
Classification Based on Slenderness Ratios
Columns are classified into the following two types based on the slenderness ratios:
(i) Short columns
(ii) Slender or long columns
Figure 3.3 presents the three modes of failure of columns with different slenderness ratios
when loaded axially. In the mode 1, column does not undergo any lateral deformation and
collapses due to material failure. This is known as compression failure. Due to the combined
effects of axial load and moment a short column may have material failure of mode 2. On the
other hand, a slender column subjected to axial load only undergoes deflection due to beam-
column effect and may have material failure under the combined action of direct load and
bending moment.Such failure is called finally all loads and moments come to the foundation
structure, which in turn, transfers them to the underlying soil or rock. Thus, the foundation
structure effectively supports the superstructure. However, all types of soil get compressed
significantly and cause the structure to settle. Accordingly, the major requirements of the
design of foundation structures are the two as given below (see cl.34.1 of IS 456) :
1. Foundation structures should be able to sustain the applied loads, moments, forces and
induced reactions without exceeding the safe bearing capacity of the soil.

2. The settlement of the structure should be as uniform as possible and it should be within the
tolerable limits. It is well known from the structural analysis that differential settlement of
supports causes additional moments in statically indeterminate structures. Therefore, avoiding
the differential settlement is considered as more important than maintaining uniform overall
settlement of the structure.
Columns are classified into the three following types based on the loadings:
(i) Columns subjected to axial loads only (concentric), as shown in Fig. 3.2a.
(ii) Columns subjected to combined axial load and uniaxial bending, as shown in Fig. 3.2b.
(iii) Columns subjected to combined axial load and bi-axial bending, as shown in Fig. 3.2c.

99
Classification of Columns Based on Slenderness Ratios

Columns are classified into the following two types based on the slenderness ratios:
(i) Short columns
(ii) Slender or long columns
Figure 3.3 presents the three modes of failure of columns with different slenderness ratios
when loaded axially. In the mode 1, column does not undergo any lateral deformation and
collapses due to material failure. This is known as compression failure. Due to the combined
effects of axial load and moment a short column may have material failure of mode 2. On the
other hand, a slender column subjected to axial load only undergoes deflection due to beam-
column effect and may have material failure under the combined action of direct load and
bending moment. Such failure is called combined compression and bending failure of mode 2.
Mode 3 failure is by elastic instability of very long column even under small load much
before the material reaches the yield stresses. This type of failure is known as elastic buckling.
The slenderness ratio of steel column is the ratio of its effective length le to its least radius
of gyration r. In case of reinforced concrete column, however, IS 456 stipulates
reinforcement needed is known as Ast,lim. Problem will arise, therefore, if such a section is
subjected to bending moment greater than its limiting moment of resistance as a singly
reinforced section.

100
 There are two ways to solve the problem. First, we may increase the depth of the beam,
which may not be feasible in many situations. In those cases, it is possible to increase both the
compressive and tensile forces of the beam by providing steel reinforcement in compression face
and additional reinforcement in tension face of the beam without increasing the depth (Fig. 4.8.1).
The total compressive force of such beams comprises (i) force due to concrete in compression
and (ii) force due to steel in compression. The tensile force also has two components: (i) the first
provided by Ast,lim which is equal to the compressive force of concrete in compression. The
second part is due to the additional steel in tension - its force will be equal to the compressive
force of steel in compression.

Such reinforced concrete beams having steel reinforcement both on tensile and compressive faces
are known as doubly reinforced beams.

Doubly reinforced beams, therefore, have moment of resistance more than the singly
reinforced beams of the same depth for particular grades of steel and concrete. In many practical
situations, architectural or functional requirements may restrict the overall depth of the beams.
However, other than in doubly reinforced beams compression steel reinforcement is provided
when:
(xi) Some sections of a continuous beam with moving loads undergo change of sign
of the bending moment which makes compression zone as tension zone or vice
versa.

(xii) The ductility requirement has to be followed.

(xiii) The reduction of long term deflection is needed.

It may be noted that even in so called singly reinforced beams there would be longitudinal hanger
bars in compression zone for locating and fixing stirrups.
moments, and MF1 and MF2 = fixed end moments.

101
 Deflection due to Shrinkage

Clause C-3 of Annex C of IS 456 prescribes the method of calculating the deflection
due to shrinkage α cs from the following equation:

α cs = k3 ψ cs l 2

(7.3)

where k3 is a constant which is 0.5 for cantilevers, 0.125 for simply supported

members, 0.086 for members continuous at one end, and 0.063 for
fully

Deflection Due to Creep

Clause C-4 of Annex C of IS 456 stipulates the following method of calculating

deflection due to creep. The creep deflection due to permanent loads

α cc( perm) is obtained from the following equation:

Example Problem 1:

Figures 7.17.1 and 2 present the cross-section and the tensile steel of a simply supported
T-beam of 8 m span using M 20 and Fe 415 subjected to dead

load of 9.3 kN/m and imposed loads of 10.7 kN/m at service. Calculate the short-and long-term
deflections and check the requirements of IS 456.
Solution 1:

Step 1: Properties of plain concrete section

Taking moment of the area about the bottom of the beam

102
 yt = (300)(600)(300) + (2234 - 300)(100)(550) = 429.48 mm (300)(600)
+ (2234 - 300)(100)

This can also be computed from SP-16 as explained below:

Here, bf /b w = 7.45, Df /D = 0.17. Using these values in chart 88 of SP-16, we get k1 =

2.10.

Igr = k1bw D3/12 = (2.10)(300)(600)3/12 = (11.384)(10)9 mm4

Step 2: Properties of the cracked section (Fig.7.17.2)

Taking moment of the compressive concrete and tensile steel about the neutral axis, we have
(Fig.7.17.2)

Step 3: Short-term deflection (sec. 7.17.5)

Ec = 5000 fck (cl. 6.2.3.1 of IS 456) = 22360.68 N/mm2

Short-term deflection = (5/384) wl4/EcIeff

= (5)(20)(8)4(1012)/(384)(22360.68)(3.106)(109) = 15.358 mm

Step 4: Deflection due to shrinkage (sec. 7.17.6)

Assuming the age of concrete at loading as 28 days, cl. 6.2.5.1 of IS 456 gives θ = 1.6. So, Ecc =
Ec /(1 + θ ) = 22360.68/(1 + 1.6) = 8600.2615

103
N/mm2 and m = Es /Ecc = 200000/8600.2615 = 23.255

Step 5b: Properties of cracked section

Taking moment of compressive concrete and tensile steel about the neutral axis
(assuming at a distance of x from the bottom of the flange as shown in Fig.7.17.3):

Mr = 82.96 kNm (see Step 2)

M = wperm l2/8 = 9.3(8)(8)/8 = 74.4 kNm.

5(9.3)(8)4(10)12/384(22360.68)(11.384)(109)

= 1.948 mm

(4)

Step 5e: Calculation of deflection due to creep

α = α -α
cc( perm ) 1cc( perm ) 1( perm )

104
 = 5.066 – 1.948 = 3.118 mm

(5)

α
It is important to note that the deflection due to creep α cc( perm ) can be obtained
even without computing α1cc( perm) . The relationship of α1cc( perm) and

(
is given below.
Hence, the deflection due to creep, for this problem is:
p
e
α cc( perm) = α1( perm ) (θ ) = 1.948(1.6) = 3.116 mm
r
Step 6: Checking of the requirements
m

The two requirements regarding the control of deflection are given in sec. 7.17.3. They
are checked in the following: )
Step 6a: Checking of the first requirement

The maximum allowable deflection = 8000/250 = 32 mm

The actual final deflection due to all loads

(vii) 15.358 (see Eq.1 of Step 3) + 2.64 (see Eq.2 of Step 4)

+ 3.118 (see Eq.5 ofStep 5e) =21.116 mm<32mm. Hence,

o.k.
Step 6b: Checking of the second requirement

The maximum allowable deflection is the lesser of span/350 or 20 mm. Here, span/350 =
22.86 mm. So, the maximum allowable deflection = 20 mm. The actual final deflection = 1.948
(see Eq.4 of Step 5d) + 2.64 (see Eq.2 of Step

4) + 3.118 (see Eq.5 of step 5e) = 7.706 mm < 20 mm. Hence, o.k.

Thus, both the requirements of cl.23.2 of IS 456 and as given in sec. 7.17.3 are satisfied

105
Calculation of deflection
Step 1: Properties of concrete section

yt = D/2 = 300 mm, Igr = bD3/12 = 300(600)3/12 = 5.4(109) mm4

Step 2: Properties of cracked section

The superstructure is placed on the top of the foundation structure, designated as

substructure as they are placed below the ground level. The elements of the superstructure
transfer the loads and moments to its adjacent element below it and finally all loads and moments
come to the foundation structure, which in turn, transfers them to the underlying soil or rock.
Thus, the foundation structure effectively supports the superstructure. However, all types of soil
get compressed significantly and cause the structure to settle. Accordingly, the major
requirements of the design of foundation structures are the two as given below (see cl.34.1 of IS
456):
1. Foundation structures should be able to sustain the applied loads, moments, forces and induced
reactions without exceeding the safe bearing capacity of the soil.
2. The settlement of the structure should be as uniform as possible and it should be within the
tolerable limits. It is well known from the structural analysis that differential settlement of
supports causes additional moments in statically indeterminate structures. Therefore, avoiding the
differential settlement is considered as more important than maintaining uniform overall
settlement of the structure.
Taking moment of the compressive concrete and tensile steel about the neutral axis (Fig.7.17.5):

300 x2/2 = (8.94)(1256)(550 – x) or x2 + 74.86 x – 41171.68 = 0

(ii) If the computed value of εsc > 0.0010869, fsc = 217.39 N/mm2.

The stress-strain diagram of these bars is given in Fig. 1.2.4 of Lesson 2 and in Fig. 23A
of IS 456. It shows that stress is proportional to strain up to a stress of 0.8 fy. The stress-strain
curve for the design purpose is obtained by
substituting fyd for fy in the figure up to 0.8 fyd. Thereafter, from 0.8 fyd to fyd, Table A of SP-16
gives the values of total strains and design stresses for Fe 415

and Fe 500. Table 4.1 presents these values as a ready reference here.
The above procedure has been much simplified for the cold worked bars by presenting the values
of fsc of compression steel in doubly reinforced beams for different values of d'/d only taking the
practical aspects into consideration. In most of the doubly reinforced beams, d'/d has been found
to be between 0.05 and 0.2. Accordingly, values of fsc can be computed from Table 4.1 after
determining the value of εsc from Eq. 4.9 for known values of d'/d as 0.05, 0.10, 0.15 and 0.2.
Table F of SP-16 presents these values of fsc for four values of d'/d (0.05, 0.10, 0.15 and 0.2) of
Fe 415 and Fe 500. Table 4.2 below, however, includes Fe 250 also whose fsc values are
computed as laid down in sec.4.8.4(a) (i) and (ii) along with those of Fe 415 and Fe 500. This
table is very
Here, there is only elastic component of the strain without any inelastic strain.
Minimum and maximum steel in compression
There is no stipulation in IS 456 regarding the minimum compression steel in doubly
reinforced beams. However, hangers and other bars provided up to 0.2% of the whole area of
cross section may be necessary for creep and shrinkage of concrete. Accordingly, these bars
are not considered as compression reinforcement. From the practical aspects of consideration,
therefore, the minimum steel as compression reinforcement should be at least 0.4% of the area
of concrete in compression or 0.2% of the whole cross -sectional area of the beam so that the
doubly reinforced beam can take care of the extra loads in addition to resisting the effects of
creep and shrinkage of concrete.
The maximum compression steel shall not exceed 4 per cent of the whole area of
cross-section of the beam as given in cl. 26.5.1.2 of IS 456.
Minimum and maximum steel in tension
This gives x = 168.88 mm and z = d – x/3 = 550 – 168.88/3 = 493.71 mm.
Step 3: Short-term deflection (sec. 7.17.5)
Ec = 22360.68 N/mm2 (cl. 6.2.3.1 of IS 456) Short-
term deflection = wl4/8EcIeff
= 20(44)(1012)/8(22360.68)(2.1548)(109) = 13.283 mm
So, short-term deflection = 13.283 mm (1)
Step 4: Deflection due to shrinkage (sec. 7.17.6)

Step 5: Deflection due to creep (sec. 7.17.7)

Step 5a: Calculation of α1cc( perm)

Assuming the age of concrete at loading as 28 days, cl. 6.2.5.1 of IS 456

gives
θ = 1.6

So, Ecc = Ec /(1 + θ ) = 8600.2615 N/mm2

m = Es /Ecc = 200000/8600.2615 = 23.255

Step 5b: Properties of cracked section
From Fig.7.17.6, taking moment of compressive concrete and tensile steel about the
neutral axis, we have:
Mr = 5.634( 107) Nmm (see Step 2)

M = wperm l2/2 = 4.5(42)/2 = 36 kNm

Step 5c: Calculation of α1cc( perm )

α1cc( perm) = (wperm)( l4)/(8Ecc Ieff) = 4.5(4)4(10)12/8(8600.2615)(3.5888)(109)

= 4.665 mm
Step 5d: Calculation of α1( perm )

α1( perm ) = (wperm)( l4)/(8Ec Ieff) = 4.5(4)4(10)12/8(22360.68)(3.5888)(109)

= 1.794 mm
Step 5e: Calculation of deflection due to creep

α = α -α
cc( perm ) 1cc( perm ) 1( perm )

= 4.665 – 1.794 = 2.871 mm

Moreover: α cc( perm) = α1cc( perm) (θ ) gives α cc( perm) = 1.794(1.6) = 2.874 mm.
Step 6: Checking of the two requirements of IS 456
Step 6a: First requirement
Maximum allowable deflection = 4000/250 = 16 mm

The actual deflection = 13.283 (Eq.1 of Step 3) + 2.656 (Eq.2 of Step 4)

 + 2.871 (Eq.5 of Step 5e) = 18.81 > Allowable 16 mm.

Step 6b: Second requirement

The allowable deflection is lesser of span/350 or 20 mm. Here, span/350 =

11.428 mm is the allowable deflection. The actual deflection = 1.794 (Eq.4 of Step 5d) + 2.656
(Eq.2 of Step 4) + 2.871 (Eq.5 of step 5e) = 7.321 mm < 11.428 mm.

Ex.3: Determine the moment of resistance of the beam of Fig. 5.11.4 when Ast = 2,591 mm2 (4-
25 T and 2- 20 T). Other parameters are the same as those of Ex.1: bf = 1,000 mm, Df = 100 mm,
bw = 300 mm, cover = 50 mm and d = 450 mm. Use M 20 and Fe 415.

Step 1: To determine xu

Assuming xu to be in the flange and the beam is under-reinforced, we have from Eq. 3.16
of Lesson 5:

So, the section is under-reinforced.

Step 2: To determine Mu

Df /xu = 100/169.398 = 0.590 > 0.43

This is the problem of case (iii b) of sec. 5.10.4.3 b. The corresponding equations are Eq. 5.15 of
Lesson 10 for yf and Eqs. 5.16 to 18 of Lesson 10 for C, T and
Mu, respectively. From Eq. 5.15 of Lesson 10, we have:

yf = 0.15 xu + 0.65 Df = 0.15 (169.398) + 0.65 (100) = 90.409 mm

From Eq. 5.18 of Lesson 10, we have

Mu = 0.36(xu /d){1 - 0.42( xu /d)} fck bw d2 + 0.45 fck(bf - bw) yf (d - yf /2)

or Mu = 0.36 (169.398/450) {1 - 0.42 (169.398/450)} (20) (300) (450) (450)

 (iv) 0.45 (20) (1000 - 300) (90.409) (450 - 90.409/2)

4 138.62 + 230.56=369.18kNm.

Ex.4: Determine the moment of resistance of the flanged beam of Fig. 5.11.5 with Ast = 4,825
mm2 (6- 32 T). Other parameters and data are the same as those of Ex.1: bf = 1000 mm, Df = 100
mm, bw = 300 mm, cover = 50 mm and d = 450 mm. Use M 20 and Fe 415.
\Step 1: To determine xu

Assuming xu in the flange of under-reinforced rectangular beam we have from Eq. 3.16 of
Lesson 5:

(5.8)

From Eq. 5.11, employing the value of yf = 97.4 mm, we get:

Mu = 0.36 (0.48) {1 - 0.42 (0.48)} (20) (300) (450) (450)

(1000 - 300) (97.4) (450 - 97.4/2)

= 167.63 + 246.24 = 413.87 kNm

It is seen that this over-reinforced beam has the same Mu as that of the balanced beam of
Example 2.

Summary of Results of Examples 1-4

The results of four problems (Exs. 1-4) are given in Table 5.1 below. All the examples
are having the common data except Ast.

Table 5.1 Results of Examples 1-4 (Figs. 5.11.2 – 5.11.5)

It is clear from the above table (Table 5.1), that Ex.4 is an over-reinforced flanged
beam. The moment of resistance of this beam is the same as that of balanced beam of Ex.2.
Additional reinforcement of 1,759 mm2 (= 4,825 mm2 – 3,066 mm2) does not improve the M u
of the over-reinforced beam. It rather prevents the beam from tension failure. That is why
 over-reinforced beams are to be avoided. However, if the Mu has to be increased beyond
413.87 kNm, the flanged beam may be doubly reinforced.

Use of SP-16 for the Analysis Type of Problems

Using the two governing parameters (bf /bw) and (Df /d), the Mu,lim of balanced flanged
beams can be determined from Tables 57-59 of SP-16 for the

three grades of steel (250, 415 and 500). The value of the moment coefficient
Mu,lim /bwd2fck of Ex.2, as obtained from SP-16, is presented in Table 5.2 making linear
interpolation for both the parameters, wherever needed. Mu,lim is then
calculated from the moment coefficient.

Table 5.2 Mu,lim of Example 2 using Table 58 of SP-16

Mu,lim as obtained from SP-16 is close to the earlier computed value of Mu,lim = 413.87 kNm
(see Table 5.1).

Q.1: Determine the moment of resistance of the simply supported doubly reinforced flanged
beam (isolated) of span 9 m as shown in Fig. 5.11.6. Assume M 30 concrete and Fe 500
steel.
Step 1: To determine the depth of the neutral axis

Assuming neutral axis to be in the flange and writing the equation C = T, we have:
0.87 fy Ast = 0.36 fck bf xu + (fsc Asc – fcc Asc)

Here, d ' / d = 65/600 = 0.108 = 0.1 (say). We, therefore, have fsc = 353 N/mm2 .
From the above equation, we have:
So, xu = xu,max = 276 mm (over-reinforced beam).

Df /xu = 120/276 = 0.4347 > 0.43

Let us assume Df /xu > 0.43. Now, equating C = T with yf as the depth of flange having constant
stress of 0.446 fck. So, we have:

yf = 0.15 xu + 0.65 Df = 0.15 xu + 78

 0.36 fck bw xu + 0.446 fck (bf – bw) yf + Asc (fsc – fcc) = 0.87 fy Ast
0.36 (30) (300) xu + 0.446 (30) (900) (0.15 xu + 78)
= 0.87 (500) (6509) – 1030 {353 – 0.446 (30)}
or xu = 305.63 mm > xu,max. (xu,max = 276 mm)
The beam is over-reinforced. Hence, xu = xu,max = 276 mm. This is a problem of case (iv), and we,
therefore, consider the case (ii) to find out the moment of
resistance in two parts: first for the balanced singly reinforced beam and then for the additional
moment due to compression steel.
Step 2: Determination of xu,lim for singly reinforced flanged beam
Here, Df /d = 120/600 = 0.2, so yf is not needed. This is a problem of case (ii a) of sec. 5.10.4.2 of
Lesson 10. Employing Eq. 5.7 of Lesson 10, we have:
Mu,lim = 0.36 (xu,max /d) {1 – 0.42 (xu,max /d)} fck bw d2
i 0.45 fck (bf – bw) Df (d – Df /2)
4.8.4 0.36(0.46) {1 – 0.42(0.46)} (30) (300) (600) (600) +
0.45(30) (900) (120) (540)
4.8.5 1,220.20kNm
Ast2 = 714.38 mm2 and Asc = 1,030 mm2
It is important to find out how much of the total Asc and Ast2 are required effectively. From the
equilibrium of C and T forces due to additional steel
(compressive and tensile), we have:
(Ast2) (0.87) (fy) = (Asc) (fsc)
If we assume Asc = 1,030 mm2
Ast 2 = 10300.87 (500)(353) = 835.84 mm2 > 714.38 mm2 , (714.38 mm2 is the total
Ast2 provided). So, this is not possible.
Now, using Ast2 = 714.38 mm2 , we get Asc from the above equation.
Introduction

Lesson 10 illustrates the governing equations of flanged beams. It is now necessary to

apply them for the solution of numerical problems. Two types of numerical problems are
possible: (i) Analysis and (ii) Design types. This lesson explains the application of the theory of
flanged beams for the analysis type of problems. Moreover, use of tables of SP-16 has been
illustrated to determine the limiting moment of resistance of sections quickly for the three grades
of steel.

Besides mentioning the different steps of the solution, numerical examples are also taken up to
explain their step-by-step solutions.
Analysis Type of Problems

The dimensions of the beam bf, bw, Df, d, D, grades of concrete and steel and the amount
of steel Ast are given. It is req

uired to determine the moment of resistance of the beam.

To determine the depth of the neutral axis xu

The depth of the neutral axis is determined from the equation of equilibrium C = T.
However, the expression of C depends on the location of neutral axis, Df /d and Df / xu
parameters. Therefore, it is required to assume first that the xu is in the flange. If this is not the
case, the next step is to assume xu in the web and the computed value of xu will indicate if the
beam is under-reinforced, balanced or over-reinforced.

After knowing if the section is under-reinforced, balanced or over-reinforced, the

respective parameter Df/d or Df/xu is computed for the under-reinforced, balanced or over-
reinforced beam. The respective expressions of C,
T and Mu, as established in Lesson 10, are then employed to determine their values. Figure 5.11.1
illustrates the steps to be followed.

Ex.1: Determine the of the of Fig. 5.11.2. Given data: bf = 1000 mm, Df = 100 mm, bw = 300 mm,
cover = 50 mm, d = 450 mm and Ast = 1963 mm2 (4- 25 T). Use M 20 and Fe 415.

Step 1: To determine the depth of the neutral axis xu

Assuming xu in the flange and equating total compressive and tensile forces from the
expressions of C and T (Eq. 3.16 of Lesson 5) as the T-beam can be treated as rectangular beam
of width bf and effective depth d, we get:

So, the assumption of xu in the flange is correct.

xu, max for the balanced rectangular beam = 0.48 d = 0.48 (450) = 216
mm.

It is under-reinforced since xu < xu,max.

Step 2: To determine C, T and Mu

From Eqs. 3.9 (using b = bf) and 3.14 of Lesson 4 for C and T and Eq.
3.23 of Lesson 5 for Mu, we have:

= 0.36 (1000) (98.44) (20) = 708.77 kN

T = 0.87 fy Ast

(3.14)

This problem belongs to the case (i) and is explained in sec. 5.10.4.1 of Lesson 10.

.2: Determine Ast,lim and Mu,lim of the flanged beam of Fig. 5.11.3. Given data are: bf = 1000 mm,
Df = 100 mm, bw = 300 mm, cover = 50 mm and d

= 450 mm. Use M 20 and Fe 415.

Step 1: To determine Df/d ratio

For the limiting case xu = xu,max = 0.48 (450) = 216 mm > Df. The ratio Df/d is computed.

Df/d = 100/450 = 0.222 > 0.2

Hence, it is a problem of case (ii b) and discussed in sec. 5.10.4.2 b of Lesson 10.

Step 2: Computations of yf , C and T

 First, we have to compute yf from Eq.5.8 of Lesson 10 and then employ Eqs. 5.9, 10 and
11 of Lesson 10 to determine C, T and Mu, respectively.

= 0.36 (0.48) {1 - 0.42 (0.48)} (20) (300) (450)2

+ 0.45 (20) (1000 - 300) (97.4) (450 - 97.4/2) = 413.87 kNm

Ex.3: Determine the moment of resistance of the beam of Fig. 5.11.4 when Ast = 2,591 mm2 (4-
25 T and 2- 20 T). Other parameters are the same as those of Ex.1: bf = 1,000 mm, Df = 100 mm,
bw = 300 mm, cover = 50 mm and d = 450 mm. Use M 20 and Fe 415.

Step 1: To determine xu

Assuming xu to be in the flange and the beam is under-reinforced, we have from Eq. 3.16
of Lesson 5:

is under-reinforced.

Step 2: To determine Mu

Df /xu = 100/169.398 = 0.590 > 0.43

This is the problem of case (iii b) of sec. 5.10.4.3 b. The corresponding equations are Eq. 5.15 of
Lesson 10 for yf and Eqs. 5.16 to 18 of Lesson 10 for C, T and
Mu, respectively. From Eq. 5.15 of Lesson 10, we have:

yf = 0.15 xu + 0.65 Df = 0.15 (169.398) + 0.65 (100) = 90.409 mm

From Eq. 5.18 of Lesson 10, we have

Mu = 0.36(xu /d){1 - 0.42( xu /d)} fck bw d2 + 0.45 fck(bf - bw) yf (d - yf /2)

or Mu = 0.36 (169.398/450) {1 - 0.42 (169.398/450)} (20) (300) (450) (450)

(iii) 0.45 (20) (1000 - 300) (90.409) (450 - 90.409/2)

 5 138.62 + 230.56=369.18kNm.

Ex.4: Determine the moment of resistance of the flanged beam of Fig. 5.11.5 with Ast = 4,825
mm2 (6- 32 T). Other parameters and data are the same as those of Ex.1: bf = 1000 mm, Df = 100
mm, bw = 300 mm, cover = 50 mm and d = 450 mm. Use M 20 and Fe 415.

tep 1: To determine xu

Assuming xu in the flange of under-reinforced rectangular beam we have from Eq. 3.16 of
Lesson 5:

(5.8)

From Eq. 5.11, employing the value of yf = 97.4 mm, we get:

Mu = 0.36 (0.48) {1 - 0.42 (0.48)} (20) (300) (450) (450)

+ 0.45 (20) (1000 - 300) (97.4) (450 - 97.4/2)

= 167.63 + 246.24 = 413.87 kNm

It is seen that this over-reinforced beam has the same Mu as that of the balanced beam of
Example 2.

5.11.4 Summary of Results of Examples 1-4

The results of four problems (Exs. 1-4) are given in Table 5.1 below. All the examples
are having the common data except Ast.

Table 5.1 Results of Examples 1-4 (Figs. 5.11.2 – 5.11.5)

It is clear from the above table (Table 5.1), that Ex.4 is an over-reinforced flanged
beam. The moment of resistance of this beam is the same as that of balanced beam of Ex.2.
 Additional reinforcement of 1,759 mm2 (= 4,825 mm2 – 3,066 mm2) does not improve the M u
of the over-reinforced beam. It rather prevents the beam from tension failure. That is why
over-reinforced beams are to be avoided. However, if the Mu has to be increased beyond
413.87 kNm, the flanged beam may be doubly reinforced.

Analysis Type of Problems

Using the two governing parameters (bf /bw) and (Df /d), the Mu,lim of balanced flanged
beams can be determined from Tables 57-59 of SP-16 for the

three grades of steel (250, 415 and 500). The value of the moment coefficient
Mu,lim /bwd2fck of Ex.2, as obtained from SP-16, is presented in Table 5.2 making linear
interpolation for both the parameters, wherever needed. Mu,lim is then
calculated from the moment coefficient.

Table 5.2 Mu,lim of Example 2 using Table 58 of SP-16

Mu,lim as obtained from SP-16 is close to the earlier computed value of Mu,lim = 413.87 kNm
(see Table 5.1).

5.11.6 Practice Questions and Problems with Answers

ermine the moment of resistance of the simply supported doubly reinforced flanged beam
(isolated) of span 9 m as shown in Fig. 5.11.6. Assume M 30 concrete and Fe 500 steel.

Step 1: To determine the depth of the neutral axis

Assuming neutral axis to be in the flange and writing the equation C = T, we have:
0.87 fy Ast = 0.36 fck bf xu + (fsc Asc – fcc Asc)

Here, d ' / d = 65/600 = 0.108 = 0.1 (say). We, therefore, have fsc = 353 N/mm2 .

From the above equation, we have:

So, xu = xu,max = 276 mm (over-reinforced beam).

Df /xu = 120/276 = 0.4347 > 0.43

Let us assume Df /xu > 0.43. Now, equating C = T with yf as the depth of flange having constant
stress of 0.446 fck. So, we have:

yf = 0.15 xu + 0.65 Df = 0.15 xu + 78

36 fck bw xu + 0.446 fck (bf – bw) yf + Asc (fsc – fcc) = 0.87 fy Ast

0.36 (30) (300) xu + 0.446 (30) (900) (0.15 xu + 78)

= 0.87 (500) (6509) – 1030 {353 – 0.446 (30)}

or xu = 305.63 mm > xu,max. (xu,max = 276 mm)

The beam is over-reinforced. Hence, xu = xu,max = 276 mm. This is a problem of case (iv), and we,
therefore, consider the case (ii) to find out the moment of
resistance in two parts: first for the balanced singly reinforced beam and then for the additional
moment due to compression steel.

Step 2: Determination of xu,lim for singly reinforced flanged beam

Here, Df /d = 120/600 = 0.2, so yf is not needed. This is a problem of case (ii a) of sec. 5.10.4.2 of
Lesson 10. Employing Eq. 5.7 of Lesson 10, we have:

Mu,lim = 0.36 (xu,max /d) {1 – 0.42 (xu,max /d)} fck bw d2

i 0.45 fck (bf – bw) Df (d – Df /2)

4.8.6 0.36(0.46) {1 – 0.42(0.46)} (30) (300) (600) (600) +

0.45(30) (900) (120) (540)

4.8.7 1,220.20kNm
 Ast2 = 714.38 mm2 and Asc = 1,030 mm2

It is important to find out how much of the total Asc and Ast2 are required effectively. From the
equilibrium of C and T forces due to additional steel
(compressive and tensile), we have:

(Ast2) (0.87) (fy) = (Asc) (fsc)

Ast 2 = 10300.87 (500)(353) = 835.84 mm2 > 714.38 mm2 , (714.38 mm2 is the total

Ast2 provided). So, this is not possible.

Now, using Ast2 = 714.38 mm2 , we get Asc from the above equation.
Test 11 with Solutions

Maximum Marks = 50, Maximum Time = 30 minutes

Answer all questions.

TQ.1: Determine Mu,lim of the flanged beam of Ex. 2 (Fig. 5.11.3) with the help of SP-16 using
(a) M 20 and Fe 250, (b) M 20 and Fe 500 and (c) compare the results with the Mu,lim of Ex. 2
from Table 5.2 when grades of concrete and steel are M 20 and Fe 415, respectively. Other
data are: bf = 1000 mm, Df = 100 mm, bw = 300 mm, cover = 50 mm and d = 450 mm.

(10 X 3 = 30 marks)
A.TQ.1: From the results of Ex. 2 of sec. 5.11.5 (Table 5.2), we have:

For part (a): When Fe 250 is used, the corresponding table is Table 57 of SP-16. The
computations are presented in Table 5.3 below:

(v) by linear interpolation

Mu,lim /bw d2 fck = 0.354174 = 0.354 (say)

 o, Mu,lim = (0.354) (300) (450) (450) (20) N mm = 430.11 kNm

For part (b): When Fe 500 is used, the corresponding table is Table 59 of SP-

16. The computations are presented in Table 5.4 below:

Table 5.4 (Mu,lim /bw d2 fck) in N/mm2 Of TQ.1 (PART b for M 20 and Fe 500)
(Mu,lim /bw d2 fck) in N/mm2

For part (c): Comparison of results of this problem with that of Table 5.2 (M 20 and Fe

415) is given below in Table 5.5.

Table 5.5 Comparison of results of Mu,lim

It is seen that Mu,lim of the beam decreases with higher grade of steel for a particular
grade of concrete.
TQ.2: With the aid of SP-16, determine separately the limiting moments of resistance and the
limiting areas of steel of the simply supported isolated, singly reinforced and balanced
flanged beam of Q.1 as shown in Fig. 5.11.6 if the span = 9 m. Use M 30 concrete and
three grades of steel, Fe

250, Fe 415 and Fe 500, respectively. Compare the results obtained above with that of
Q.1 of sec. 5.11.6, when balanced.
(15 + 5 = 20 marks
A.TQ.2: From the results of Q.1 sec. 5.11.6, we have:

For Fe 250, Fe 415 and Fe 500, corresponding tables are Table 57, 58 and 59, respectively of
SP-16. The computations are done accordingly. After computing the limiting moments of
resistance, the limiting areas of steel are determined as explained below. Finally, the results are
presented in Table 5.6 below:

The maximum area of steel allowed is .04 b D = (.04) (300) (660) = 7,920 mm2 .
Hence, Fe 250 is not possible in this case.
 This lesson mentions about the two types of numerical problems (i) analysis and (ii)
design types. In addition to explaining the steps involved in solving the analysis type of
numerical problems, several examples of analysis type of problems are illustrated explaining all
steps of the solutions both by direct computation method and employing SP- 16. Solutions of
practice and test problems will give readers the confidence in applying the theory explained in
Lesson 10 in solving the numerical problems.

igures 2.1a and b explain the share of loads on beams supporting solid slabs along four
edges when vertical loads are uniformly distributed. It is evident from the figures that the share of
loads on beams in two perpendicular directions depends upon the aspect ratio ly /lx of the slab, lx
being the shorter span. For large values of ly, the triangular area is much less than the trapezoidal
area (Fig. 2.1a). Hence, the share of loads on beams along shorter span will gradually reduce with
increasing ratio of ly /lx. In such cases, it may be said that the loads are primarily taken by beams
along longer span. The deflection profiles of the slab along both directions are also shown in the
figure. The deflection profile is found to be constant along the longer span except near the edges
for the slab panel of Fig. 2.1a. These slabs are designated as one-way slabs as they span in one
direction (shorter one) only for a large part of the slab when ly /lx > 2.
On the other hand, for square slabs of ly /lx = 1 and rectangular slabs of ly /lx up to 2, the
deflection profiles in the two directions are parabolic (Fig. 2.1b). Thus, they are spanning in
se slabs with ly /lx up to 2 are designated as two-way slabs, when supported on all edges.
It would be noted that an entirely one-way slab would need lack of support on short edges. Also,
even for ly /lx < 2, absence of supports in two parallel edges will render the slab one-way. In Fig.
2.1b, the separating line at 45 degree is tentative serving purpose of design. Actually, this angle is
a function of ly /lx

Design Step
The procedure of the design of one-way slab is the same as that of beams. However, the
amounts of reinforcing bars are for one metre width of the slab as to be determined from either
the governing design moments (positive or negative) or from the requirement of minimum
reinforcement. The different steps of the design are explained below.
Step 1: Selection of preliminary depth of slab
The depth of the slab shall be assumed from the span to effective depth ratios.

Step 2: Design loads, bending moments and shear forces

The total factored (design) loads are to be determined adding the estimated dead load of
the slab, load of the floor finish, given or assumed live loads etc. after multiplying each of them
with the respective partial safety factors. Thereafter, the design positive and negative bending
moments and shear forces are to be determined using the respective coefficients given in Tables
12 and 13 of IS 456.

Step 3: Determination/checking of the effective and total depths of slabs

The effective depth of the slab shall be determined employing.
Mu,lim = R,lim bd2
The total depth of the slab shall then be determined adding appropriate nominal cover (Table 16
and 16A of cl.26.4 of IS 456) and half of the diameter of the larger bar if the bars are of different
sizes. Normally, the computed depth of the slab comes out to be much less than the assumed
depth in Step 1. However, final selection of the depth shall be done after checking the depth for
shear force.

Step 4: Depth of the slab for shear force

Theoretically, the depth of the slab can be checked for shear force if the design shear
strength of concrete is known. Since this depends upon the percentage of tensile reinforcement,
the design shear strength shall be assumed considering the lowest percentage of steel. The value
of shall be modified after knowing the multiplying factor k from the depth tentatively selected for

Step 5: Determination of areas of steel

Area of steel reinforcement along the direction of one-way slab should be determined
employing the following Eq.
Mu = 0.87 fy Ast d {1 – (Ast)(fy)/(fck)(bd)}
The above equation is applicable as the slab in most of the cases is under-reinforced due to the
selection of depth larger than the computed value in Step 3. The area of steel so determined
should be checked whether it is at least the minimum area of steel as mentioned in cl.26.5.2.1 of
IS 456.

Step 6: Selection of diameters and spacings of reinforcing bars (cls.26.5.2.2 and 26.3.3 of IS
456)
The diameter and spacing of bars are to be determined as per cls.26.5.2.2 and 26.3.3 of IS
456. As mentioned in Step 5, this step may be avoided when using the tables and charts of SP-16.
Design the one-way continuous slab of Fig.8.18.6 subjected to uniformly distributed imposed
loads of 5 kN/m2 using M 20 and Fe 415. The load of floor finish is 1 kN/m2. The span
dimensions shown in the figure are effective spans. The width of beams at the support = 300 mm.
Step 1: Selection of preliminary depth of slab

The basic value of span to effective depth ratio for the slab having simple support at the
end and continuous at the intermediate is (20+26)/2 = 23 (cl.23.2.1 of IS 456).
Modification factor with assumed p = 0.5 and fs = 240 N/mm2 is obtained as 1.18 from Fig.4 of
IS 456.
Therefore, the minimum effective depth = 3000/23(1.18) = 110.54 mm. Let us take the effective
depth d = 115 mm and with 25 mm cover, the total depth D = 140 mm.

Step 2: Design loads, bending moment and shear force

Dead loads of slab of 1 m width = 0.14(25) = 3.5 kN/m

Dead load of floor finish =1.0 kN/m
Factored dead load = 1.5(4.5) = 6.75 kN/m
Factored live load = 1.5(5.0) = 7.50 kN/m
Total factored load = 14.25 kN/m
Maximum moments and shear are determined from the coefficients given in Tables 12 and 13 of
IS 456.
Maximum positive moment = 14.25(3)(3)/12 = 10.6875 kNm/m
Maximum negative moment = 14.25(3)(3)/10 = 12.825 kNm/m
Maximum shear Vu = 14.25(3)(0.4) = 17.1 Kn

Step 3: Determination of effective and total depths of slab

From Eq. Mu,lim = R,lim bd2 where R,lim is 2.76 N/mm2. So, d =
{12.825(106)/(2.76)(1000)}0.5 = 68.17 mm
Since, the computed depth is much less than that determined in Step 1, let us keep D = 140 mm
and d = 115 mm.

Step 4: Depth of slab for shear force

Table 19 of IS 456 gives = 0.28 N/mm2 for the lowest percentage of steel in the slab.
Further for the total depth of 140 mm, let us use the coefficient k of cl. 40.2.1.1 of IS 456 as 1.3 to
get = 1.3(0.28) = 0.364 N/mm2. c
Table 20 of IS 456 gives = 2.8 N/mm2. For this problem bdVuv/ =η = 17.1/115 = 0.148 N/mm2.
Since, , the effective depth d
Step 5: Determination of areas of steel
It is known that
Mu = 0.87 fy Ast d {1 – (Ast)(fy)/(fck)(bd)}
(i) For the maximum negative bending moment
12825000 = 0.87(415)(Ast)(115){1 – (Ast)(415)/(1000)(115)(20)}
or - 5542.16 A2stAst + 1711871.646 = 0
Solving the quadratic equation, we have the negative Ast = 328.34 mm2
(ii) For the maximum positive bending moment
10687500 = 0.87(415) Ast(115) {1 – (Ast)(415)/(1000)(115)(20)}
or - 5542.16 A2stAst + 1426559.705 = 0
Solving the quadratic equation, we have the positive Ast = 270.615 mm2
Distribution steel bars along longer span ly
Distribution steel area = Minimum steel area = 0.12(1000)(140)/100 = 168 mm2. Since, both
positive and negative areas of steel are higher than the minimum area, we provide:
(a) For negative steel: 10 mm diameter bars @ 230 mm c/c for which Ast = 341 mm2 giving ps
= 0.2965.
(b) For positive steel: 8 mm diameter bars @ 180 mm c/c for which Ast = 279 mm2 giving ps =
0.2426
(c) For distribution steel: Provide 8 mm diameter bars @ 250 mm c/c for which Ast (minimum) =
201 mm2.
Step 6: Selection of diameter and spacing of reinforcing bars
The diameter and spacing already selected in step 5 for main and distribution bars are checked
below:
For main bars (cl. 26.3.3.b.1 of IS 456), the maximum spacing is the lesser of 3d and 300 mm i.e.,
300 mm. For distribution bars (cl. 26.3.3.b.2 of IS 456), the maximum spacing is the lesser of 5d
or 450 mm i.e., 450 mm. Provided spacings, therefore, satisfy the requirements.
Maximum diameter of the bars (cl. 26.5.2.2 of IS 456) shall not exceed 140/8 = 17 mm is also
satisfied with the bar diameters selected here.
Compression members are structural elements primarily subjected to axial compressive
forces and hence, their design is guided by considerations of strength and buckling. Examples of
compression member pedestal, column, wall and strut

Definitions
(a) Effective length: The vertical distance between the points of inflection of the compression
member in the buckled configuration in a plane is termed as effective length le of that
compression member in that plane. The effective length is different from the unsupported length l
of the member, though it depends on the unsupported length and the type of end restraints. The
relation between the effective and unsupported lengths of any compression member is
le = k l (1)
Where k is the ratio of effective to the unsupported lengths. Clause 25.2 of IS 456 stipulates the
effective lengths of compression members (vide Annex E of IS 456). This parameter is needed in
classifying and designing the compression members.

(b) Pedestal: Pedestal is a vertical compression member whose effective length le does not exceed
three times of its least horizontal dimension b (cl. 26.5.3.1h, Note). The other horizontal
dimension D shall not exceed four times of b.

(c) Column: Column is a vertical compression member whose unsupported length l shall not
exceed sixty times of b (least lateral dimension), if restrained at the two ends. Further, its
unsupported length of a cantilever column shall not exceed 100b2/D, where D is the larger lateral
dimension which is also restricted up to four times of b (vide cl. 25.3 of IS 456).

(d) Wall: Wall is a vertical compression member whose effective height Hwe to thickness t (least
lateral dimension) shall not exceed 30 (cl. 32.2.3 of IS 456). The larger horizontal dimension i.e.,
the length of the wall L is more than 4t.

Classification of Columns Based on Types of Reinforcement

Based on the types of reinforcement, the reinforced concrete columns are classified into three
groups:
Based on the types of reinforcement, the reinforced concrete columns are classified into three
groups:

(i) Tied columns: The main longitudinal reinforcement bars are enclosed within closely spaced
lateral ties (Fig.3.1a).
(ii) Columns with helical reinforcement: The main longitudinal reinforcement bars are enclosed
within closely spaced and continuously wound spiral reinforcement. Circular and octagonal
columns are mostly of this type (Fig. 3.1b).
(iii) Composite columns: The main longitudinal reinforcement of the composite columns consists
of structural steel sections or pipes with or without longitudinal bars (Fig. 3.1c and d).
Out of the three types of columns, the tied columns are mostly common with different shapes of
the cross-sections viz. square, rectangular etc. Helically bound columns are also used for circular
or octagonal shapes of cross-sections.

The superstructure is placed on the top of the foundation structure, designated as

substructure as they are placed below the ground level. The elements of the superstructure
transfer the loads and moments to its adjacent element below it and finally all loads and moments
come to the foundation structure, which in turn, transfers them to the underlying soil or rock.
Thus, the foundation structure effectively supports the superstructure. However, all types of soil
get compressed significantly and cause the structure to settle. Accordingly, the major
requirements of the design of foundation structures are the two as given below (see cl.34.1 of IS
456)
:
1. Foundation structures should be able to sustain the applied loads, moments, forces and induced
reactions without exceeding the safe bearing capacity of the soil.

2. The settlement of the structure should be as uniform as possible and it should be within the
tolerable limits. It is well known from the structural analysis that differential settlement of
supports causes additional moments in statically indeterminate structures. Therefore, avoiding the
differential settlement is considered as more important than maintaining uniform overall
settlement of the structure.
Columns are classified into the three following types based on the loadings:
(i) Columns subjected to axial loads only (concentric), as shown in Fig. 3.2a.
(ii) Columns subjected to combined axial load and uniaxial bending, as shown in Fig. 3.2b.
(iii) Columns subjected to combined axial load and bi-axial bending, as shown in Fig. 3.2c.

Classification of Columns Based on Slenderness Ratios

Columns are classified into the following two types based on the slenderness ratios:
(i) Short columns
(ii) Slender or long columns
Figure 3.3 presents the three modes of failure of columns with different slenderness ratios when
loaded axially. In the mode 1, column does not undergo any lateral deformation and collapses due
to material failure. This is known as compression failure. Due to the combined effects of axial
load and moment a short column may have material failure of mode 2. On the other hand, a
slender column subjected to axial load only undergoes deflection due to beam-column effect and
may have material failure under the combined action of direct load and bending moment. Such
failure is called combined compression and bending failure of mode 2. Mode 3 failure is by
elastic instability of very long column even under small load much before the material reaches the
yield stresses. This type of failure is known as elastic buckling.
The slenderness ratio of steel column is the ratio of its effective length le to its least radius of
gyration r. In case of reinforced concrete column, however, IS 456 stipulates the slenderness ratio
as the ratio of its effective length le to its least lateral dimension. As mentioned earlier in sec.
3.1(a), the effective length le is different from the unsupported length, the rectangular reinforced
concrete column of cross-sectional dimensions b and D shall have two effective lengths in the
Out of the three types of columns, the tied columns are mostly common with different shapes of
the cross-sections viz. square, rectangular etc. Helically bound columns are also used for circular
or octagonal shapes of cross-sections.

The superstructure is placed on the top of the foundation structure, designated as

substructure as they are placed below the ground level. The elements of the superstructure
transfer the loads and moments to its adjacent element below it and finally all loads and moments
come to the foundation structure, which in turn, transfers them to the underlying soil or rock.
Thus, the foundation structure effectively supports the superstructure. However, all types of soil
get compressed significantly and cause the structure to settle. Accordingly, the major
requirements of the design of foundation structures are the two as given below (see cl.34.1 of IS
456)
:
1. Foundation structures should be able to sustain the applied loads, moments, forces and induced
reactions without exceeding the safe bearing capacity of the soil.

2. The settlement of the structure should be as uniform as possible and it should be within the
tolerable limits. It is well known from the structural analysis that differential settlement of
supports causes additional moments in statically indeterminate structures. Therefore, avoiding the
differential settlement is considered as more important than maintaining uniform overall
settlement of the structure.
Columns are classified into the three following types based on the loadings:
(i) Columns subjected to axial loads only (concentric), as shown in Fig. 3.2a.
(ii) Columns subjected to combined axial load and uniaxial bending, as shown in Fig. 3.2b.
(iii) Columns subjected to combined axial load and bi-axial bending, as shown in Fig. 3.2c.

Classification of Columns Based on Slenderness Ratios

Columns are classified into the following two types based on the slenderness ratios:
(i) Short columns
(ii) Slender or long columns
Figure 3.3 presents the three modes of failure of columns with different slenderness ratios when
loaded axially. In the mode 1, column does not undergo any lateral deformation and collapses due
to material failure. This is known as compression failure. Due to the combined effects of axial
load and moment a short column may have material failure of mode 2. On the other hand, a
slender column subjected to axial load only undergoes deflection due to beam-column effect and
may have material failure under the combined action of direct load and bending moment. Such
failure is called combined compression and bending failure of mode 2. Mode 3 failure is by
elastic instability of very long column even under small load much before the material reaches the
yield stresses. This type of failure is known as elastic buckling.
The slenderness ratio of steel column is the ratio of its effective length le to its least radius of
gyration r. In case of reinforced concrete column, however, IS 456 stipulates the slenderness ratio
as the ratio of its effective length le to its least lateral dimension. As mentioned earlier in sec.
3.1(a), the effective length le is different from the unsupported length, the rectangular reinforced
concrete column of cross-sectional dimensions b and D shall have two effective two directions of
b and D. Accordingly, the column may have the possibility of buckling depending on the two
values of slenderness ratios as given below:
Slenderness ratio about the major axis = lex/D
Slenderness ratio about the minor axis = ley/b
or octagonal shapes of cross-sections.
 The superstructure is placed on the top of the foundation structure, designated as
substructure as they are placed below the ground level. The elements of the superstructure
transfer the loads and moments to its adjacent element below it and finally all loads and moments
come to the foundation structure, which in turn, transfers them to the underlying soil or rock.
Thus, the foundation structure effectively supports the superstructure. However, all types of soil
get compressed significantly and cause the structure to settle. Accordingly, the major
requirements of the design of foundation structures are the two as given below (see cl.34.1 of IS
456)
:
1. Foundation structures should be able to sustain the applied loads, moments, forces and induced
reactions without exceeding the safe bearing capacity of the soil.

2. The settlement of the structure should be as uniform as possible and it should be within the
tolerable limits. It is well known from the structural analysis that differential settlement of
supports causes additional moments in statically indeterminate structures. Therefore, avoiding the
differential settlement is considered as more important than maintaining uniform overall
settlement of the structure.
Columns are classified into the three following types based on the loadings:
(i) Columns subjected to axial loads only (concentric), as shown in Fig. 3.2a.
(ii) Columns subjected to combined axial load and uniaxial bending, as shown in Fig. 3.2b.
(iii) Columns subjected to combined axial load and bi-axial bending, as shown in Fig. 3.2c.

Classification of Columns Based on Slenderness Ratios

Columns are classified into the following two types based on the slenderness ratios:
(i) Short columns
(ii) Slender or long columns
Figure 3.3 presents the three modes of failure of columns with different slenderness ratios when
loaded axially. In the mode 1, column does not undergo any lateral deformation and collapses due
to material failure. This is known as compression failure. Due to the combined effects of axial
load and moment a short column may have material failure of mode 2. On the other hand, a
slender column subjected to axial load only undergoes deflection due to beam-column effect and
may have material failure under the combined action of direct load and bending moment. Such
failure is called combined compression and bending failure of mode 2. Mode 3 failure is by
Based on the discussion above, cl. 25.1.2 of IS 456 stipulates the following:
A compression member may be considered as short when both the slenderness ratios lex/D and
ley/b are less than 12 where lex = effective length in respect of the major axis, D = depth in
respect of the major axis, ley = effective length in respect of the minor axis, and b = width of the
member. It shall otherwise be considered as a slender compression member.
Further, it is essential to avoid the mode 3 type of failure of columns so that all columns should
have material failure (modes 1 and 2) only. Accordingly, cl. 25.3.1 of IS 456 stipulates the
maximum unsupported length between two restraints of a column to sixty times its least lateral
dimension. For cantilever columns, when one end of the column is unrestrained, the unsupported
length is restricted to 100b2/D where b and D are as defined earlier.

Longitudinal Reinforcement

The longitudinal reinforcing bars carry the compressive loads along with the concrete.
Clause 26.5.3.1 stipulates the guidelines regarding the minimum and maximum amount, number
of bars, minimum diameter of bars, spacing of bars etc. The following are the salient points:
(a) The minimum amount of steel should be at least 0.8 per cent of the gross cross-sectional area
of the column required if for any reason the provided area is more than the required area.
(b) The maximum amount of steel should be 4 per cent of the gross cross-sectional area of the
column so that it does not exceed 6 per cent when bars from column below have to be lapped
with those in the column under consideration.
(c) Four and six are the minimum number of longitudinal bars in rectangular and circular
columns, respectively.
(d) The diameter of the longitudinal bars should be at least 12 mm.
(e) Columns having helical reinforcement shall have at least six longitudinal bars within and in
contact with the helical reinforcement. The bars shall be placed equidistant around its inner
circumference.
(f) The bars shall be spaced not exceeding 300 mm along the periphery of the column.
(g) The amount of reinforcement for pedestal shall be at least 0.15 per cent of the cross-sectional
area provided.
 Transverse reinforcing bars are provided in forms of circular rings, polygonal links
(lateral ties) with internal angles not exceeding 135o or helical reinforcement. The transverse
reinforcing bars are provided to ensure that every longitudinal bar nearest to the compression face
has effective lateral support against buckling. Clause 26.5.3.2 stipulates the guidelines of the
arrangement of transverse reinforcement. The salient points are:

(a) Transverse reinforcement shall only go round corner and alternate bars if the longitudinal bars
are not spaced more than 75 mm on either side (Fig.3.4).
(b) Longitudinal bars spaced at a maximum distance of 48 times the diameter of the tie shall be
tied by single tie and additional open ties for in between longitudinal bars (Fig.3.5).
(c) For longitudinal bars placed in more than one row (Fig.10.21.9): (i) transverse reinforcement
is provided for the outer-most row in accordance with (a) above, and (ii) no bar of the inner row
is closer to the nearest compression face than three times the diameter of the largest bar in the
inner row.
Pitch and Diameter of Lateral Ties
(a) Pitch: The maximum pitch of transverse reinforcement shall be the least of the following:
(i) the least lateral dimension of the compression members;
(ii) sixteen times the smallest diameter of the longitudinal reinforcement bar to be tied; and
(iii) 300 mm.
(b) Diameter: The diameter of the polygonal links or lateral ties shall be not less than one-fourth
of the diameter of the largest longitudinal bar, and in no case less than 6 mm.

Assumptions in the Design of Compression Members by Limit State of Collapse

The following are the assumptions in addition to given in 38.1 (a) to (e) for flexure for
the design of compression members (cl. 39.1 of IS 456).
(i) The maximum compressive strain in concrete in axial compression is taken as 0.002.
(ii) The maximum compressive strain at the highly compressed extreme fibre in concrete
subjected to axial compression and bending and when there is no tension on the section shall
be 0.0035 minus 0.75 times the strain at the least compressed extreme fibre.