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Chapter 21 - Black Holes - the Ultimate Endpoint of
Stellar Evolution
“I can’t believe that,” said Alice.
“Can’t you?” the Queen said, in a pitying tone. “Try again. Draw a long breath, and
shut your eyes.”
Alice laughed. “There’s no use trying,” she said: “One can’t believe impossible
things.”
“I daresay you haven’t had much practice,” said the Queen. “When I was your age, I
always did it for half-an-hour a day. Why, sometimes I’ve believed as many as six
impossible things before breakfast.”
--Lewis Carroll, Through the Looking Glass (1871)

Chapter Preview

Neutron stars and white dwarves halt their collapse against the relentless pull of gravity
when neutrons and electrons reach the ultimate limit at which they can be packed together.
But what happens when even these forces are overwhelmed in the collapse of stars more
massive than three solar masses? The result is a black hole, an object so dense that light
cannot escape its gravitational pull. Einstein’s General Theory of Relativity predicted the
existence of the black hole eighty years ago. This theory predicts the bending and redshift
of light by mass. Extremely dense objects will not allow light to escape their
neighborhood, resulting in a black hole. The existence of black holes has been inferred in
a number of binary star systems.

Key Physical Concepts to Understand: General Theory of Relativity, Principle of

Equivalence, gravitational bending of light, gravitational redshift, structure of black
holes, detection of black holes

I. Introduction

One of the most exotic stellar objects is the black hole, the last stop in the process of
stellar evolution and the point of no return for matter. A black hole is a collapsed star
with a gravitational pull that is so great that neither light nor matter can escape it. The
black hole was first predicted in 1916 by the astronomer Karl Schwarzschild, who used
Einstein’s newly published General Theory of Relativity to model the effect of gravity on
light in the neighborhood of a collapsed star. Since then it has been popular in science
fiction, owing largely to the strange natural phenomena which have been predicted to
occur around these objects.

Are neutron stars the ultimate in the density to which matter can be crushed? For a star
exceeding 3 solar masses, in which nuclear fusion has ceased, its collapse cannot be halted
by the support of a degenerate electron or neutron gas. Collapse continues until, at a
diameter of about 11 miles (for a 3 solar mass star), the escape velocity of material which
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could be ejected from its surface exceeds the speed of light. At this point, nothing, not
even light, can escape the surface of the collapsed star. The collapsed star, in becoming a
black hole, has left behind all evidence of its existence, except for its gravitational pull.

What happens to the matter inside the black hole? Scientists simply don’t know. No one
can see inside a black hole, and since no matter or energy can come out to give us any
information; there is no way of knowing what happens inside. There is no force which can
stop further collapse, so physicists and mathematicians talk about the matter in the black
hole shrinking to an object of infinitesimal size, a point mass.

II.. The General Theory of Relativity Predicts the Existence of Black Holes

Gravity is the weakest of the four known natural forces (Table 1); it is 10 36 times weaker
than the electrical repulsion (attraction) between charged particles. Two protons have a
force of electrical repulsion approximately equal to the gravitational attraction between
two 109 kg masses, separated by the same distance. Yet, over cosmic distances, gravity is
the only force able to exert a significant effect on matter; at extreme levels it warps the
fabric of space and time, producing a black hole.

Table 1: Comparison of the strength of the four forces in nature. The strong nuclear
force is set to 1 for comparison.
Force Relative
Strength
Nuclear Strong Force (holds neutrons & protons 1
together in the atomic nucleus)
Electromagnetic Force (between charged particles) 10-2
Weak Force (participates in radioactive decay) 10-6
Gravity 10-38

A. The Principle of Equivalence

Einstein’s General Theory of Relativity predicts the effects of gravity on time and space.
The underlying concept behind the General Theory of Relativity is the Principle of
Equivalence: gravity and acceleration are equivalent. What is meant by equivalence?
Simply that there is no experiment that one can perform anywhere in the Universe that
would enable one to tell the difference between the forces of gravity and acceleration,
without prior knowledge. We will demonstrate this principle with the following thought
experiment. Imagine being kidnapped and finding yourself standing in a rocket ship with 1
g of force exerted on your body (1 g is the force normally exerted on one’s body by the
Earth’s gravity, when one is resting on the Earth’s surface). Is the rocket ship resting on
the surface of the Earth (Figure 1)? The alternative is that the rocket is in space, well
outside the influence of the Earth’s gravitational pull, or the gravitational pull of any other
mass. Imagine a rocket taking off from the surface of the Earth. After takeoff, the rocket
begins its motion upward, accelerating from a standing stop to some constant upward
velocity. The Principle of Equivalence says that there is no test that one can perform to
determine whether the rocket is being accelerated or is simply acted on by the
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gravitational pull of another mass. (Your rocket is windowless. Looking through a

window in the cabin to observe the rocket sitting on the surface of the earth and
subsequently inferring that the only force pulling you to the floor of the cabin is
gravitational is an example of using prior knowledge.) For example, standing in each of
the possible rockets, in turn, you would feel a force pulling you downward (relative to the
rocket), in one case by the force of the Earth’s gravity, in the other case by the force due
to the acceleration of the rocket. Note that when the rocket is moving at a constant
velocity, there is no force due to acceleration, and no equivalent gravitational force.

The Principle of Equivalence is a precise quantitative relationship. We can compare the

forces on an accelerating rocket to one sitting on the surface of the Earth. The
acceleration of gravity at the surface of the earth, g, is 9.8 m/sec/sec. If a rocket in space
accelerates upward at 9.8 m/sec/sec, it produces the same forces on the body of the
passenger as would gravity at the Earth’s surface.

The Principle of Equivalence: Gravity and acceleration are equivalent.

A. Thought Experiment 1 - Gravitational Bending of Light

Imagine a much more precise, physical experiment, which we can perform (in principle) in
our rocket ship. We shine a laser beam across the bottom of the cabin, parallel with the
floor (Figure 2). As a short pulse of light travels across the cabin floor it travels the width
of the cabin in time interval, t, illuminating a target on the opposite side. The light takes a
finite, though extremely small, time to reach the opposite side of the cabin. If the rocket is
accelerating upward during the time that the light is traveling from wall to wall, the rocket
has moved upward a small amount during this time interval. When the light strikes the
opposite wall, it will be closer to the floor than it was when it began its trip, although we
aimed the laser to be parallel to the cabin floor. In other words, we measure the path to
be bent across the cabin! Using the Principal of Equivalence, a rocket that is not
accelerated, but is pulled by an equivalent amount of gravitational force, will bend parallel
light in the same way! In other words, although light has no mass, it is bent by gravity.

Web Animation - Gravitational Bending of Light

This conclusion produces an intriguing dilemma. How do you define a straight line? You
could use a straight edge or ruler. But how can you determine whether it is really straight
or not in the first place? If you were to view it under a microscope, it would appear
ragged and irregular and perhaps warped and curved. A straight line is really a theoretical
construct - the shortest distance between two points. Let us simply define a straight line
as the path light follows. If we use this definition, then we would say that straight lines
are bent by the gravitational force of nearby massive objects. The more massive the
object means the more striking the degree of bending. Since directions in space are
defined by straight lines, we can say that space is bent or warped by the gravity originating
from objects embedded in it.
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Warping of space is analogous to rolling a ball across a flexible rubber sheet with a billiard
ball placed in the middle, where the billiard ball represents a massive object and the surface
of the sheet represents curved space (Figure 3). The presence of the ball causes a dimple
in the center of the sheet analogous to the curvature of space. As a smaller ping pong ball
rolls across the sheet, toward the billiard ball, but not straight at it, it will curve toward the
billiard ball as it approaches it, and then continue in a straight line as it leaves. A ping
pong ball rolled close enough to the billiard ball will spiral into the larger ball colliding
with it.

Web Animation - Film Clip of a Ball Rolling Across a Flexible Sheet

In 1916 Einstein predicted that starlight passing near the surface of the sun would undergo
a slight deflection. This deflection is difficult to measure because of the dazzling brilliance
of the nearby sun. It wasn’t until the total solar eclipse of 1919 that astronomers could
test this prediction of the General Theory of Relativity. Similar measurement have been
made several times since. The deflection of radio waves from cosmic sources has verified
the theory to within 1 percent.

B. Thought Experiment 2 - Gravitational Redshift & Slowing of Clocks

Another interesting phenomenon predicted by the Principle of Equivalence is the

gravitational redshift of light (for a discussion of redshift, ref. to previous chapter).
Imagine a laser mounted on the floor of the rocket cabin pointed upward with a detector
mounted on the ceiling of the cabin pointed downward (Figure 4). The detector is used
to precisely measure the wavelength of light that has moved upward and hit the detector.
Suppose that a burst of light is emitted from the laser just when the elevator begins to
accelerate upward. By the time the light hits the detector, time t later, the rocket has
accelerated to a velocity equal to the rate of acceleration times t. Since the detector is
receding from the light, it will appear redshifted to the detector. The Principle of
Equivalence tells us that an equivalent amount of gravity should produce the same amount
of redshift. Light moving upward against the force of gravity is redshifted, and is
therefore also losing energy, even though light has no mass! This is a unique prediction of
General Relativity and cannot be explained by Newton’s Universal Law of Gravitation.

Web Animation - Gravitational Redshift

If the laser and detector are switched, with the laser on the ceiling of the accelerating
elevator, pointing down, the detected light is blueshifted. Light emitted as the rocket
begins moving upward, moves down toward a detector that is being accelerated upward
toward the oncoming beam of light. Since the detector is advancing toward the light, the
light will be measured as blueshifted, and therefore gaining in energy. In other words,
light moving toward a massive object will gain energy, as would a small mass falling onto a
more massive object, not due to gravitational attraction (remember, light has no mass) but
because of the Principle of Equivalence.

Now we have a second dilemma. How do we define the passage of time? Crudely
speaking, we can use the ticking of a clock, a beating heart, the motion of the Sun in the
sky, or the falling of grains of sand in an hour glass. But, as you can imagine, none of
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these techniques is precise enough for the physicist. One precise way of measuring time is
to measure the period of vibration of light at a well-determined wavelength, for example
the wavelength corresponding to light emitted from a red helium/neon laser. This
wavelength is defined by the atomic structures of helium and neon. Consider this as the
ticking of an atomic helium/neon clock. Now think about how our clock would be
operated when accelerated, and what the Principle of Equivalence says about the behavior
of our clock. Let’s use the same lasers that we used for the gravitational redshift
experiment for our atomic clock, and the same detector to measure the ticking rate. But
we have a problem. Where do we measure the ticking period of this clock? At the
bottom of the elevator or the top? We find that the ticking rate depends on where we
make our measurements. As light travels upward in our cabin, it is redshifted, meaning
that it experiences an increase in wavelength and increase in period (or decrease in
frequency). This means that the measured ticking rate decreases as light moves upward
against gravity. Similarly, the measured ticking rate increases as light is blueshifted,
moving downward. For an accelerating cabin we have time dilation due to acceleration.
When caused by gravity, this effect is called gravitational time dilation. It means that
the rate of the passage of time is not the same everywhere, but is dependent on the
influence of gravity. Suppose we could observe a clock on the surface of a distant star
collapsing into a 3 solar mass black hole. When the star is 1000 miles in diameter the
clock would appear to run 7 minutes slow each day, at 30 miles diameter it would lag by 5
hours per day, and at the 11-mile diameter the clock would appear to have stopped.

In 1960, two American physicists, R.V. Pound and G.A. Rebka verified the gravitational
time dilation prediction of the General Theory of Relativity for the first time. They found
that light shined up a 72-foot tower at Harvard University was redshifted by 15 parts in
1015, and blueshifted by the same amount if it traveled down the tower toward the Earth’s
surface. This experiment was remarkable in that these wavelength shifts were measured to
a few parts in a million billion (1015).

The effects of gravity, warping of space (i.e., bending of light), dilation of time, and
redshift of light, occur in the neighborhood of any mass, but are only significant in regions
of space where gravitational forces are exceptionally high. White dwarves, neutron stars,
and black holes are all dense enough to produce significant effects on time and space.
Black holes are singularly dense stars defined by their ability to warp space to such a high
degree that light emitted from these objects can never leave the vicinity; it can orbit the
collapsed star or fall back to the surface, but it cannot escape.

III. Properties of Black Holes

A. The Event Horizon

Consider a hot, glowing object such as a star being crushed under its own weight, in the
last throes of stellar death. As collapse occurs gravity dominates all other forces. If the
Earth were to collapse from its current diameter of 8,000 miles, by Newton’s Universal
Law of Gravitation, a 175-pound person on the surface would weight one ton at an Earth
diameter of 2000 miles, one million tons at two miles, and at a diameter of 2/3 inch the
Earth would become a black hole. For a star, light is being emitted from its photosphere,
but as it collapses and the force of gravity grows correspondingly greater at its surface, the
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trajectories of the emitted starlight begin to deviate more and more from straight lines as
predicted by General Relativity (Figure 5). As a star shrinks within a certain radius, light
can no longer escape from the surface of the star to shine into the outside Universe. We
call this the event horizon or Schwarzschild radius for that star, or for an object of that
mass (named for the astronomer Karl Schwarzschild). Schwarzschild showed that the
event horizon radius is given by the formula:

Rs = 2GM/c2,

where Rs is the so-called Schwarzschild radius, G is the gravitational constant (6.67 

10-11 m3/kg s2), M is the mass of the star, and c is the speed of light (3.0  108 m/s). A
clock at the Schwarzschild radius to an outside observer as if time has stopped.

Derivation of the Schwarzschild Radius:

The Schwarzschild radius Rs of a black hole can be derived from the equation for the
escape velocity of a projectile from a star or planet of mass M, (ref. to previous chapter):

(17.1) v2esc = 2GM/R.

If at a certain distance from a star, the escape velocity for an object is equal to the speed
of light, then that radius is called the Schwarzschild Radius. Setting vesc equal to c, the
speed of light, in Equation (17.1), we have,

(17.2) c2 = 2GM/R.

Rearranging Equation 17.2, we obtain Equation 17.3, the equation for the
Schwarzschild radius,

(17.3) Rs = 2GM/c2.

Using Equation 17.3 we can compute the Schwarzschild Radius for a black hole of any
mass. This equation assumes that the black hole under consideration is a nonrotating
black hole. Otherwise centrifugal effects must also be considered. For a non-rotating
black hole, Equation 17.3 is precise. For an arbitrary black hole with an unknown rotation
rate, it can be used as an approximation.

What is the Schwarzschild Radius of a 30 solar mass black hole?

Using Equation 17.3 we get,

Rs = (2.0) x (6.7x10-11m3/kg s2) x (30. solar masses) x (2.0 x 10 30 kg/solar mass)/ (3.0 x
108 m/s)2 = 8.9 x 104 m, for a non-rotating black hole.

The event horizon defines a black hole: a black hole is any object contained within its
event horizon, that is, any object with a high enough density so that light cannot escape
from the gravity surrounding that object. There is an event horizon radius for objects of
any mass, not simply objects of many solar masses (Table 2).
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Table 2: Black holes do not have to be formed from dense matter.

Object Rs Density
-23
Person 10 m 1073 gm/cm3
the Sun 3 km 2 x 1016 gm/cm3
8
10 Solar Mass Black 2 A.U. 1 gm/cm3
Hole

Theoretically, one could form a black hole from ordinary objects, such as pencils, chairs,
or automobiles by compressing them inside a radius given by the event horizon radius
calculated for that mass (Figures 6 and 7). Once compressed within its event horizon,
nothing, neither light nor matter, can escape the gravitational pull of the black hole. The
escape velocity of matter exceeds the speed of light. Light and matter can penetrate the
event horizon of the black hole, but once inside, they may never reappear. This matter has
reached the point of no return. Not only is this matter and light irretrievable, but no
communications exist between the interior of the black hole and the outside world.
Communications are based on the exchange of signals from light - radio waves,
microwaves, visible light, etc., or from matter. We can neither look into the black hole,
and see whatever exists inside, nor receive light emitted from within the event horizon.
The black hole interior appears black indeed.

Can black holes much smaller than 3 solar masses exist? Black holes that are small in
mass are not ordinarily expected to be found in nature, for we know of no natural way that
an object under 3 solar masses can collapse under their own weight with sufficient force to
be compressed into a size smaller than the Schwarzschild radius, other than in the creation
of the Universe (ref. to subsequent chapter). However, for objects of very large mass, the
required density becomes less and less, until at masses of 3-5 solar masses, stars are
expected to collapse within their Schwarzschild radius when they run out of nuclear fuels,
cool off, and collapse under their own weight. At very large masses, a black hole can form
out of matter with a density less than that of ordinary water (Figure 8).

Let’s examine some properties of black holes, by performing a set of imaginary

experiments based on results of the Principle of Equivalence.

B. Thought Experiment 3 - Dropping a Flashlight into a Black Hole

In the first experiment we drop a flashlight into the black hole, so that the light is pointed
perpendicular to the line of travel (Figure 9). At first the light travels from the flashlight in
nearly a straight line. As the flashlight falls closer to the black hole the force of gravity
becomes stronger and the curvature of the light path becomes greater. At a distance of 1.5
times the event horizon radius the light can orbit the black hole in a circular path. Inside
the event horizon the light can never leave the vicinity of the black hole.

Web Animation - Bending of Light Near a Black Hole

C. Thought Experiment 4 - Mission into a Black Hole

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Imagine two astronauts, Buzz and Liz, determined to explore the neighborhood of a black
hole (Figure 10). Buzz, the more reckless of the two, decides to travel into the black hole
and communicate his experiences to Liz, who will orbit the black hole at a safe distance.
As Buzz allows his craft to fall into the black hole he communicates to Liz by sending a
light signal. Liz acknowledges the communications by returning a light signal to Buzz. As
Buzz approaches the event horizon several things happen. As Buzz’s light travels to Liz it
is redshifted whereas light emitted from orbiting Liz to Buzz would be blueshifted. But
Buzz’s light is a measure of the passage of time in his own spacecraft and ticks in time to
Buzz’s clock and heartbeat. So Liz sees Buzz slowing as Buzz approaches the event
horizon. Buzz doesn’t notice anything funny about his own clock, but does notice that
Buzz’s light is blueshifted, indicating that Liz’s clock is running fast. If they could read
each other’s watches with their telescopes, Buzz would think that Liz’s watch was
running too fast and Liz would think that Buzz’s watch was running too slow. As Buzz
accelerates and passes through the event horizon, Liz sees Buzz’s clock slow to a stop,
so that Buzz appears on the surface of the event horizon forever (although at this point
Liz can’t really see Buzz anyway, Buzz’s light is redshifted to extremely low energies) and
Buzz sees Liz’s clock sped up infinitely. For Liz, Buzz’s clock is frozen in time, hence
black holes are called frozen stars. But, unfortunately, our courageous but reckless Buzz
zips through the event horizon, is rapidly pulled apart by fierce tidal forces 1, and crashes
into the black hole point mass, becoming one with the black hole.

IV. Detecting a Black Hole

Obviously, black holes, by virtue of their “blackness”, have unique problems being
detected. How does one detect an object from which light cannot escape? One can
search for the gravitational effects of black holes on the matter outside their event
horizon. Astronomers look to binary star systems for the answer. Over half the stars in
the sky are members of double, or binary, star systems. The orbital period observed for a
binary system allows us to estimate the mass of the pair (ref. to a previous chapter). If
one of the pair is invisible, but has a mass over 3 solar masses, it becomes a black hole
candidate. (Collapsed stars less than 3 solar masses become white dwarves or neutron
stars.) In addition, it is expected that X-ray emitting accretion disks will be found
surrounding the event horizons of black holes combined with giant or supergiant
companions (Figure 11). An accretion disk is a bottleneck for matter streaming out of the
outer atmosphere of a giant star onto its collapsed companion. The matter is attracted to
the black hole by its strong gravitational pull, but as it nears the black hole the matter is
flattened into a thin disk the centrifugal forces that this material acquired from the spinning
and orbiting giant companion. Then it is backed up outside the Schwarzschild radius,
swirling around the black hole before it falls in, much like water spinning around a bathtub
drain. As the matter piles up in a disk outside the black hole, called an accretion disk,
friction within the disk of compressed gas heats the inner portion of the disk to
temperatures of millions of Kelvins. At these temperatures the accretion disk will emit
large amounts of energy in the X-ray part of the electromagnetic spectrum.
1
On the Earth the tidal force, the difference in gravitational force between a person’s head and feet,
tending to pull them apart, is only one part in 10 14. At the event horizon of a 3 solar mass black hole it is
100 million times greater. A person there would experience a 10 million pound tidal force pulling their
head away from their feet.
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Cygnus X-1 is one such black hole candidate (Figure 12). Discovered in the 1970’s by the
Uhuru X-ray satellite as a strong X-ray emitter (the brightest X-ray source in the
constellation Cygnus) it has been found to correspond to the position of a visible B0 star
(with a temperature of 31,000K) named HDE226868. HDE226868 has no visible
companion, but the Doppler shift of its lines indicate that it is orbiting around an unseen
companion with a period of 5.6 days. A B0 star is not expected to emit significant X-ray
radiation, so this emission is thought to arise from the accretion disk surrounding a
collapsed companion (white dwarf, neutron star, or black hole). The B0 supergiant is
estimated to have a mass of 15-40 solar masses. In order for the binary system to have a
period of 5.6 days the companion should then have a mass greater than about 7 solar
masses. This would indicate that Cygnus X-1 must be a black hole. Also, the X-ray
emission of the system varies in intensity over a timescale of about 0.01 seconds as the
temperature and density of the accretion disk varies. If the region of the accretion disk
producing X-rays varies with a time scale of 0.01 seconds or less, then it must be about
3000 km across (smaller than the Earth) (ref. to discussion in previous chapter). This is
further indication that Cygnus X-1 can only be a black hole.

Other black hole candidates are given in Table 3 below.

Table 3: Black Hole Candidates.

Black Hole Name Companion Star Orbital Period Est. Mass of Black
Hole
LMC X-3 B3 main sequence 1.7 days 6 solar masses
A0620-00 K5 main sequence 7.75 hours > 3.2 solar masses
V404 Cygni G or K main 6.4 days > 6.2 solar masses
sequence

It is also expected that supermassive black holes could form at the centers of galaxies, as
gas left over from the collapse and formation of the galaxy condensed in the center. One
example is M87 (Figure 13). This galaxy has a small luminous source at the galactic
center. By measuring the velocities of gas orbiting the center of M87 it has been estimated
that 3 billion solar masses reside in an object about the size of our solar system, easily
satisfying the minimum density required for a black hole. Other supermassive black holes
are thought to be seen in Andromeda, M106, and even our own Milky Way.

The third type of black hole predicted to occur in nature is the primordial black hole,
created in pockets of dense matter compressed shortly after the creation of the Universe,
when all matter was undergoing explosive expansion. Such black holes could have almost
any mass, even a few grams! However, small black holes require an external compressing
force to overcome electron and neutron degenerate gas pressure.

Summary
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Although any mass can theoretically become a black hole by being squeezed inside its
event horizon - inside of which the escape velocity is greater than the speed of light - this
is the natural state of affairs for any star of mass greater than three solar masses after
nuclear fusion has ceased. Einstein’s General Theory of Relativity predicted the existence
of the black hole in 1916, which seems to be confirmed by the detection of unseen
companions in X-ray emitting, binary star systems. The General Theory of Relativity is
based on the Principle of Equivalence: the effects of gravity and acceleration are
equivalent. The result is the bending of light and the dilation of time due to gravity. These
effects are significant where gravity is uncommonly strong, particularly near a black hole.

Key Words & Phrases

1. Black Hole - A black hole is a collapsed star with a gravitational pull that is so great
that neither light nor matter can escape it.
2. Escape Velocity - The velocity that an object must achieve to escape the gravitational
pull on another object.
3. General Theory of Relativity - Einstein’s theory that predicts the effects of gravity
on space and time, based on the Principle of Equivalence.
4. Principle of Equivalence - The effects of gravity and acceleration are equivalent,
that is, there is no experiment that can differentiate between the two.
5. Schwarzschild Radius (or event horizon) - The radius that a mass must be
compressed within in order for it to be a black hole.

Review for Understanding

1. How can light be bent by gravity if it has no mass?

2. What is the Principle of Equivalence? What does it predict?
3. Would a standard clock, placed anywhere in the universe, be perceived by us to always
run at the same rate?
4. What is the diameter of the event horizon for a 10 solar mass black hole?
5. To within what diameter would your body mass have to be compressed to form a
black hole?
6. How could one verify that an X-ray source is a black hole?
7. How has Einstein’s General Theory of Relativity been experimentally verified?
8. Are all black holes found in binary star systems?
9. Must all black holes have a high density of matter?

Essay Questions

1. Under what conditions could the Universe be considered a black hole?

2. If the Sun suddenly collapsed into a black hole without changing its mass, would the
planets be sucked within its event horizon?
3. Compare and contrast the properties of white dwarves, neutron stars, and black holes.
4. Why can’t a black hole gobble up more and more mass, becoming larger and larger,
eventually swallowing up the entire Universe?

Figure Captions
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Figure 1. The Principle of Equivalence illustrated. If we have two identical

laboratory/rockets, one (A) resting on the surface of the Earth and the other (B) in space,
there is no experiment we can perform to discriminate between the effects of gravity and
the effects of acceleration.

Figure 2. A light pulse traveling across an accelerating rocket cabin seems to be slightly
bent as seen by an observer in the cabin as the cabin moves upward toward the light beam.
The Principle of Equivalence predicts that light will also appear bent by gravity, although it
has no mass. Panel A shows a burst of light from a laser traveling across the cabin, seen in
five instants in time. The cabin floor is represented by dashed lines for each of the five
instants in time. From this we can deduce the appearance of the beam of light to an
observer riding in the rocket cabin, as illustrated in Panel B.

Figure 3. Gravitational deflection of starlight is analogous to a billiard ball being rolled

across a rubber sheet. Starlight is bent by the gravitational attraction of the Sun. A star’s
apparent position on the sky is predicted to undergo a 1.75 arcsecond change as it’s light
passes near the edge of the Sun.

Figure 4. A light wave traveling upward in an upward-accelerating elevator undergoes a

redshift as it approaches the ceiling of the elevator. The Principle of Equivalence predicts
that light will appear redshifted by gravity, even through it has no mass.

Figure 5. A collapsing star experiences greater and greater surface gravity as it shrinks.
As it collapses toward its event horizon, light is more dramatically bent, until it finally
penetrates its event horizon, and light can no longer escape.

Figure 6. Matter falling into a black hole becomes one with the black hole, and loses all
of its individual characteristics. The black hole itself has only three properties: mass,
electrical charge, and spin.

Figure 7. Structure of a black hole. A non-rotating black hole has an extremely simple
structure with only two components: a point-mass at the center and an event horizon, an
imaginary sphere at the Schwarzschild radius indicating the boundary of the black hole -
from within which light cannot escape.

Figure 8. Mass vs. radius of astronomical objects. All mass on a cosmic scale can be
divided into two groups - black holes: objects with a high enough density that they are
contained within their event horizon - and conventional objects: where catastrophic
collapse is prevented by pressure of an ordinary solid (e.g., the Earth), ordinary gas (e.g.,
our Sun), or a degenerate gas (for neutron stars and white dwarves).

Figure 9. A flashlight dropped into a black hole. As the flashlight approaches the event
horizon, the light is bent more severely. On a sphere of radius 1.5 times the radius of the
event horizon, light can orbit the black hole in a circular path. Inside this sphere light will
spiral into the black hole, penetrating the event horizon, never to exit.
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Figure 10. Astronauts probing a black hole. Liz orbits the black hole while observing
Buzz, who has unwisely ventured into the event horizon.

Figure 11. A black hole/red giant binary star system. As the giant star evolves it expands,
with its outer atmosphere spilling onto its collapsed companion in a thin accretion disk.
The gas swirls around the black hole, until it is swallowed by the event horizon. As it
becomes compressed it increases in temperature to millions of degrees Kelvin. This ultra-
hot gas radiates much of its energy in the X-ray part of the spectrum.

Figure 12. Cygnus X-1. The star designated with the arrow is the supergiant companion
of the black hole and X-ray source known as Cygnus X-1.

Figure 13. A Hubble Space Telescope image of M87, a galaxy 50 million light years away
in the constellation Virgo. At the center of M87 (see the inset) is seen a spiral accretion
disk outside a black hole with a mass of 3 billion suns and a size approximately equal to
that of our solar system.

Figure 14. LMCX-1. A ROSAT (Roentgen Satellite) X-ray image of the Large
Magellanic Cloud, a nearby galaxy, showing an X-ray bright nucleus indicating the
accretion of matter into a massive black hole.