INTRODUCTION TO

INERTIAL CONFINEMENT FUSION

R. Betti

Lecture 3

Alpha heating
Bremmstrahlung losses
Thermal conduction
Thermonuclear burn-up
 Rate of alpha heating and fusion power
 In DT fusion, the alpha heating rate is the energy deposited per unit volume
and unit time by the alpha particles produced in D+T fusion.

 The neutrons do not “collide” and leave the plasma. The alphas are charged
and slow down by colliding with the plasma electrons (primarily) and ions

 Neutron energy per reaction: εN = 14.1 MeV

 Alpha energy per reaction: εα = 3.5 MeV
 Fusion energy per reaction: εf = εα + εN = 17.6 MeV

 Alpha heating rate assuming local deposition (i.e. all alphas are slowed down
locally). This is power-density input to the plasma

qα = ε α nD nT σ v DT
 Fusion power density

q f = ε f nD nT σ v DT
Rate of radiation (“bremmstrahlung”) losses
bremsen "to brake" and strahlung "radiation";

• When a charged particle accelerate/decelerate it emits radiation (photons ν)

• When interacting with the electrostatic field of ions, electrons (lighter than ions)
undergo larger changes in velocity (i.e. acceleration) and therefore emit radiation

e- db
ν
b
D+ z

Fig. 1: Electron collision with a deuteron ion. Here b is the impact parameter.
We look at electrons with impact parameter between b and b+db.
Only Coulomb interaction. Electron is the incident particle and D is the target.
• All electrons (close or distant) will feel the Coulomb force so the cross section
for this interaction is infinite and the cross section needs to be replaced
by the area

dσ = 2π bdb
and integrated between b=0 and b= ∞

 Denote with w the energy radiated by a single electron in a single collision

w = energy radiated by single electron per collision

• Remember the fusion power density (fusion energy per unit volume
and unit time)?

q f ε=
f nD nT σ v DT ∫ε f f1 (v1 ) f 2 (v2 )σ | v1 − v2 | dv1dv2

Energy per reaction

now replaced by energy radiated w Cross section
by single electron per collision now replaced Relative velocity
by 2πbdb now replaced
by electron velocity
ve >>vi
• Radiated energy per unit volume and time

qb i ∫ 2π bwf e (ve )ve dv e db ∫ f i (vi ) dvi

n= ni ∫ 2π bwf e (ve )ve dve db

where ni = ∫ fi (vi )dvi

• Power radiated by single electron (see Jackson’s book)

µ0 e 2 a 2
P= watts
6π c
• a = acceleration, µ0 = vacuum permeability, c = speed of light

• Force acting on electron is the Coulomb force from ion.

• Electron acceleration by Coulomb force is
2
FC Ze
=
a =
me 4πε 0 me r 2
• Force more intense when electron is at distance ~b (impact parameter)

Ze 2
a≈
4πε 0 meb 2

• Electron feels force for a time ~b/ve before and after the collision.
Total interaction time ~ 2b/ve

 Radiation energy emitted in a single collision [use c2 = 1/(µ0 ε0 )]

µ0 e 2 a 2 2b Z 2 e6
w = P∆t ≈ =
6π c ve 48π 3ε 03c 3 me2 veb3
 Scaling of the energy radiated

( Ze / 4πε 0 b )
2 3
2 6
w Z e
= 
1 2
me ve 24π ε
3 3 3 3 3 3
0 c m v
e e b c 3 3 3
me ve
2
• For scaling arguments, use the case of large angle collisions
leading to stronger interaction, i.e. Coulomb energy ~ kinetic
energy
Ze 2 1
 me ve2
4πε 0 b 2
• Energy radiated is small fraction of kinetic energy for
nonrelativistic electrons
w me3ve6 ve3
 3 3 3  3 << 1
1 c me ve c
me ve2
2
 • Use Maxwellian electrons
3/2 me v 2
 me  −
f e = ne   e 2Te

 2π Te 

 Calculate radiated power density:

qb = ni ∫ 2π bwf e (ve )ve dve db

 Substitute w, fe and dve =4πve2dve

3/2 me ve2
 Z 2 6
e   me  ∞ −
 db 
qb = 8π ni ne  ∫  ∫ 2  dve
2 2 2Te
3 3 3 2   ve
 48π ε 0 c me   2π Te 
0 e
 b 
• Note that the integral in b is divergent between b=0 and b=∞

• Quantum mechanical effects limit the minimum value of b

• Use uncertainty principle

∆x∆p  bme ve > h / 2π

h
bmin ≈
2π me ve
• For an energy of 1keV, bmin ≈6×10-12 m

• Integration in b is now straightforward

∞ db 1 2π me ve
∫bmin =
b 2
=
bmin h
• For integration in v use the property
∞
∫
3 − x2
xe dx = 1/ 2
0

• Bremmstrahlung (radiation emission/losses) power density

 21/2
  e 6

qb = Z ni neTe  3/2   3 3 3/2  W/m3
2 1/2

 6π   ε 0 c hme 

 21/2 
 5/2  • More accurate calculation:
 3π  replace coefficient
• For multiple ion species

 21/2
  e 6

qb = ∑ Z j n j neTe  5/2   3 3 3/2  W/m3
2 1/2

j  3π   ε 0 c hme 
• Use quasi-neutrality ne = ∑ Z j n j
j

∑ j nj
Z 2
∑ Z 2
j nj

• Define an effective Z: Z eff ≡ j

=
j

∑ Z j nj
j
ne

 21/2
  e 6

qb = Z eff ne Te  5/2   3 3 3/2  W/m3
2 1/2

 3π   ε 0 c hme 
Bremmstrahlung radiation emission/power losses

 21/2
  e 6

qb = Z eff ne Te  5/2   3 3 3/2  W/m3
2 1/2

 3π   ε 0 c hme 
• Rewrite
qb = CB Z eff ne2Te1/2 W/m3

• Particle density in units of 1020/m3 and T in keV

qb = 5.35Z eff ne2(20 m−3 )Te1/2
( keV ) kW/m 3

• Particle density in units of 1020/cm3 and T in keV

qb = 5.35Z eff ne2(20 cm−3 )Te1/2

( keV ) GW/cm 3
 Radiation Losses vs Alpha Heating
Power density input Power density loss
qα = ε α nD nT σ v DT
qb = CB Z eff ne2Te1/2

Consider DT plasma (Z=1) and 50-50 mixture nD=nT=ni/2,

quasineutrality ne=ni=n and temperature equilibration Te=Ti=T

n2 qb = CB n 2T 1/2
qα = ε α σ v
4
Ratio depends only on T

qα εα σ v
=
qb 4CB T 1/2
BOSCH and HALE DT Fusion Cross Reactivity
Improved formulas for fusion cross-sections and thermal reactivities
Nucl. Fusion V. 32 p. 611 (1992)

<σv> in m3/s
T in keV
 Assuming all the Bremmstrahlung radiation is lost (optically thin plasma)

Alpha Heating
qα Radiation Losses
dominates for
dominates for T<4.4keV
qb T>4.4keV

T (keV ) 4.4keV
 Plot up to 100keV

qα Alpha Heating

qb dominates for
T>4.4keV

4.4keV T (keV )
 Random walk transport processes
Random walk process
• Coulomb collisions
1
Temperature T ≈ mv3th
2
Thermal velocity vth ~ T / m

n n
Collision frequency ν c ~ 3 2 ln Λ ~ 3/2 1/2 ln Λ
vth m T m
1 m1/2T 3/2
Collision time τ c ~ ~
νc n ln Λ

vth4 m 2 T2
Mean free path λmfp ~ vthτ c ~ ~
n ln Λ n ln Λ
 Thermal conductivity κ

∂T ∂ ∂T T κT x2
n = κ Dimensional
analysis  n ~ 2 κ ~n
∂t ∂x ∂x t x t
For random walk processes, substitute:

T2 m1/2T 3/2
x ⇒ λmfp ~ t ⇒τc ~
n ln Λ n ln Λ
plasma Spitzer thermal conductivity

T 5/2 κe ~
mi
κ i >> κ i
κ ~ 1/2
m ln Λ me

Electrons loose energy by conduction faster then ions

 Thermonuclear burn-up
v sound ~vth ~ T / m
• Hot DT plasma ball with T>>4.4keV

• Radiation losses << Alpha heating DT

T>>4.4keV

• Ball surrounded by vacuum

(no conduction losses)

• Surface expands with multiple of sound speed

(about 3Cs for isentropic expansion in planar geometry)

• Expanding plasma cools off and stops burning (<σv> strong

function of temperature)
 leading edge
travels at Cs
Rb(t)
t=0
ρ t>0
Expansion
density Trailing edge travels ~ 3Cs
(planar theory)
burning
stops burning
R0 r
• The plasma expands through a rarefaction wave

• The leading edge of rarefaction wave travels inward with

sound speed

• Assumption: the plasma stops burning (rapid cooling)

when the leading edge reaches it

• When the leading edge reaches the center (r=0) burning is over
Burn-up calculation
# fusing ions 2 N reactions
burn up fraction = θ = =
#ions at t=0 N i (0)
N r = number of reactions
Vb = burn volume
tb = burn time
tb ni2
Nr = ∫ σ v Vb dt
0 4
DT mass
Fusion energy release
1 ε f θ M DT
E f ε=
= f Nr ε f θ N=
i (0)
ion masses

2 mD + mT
Burn-up calculation: ni(t)
dni ni2
50-50 DT mixture =
− σ v × 2 Two ions lost per reaction
dt 4
d 1 1
R0=Rb(0) = σv
dt ni 2
Rb(t) 1 1 1
= σv t +
burn ni 2 ni (0)
No burn ni (0)
No burn ni =
ni (0)
1+ σv t
R=
b R0 − Cs t 2
R0 − Rb (t ) ni (0)
t= ni =
Cs ni (0) R0 − Rb (t )
1+ σv
2 Cs
burn-up calculation: Nreactions
 Rb 
n tb
2
R≡ 
ˆ
Nr = ∫ σ v Vb dt
i
 R0 
0 4

4π 3 4π ˆ 3 3 Cs
dR ≡ − dt
ˆ
=Vb = Rb R R0 R0
3 3
ni (0)
ni =
ni (0) σ v 0 ≤ Rˆ ≤ 1
1+
2 Cs
(
R0 1 − Rˆ )
N i (0) ni (0) σ v R0 1 Rˆ 3
Nr =
4 Cs ∫  ni (0) σ v 
2
ˆ
dR
( )
0

1 + R0 1 − R 
ˆ
 2 Cs 
 Burn-up fraction:θ

ni (0) σ v R0 2Nr 1 Rˆ 3
ξ≡ θ= =ξ∫ ˆ
dR
( )
2
2Cs N i (0) 0
1 + ξ 1 − Rˆ 
 

ξ [ 6 + ξ (9 + 2ξ ) ] − 6(1 + ξ ) 2 ln(1 + ξ )
θ=
2ξ 3
ξ4 / 2 ξ
Interesting limits: θ (ξ << 1) = =
2ξ 3
4

θ (ξ >> 1) =1

ξ controls the burn up. Large ξ  large burn up

Simplified form of burn-up fraction:θ
ξ
θ (ξ ) ≈ Reproduces both limits ξ<<1 and ξ>>1
4+ξ

ni (0) σ v R0 σv ρ 2ρ
ξ≡ = ρ (0) R0 ni ≈ =
2Cs ( mD + mT ) Cs mi ( mD + mT )

ρ (0) R0 = initial areal density (often denoted as rhoR, ρ R)

σv Te + Ti 2T
= function of T =Cs ≈
( mD + mT ) Cs mi mi
1
=
mi ( mD + mT )
2
 σv
( mD + mT ) Cs
[m 2 / kg ]

T (keV )

 σv 
  ≈ 0.055 m 2
/kg at T=39keV
 ( mD + mT ) Cs  MAX
Simplified form of burn-up fraction:θ
σv
ξ≡ = 0.055ξˆ ( ρ (0) R0 =
)kg / m2 0.55ξˆ ( ρ (0) R0 ) g / cm2
( mD + mT ) Cs
1  σv 
ξˆ(T ) ≡   ≈ 1 for 30<T<60 keV
0.055  ( mD + mT ) Cs  kg / m2

The areal density determines the burn-up fraction

0.55 ρ (0) R0 g / cm2 ρ R g / cm
θ (ξ ) ≈ A ρR of 3g/cm2 is required
2
≈
4 + 0.55 ρ (0) R0 g / cm2 7 + ρ R g / cm2 for a 30% burnup

Fusion energy in terajoules (1TJ = 250 ton of TNT)

ε f θ M DT ρ Rg / cm 2
= Ef ≈ 0.34 M DT
g
TJ
mD + mT 7 + ρ Rg / cm 2