Amazon Aurora MySQL

Database Administrator’s
Handbook
Connection Management

March 2019
Notices
Customers are responsible for making their own independent assessment of the
information in this document. This document: (a) is for informational purposes only, (b)
represents AWS’s current product offerings and practices, which are subject to change
without notice, and (c) does not create any commitments or assurances from AWS and
its affiliates, suppliers or licensors. AWS’s products or services are provided “as is”
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between AWS and its customers.

© 2019 Amazon Web Services, Inc. or its affiliates. All rights reserved.
Contents
Template Requirements ......................................................................................................4
File Names & Properties ..................................................................................................4
Introduction ..........................................................................................................................1
Styles & Page Breaks ..........................................................................................................4
Heading 1.............................................................................................................................4
Heading 2 .........................................................................................................................4
Lists & Procedures ..............................................................................................................4
Notes & Offset Text .............................................................................................................4
Inline Character Styles ........................................................................................................4
Table of Contents ................................................................................................................4
Graphics, Figures, and Captions ........................................................................................4
Tables ..................................................................................................................................4
Citations ...............................................................................................................................4
Examples ..........................................................................................................................4
Quotations ........................................................................................................................4
Code.....................................................................................................................................4
Conclusion ...........................................................................................................................2
Contributors .......................................................................................................................14
Further Reading .................................................................................................................15
Document Revisions..........................................................................................................15
Abstract
This paper outlines the best practices for managing database connections, setting
server connection parameters, and configuring client programs, drivers, and connectors.
It’s a recommended read for Amazon Aurora MySQL Database Administrators (DBAs)
and application developers.
Amazon Web Services Amazon Aurora MySQL Database Administrator’s Handbook

Introduction
Amazon Aurora MySQL (Aurora MySQL) is a managed relational database engine,
wire-compatible with MySQL 5.6 and 5.7. Most of the drivers, connectors, and tools that
you currently use with MySQL can be used with Aurora MySQL with little or no change.

Aurora MySQL database (DB) clusters provide advanced features such as:

• One primary instance that supports read/write operations and up to 15 Aurora

Replicas that support read-only operations. Each of the Replicas can be
automatically promoted to the primary role if the current primary instance fails.
• A cluster endpoint that automatically follows the primary instance in case of
failover.
• A reader endpoint that includes all Aurora Replicas and is automatically updated
when Aurora Replicas are added or removed.
• Ability to create custom DNS endpoints containing a user-configured group of
database instances within a single cluster.
• Internal server connection pooling and thread multiplexing for improved
scalability.
• Near-instantaneous database restarts and crash recovery.
• Access to near-real-time cluster metadata that enables application developers to
build smart drivers, connecting directly to individual instances based on their
read/write or read-only role.

Client-side components (applications, drivers, connectors, proxies) that use sub-optimal

configuration might not be able to react to recovery actions and DB cluster topology
changes, or the reaction might be delayed. This can contribute to unexpected downtime
and performance issues. To prevent that and make the most of Aurora MySQL features,
we encourage Database Administrators (DBAs) and application developers to
implement the best practices outlined in this whitepaper.

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DNS Endpoints
An Aurora DB cluster consists of one or more instances and a cluster volume that
manages the data for those instances. There are two types of instances:

• Primary instance – Supports read and write statements. Currently, there can be
one primary instance per DB cluster.

• Aurora Replica – Supports read-only statements. A DB cluster can have up to 15

Aurora Replicas. The Aurora Replicas can be used for read scaling, and are
automatically used as failover targets in case of a primary instance failure.

Aurora supports the following types of Domain Name System (DNS) endpoints:

• Cluster endpoint – Connects you to the primary instance and automatically

follows the primary instance in case of failover, that is, when the current primary
instance is demoted and one of the Aurora Replicas is promoted in its place.

• Reader endpoint – Includes all Aurora Replicas in the DB cluster under a single
DNS CNAME. You can use the reader endpoint to implement DNS round-robin
load balancing for read-only connections.

• Instance endpoint – Each instance in the DB cluster has its own individual
endpoint. You can use this endpoint to connect directly to a specific instance.

• Custom endpoints – User-defined DNS endpoints containing a selected group of

instances from a given cluster.

See the Overview of Amazon Aurora page for details.1

Connection Handling in Aurora MySQL vs.

MySQL
MySQL Community Edition manages connections in a one-thread-per-connection
fashion. This means that each individual user connection receives a dedicated
operating system thread in the mysqld process. Issues with this type of connection
handling include:

• Relatively high memory use when there is a large number of user connections,
even if the connections are completely idle

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• Higher internal server contention and context switching overhead when working
with thousands of user connections

Aurora MySQL supports a thread pool approach that addresses these issues. You can
characterize the thread pool approach as follows:

• It uses thread multiplexing, where a number of worker threads can switch

between user sessions (connections). A worker thread is not fixed or dedicated
to a single user session. Whenever a connection is not actively executing (for
example, is idle, waiting for user input, waiting for I/O, etc.), the worker thread
can switch to another connection and do useful work. You can think of worker
threads as CPU cores in a multi-core system. Even though you only have a few
cores, you can easily run hundreds of programs simultaneously because they're
not all active at the same time. This highly efficient approach means that Aurora
MySQL can handle thousands of concurrent clients with just a handful of worker
threads.

• The thread pool automatically scales itself. The Aurora MySQL database
process continuously monitors its thread pool state and launches new workers
or destroys existing ones as needed. This is transparent to the user and doesn’t
need any manual configuration.

Server thread pooling reduces the server-side cost of maintaining connections.

However, it doesn’t eliminate the cost of setting up these connections in the first place.
Opening and closing connections isn't as simple as sending a single TCP packet. For
busy workloads with short-lived connections (for example, Key-Value or Online
Transaction Processing), consider using an application-side connection pool.

The following is a network packet trace for a MySQL connection handshake taking
place between a client and a MySQL-compatible server located in the same Availability
Zone:

04:23:29.547316 IP client.32918 > server.mysql: tcp 0

04:23:29.547478 IP server.mysql > client.32918: tcp 0
04:23:29.547496 IP client.32918 > server.mysql: tcp 0
04:23:29.547823 IP server.mysql > client.32918: tcp 78
04:23:29.547839 IP client.32918 > server.mysql: tcp 0
04:23:29.547865 IP client.32918 > server.mysql: tcp 191
04:23:29.547993 IP server.mysql > client.32918: tcp 0
04:23:29.548047 IP server.mysql > client.32918: tcp 11
04:23:29.548091 IP client.32918 > server.mysql: tcp 37

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04:23:29.548361 IP server.mysql > client.32918: tcp 99

04:23:29.587272 IP client.32918 > server.mysql: tcp 0

This is a packet trace for closing the connection:

04:23:37.117523 IP client.32918 > server.mysql: tcp 13

04:23:37.117818 IP server.mysql > client.32918: tcp 56
04:23:37.117842 IP client.32918 > server.mysql: tcp 0

As you can see, even the simple act of opening and closing a single connection
involves an exchange of several network packets. The connection overhead becomes
more pronounced when you consider SQL statements issued by drivers as part of
connection setup (for example, SET variable_name = value commands used to set
session-level configuration). Server-side thread pooling doesn’t eliminate this type of
overhead.

Common Misconceptions
The following are common misconceptions for database connection management.

If the server uses connection pooling, you don’t need a pool on the application
side. As explained previously, this isn’t true for workloads where connections are
opened and torn down very frequently, and clients execute relatively few statements per
connection.

You might not need a connection pool if your connections are long lived. This means
that connection activity time is much longer than the time required to open and close the
connection. You can run a packet trace with tcpdump and see how many packets you
need to open/close connections versus how many packets you need to run your queries
within those connections. Even if the connections are long lived, you can still benefit
from using a connection pool to protect the database against connection surges, that is,
large bursts of new connection attempts.

Idle connections don’t use memory. This isn’t true because the operating system and
the database process both allocate an in-memory descriptor for each user connection.
What is typically true is that Aurora MySQL uses less memory than MySQL Community
Edition to maintain the same number of connections. However, memory usage for idle
connections is still not zero, even with Aurora MySQL.

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The general best practice is to avoid opening significantly more connections than you
need.

Downtime depends entirely on database stability and database features. This isn’t
true because the application design and configuration play an important role in
determining how fast user traffic can recover following a database event. For more
details, see the next section, “Best Practices.”

Best Practices
The following are best practices for managing database connections and configuring
connection drivers and pools.

Using Smart Drivers

The cluster and reader endpoints abstract the role changes (primary instance
promotion/demotion) and topology changes (addition and removal of instances)
occurring in the DB cluster. However, DNS updates are not instantaneous. In addition,
they can sometimes contribute to a slightly longer delay between the time a database
event occurs and the time it’s noticed and handled by the application.

Aurora MySQL exposes near-real-time metadata about DB instances in the

INFORMATION_SCHEMA.REPLICA_HOST_STATUS table.

Here is an example of a query against the metadata table:

mysql> select server_id, if(session_id = 'MASTER_SESSION_ID',

'writer', 'reader') as role, replica_lag_in_milliseconds from
information_schema.replica_host_status;

+-------------------+--------+-----------------------------+
| server_id | role | replica_lag_in_milliseconds |
+-------------------+--------+-----------------------------+
| aurora-node-usw2a | writer | 0 |
| aurora-node-usw2b | reader | 19.253999710083008 |
+-------------------+--------+-----------------------------+
2 rows in set (0.00 sec)

Notice that the table contains cluster-wide metadata. You can query the table on any
instance in the DB cluster.

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For the purpose of this whitepaper, a smart driver is a database driver or connector with
the ability to read DB cluster topology from the metadata table. It can route new
connections to individual instance endpoints without relying on high-level cluster
endpoints. A smart driver is also typically capable of load balancing read-only
connections across the available Aurora Replicas in a round-robin fashion.

The MariaDB Connector/J is an example of a third-party Java Database Connectivity

(JDBC) smart driver with native support for Aurora MySQL DB clusters. Application
developers can draw inspiration from the MariaDB driver to build drivers and connectors
for languages other than Java.

See the MariaDB Connector/J page for details.2

If you’re using a smart driver, the recommendations listed in the following sections still
apply. A smart driver can automate and abstract certain layers of database connectivity.
However, it doesn’t automatically configure itself with optimal settings, or automatically
make the application resilient to failures. For example, when using a smart driver, you
still need to ensure that the connection validation and recycling functions are configured
correctly, there’s no excessive DNS caching in the underlying system and network
layers, transactions are managed correctly, and so on.

It’s a good idea to evaluate the use of smart drivers in your setup. Note that if a third-
party driver contains Aurora MySQL-specific functionality, it doesn’t mean that it has
been officially tested, validated, or certified by AWS. Also note that due to the advanced
built-in features and higher overall complexity, smart drivers are likely to receive
updates and bug fixes more frequently than traditional (barebones) drivers. You should
regularly review the driver’s release notes and use the latest available version whenever
possible.

DNS Caching
Unless you use a smart database driver, you depend on DNS record updates and DNS
propagation for failovers, instance scaling, and load balancing across Aurora Replicas.
Currently, Aurora DNS zones use a short Time-To-Live (TTL) of 5 seconds. Ensure that
your network and client configurations don’t further increase the DNS cache TTL.

Remember that DNS caching can occur anywhere from your network layer, through the
operating system, to the application container. For example, Java virtual machines
(JVMs) are notorious for caching DNS indefinitely unless configured otherwise.

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Here are some examples of issues that can occur if you don’t follow DNS caching best
practices:

• After a new primary instance is promoted during a failover, applications continue

to send write traffic to the old instance. Data-modifying statements will fail
because that instance is no longer the primary instance.

• After a DB instance is scaled up or down, applications are unable to connect to

it. Due to DNS caching, applications continue to use the old IP address of that
instance, which is no longer valid.

• Aurora Replicas can experience unequal utilization, for example, one DB

instance receiving significantly more traffic than the others.

Connection Management and Pooling

Always close database connections explicitly instead of relying on the development
framework/language destructors to do it. There are situations, especially in container-
based or code-as-a-service scenarios, when the underlying code container isn’t
immediately destroyed after the code completes. In such cases, you might experience
database connection leaks where connections are left open and continue to hold
resources (for example, memory, locks).

If you can’t rely on client applications (or interactive clients) to close idle connections,
use the server’s wait_timeout and interactive_timeout parameters to configure
idle connection timeout. The default timeout value is fairly high at 28,800 seconds (8
hours). You should tune it down to a value that’s acceptable in your environment. See
the MySQL Reference Manual for details.3

Consider using connection pooling to protect the database against connection surges.
Also consider connection pooling if the application opens large numbers of connections
(for example, thousands or more per second) and the connections are short lived, that
is, the time required for connection setup and teardown is significant compared to the
total connection lifetime. If your development language/framework doesn’t support
connection pooling, you can use a connection proxy instead. ProxySQL, MaxScale, and
ScaleArc are examples of third-party proxies compatible with the MySQL protocol. See
Connection Scaling for more notes on connection pools versus proxies.

We recommend the following for configuring connection pools and proxies:

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• Check and validate connection health when the connection is borrowed from the
pool. The validation query can be as simple as SELECT 1. However, in Aurora
you can also leverage connection checks that return a different value depending
on whether the instance is a primary instance (read/write) or an Aurora Replica
(read-only). For example, you can use the @@innodb_read_only variable to
determine the instance role. If the variable value is TRUE, you're on an Aurora
Replica.

• Check and validate connections periodically even when they're not borrowed. It
helps detect and clean up broken or unhealthy connections before an application
thread attempts to use them.

• Don't let connections remain in the pool indefinitely. Recycle connections by

closing and reopening them periodically (for example, every 15 minutes), which
frees the resources associated with these connections. It also helps prevent
dangerous situations such as runaway queries or zombie connections that
clients have abandoned. This recommendation applies to all connections, not
just idle ones.

Connection Scaling
The most common technique for scaling web service capacity is to add or remove
application servers (instances) in response to changes in user traffic. Each application
server can use a database connection pool.

This approach causes the total number of database connections to grow proportionally
with the number of application instances. For example, 20 application servers
configured with 200 database connections each would require a total of 4,000 database
connections. If the application pool scales up to 200 instances (for example, during
peak hours), the total connection count will reach 40,000. Under a typical web
application workload, most of these connections are likely idle. In extreme cases, this
can limit database scalability: idle connections do take server resources, and you’re
opening significantly more of them than you need. Also, the total number of connections
is not easy to control because it’s not something you configure directly, but rather
depends on the number of application servers.

You have two options in this situation:

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• Tune the connection pools on application instances. Reduce the number of

connections in the pool to the acceptable minimum. This can be a stop-gap
solution, but it might not be a long-term solution as your application server fleet
continues to grow.

• Introduce a connection proxy between the database and the application. On one
side, the proxy connects to the database with a fixed number of connections. On
the other side, the proxy accepts application connections and can provide
additional features such as query caching, connection buffering, query
rewriting/routing, and load balancing. ProxySQL, MaxScale, and ScaleArc are
examples of third-party proxies compatible with the MySQL protocol. For even
greater scalability and availability, you can use multiple proxy instances behind a
single DNS endpoint.

Transaction Management and Autocommit

With autocommit enabled, each SQL statement runs within its own transaction. When
the statement ends, the transaction ends as well. Between statements, the client
connection is not in transaction. If you need a transaction to remain open for more than
one statement, you explicitly begin the transaction, run the statements, and then commit
or roll back the transaction.

With autocommit disabled, the connection is always in transaction. You can commit or
roll back the current transaction, at which point the server immediately opens a new
one.

See the MySQL Reference Manual for details.4

Running with autocommit disabled is not recommended because it encourages long-

running transactions where they’re not needed. Open transactions block a server’s
internal garbage collection mechanisms, which are essential to maintaining optimal
performance. In extreme cases, garbage collection backlog leads to excessive storage
consumption, elevated CPU utilization, and query slowness.

Recommendations:

• Always run with autocommit mode enabled. Set the autocommit parameter to 1
on the database side (which is the default) and on the application side (which
might not be the default).

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• Always double-check the autocommit settings on the application side. For

example, Python drivers such as MySQLdb and PyMySQL disable autocommit
by default.
• Manage transactions explicitly by using BEGIN/START TRANSACTION and
COMMIT/ROLLBACK statements. You should start transactions when you need
them and commit as soon as the transactional work is done.

Note that these recommendations are not specific to Aurora MySQL. They apply to
MySQL and other databases that use the InnoDB storage engine.

Long transactions and garbage collection backlog are easy to monitor:

• You can obtain the metadata of currently running transactions from the
INFORMATION_SCHEMA.INNODB_TRX table. The TRX_STARTED column contains
the transaction start time, and you can use it to calculate transaction age. A
transaction is worth investigating if it’s been running for several minutes or more.
See the MySQL Reference Manual for details about the table.5

• You can read the size of the garbage collection backlog from the InnoDB’s
trx_rseg_history_len counter in the
INFORMATION_SCHEMA.INNODB_METRICS table. See the MySQL Reference
Manual for details about the table.6 The larger the counter value is, the more
severe the impact might be in terms of query performance, CPU usage, and
storage consumption. Values in the range of tens of thousands indicate that the
garbage collection is somewhat delayed. Values in the range of millions or tens
of millions might be dangerous and should be investigated.

NOTE: In Aurora, all DB instances use the same storage volume, which
means that the garbage collection is cluster-wide and not specific to each
instance. Consequently, a runaway transaction on one instance can
impact all instances. Therefore, you should monitor long transactions on
all DB instances.

Connection Handshakes
A lot of work can happen behind the scenes when an application connector or a
graphical user interface (GUI) tool opens a new database session. Drivers and client
tools commonly execute series of statements to set up session configuration (for
example, SET SESSION variable = value). This increases the cost of creating new
connections and delays when your application can start issuing queries.

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The cost of connection handshakes becomes even more important if your applications
are very sensitive to latency. OLTP or Key-Value workloads that expect single-digit
millisecond latency can be visibly impacted if each connection is expensive to open. For
example, if the driver executes six statements to set up a connection and each
statement takes just one millisecond to execute, your application will be delayed by six
milliseconds before it issues its first query.

Recommendations:

• Use the Aurora MySQL Advanced Audit, the General Query Log, or network-
level packet traces (for example, with tcpdump) to obtain a record of statements
executed during a connection handshake. Whether or not you’re experiencing
connection or latency issues, you should be familiar with the internal operations
of your database driver.

• For each handshake statement, you should be able to explain its purpose and
describe its impact on queries you'll subsequently execute on that connection.

• Each handshake statement requires at least one network roundtrip and will
contribute to higher overall session latency. If the number of handshake
statements appears to be significant relative to the number of statements doing
actual work, determine if you can disable any of the handshake statements.
Consider using connection pooling to reduce the number of connection
handshakes.

Load Balancing with the Reader Endpoint

Because the reader endpoint contains all Aurora Replicas, it can provide DNS-based,
round-robin load balancing for new connections. Every time you resolve the reader
endpoint, you'll get an instance IP that you can connect to, chosen in round-robin
fashion.

DNS load balancing works at the connection level (not the individual query level). You
must keep resolving the endpoint without caching DNS to get a different instance IP on
each resolution. If you only resolve the endpoint once and then keep the connection in
your pool, every query on that connection goes to the same instance. If you cache DNS,
you receive the same instance IP each time you resolve the endpoint.

If you don’t follow best practices, these are examples of issues that can occur:

• Unequal use of Aurora Replicas, for example, one of the Aurora Replicas is
receiving most or all of the traffic while the other Aurora Replicas sit idle.

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• After you add or scale an Aurora Replica, it doesn’t receive traffic or it begins to
receive traffic after an unexpectedly long delay.

• After you remove an Aurora Replica, applications continue to send traffic to that
instance.

For more information, see earlier sections about DNS Endpoints and DNS Caching.

Designing for Fault Tolerance and Quick Recovery

In large-scale database operations, you’re statistically more likely to experience issues
such as connection interruptions or hardware failures. You must also take operational
actions more frequently, such as scaling, adding, or removing DB instances and
performing software upgrades.

The only scalable way of addressing this challenge is to assume that issues/changes
will occur and design your applications accordingly.

Examples:

• If Aurora MySQL detects that the primary instance has failed, it can promote a
new primary instance and fail over to it, which typically happens within 30
seconds. Your application should be designed to recognize the change quickly
and without manual intervention.

• If you create additional Aurora Replicas in an Aurora DB cluster, your application

should automatically recognize the new Aurora Replicas and send traffic to
them.

• If you remove instances from a DB cluster, your application should not try to
connect to them.

Test your applications extensively and prepare a list of assumptions about how the
application should react to database events. Then, experimentally validate the
assumptions.

If you don’t follow best practices, database events (for example, failovers, scaling,
software upgrades) might result in longer than expected downtime. For example, you
might notice that a failover took 30 seconds (per the DB cluster’s Event Notifications)
but the application remained down for much longer.

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Server Configuration
There are two major server configuration variables worth mentioning in the context of
this whitepaper: max_connections and max_connect_errors.

Configuration Variable max_connections

The configuration variable max_connections limits the number of database
connections per Aurora DB instance. The best practice is to set it slightly higher than
the maximum number of connections you expect to open on each instance.

If you also enabled performance_schema, be extra careful with the setting. The
Performance Schema memory structures are sized automatically based on server
configuration variables, including max_connections. The higher you set the variable,
the more memory Performance Schema uses. In extreme cases, this can lead to out-of-
memory issues on smaller instance types.

Note for T2 and T3 Instance Families

Using Performance Schema on T2 and T3 Aurora DB instances with less than 8GB of
memory isn’t recommended. To reduce the risk of out-of-memory issues on T2 and T3
instances:

• Don’t enable Performance Schema

• If you must use Performance Schema, leave max_connections at the default
value
• Disable Performance Schema if you plan to increase max_connections to a
value significantly greater than the default value
See the MySQL Reference Manual for details about the max_connections variable.7

Configuration Variable max_connect_errors

The configuration variable max_connect_errors determines how many successive
interrupted connection requests are permitted from a given client host. If the client host
exceeds the number of successive failed connection attempts, the server blocks it.
Further connection attempts from that client yield an error:

Host 'host_name' is blocked because of many connection errors.

Unblock with 'mysqladmin flush-hosts'

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A common (but incorrect) practice is to set the parameter to a very high value to avoid
client connectivity issues. This practice isn’t recommended because it:

• Allows application owners to tolerate connection problems rather than identify

and resolve the underlying cause. Connection issues can impact your
application health, so they should be resolved rather than ignored.

• Can hide real threats, for example, someone actively trying to break into the
server.

If you experience “host is blocked” errors, increasing the value of the

max_connect_errors variable isn’t the correct response. Instead, investigate the
server’s diagnostic counters in the aborted_connects status variable and the
host_cache table. Then use the information to identify and fix clients that run into
connection issues. Also note that this parameter has no effect if skip_name_resolve is
set to 1 (default).

See the MySQL Reference Manual for details on the following:

• Max_connect_errors variable8

• “Host is blocked” error9

• Aborted_connects status variable10

• Host_cache table11

Conclusion
Understanding and implementing connection management best practices is critical to
achieve scalability, reduce downtime, and ensure smooth integration between the
application and database layers. You can apply most of the recommendations provided
in this whitepaper with little to no engineering effort.

The guidance provided in this whitepaper should help you introduce improvements in
your current and future application deployments using Aurora MySQL DB clusters.

Contributors
Contributors to this document include:

• Szymon Komendera, Database Engineer, Amazon Aurora

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Further Reading
For additional information, see:

• Aurora on Amazon RDS User Guide12

• Communication Errors and Aborted Connections in MySQL Reference Manual.13

Document Revisions
Date Description
March 2019 Minor content updates to the following topics: Introduction, DNS
Endpoints, and Server Configuration.

January 2018 First publication

Notes
1 http://docs.aws.amazon.com/AmazonRDS/latest/UserGuide/Aurora.Overview.html
2 https://mariadb.com/kb/en/the-mariadb-library/failover-and-high-availability-with-
mariadb-connector-j/#specifics-for-amazon-aurora
3 https://dev.mysql.com/doc/refman/5.6/en/server-system-
variables.html#sysvar_wait_timeout
4 https://dev.mysql.com/doc/refman/5.6/en/innodb-autocommit-commit-rollback.html
5 https://dev.mysql.com/doc/refman/5.6/en/innodb-trx-table.html
6 https://dev.mysql.com/doc/refman/5.6/en/innodb-metrics-table.html
7 https://dev.mysql.com/doc/refman/5.6/en/server-system-
variables.html#sysvar_max_connections
8
https://dev.mysql.com/doc/refman/5.6/en/server-system-
variables.html#sysvar_max_connect_errors
9 https://dev.mysql.com/doc/refman/5.6/en/blocked-host.html

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10https://dev.mysql.com/doc/refman/5.6/en/server-status-
variables.html#statvar_Aborted_connects
11 https://dev.mysql.com/doc/refman/5.6/en/host-cache-table.html
12 http://docs.aws.amazon.com/AmazonRDS/latest/UserGuide/CHAP_Aurora.html
13 https://dev.mysql.com/doc/refman/5.6/en/communication-errors.html

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