Script on Optical Network

Communication Basics

Title Optical Network Communication Basics

Page 1 Hello, welcome to Huawei Optical Network Communication Basics course.

This course is designed for those who are new to optical networks. It
describes certain fundamentals of optical network communication and
provides the foundation for further study. The term "optical network" may be
new to you. In brief, an optical network is a transport network that takes
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fibers as transmission media. It is also called optical transmission network,
optical transport network, transmission network, and transport network.
Current optical networks mainly use two technologies: SDH and WDM.
This course explains the SDH. The WDM will be provided in future courses.
After completing this course, you should be able to:
1. Describe the position and role of an optical network in a
telecommunication network
2. Discuss an optical network physically, including:
- Basic structure of a transmission room
Page 3
- Hardware components of a transmission network
3. Explain an optical network logically, including:
- Layers of the optical network
- Functional structure and components of the optical NEs
- Roles of the NE components
Page 4 This course consists of four parts:
Part 1 describes the position of a transmission network in a
telecommunication network, including:
 Classification of the telecommunication network
 Role of the transmission network
Part 2 provides the basic architecture of a transmission network and the
components of transmission NEs, including:
 Layers of the transmission network
 Major components of the transmission NEs
 Roles of the NE components
Part 3 explains the basic structure of a transmission room, including the
equipment in the room.
Part 4 presents the basic components of a transmission network. The
 preceding three parts give certain conceptual discussions. This part offers
certain physical understanding. It physically describes the types and
functions of the common components of a transmission network. You will
feel acquainted with the equipment when you enter a transmission room in
the future.
The first three parts are conceptual. You can understand those parts
gradually in future principle courses and with practice. Now let’s begin with
part 1.
Let's discuss the position and role of a transmission network in a
telecommunication network. The term "telecommunication network" may be
new to you. A telecommunication network is a generic term for all
equipment networks. A telecommunication network operator provides all
services for users through the telecommunication network.
Functionally a telecommunication network is divided into two parts:
 Service network
 Support network
A service network refers to a network that directly provides services for
users. For example, the PSTN provides fixed call services. The wireless
network provides mobile services. Surfing is supported in the Internet /
Intranet. Cable TV is supported in the CATV network. An operator can own
one or more service networks, depending on the service types.
Then what is a support network? A support network offers support to a
service network. It does not provide services for users.
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There are the following types of support networks:
 Signaling network (to support signaling messages between service
NEs)
 Synchronization network (to support timing signals between service
NEs)
 Telecommunication management network (to support operation,
administration, and maintenance signals for the network)
 Transmission network (to provide data transmission channels
between service NEs)
The transmission network discussed in this course is part of a support
network. Broadly, the transmission network can be compared to a road
network. The services transported on the transmission network are similar
to the vehicles that run on the roads. Therefore, the transmission network
plays the role of a conveyor. It transmits services for a service network
rapidly, properly, and completely.
Page 6 Take a glance at the services carried on an optical network (transmission
network).
As a physical bearer network, an optical transmission network provides
transparent transmission channels for a service network.
An optical network normally carries the following types of services:
  Voice service (also called TDM service)
 Private line service (for example, certain private lines of governments
and enterprises)
 Internet service
Based on the network layers, the services are classified into the following
types:
 Access layer service
 Convergence layer service
 Backbone network service
For example, the local voice, local private line, remote voice, and Internet
service in the figure
A service type means a content category that is transmitted. At present,
there are two major categories of services:
 Voice service
 Data service
The private line and Internet service mentioned earlier are both data
services.
Page 7 Let's discuss service types in respect of service interfaces. An optical
network normally provides three types of service interfaces.
1. SDH/PDH service interface
The SDH/PDH service interfaces include STM-N, E1/T1, E3/T3, and
E4 interfaces.
Wherein,
- The STM-N interface is an SDH interface.
- The E1/T1, E3/T3, and E4 interfaces are PDH interfaces.
Normally the SDH interfaces connect transmission NEs. The PDH
interfaces connect a transmission network and a service network. Of
course, this is not an absolute fact. Today certain service and
transmission networks are connected through SDH interfaces.
The real-time voice signals are transmitted through 2-Mbit/s E1
interfaces. The cable TV signals are transmitted through 45-Mbit/s E3
interfaces. The T1/T3 interfaces are PDH interfaces for North
America.
2. IP (for example, FE/GE) service interface
Previously, the optical network did not transmit IP services directly. It
converted the services into SDH or PDH services before transmitting
them. With the technological development, the transmission network
components of SDH have grown into a multi-service transmission
platform (MSTP). The MSTP can directly carry FE/GE data. Normally
the 10-Mbit/s or 100-Mbit/s data is called FE data. The 1.25-Gbit/s
data is called GE data. Nowadays, there is also 10GE data.
3. ATM service interface
The ATM service interfaces are also called data service interfaces.
 They are seldom used at present. They include 155-Mbit/s, 622-
Mbit/s, and 2.5-Gbit/s interfaces.
All the service interfaces indicate data encapsulation formats. The formats
are transparently transmitted in a transmission network. The transmission
network does not analyze or change the contents in the formats.
This part contains few topics. Review the part and answer questions
regarding the following topics:
Page 8 1. Role of the transmission network
2. Concepts of the services in the transmission network
3. Types of the services in the transmission network
Now we shall proceed to part 2. This part provides the basic architecture of
a transmission network and the basic structure of transmission NEs. It
Page 9 covers two topics:
1. Layers of the transmission network
2. Components of the transmission NEs
Take a look at the basic architecture of a transmission network. In a
telecommunication network, a transmission network is divided into three
layers based on the service classes. From top down, they are:
 Backbone layer
 Convergence layer
 Access layer
This list is in descending order of service granularity and class.
 The backbone layer mainly transmits high-capacity services over a
long distance. Examples of the backbone layer include international
backbones, national backbones, provincial backbones, and
metropolitan backbones. At the backbone layer, there are few nodes.
 The convergence layer normally performs the following tasks:
Page 10 - Converges services from the access layer.
- Schedules local services.
- Transports toll services.
For example, MANs are normally at the convergence layer.
 The access layer mainly provides access to services. It is positioned
at the end of the transmission network. At the access layer, many
sites are widely spread. The sites are normally attached to the nodes
at the convergence layer.
Laying the transmission network assists in:
 Scheduling network management resources
 Making full use of bandwidth resources
 Preventing short-distance services from occupying long-distance
bandwidth resources
Page 11 This figure shows Huawei's equipment solutions to the transmission
network layers. As shown in the figure,
 For long-distance backbone transmission, Huawei provides the
 following equipment in the WDM series:
- OptiX BWS 1600G
- OptiX BWS 320G
 For metropolitan backbone transmission, Huawei provides the
following equipment:
- WDM series
 OptiX Metro 6100
 OptiX OSN 6800
- MSTP series
 OptiX OSN 9500
 OptiX OSN 7500
 OptiX Metro 5000
 For the convergence layer, Huawei provides the following equipment:
- MSTP series
 OptiX OSN 3500
 OptiX OSN 2500
 OptiX OSN 1500
- WDM series
 OptiX OSN 3800
 OptiX Metro 6040
 For the access layer, Huawei provides the following equipment in the
microwave series:
- OptiX RTN 610
- OptiX RTN 620
- OptiX Metro 1000
- OptiX Metro 500
- OptiX Metro 100
 For network management, Huawei provides the OptiX iManager
T2000/T2100.
For more information on the specifications and functions of Huawei optical
network equipment, refer to the related technical documentation.
Page 12 The basic architecture of the transmission network is discussed earlier.
Now we shall proceed to the functional structure of a single transmission
NE. Take an SDH NE as an example.
The SDH NE consists of the following functional modules:
 Cross-connect unit
 Line unit
 Tributary unit
 Timing circuit
 Orderwire unit
 SCC unit
Let's detail the roles of each component.
1. Line interface: Implements the O/E conversion of the STM-N line
 signals and processes the management overheads. In brief, the line
interface converts the electrical signals received from the cross-
connect matrix into optical signals. The line interface then transmits
the optical signals through a fiber to the next transmission NE.
Conversely, the line interface converts the optical signals received
from the fiber into electrical signals. The line interface then transmits
the electrical signals through the cross-connect matrix to the tributary
interface or other lines.
2. Tributary interface: Adds/drops service signals. In brief, in uplink,
the tributary interface transmits the electrical signals received from
other non-transmission equipment (for example, switching equipment)
to the cross-connect matrix. The cross-connect matrix then schedules
and transmits the signals to the line interface. In downlink, the cross-
connect matrix schedules and transmits the line signals to the
tributary interface. The tributary interface then transmits the signals to
other equipment. In this way, the transmission NE adds/drops the
services of other equipment.
3. Cross-connect matrix: Cross-connects the signals in the line and
tributary interfaces according to the service scheduling requirements
to implement the line-line, line-tributary, and tributary-tributary cross-
connections and to add/drop and pass through circuits. Based on the
cross-connect granularity, the cross-connections are classified into
two types: high order cross-connections and low order cross-
connections.
4. Timing circuit: Precision synchronization is a prerequisite to the
proper operation of an SDH transmission network. The timing circuit
ensures that all equipment clocks are synchronous in the network.
Internally, the timing circuit provides timing signals for each unit on
the equipment. Externally, the timing circuit provides timing signals or
extracts timing signals from the line interface or outside. In this way,
all clocks are synchronous in the network.
5. Communication and control: Completes network management. It
collects the data of each unit on the equipment and transmits the data
through DCC to the gateway. Conversely, it receives and runs the
commands issued by the T2000.
6. Orderwire unit: Provides the orderwire communication. It helps the
engineers to communicate during engineering or maintenance.
Page 13 Take a look at the physical equipment. This is a subrack in the OptiX OSN
3500. It can house different types of boards. The boards jointly achieve the
functions mentioned earlier.
 The interface boards provide the tributary interface. The interface
boards cooperate with the tributary processing boards in
adding/dropping tributary signals.
  The line processing boards provide the line interface.
 The cross-connect boards provide the cross-connect matrix. In
addition, the timing circuit is integrated in the cross-connect boards.
 The SCC boards perform communication and control.
 The auxiliary boards provide the orderwire functions.
As shown in the figure, the transmission NE provides physical connections
mainly through the tributary and line units. The tributary unit adds/drops the
services of other equipment. The line unit is connected to another NE
through a fiber.
This figure shows a transmission NE equipped with cables and fiber
jumpers. The cables are in grey, and the fiber jumpers are in orange. They
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are connected to the electrical and optical interface contacts on the
equipment to provide external tributary and line interfaces.
This figure shows a simple transmission network. The network consists of
three transmission NEs. Look at the figure to further understand the line
and tributary interfaces.
As shown in the figure, the tributary interface adds/drops services to/from
the NE. The line interface connects the NE to another NE.
Now look at how a service signal is transmitted from one site to another.
At one site, the tributary interface transmits the service signal to the cross-
connect matrix. The cross-connect matrix cross-connects and schedules
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the signal to the line interface. The line interface transmits the signal
through a fiber to the line interface at the peer site. At the peer site, the line
interface transmits the signal to the cross-connect matrix. The cross-
connect matrix cross-connects and schedules the signal to the tributary
interface. The tributary interface then transmits the signal. In this way, the
service signal is transmitted from the local to the peer.
In the procedure, the signal undergoes the electrical -> optical -> optical ->
electrical conversions.
Page 16 That is the basic architecture of a transmission network and the basic
structure of transmission NEs. So far we have discussed the following:
1. Basic architecture of a transmission network, that is, layers of the
transmission network, including:
- Backbone layer
- Convergency layer
- Access layer
2. Basic structure of transmission NEs, that is, functional modules of the
transmission NEs, including:
- Line unit
- Tributary unit
- Cross-connect matrix
- Timing circuit
- SCC unit
 - Orderwire unit
3. Cable connections and service flows between NEs, especially how a
service signal is transmitted between the tributary, cross-connect, and
line units
Now we shall proceed to part 3 Basic Structure of the Transmission
Equipment Room. This part describes which equipment is associated with
Page 17 a transmission network in a transmission room. This part presents few
topics. Part 4 will give more information on each physical entity. This part
logically introduces the equipment in a transmission room.
Take a simple transmission network of three NEs as an example.
The transmission room typically provides the following equipment and
cables:
 Optical distribution frame (ODF)
 Digital distribution frame (DDF)
 Transmission equipment
 BITS equipment
 Power supply
Page 18  Fiber jumpers
 Trunk cables
 Power cables
The BITS equipment is normally placed in a central node room to provide
external timing signals for the transmission network.
In the transmission room, the ODF, DDF, transmission equipment, and
power supply are normally installed in cabinets. The fiber jumpers, trunk
cables, and power cables are connected to the equipment.
Let's detail the roles of the equipment and cables.
Page 19  ODFs are a kind of passive equipment. They join the optical cables After reading this page, go to
between different sets of equipment. Normally the fiber jumpers of the the previous page.
transmission equipment are connected to the ODF. The ODF
connects the fiber jumpers and the fibers. The fibers go outside the
transmission room.
 Similar to ODFs, DDFs join the trunk cables between different sets of
equipment. Normally the trunk cables from the tributary interfaces are
connected to the DDF. The jumpers on the DDF lead the trunk cables
to other equipment (for example, switching equipment) in the room.
 The BITS equipment is normally placed in a central node room to
provide external timing signals for the transmission network. In a
transmission network, one to two sites use external BITS signals.
 The trunk cables connect equipment interfaces to DDFs and normally
carry tributary signals.
 The fiber jumpers connect equipment interface to ODFs and normally
carry line signals.
Let's go back to the previous page to see how a tributary signal is
 transmitted from NE1 to NE2 and which equipment the signal traverses
during the transmission.
As shown in the figure, the tributary signal is transmitted through a trunk After reading this page, go to
cable to the DDF, and then to the tributary unit on NE1 through a trunk page 22.
cable. On NE1, the cross-connect matrix transmits the signal to the line
unit. The line unit transmits the signal to the ODF through a fiber jumper.
The ODF transmits the signal to the fiber between NE1 and NE2. The fiber
goes outside the transmission room. In this way, NE1 transmits the signal.
Page 18
Through the fiber, the signal reaches the ODF in the transmission room
where NE2 is housed. The ODF transmits the signal through a fiber jumper
to the line unit on NE2. On NE2, the cross-connect matrix transmits the
signal to the tributary unit. The tributary unit transmits the signal through a
trunk cable to the DDF. The DDF transmits the signal through a trunk cable
to other equipment in the room. The signal transmission is complete.
That's the basic structure of a transmission room. Let's summarize the part:
Page 20  Basic structure of a transmission room
 Roles of the equipment in the transmission room and signal flows
The preceding parts give certain conceptual discussions. Now look at the
basic components of a transmission network. This part visually introduces
Page 21
the physical entities. I hope that it will help you to master the basic
components quickly.
This part is illustrated with photographs. In this way, you will visually
understand the components and certain basic concepts and lay the
foundation for further study. This part presents the following components:
 Cabinet and subrack
 Fibers and fiber cables
 DDF
 ODF
 Optical attenuators and flanges
Page 22  Synchronization clock
 Optical interfaces
 Fiber connectors
 Optical amplifiers
 Interface boards and 2-Mbit/s cables
 Routed signal cables
 Power supply and power distribution cabinet
 Grounding
 NMS
Page 23 Give a glance at the cabinet and subrack. A subrack is housed in a cabinet.
There are normally the following types of cabinets:
 ETSI cabinet
- 600-mm-deep ETSI cabinet
- 300-mm-deep ETSI cabinet
 Such cabinets are normally 600 mm wide. The cabinets in the figure
are ETSI cabinets.
 19-inch cabinet
 Access network cabinet
Based on the height, cabinets are classified into three types:
 2-m-high cabinet
 2.2-m-high cabinet
 2.6-m-high cabinet
The number of subracks that a cabinet can house varies with the height of
the cabinet.
This page describes fibers and fiber cables. After completing this section,
you should be able to distinguish between the optical cables, fibers, and
fiber jumpers. The fiber cables are normally routed underground or
overhead between transmission rooms. With a thick shield, each fiber
cable contains multiple fibers. The fibers are spliced to the ODF. The fibers
between the ODF and transmission equipment are called fiber jumpers.
Normally optical signals are transmitted over fibers on the following three
Page 24 wavelengths:
 850 nm
 1310 nm
 1550 nm
The 850-nm window applies to only multi-mode transmission and thus is
mainly used for intra-office communication, that is, communication within a
site. The 1310-nm and 1550-nm windows are used for single-mode
transmission and thus are mainly used for inter-office communication.
The transmission distance of an optical signal depends on two factors:
attenuation and dispersion. The two factors weaken the signal.
 Attenuation
- Attenuation of the 1310-nm window per kilometer: 0.4 dB/km
- Attenuation of the 1550-nm window per kilometer: 0.25 dB/km
Page 25  Dispersion
As a result of dispersion, the digital pulse transmitted over the fiber is
extended. Then, inter-symbol interference occurs, and the quality of
the signal is degraded. Dispersion is normally considered for 10-
Gbit/s optical signals.
The factors both restrict the transmission distance of optical signals.
Page 26 This page provides the measurement unit of optical power. The optical
power is measured in dBm. For details on how to calculate optical power,
refer to the related formula.
NOTE
The units db and dBm are different. The former indicates a relative
quantity, and the latter indicates a power.
Assume that we use an optical power meter to measure optical power. If
 the meter reads –60 dBm, there is no optical signal. A too weak or strong
optical signal cannot be properly received. If it is too weak, the optical
signal cannot be received. If it is too strong, the optical signal may impair
the laser.
This page lists the common fibers. The ITU-T classifies fibers into four
types:
 ITU-T G.652
 ITU-T G.653
Page 27
 ITU-T G.654
 ITU-T G.655
They will be detailed in future courses. The fibers specified in ITU-T G.652
are commonly used in transmission networks.
Now look at DDFs. DDFs connect transmission equipment and
Page 28 switches. This is a DDF for 75-ohm cables. DDFs for 120-ohm cables
are also available.
This DDF also serves 75-ohm cables. The trunk cables are fixed to the
DDF with SMB connectors. Normally the trunk cables from the
transmission equipment are fixed to the upper row. The trunk cables from
Page 29
the switching equipment are fixed to the lower row. They are connected
through jumpers. In this way, the transmission equipment and the switching
equipment are connected.
Now we shall proceed to ODFs. Similar to DDFs, ODFs connect fiber
Page 30 jumpers and fibers. This is an ODF built in transmission equipment. The
ODF and the transmission equipment are housed in the same cabinet.
ODFs connect fiber jumpers through flanges or optical attenuators. Flanges
Page 31 appear the same as optical attenuators except that the optical attenuators
indicate an attenuation value.
Page 32 Unlike trunk connectors, fiber jumper connectors cannot be prepared
during engineering. All fiber jumper connectors are prepared in advance.
There are normally five types of fiber jumper connectors:
 FC/PC: FC (round-head fiber jumper connector), PC (the ceramic
section is flat). See the first figure.
 SC/PC: SC (square-head fiber jumper connector), PC (the ceramic
section is flat). See the second figure.
 FC/APC: FC (round-head fiber jumper connector), APC (tending 80
degrees outwards in a circle, with the center of the section as the
circle center). See the first figure.
 LC: small size (smaller than SC), high integrity, and wide application
in new products. See the third figure.
 MTRJ: transceiver fiber connector. It is seldom used. See the last
figure.
Most of the present new fiber jumpers are connected to transmission
equipment through LC connectors and to ODFs through the most common
 round-head FC connectors.
Normally fibers are connected to optical power meters and sources through
round-head FC connectors.
Now, let us discuss about optical interfaces. Optical interfaces are
interfaces on optical interface boards. Optical interfaces are classified
according to the working wavelength, transmission distance, and rate. The
ITU-T and GB standards use codes to identify optical interfaces, for
example, L-4.1. The first letter indicates the transmission distance. Based
on the transmission distance, the first letter can be I, S, L, V, and U. They
are described as follows:
 I: intra-office communication, where the transmission distance is
within 2 km
 S: short-distance communication, where the transmission distance
Page 33 normally ranges between 0 km and 30 km
 L: long-distance inter-office communication, where the transmission
distance normally ranges between 30 km and 50 km
 V: very-long-distance communication, where the transmission
distance ranges between 50 km and 90 km
 U: ultra-long-distance inter-office communication, where the
transmission distance exceeds 90 km
The number next to the hyphen indicates the specific line rate.
 The number 1 indicates STM-1.
 The number 4 indicates STM-4.
 The number 16 indicates STM-16.
The number next to the dot indicates the specific fiber type and the working
wavelength.
 1 or null: 1310 nm wavelength, ITU-T-G.652-compliant fiber
Page 34  2: 1550 nm wavelength, ITU-T-G.652-compliant and ITU-T-G.654-
compliant fibers
 3: 1550 nm wavelength, ITU-T-G.653-compliant fiber
 5: 1550 nm wavelength, ITU-T-G.655-compliant fiber
This table describes the features of optical interfaces. You can query the
Page 35 working wavelength, transmission distance, rate, and fiber type of each
type of optical interface in the table.
This page describes optical amplifiers. Optical amplifiers are used to
improve the strength of optical signals. After being transmitted over a long
distance, optical signals attenuate. They must be amplified so that the
receiver can properly distinguish the signals.
Page 36 Based on their positions against the line processing boards, the optical
amplifiers are classified into the following types:
 Pre-amplifier
 Post-amplifier
 Line amplifier
 After learning about optical lines, we shall proceed to signal cables. This
figure shows how trunk cables are connected to transmission equipment.
Page 37
The cables in grey are trunk cables. They are connected to the tributary
unit through the interface boards.
Then we shall proceed to trunk cables routed between transmission
equipment and DDFs. The left figure shows trunk cables routed on a
Page 38
cabling rack. The right figure shows trunk cables routed under an antistatic
floor.
After learning about signal cables, we shall proceed to power equipment.
This figure shows part of a power distribution cabinet. Power distribution
cabinets are the power distribution units provided by operators. Huawei
equipment is connected through power cables to power distribution
cabinets to obtain power supply. In a power distribution cabinet, the main
Page 39
parts are safety switches. They are shown in white in the figure. Most
safety switches are air circuit breakers. In earlier power distribution
cabinets, the safety switches are fuse switches.
In a transmission room, transmission equipment is normally placed in rows.
At the end of each row, there is a power distribution cabinet.
The left figure shows an entire power distribution cabinet. The right figure
shows the power distribution unit on the top shelf of a transmission cabinet.
Page 40 The power cables from the power distribution cabinet are connected to the
power distribution unit. The power distribution unit distributes the power
supply to subracks in the transmission cabinet.
Grounding is very important for communication equipment and is vital for
proper equipment operation. There are strict grounding specifications,
Page 41
especially for PGND. This figure shows the power connections for two NEs.
Exercise caution to the PGND connection.
Now look at the physical grounding connections. The left figure shows the
PGND of a cabinet door. The right figure shows a protection-grounding bar
Page 42 in a transmission room. PGND cables are normally in yellow and green.
That's the hardware components of a transmission network. Now we shall
proceed to the management of a transmission network.
Page 43 A network management system (NMS) is used to operate, administrate,
and maintain a transmission network. From top down, the NMS for the
transmission network is divided into four layers:
 Service management layer (SML)
 Network management layer (NML)
 Element management layer (EML)
 NE layer (NEL)
Let's discuss the layers from the last to the first one.
 The NEL normally refers to the software that runs in equipment to
manage the operations of the equipment. It is also called equipment
software.
  The EML manages each single NE in terms of alarms, performance
events, and service configurations. It does not handle the features
between NEs.
 The NML manages one or more networks, for example, service
scheduling between NEs or between networks and end-to-end
circuits.
 The SML directly offers services, for example, circuit activation and
dispatch and billing.
Huawei provides a complete series of optical NMSs. The OptiX iManager
T2000 serves the EML. The OptiX iManager T2100 serves the NML.
Take the national backbone network of China Telecom as an example. The
equipment networks are at the bottom. They are independent of each other
Page 44 and are under the management of different EML OptiX iManager T2000
systems. The NML OptiX iManager T2100 is deployed in the network
management center in Beijing.
Now we shall proceed to clocks. Clock synchronization is the most
important problem in a digital synchronization network. Without clock
synchronization, NEs cannot identify the data transmitted between them.
Why? Let's discuss how digital synchronization equipment identifies a
digital pulse signal. To ensure normal communication, the transmitting end
places the pulse at a specific time position (that is, a specific timeslot). The
Page 45 receiving end extracts and interprets the pulse at the specific time position.
The timing clocks at the two ends help perform this function. Hence,
network-wide synchronization is used to ensure that the clock frequency
and phase at each node in the network are restricted within a preset range.
Without synchronization, the transmitting and receiving ends may identify
the signal inaccurately. As a result, the transmission performance may be
deteriorated (for example, bit errors or jitters may occur).
Now, let us discuss clock types. Currently, the following types of clocks are
used in a public network:
 Cesium atomic clock
 Rubidium atomic clock
 Crystal oscillator
Page 46  GPS
Generally, the cesium atomic clock and the rubidium atomic clock offer
high precision. Normally they are placed in BITS equipment to provide
external timing signals for a transmission network. Transmission NEs
contain only crystal oscillators. The GPS clock is also provided only in BITS
equipment.
Page 47 This page presents the synchronization modes of an SDH network,
including:
 Synchronous mode
 Pseudo-synchronous mode
  Plesiochronous mode
 Asynchronous mode
Let's detail the synchronization modes.
 The synchronous mode is a normal mode of synchronization. All
nodes unidirectionally transmit timing signals to ensure that the clocks
at the nodes work at the same frequency. The clock frequency is
sourced from one reference. Therefore, the clocks of all the nodes
keep pace with each other.
 Then what is the pseudo-synchronous mode? In a pseudo-
synchronous network, there is more than one clock reference. Take a
network with two clock references as an example. Certain NEs track
one reference. The other NEs track the other reference. This mode
applies between international offices. The references offer high
precision. Therefore, they run at almost the same frequency. The NEs
feature certain error tolerance. Thus, the NEs are synchronized.
 The plesiochronous mode and the asynchronous mode are abnormal
modes of synchronization. A network works in the plesiochronous or
asynchronous mode when NEs lose the clock source and refer to the
in-built crystal oscillators. The precisions of the crystal oscillators may
differ significantly. As a result, the NEs are not synchronized.
After learning about the synchronization modes of a network, we shall
proceed to the clock modes of a node. The clock of an NE can work in
three modes:
 Locked mode
 Hold over mode
 Free-run mode
Let us discuss the clock modes in detail:
 In the locked/tracked mode, the clock is locked to a specific external
clock source. The clock source can be directly input or extracted from
line signals or tributary signals. Of course, if an NE is set to use the
Page 48 crystal oscillator, the crystal oscillator of the NE can serve as the
clock source.
 Then what is the hold over mode? Even when it loses the clock
source, the NE retains the frequency of the clock source for a period
(normally of 24 hours). During the period, the clock of the NE works in
the hold over mode based on the retained clock frequency.
 The clock cannot work in the hold over mode for a long time. After a
long period (normally of 24 hours), the retained clock information may
differ greatly from the original clock source. In this case, the NE refers
to the in-built crystal oscillator. The clock of the NE switches to the
free-run mode.
Page 49 Now, let us summarize what we have discussed in this part:
1. Main components of a transmission network
 2. Roles of the components
3. Clocks and NMSs of a transmission network
Now the course comes to an end. Review the course and answer the
following questions:
1. What role does a transmission network play in an entire
telecommunication network?
2. How is a service defined?
Page 50 3. What does a typical transmission network consist of? What are the
functions and roles of each component in the transmission network?
This course is a doorstep to optical network communication. It describes
the basics of optical networks and common concepts. It provides the
foundation for further study. You will further understand the concepts in the
future.
Page 51 Thank you! Goodbye!