Unit -1

Introduction
• A Computer network is a group of two or more
computer systems linked together

• In Computer Network all the linked device

exchange data.
• Network computer devices that send, route and
receive the data are called network nodes
Node

• Nodes can be as servers and personal computers,

as well as networking hardware.
• Two devices are said to be networked when a
device is able to exchange information with another
device.
• The connections (network links) between nodes
are established using either cable media or
wireless media
• The best-known example of computer network is
the Internet.
 Need and use of computer network
• The following are the important Need and use of
a computer network.
• File sharing: Networking of computers helps the
users to share data files.

Shared File
 Need and use of computer network
• Hardware sharing: Users can share devices such
as printers, scanners, CD-ROM drives, hard
drives etc.

Shared Printer
• Application sharing: Applications can be shared
over the network, and this allows to implement
client/server applications

Server

Client
Client
• User communication: Networks allow users to
communicate using e-mail, newsgroups, and
video conferencing etc.

Server

video conferencing
Network gaming: A lot of network games are
available, which allow multi-users to play from
different locations.

Server
 Advantages of CN
• High Speed:- In Network files are transfer form one
computer to another with high speed.
• Reduce cost:- Computer network allow the user to
Share devices such as printers which saves money.
• Easy to backup:-Data is easy to backup as all the data
is stored on the file server.
• Easy to communicate:- users are easily
communicate each other using e-mail and video
conferencing.
• Internet Access Sharing: Small computer networks
allow multiple users to share a single Internet
connection.
 Types of Computer Networks
Computer network is divided into three networks
1. Local area Networks (LAN).
2. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN).
3. Wide Area Networks(WAN).
 Local area Networks (LAN)
• A local area network (LAN) is a
computer network in which all the networking
devices are interconnects in a limited area such
as a home, school, computer laboratory, or
office building.
• LANs are typically controlled and managed by a
single person or organization.
• Twisted pair cabling, and Wi-Fi are the two most
common technologies currently used to build
LANs.
• LAN Uses different networking devices like hub,
switch, router etc.
• LAN Uses different network topology such as
bus, star, ring mesh etc.
• LANs have a high data transfer rate(100mbps).
• LAN Covers 90 to 150 meters distance.
• One LAN can be connected to other LANs over
any distance via telephone lines and radio
waves.
 Metropolitan Area Networks (MAN)
• Metropolitan Area Network, is a data network
that is designed for a town or city. In terms of
geographic breadth, MANs are larger than
local-area networks (LANs), but smaller than
wide-area networks (WANs).
• The larger city, the bigger the MAN, the smaller a metro city,
smaller the MAN.
• A MAN typically covers an area of between 5 and 50 km
diameter.
• A MAN is not generally owned by a single organization.
• MANs are extremely efficient and provide fast communication via
high-speed carriers, such as fiber optic cables.
• WAN (Wide Area Network) :-
• Wide Area Network, WAN is a collection of
computers and network resources that covers a
large geographic area, such as a state, country
and world .
• WANs often connect multiple smaller networks,
such as local area networks (LANs) or metro area
networks (MANs).
• Computers connected to a wide-area network
are often connected through public networks,
such as the telephone system. They can also be
connected through leased lines or satellites.
• The world's most popular WAN is the Internet.
• Business and government sector utilize WANs to
relay data among employees, clients, buyers,
and suppliers from various geographical
locations.
• WANs have a lower data transfer rate(10mbps-
20mbps).
• In WAN Low bandwidth available for
transmission.
 Difference between LAN and WAN

LAN WAN
• LAN is a computer • WAN is a network that
network that connects covers a broad area
computers in small using private or public
areas. network transports.
• LAN offers high data • WAN has lower data
transfer rates transfer rates
• High bandwidth is • Low bandwidth
available for available for
transmission. transmission.
 Difference between LAN and WAN

LAN WAN
• Layer 2 devices like • Layers 3 devices
switches, bridges. Layer Routers, Multi-layer
1 devices like hubs, Switches
repeaters. • WANs have more
• LANs tend to have problems due to the
fewer problems large amount of system
associated with them and data that is present.
 Difference between LAN and WAN

LAN WAN
• LAN networks can be WAN are not owned up
owned up private any one organization
companies or people but exist under
that set it up at homes. collective or distributed
ownership.
• .
• Network Architecture
• Network architecture is the design of a communications network
.
• The network architecture provides a full picture
of the established network with detailed view of
all the resources accessible. It includes hardware
components used for communication, cabling
and device types, network layout and topologies.
• In computer network different types of network
architecture are available.
1. Peer to Peer.
2. Client-Server.
3. Hybrid.
4. Intranet
5. Internet
6. Extranet.
1. Peer to Peer architecture (P2P)
• In peer to peer architecture two or more computers are
connected and transfer the data without the need of a central
server.
• Each computer, has the same capabilities and responsibilities.
• It is a type of decentralized architecture in which individual nodes in
the network (called "peers") act as both server and client of resources.
• Advantages
• It is easy to install and configure.
• All the resources and contents are shared by all the peers
• P2P is more reliable because failure of one peer doesn’t affect the
functioning of other peers.
• There is no need for full-time System Administrator
The over-all cost of building and maintaining this type of network is
comparatively very less.
Disadvantages
• In this network, the whole system is decentralized thus it is
difficult to administer.
• Security in this system is very less viruses, spywares , trojans, etc
malwares can easily transmitted over this P-2-P architecture.
Data recovery or backup is very difficult. Each computer should
have its own back-up system.
Client –Server Architecture
• A network architecture in which each computer in the network
is either a client or a server.

• Servers are powerful computers dedicated to managing

disk drives (file servers), printers (print servers), or network traffic
(network servers ).
• Clients are PCs or workstations on which users run application
• client-server architecture, Architecture of a computer network in
which many clients request and receive service from a
centralized server (host computer).
• Client computers provide an interface to allow a computer user
to request services of the server and to display the results the
server returns.
Advantages:-

(1) Centralization : in this architecture there is a centralized

control. Servers help in administering the whole set-up.

(2) Proper Management : All the files are stored at the same place.

(3) Back-up and Recovery possible : As all the data is stored on

server its easy to make a back-up of it.

(4) Upgradation and Scalability in Client-server set-up : Changes

can be made easily by just upgrading the server

(5) Security : Rules defining security and access rights can be

defined at the time of set-up of server.
Disadvantages
• Congestion in Network :Too many requests from the clients may
lead to congestion
• Client-Server architecture is not as robust.
• Cost : It is very expensive to install and manage this type of
computing.
Hybrid network architecture
• Hybrid network architecture combines the best attributes of
peer to peer and client server architecture.
• A network architecture in which each computer in the network
is either a client or a server or both.
• This network architecture uses centralized and decentralized
architecture
• In this architecture , if the data is transfer between the peers
then there is no need of server.
• In this architecture , if the data is transfer between the peers and
clients then only there is need of server.
• In this architecture server is not overloaded.

•
• Intranet network architecture
• Intranet as an organization's private, secured computer network
system that uses the same concepts, technologies and protocols
(standards) as The Internet, but operates on a Local Area
computer Network (LAN).
• An intranet is a corporate networked internal web site with other
features like internal e-mail, news group and chat facilities
• The intranet is formed in such a way that all the information,
applications and other resources the organization’s employees
need are accessible via the intranet.
• intranet provides access to information and other services
quickly and easily.
• In many organizations, intranets are protected from unauthorized
external access by means of a network gateway and firewall.
• Internet architecture
• In this architecture a network is connected to the internet.
• All the public information are accessible to the network.n
• In this architecture forms the wide area network.
• The Internet is a global system of interconnected computer networks
that use the standard Internet protocol suite (TCP/IP) to serve several
billion users worldwide.
• It is a network of networks that consists of millions of private, public,
academic, business, and government networks.
• The Internet carries an large range of information, resources and
services, such as the inter-linked hypertext documents of the
World Wide Web (WWW), the infrastructure to support email, and
peer-to-peer networks.
• Extranet architecture

• An extranet is a computer network that allows controlled access

from the outside, for specific business or educational purposes.
• An extranet is a private network that uses Internet technology
and the public telecommunication system to securely share part
of a business's information or operations .
• An extranet requires security and privacy. These can include
firewall ,use of digital certificates ,user authenticationand the use
of virtual private networks (VPNs) that tunnel through the public
network.
• You can access an extranet only if you have a valid username and
password, and your identity
• If access to or from the Internet or another location such as a
wide area network (WAN –a organizations private computer
network spread across different geographical locations) is
provided to a intranet, it will be through a firewall gateway that
will require a username and password. In this case the intranet
becomes an extranet. In other words, an extranet is the
extension of an intranet to include public access or access from
other locations such as in a WAN.
• Network topology
• Network topology is the arrangement of the various elements like links,
nodes, etc. of a computer network.
• Network topology can be physically or logically.
• Physical topology refers to the placement of the network's various
components, including device location and cable installation, while logical
topology shows how data flows within a network.
• The methods used by systems to communicate on a network are referred to
as the network architecture. The manner in which the physical
infrastructure is deployed to connect a network is referred to as the
network topology. A topology describes the physical means for transporting
data; an architecture describes the technology used to manage and
manipulate data.
Different Network topologies are as follows
• Bus
• Ring
• Star
• Tree
• Mesh

• Hybrid
Different Network topologies are as follows
1. Bus topology
• Bus topology uses a common backbone cable to connect all
devices.
• A single backbone cable is a shared communication medium.
• All the devices attach to backbone cable with an interface
connector.
• A device wanting to communicate with another device on the
network sends a broadcast message onto the wire that all other
devices see, but only the intended recipient actually accepts and
processes the message.
• A terminator is added at ends of the central cable, to absorb the
signals.
Advantages
1. It is Easy to set up.
2. It is Simple network topology.
3. Less cable is required .
4. Less expensive
5. Failure of one node does not affect the rest of the bus network.
Disadvantages
6. If there is a problem with the cable, the entire network goes
down.
7. Low security (all computers on the bus can see all data
transmissions).
Disadvantages

3. Proper termination is required.

4. Less efficient.

5. It is difficult to detect and troubleshoot fault.

Ring topology
• In ring topology all of the nodes are connected in a closed loop.
• A ring network is a network topology in which each node
connects to exactly two other nodes
• Messages travel around the ring, with each node reading those
messages addressed to it.
• Sending and receiving of data takes place by the help of TOKEN.
• Token passing :-Token contains a piece of information which along
with data is sent by the source computer.
• This token then passes to next node, which checks if the signal is
intended to it. If yes, it receives it and passes the empty to into the
network, otherwise passes token along with the data to next node.
• This process continues until the signal reaches its intended
destination.
• The nodes with token are the ones only allowed to send data. Other
nodes have to wait for an empty token to reach them.
• This network is usually found in offices, schools and small buildings.
• Advantages of Ring Topology

1. This type of network topology is very organized.

2. Even when the load on the network increases, its performance

is better than that of Bus topology.

3. Each computer has equal access to resources.

4. It prevents network collisions .

• Disadvantages of Ring Topology
1. Data packets must pass through every computer between the
sender and recipient therefore this makes it slower.
2. If any of the nodes fail then the whole network is fail
3. It is difficult to troubleshoot the ring.
4. Because all stations are wired together, to add a station you
must shut down the network temporarily.
5. In order for all computers to communicate with each other, all
computers must be turned on.
6. Total dependence upon the one cable.
star topology
• A star topology in which all nodes are connected to a central
device (hub, switch).
• All the nodes are connected to central device with a point-to-
point connection.
• All the data on the star topology passes through the central device
before reaching the intended destination.
• Hub acts as a junction to connect different nodes present in Star
Network, and at the same time it manages and controls whole of the
network
• Advantages of Star Topology
1. better performance.
2. Easy to connect new nodes or devices.
3. Centralized management. It helps in monitoring the network.
4. Failure of one node or link doesn’t affect the rest of network.
5. Easy to detect faults and to remove parts.
• Disadvantages of Star Topology

1. If the central device is fail , then whole network goes down.

2. Expensive to purchase.

3. Requires a large amount of cable to be connected.

Tree Topology
• Tree topology is combination of bus topology and
star topology.
• In tree topology multiple star networks are connected
together using a backbone cable.
• This main cable seems like a main stem of a tree, and other star
networks as the branches. It is also called Expanded Star
Topology.
Tree Topology
Advantages of Tree Topology

1. Expansion of Network is possible and easy.

2. It can be easily managed and maintained.

3. Error detection and correction is easy.

4. If one segment is damaged, other segments are not affected.

Disadvantages of Tree Topology

5. if the backbone cable is break ,then whole network is fail.
Mesh topology
• In mesh topology, each node (workstation or other device) is
connected directly to each of the others.
• It is commonly used in wireless networks.
• Flooding or routing technique is used in mesh topology.

Advantages of Mesh topology

1. Data can be transmitted from different devices simultaneously.

2. Even if one of the components fails there is always an

alternative present. So data transfer doesn’t get affected.

3. Expansion and modification in topology can be done without

disrupting other nodes.
Disadvantages of Mesh topology

1. Overall cost of this network is very high as compared to

other network topologies.

2. Set-up and maintenance of this topology is very difficult.

Hybrid Topology
• Hybrid topology is a combination of any two or more topologies.
• For example, if there exists a ring topology in one office
department while a bus topology in another department,
connecting these two will result in Hybrid topology. Remember
connecting two similar topologies cannot be termed as Hybrid
topology. Star-Ring and Star-Bus networks are most common
examples of hybrid network.
• Advantages of Hybrid Network Topology

1. fault detection and troubleshooting is easy in this type of

topology
2. Its easy to increase the size of network by adding new
components
3. Hybrid Network can be designed according to the requirements
of the organization.
Disadvantages of Hybrid Topology
4. Complexity of Design is the biggest drawback of hybrid
topology.
5. The hubs used to connect two distinct networks, are very
expensive.
 Unit -2

NETWORKING MODELS AND ADDRESSES:

• The OSI model is a layered framework for the design of network
systems that allows communication between all types of
computer systems.
• The OSI model is composed of seven ordered layers:

1. physical (layer 1)
2. data link (layer 2),
3. network (layer 3)
4. transport (layer 4)
5. session (layer 5)
6. presentation (layer 6),
7. and application (layer 7).
Application Layer

Presentation Layer Upper Layer

Session Layer

Transport Layer

Network Layer

Lower Layer
Data Link Layer

Physical Layer
• Physical Layer:- This layer carry the bit stream - electrical impulse, light
or radio signal through the network.
• It provides the hardware means of sending and receiving data on a
cable.
• Physical layer define the following
• Physical characteristics of interfaces and medium. The physical layer
defines the characteristics of the interface between the devices and
the transmission medium. It also defines the type of transmission
medium.
• Representation of bits:- The physical layer data consists of a stream of
bits (sequence of 0s or 1s) .To be transmitted, bits must encoded into
signals--electrical or optical.
• Data rate:-The physical layer define the transmission rate-the
number of bits sent each second.
• Synchronization of bits. The sender and receiver not only must use
the same bit rate but also must be synchronized at the bit level.
• Transmission mode:-The physical layer also defines the direction of
transmission between two devices: simplex, half-duplex, or full-
duplex .
• Topology:- Physical Layer define the topology.
Data Link Layer
• The data link layer transforms a raw transmission bits into a reliable
form.
• The data link layer is responsible for moving frames from one hop
(node) to the next.
• The Data link layer add the header to the packet coming from upper
layer that include the physical address of source and destination on
same network.
• Data Link Layer controls the errors.
• Responsibilities of data Link Layer

• Framing. The data link layer divides the stream of bits received from
the physical layer into manageable data units called frames.
• Physical addressing. If frames are to be distributed to different
systems on the network, the data link layer adds a header to the
frame to define the sender and/or receiver of the frame.
• Flow control. If the rate at which the data are absorbed by the
receiver is less than the rate at which data are produced in the
sender, the data link layer uses a flow control mechanism to avoid
overloading the receiver.
• Error control. The data link layer adds reliability to the physical layer
by adding mechanisms to detect and retransmit damaged or lost
frames.
• Access control. When two or more devices are connected to the
same link, data link layer protocols are necessary to determine
which device has control over the link at any given time.
 Network Layer :
• The network layer is responsible for the source-to-destination
delivery of a packet, across multiple networks (links). Whereas the
data link layer transfer the packet between two systems on the
same network (links),
• If two systems are connected to the same link, there is usually no
need for a net-work layer. However, if the two systems are attached
to different networks (links) with connecting devices between the
networks (links), there is often a need for the network layer to
perform source-to-destination delivery.
• Other responsibilities of the network layer include the following:

• Logical addressing. If a packet is transfer to the another network,

• we need logical addressing system to distinguish the source and

destination systems. The network layer adds a header to the packet
coming from the upper layer that, includes the logical addresses of
the sender and receiver.
• Routing. When packet is transfer to the another networks
,internetworking devices route or switch the packets to their final
destination.
Transport Layer
• The transport layer is responsible for process-to-process delivery of
the entire message. A process is an application program running on
a host.

Responsibilities of the transport layer include the following:

1. Service-point addressing. Computers often run several programs at

the same time. The transport layer header must therefore include a
type of address called a service-point address (or port address). The
network layer gets each packet to the correct computer; the
transport layer gets the entire message to the correct process on
that computer.
2. Segmentation and reassembly: A message is divided into
transmittable segments , with each segment containing a sequence
number. These numbers enable the trans-port layer to reassemble
the message correctly upon arriving at the destination.

3. Connection control. The transport layer can be either

connectionless or connection- Oriented. A connectionless treats
each segment as an independent packet and delivers it to the
destination machine. A connection-oriented transport layer makes
a connection with the destina-tion machine first before delivering
the packets. After all the data are transferred, the connection is
terminated.
4. Flow control:- The transport layer is responsible for flow

control.

5. Error control:- the transport layer is responsible for error control.

The sending transport layer makes sure that the entire message
arrives at the receiving transport layer without error (damage, loss,
or duplication). Error correction is usually achieved through
retransmission.
Session Layer
• The services provided by the first three layers (physical, data link,
and network) are not sufficient for some processes. The session
layer is the network dialog controller.
• It establishes, maintains, and synchronizes the interaction among
communicating systems.
• Specific responsibilities of the session layer include the following:

1. Dialog control:- The session layer allows two systems to enter into a
dialog. It allows the communication between two processes to take
place in either half- duplex (one way at a time) or full-duplex (two
ways at a time) mode.

2. Synchronization.:- The session layer allows a process to add

checkpoints, or syn-Chronization points, to a stream of data. For
example, if a system is sending a fileof 2000 pages, it is advisable to
insert checkpoints after every 100 pages to ensure
that each 100-page unit is received and acknowledged independently.
In this case,if a crash happens during the transmission of page 523,
the only pages that need tobe resent after system recovery are
pages 501 to 523. Pages previous to 501 need
Presentation Layer
• The presentation layer is concerned with the syntax and semantics
of the information exchanged between two systems.
• The presentation layer is responsible for translation, compression,
and encryption.
• Specific responsibilities of the presentation layer include the
following:

1. Translation. The processes (running programs) in two systems are

usually exchange information in the form of character strings,
numbers, and so on. The information must be changed to bit
streams before being transmitted. The presentation layer at the
sender changes the information from its sender-dependent format
into a common format.
2. Encryption. To carry sensitive information, a system must be able to
ensure privacy. Encryption means that the sender transforms the
original information to another form and sends the resulting
message out over the network. Decryption reverses the original
process to transform the message back to its original form.

3. Compression. Data compression reduces the number of bits

contained in the information. Data compression becomes
particularly important in the transmission of multimedia such as
text, audio, and video.
• Application Layer

• The application layer enables the user, to access the net-work.

• It provides user interfaces and support for services such as

electronic mail, remote file access and transfer, shared database
management, and other types of distributed information services.
Figure 2.14 Summary of layers

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 88

• TCP/IP Model

• This Model Consists of four layers.

Application Layer

Transport Layer

Internet layer

Network Layer
1. Network interface
• Responsible for sending and receiving TCP/IP packets on the
network medium such as coaxial cable, optical fiber, or twisted-pair
copper wire.

2. Internet Layer:- The Internet Layer provides connectionless

communication across one or more networks,

It provides a logical addressing scheme and routing of packeti. The

Internet Layer is concerned with network to network
communication.
• Transport Layer

• The Transport Layer provides the means for the transport of data
segments across the Internet Layer.
• The Transport Layer is concerned with end-to-end (host-to-host)
communication.
• Transmission Control Protocol provides reliable,
connection-oriented transport of data between two endpoints
(sockets) on two computers that use Internet Protocol to
communicate.
• Application Layer

• The Application Layer provides the interface to communicate.

• Application layer allows user to access e-mail , a file transfer ,file

downloading facilities.
• Comparison Between OSI Vs. TCP/IP reference Model.
OSI MODEL TCP/IP MODEL
1. OSI Model consists of 1 .TCP/IP Model consists of
seven Layers. four layers.
2. OSI is Reference model 2.It is Implementation of
OSI model
3. This is a theoretical 3. Model around which
model. Internet is developed
4. OSI Model has 4. Combines the session
separate session and and presentation layer
presentation layer in the application layer
5. OSI Model has 5. Combines the physical
separate physical and and data link layer in the
data link layer network access layer
OSI MODEL TCP/IP MODEL
6. Network layer provides 6. Internet layer provides
both connectionless only connection less
and connection services
oriented services
7. The protocol are better 7. The protocols are
hidden and can be defined at each layer
easily replaced as the and can not be
technology changes replaced.
8. OSI truly is a general 8. TCP/IP can not be used
model for any other
application
9. Horizontal approach 9. Vertical approach
Introduction to various LAN and WAN Protocols
Protocol:-

A protocol is a set of rules that governs the communications between

computers on a network. These rules include guidelines that
regulate the following characteristics of a network: access method,
allowed physical topologies, types of cabling, and speed of data
transfer.
The most common LAN protocols are:
• Ethernet
• Local Talk
• Token Ring
• FDDI
• ATM
• Ethernet

• The Ethernet protocol is the most widely used.

• Ethernet uses an access method called CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense

Multiple Access/Collision Detection).
• This is a system where each computer listens to the cable before
sending anything through the network. If the network is clear, the
computer will transmit. If some other node is already transmitting
on the cable, the computer will wait and try again when the line is
clear.
• Local Talk
• Local Talk is a network protocol that was developed by Apple
Computer, Inc. for Macintosh computers. The method used by Local
Talk is called CSMA/CA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision
Avoidance).

• Token Ring

• The Token Ring protocol was developed by IBM in the mid-1980s.

• The access method used involves token-passing. In Token Ring, the

computers are connected so that the signal travels around the
network from one computer to another in a logical ring.
• A single electronic token moves around the ring from one computer
to the next. If a computer does not have information to transmit, it
simply passes the token on to the next workstation. If a computer
wishes to transmit and receives an empty token, it attaches data to
the token. The
• FDDI
• Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI) is a network protocol that is
used primarily to interconnect two or more local area networks,
often over large distances.
• The access method used by FDDI involves token-passing.
• FDDI uses a dual ring physical topology.
• Transmission normally occurs on one of the rings; however, if a
break occurs, the system keeps information moving by
automatically using portions of the second ring to create a new
complete ring.
• A major advantage of FDDI is speed. It operates over fiber optic
cable at 100 Mbps.
• ATM is a high-speed networking standard designed to support both
voice and data communications.
• ATM is normally utilized by Internet service providers on their
private long-distance networks.
• ATM operates at the data link layer (Layer 2 in the OSI model) over
either fiber or twisted-pair cable.
• The most common WAN protocols are:

1. IP :- IP (Internet Protocol) is the primary network protocol used on

the Internet. IP supports unique addressing for computers on a
network. Most networks use the Internet Protocol version 4 (IPv4)
standard that features IP addresses four bytes (32 bits) in length

2. ARP:- Address Resolution Protocol, a network layer protocol used to

convert an IP address into a physical address.

3. RARP:-Reverse Address Resolution Protocol is a network layer

protocol finds the logical address for a machine that only knows its
physical address.
4. ICMP:-The Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) is a
mechanism used by hosts and gateways to send notification of
datagram problems back to the sender. ICMP send query and error
reporting messages.

5. IGMP:- it is a protocol that manages group membership.

The IGMP protocol gives membership status of hosts to the

multicast router connected to the network.

6. UDP:- It is a transport layer protocol , provide the connectionless

and unreliable service.

7. TCP:- It is a transport layer protocol , provide the connection

oriented and reliable service.
8. FTP:- FTP used to download and uploading files in the network.

9. HTTP:- This protocol used by the World Wide Web to define the
messages format .

10. Telnet:- This protocol is used to connect the remote computer in a

network.
Network Address
• A network address is an unique identifier for a computer on a
network.
• Computers can determine the addresses of other computers on the
network and use these addresses to send messages to each other.
• Types of addressing

Addresses

Physical Logical
Address Address Port Address Specific Address
Physical address:-
• The physical address, also known as the link address or MAC
address , is the address of a node as defined by its LAN or WAN.
• It is included in the frame used by the data link layer.
• It is the lowest-level address.
• The size of the physical address is a 6-byte (48-bit) physical address
that is imprinted on the network interface card (NIC).
Logical Addresses
• Logical addresses are necessary for universal communications that
are independent of underlying physical networks.
• Physical addresses are not sufficient in an internetwork environment
where different networks can have different address formats.
• A universal addressing system is needed in which each host can be
identified uniquely, regardless of the underlying physical network.
• A logical address in the Internets currently a 32-bit address that can
uniquely define a host connected to the Internet.
• No two publicly addressed and visible hosts on the Internet can have
the same IP address.
Port Addresses
• The IP address and the physical address are necessary for a quantity
of data to travel from a source to the destination host.
• Computers device can run multiple processes at the same time.

• The end objective of Internet communication is a process

communicating with another process.
• For example, computer A can communicate with computer C by
using TELNET. At the same time, computer A communicates with
computer B by using the File Transfer Protocol (FTP). For these
processes to receive data simultaneously, we need a port address.
• A port address in TCPIIP is 16 bits in length.
Specific Addresses
• Some applications have user-friendly addresses that are designed
for that specific address.
• Examples include the e-mail address
IP Addresses:-
• An IPv4 address is a 32-bit address that uniquely and universally
defines the connection of a device to the Internet.
• Two devices on the Internet can never have the same address at
the same time.
• The IPv4 addresses are universal in the sense that the addressing
system must be accepted by any host that wants to be connected to
the Internet.
• IPv4 uses 32-bit addresses, which means that the address space is 2
32 or 4,294,967,296 (more than 4 billion).
• There are two notations are used to show an IPv4 address: binary
notation and dotted-decimal notation.
• The following is an example of an IPv4 address in binary notation:

• 01110101 10010101 00011101 00000010

• Dotted-Decimal Notation
• To make the IPv4 address more compact and easier to read,
Internet addresses are usually written in decimal form with a
decimal point (dot) separating the bytes. The following is the dotted
decimal notation of the above address:
• 117.149.29.2
Classful Addressing
• In classful addressing, the address space is divided into five classes: A, B, C,
D,and E. Each class occupies some part of the address space.
• Classful addressing divides the entire IP address space (0.0.0.0 to
255.255.255.255) into 'classes', or special ranges of contiguous IP addresses
(no addresses missing between the first and last address in the range).
• Classful addressing makes it possible to determine the network portion of
the IP address by looking at the first four bits of the first octet in the
IP address. The first four bits are referred to as the 'most significant bits' of
the first octet and are used to determine what class of IP address is being
used.
• In Classful addressing IP addresses is divided into net id and host id.
Default Network: The special network 0.0.0.0 is generally used for routing.
Class A address
• In class A 1 Bit used for prefix 7 bits used for network id and 24 bits used
for host id.
• Class A provide the range of IP address from 1.0.0.1 to 126.255.255.254 .
• Class A addresses were designed for large organizations with a large
number of attached hosts .
• This type of allocation is generally given to very large networks such as
multi-national companies.
Disadvantages:- There are small no of networks with large no. of computers .
Class B:

In class B 2 Bit used for prefix 14 bits used for network id and 16 bits
used for host id.

This class consists of 16,000 individual networks, each allocation

consisting of 65,000 possible IP addresses. These blocks are
generally allocated to Internet Service Providers and large
networks, like a college or major hospital.

Advantages:- There are medium no of networks with medium no. of

computers .
• Class C:
• In class C 3 Bit used for prefix 21 bits used for network id and 8 bits
used for host id.
• There is a total of 2,000000 Class C networks available, with each
network consisting of 255 individual IP addresses. This type of class
is generally given to small to mid-sized companies.
• Disadvantages:- There are large no of networks with small no. of
computers .

• Class D: The IP addresses in this class are reserved for a service

called Multicast.
• Class E: The IP addresses in this class are reserved for experimental
use.
Special Address
• There are several IP addresses that are used for special purpose.

• Loopback: This is the special 127.0.0.1network that is reserved as a

loopback to your own computer. These addresses are used for
testing and debugging of your programs or hardware.
• Typically all IP addresses in the range 127.0.0.1 - 127.255.255.255
are reserved for private use.
• Broadcast: This is the special network of 255.255.255.255, and is
used for broadcasting messages to the entire network that your
computer resides on.
This" network :- 0.0.0.0 Used to communicate with "This" network
Sub-netting
• A sub network, or subnet, is a logically subdivision of an IP network
to create two or more logical network.
• Dividing a network into two or more networks is called sub-netting.
• All computers that belong to a subnet are addressed with a
common net-id subnet id and their host id.
• Example 192.168.1.100

• This is a class C IP address with 192.168.1 is used for network and

100 used for host.
• Here 8 bit is used for host id and therefore we use 2 msb bits from
host id for sub-netting
• 0000000 0100000 1000000 1100000 , in this way we can create 4
subnet with address 00 01 10 and 11
•
Advantages of sub-netting
• By organizing hosts into logical groups, sub-netting can improve
network security and performance.
• Improve bandwidth.

• Subnets enable easier management of networks.

Super netting
• Super netting combines several networks into one large one.

• Super netting, also called Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR), is a

way to aggregate multiple Internet addresses of the same class.
• Super-net places more host on single network than the currently
class full configuration.
• Super netting is most often used to combine Class C network
addresses.
• For example if we are using the class c address and there are two
networks each of 255 computers, then subneting combines these
networks into one large one with 510 computers
• Using supernetting, the network address 192.168.2.0/24 and an
adjacent address 192.168.3.0/24 can be merged into
192.168.2.0/23. The "23" at the end of the address says that the
first 23 bits are the network part of the address, remaining nine bits
for specific host addresses.
• Advantages

1. Modify the network size according to the need.

2. Super-netting Preserve the IP address.

Subnet mask
• An IP address has two components, the network address and the
host address.
• A subnet mask separates the IP address into the network and host
addresses (<network><host>).
• It is called a subnet mask because it is used to identify network
address of an IP address by performing bitwise AND operation on
the netmask.
• Subnet Mask is made by setting network bits to all "1"s and
setting host bits to all "0"s. Within a given network, two host
addresses are reserved for special purpose. The "0" address is
assigned a network address and "255" is assigned to a broadcast
address, and they cannot be assigned to a host.
• For example, applying the Class C subnet mask to our IP address
216.3.128.12 produces the following network address:
• IP: 1101 1000 . 0000 0011 . 1000 0000 . 0000 1100 (216.003.128.012)
• Mask: 1111 1111 . 1111 1111 . 1111 1111 . 0000 0000 (255.255.255.000)
-----------------------------------------1101 1000 . 0000 0011 . 1000 0000 . 0000 0000 (216.003.128.000)
VLAN (virtual local area network )
• A virtual local area network (VLAN) as a local area network
configured by software, not by physical wiring.
• This is a good configuration for a company with two separate
buildings. Each building can have its own switched LAN
connected by a backbone. People in the first building and people
in the second building can be in the same work group even
though they are connected to different physical LANs.
• VLANs create broadcast domains.
Advantages

There are several advantages to using VLANs.

1. Cost and Time Reduction :- VLANs can reduce the migration cost
of stations going from one group to another. Physical
reconfiguration takes time and is costly.

2. Creating Virtual Work Groups:- VLANs can be used to create

virtual work groups.

3. Security:- VLANs provide an extra measure of security. People

belonging to the same group can send broadcast messages with
the guaranteed assurance that users in other groups will not
receive these messages.
 Unit -3
• NETWORKING COMPONENTS AND NETWORK OPERATING SYSTEM
• The Networking media is the physical/air path by which
a message travels from sender to receiver. Some
examples of transmission media include twisted-pair
wire, coaxial cable, fibre-optic cable, and radio waves.
• टट रररांससस्मिसशन स्मिमीसडियर एक पटरकरर कर सफिसजिकल परथ हहोतर हहै सजिसस्मिमे समे
हहोकर स्मिमेसजि मे sender सडिवरइस समे सरसमीवर सडिवरइस स्मिमें जिरतर हहै |
• टट रररांससस्मिसशन स्मिमीसडियर कमे उदहररण हहै 
• Twisted pair
• कहोसकसअल कमेबल 
• फिरइबर ऑसपटक
• रमेसडियहो तररांगमे
 Networking media

Guided Unguided
(Wired) Wireless

Free space

Coaxial Cable Fiber Optics

Twisted -Pair
 Guided media

• Guided media, provide a specific path for the data signal from
one device to another.
• Guided media include twisted-pair cable, coaxial cable, and fiber
optic cable.
 Twisted-Pair Cable
• A twisted pair consists of two conductors (normally copper),
each with its own plastic insulation, twisted together,
One of the wires is used to carry signals to the receiver, and the other
is used only as a ground reference. The receiver uses the difference
between the two.
• Twisted-pair cable is a type of cabling that is used for telephone
communications and most modern Ethernet networks.
• Twisted pair cable classified into UTP(Unshielded twisted pair)
and STP (Shielded twisted pair) Cable.
Unshielded twisted pair (UTP)
• UTP cables are found in many Ethernet networks and telephone
systems. It is suitable for both data and voice communication.
• For indoor telephone applications, UTP is often grouped into sets
of 25 pairs according to a standard 25-pair colour code
• The UTP cable is divided into smaller but identical bundles. Each
bundle consists of twisted pairs that have different twist rates.
• UTP cabling is often used in data networks for short and medium
length connections.
• It is relatively lower costs compared to optical fiber and
coaxial cable.
• UTP cable available in different category.
• Category 1:- It is used in the telephone system. Fine for the voice
communication but low speed data communication.
• Category 2 :- Suitable for voice and data transmission of up to 4
Mbps.
• Category 3 :- It can be used for data transmission of up to 10
Mbps.
• Category 4 :- It can be used for data transmission of up to 16 Mbps.
• Category 5 :- It can be used for data transmission of up to 100 Mbps.

Advantages:-
1. Less cost.
2. It is suitable for both data and voice communication.
3. It is flexible.
Disadvantages:-
4. Interference introduces due to cross-talk.
5. Not suitable audio - video information.
Shielded twisted pair
 IBM has also produced a version of twisted-pair cable for its use
called shielded twisted-pair (STP).
 STP cable has a metal foil covering that encases each pair of
insulated conductors.
 Shielded Twisted pair cables are often shielded in attempt to
prevent electromagnetic interference. Because the shielding is
made of metal, it may also serve as a ground. However, usually a
shielded or a screened twisted pair cable has a special grounding
wire added called a drain wire. This shielding can be applied to
individual pairs, or to the collection of pairs. When shielding is
applied to the collection of pairs, this is referred to as screening.
Advantages :-

1. Shielded twisted pair is often used in business installations.

2. Reduce crosstalk or electromagnetic induction between pairs of

wires.

Disadvantages :-

3. STP is more costly as compared to the UTP.

4. Not suitable audio - video information.

 Difference BW STP & UTP
STP UTP
1. STP cables are shielded. 1. UTP cables are unshielded.
2. STP cables are less affected 2. UTP cables are more
by interference and noise affected by interference and
noise
3. STP cables are better utilize 3. UTP cables are not better
maximum bandwidth utilize maximum bandwidth

4. STP is more expensive. 4. UTP is less expensive.

5. STP cable is more heavy. 5. UTP cable is lighter
Co-axial cable

Inner conductor

Outer conductor
• Coaxial cable, is an electrical cable with one inner conductor

and one outer conductor.

• Inner conductor is surrounded by a insulating layer typically of a
flexible material.
• This insulator is surrounded by a second conductive layer (of a thin
metallic foil),also called outer conductor.
• The outer conductor is covered with a thin insulating layer on the
outside.
• And finally ,the whole cable is protected by the outer plastic jacket.
• The term coaxial comes from the inner conductor and the outer
shield sharing the same geometric axis.
Advantages
 Provides protection of the signal from external
electromagnetic interference.
 Suitable for audio- video information.
 Carry more amount of data.

Disadvantages
 It is more expensive.
Optical fibre
Optical Fiber
 An optical Fibre is a glass or plastic fibber that carries light
along its length.
 Fibber optic networks operate at high speeds - up into the
gigabits
 Carrying large amount of information.

 Signals can be transmitted further without needing to be

"refreshed" or strengthened.
 Fibber optic cables costs much less to maintain.
 Fibers are used instead of metal wires because signals travel
along them with less loss, and they are also not effected by
electromagnetic interference.
 Light is kept in the "core" of the optical fiber by
total internal reflection.
 Optical fiber can be used as a medium for telecommunication
and networking because it is flexible and can be bundled as
cables.
 It is especially advantageous for long-distance
communications, because light propagates through the fiber
with little attenuation compared to electrical cables.
• Advantages

1. Less expensive

2. Less interference :- Fiber optics carry the information in the

form of light and it is not affected by the electrical signal

3. Higher carrying capacity

4. Ease Of Installation
Wireless Network Medium
 In wireless medium, the data are transmitted without the
cable.
 Wireless channels are much more public, with a transmitter's
antenna radiating a signal that can be received by any
antenna sufficiently close.
 Wireless channel has limited bandwidth.

 Wireless channel easily affected by the noise.

 Wireless channels are less secure.

 Wireless channels has the limited range.
 xamples of wireless networks include cell phone networks,
Wi-Fi local networks
Networking Devices
• The following networking devices are available for different
purpose
1. NIC
2. Modem
3. Repeater
4. Hub
5. Switches
6. Bridge
7. Router
8. Gateway
9. Wi-Fi
10. VSAT.
NIC
• In computer networking, a NIC provides the hardware interface
between a computer and a network.
• A network interface card (NIC) is a computer circuit board or card that
is installed in a computer so that it can be connected to a network.
• Some NIC cards work with wired connections while others are
wireless.
• Personal computers and workstations on a local area network (LAN)
typically contain a network interface card specifically designed for the
LAN transmission technology.
• Network interface cards provide a dedicated, full-time connection to
a network.
• Network cards are typically available in 10/100/100 Mbps speed.
• Most of the computer network transfer the data across the
medium higher than the speed of computer.
• Nic is used to reduce this speed .
Modem
• Repeater
• A repeater is an electronic device that receives a weak signal and
retransmits it at a higher power onto the other side , so that the
signal can cover longer distances.
• Repeaters are used to boost signals in coaxial and twisted pair
cable and in optical fiber lines. An electrical signal in a cable gets
weaker the further it travels, due to energy dissipated in
conductor resistance
Advantages
• Makes it easy to expand a network over a large distance.

• Connection between various types of media is possible.

Disadvantages
• Repeater can not be used for traffic filtered.

• A repeater cannot work across multiple network architectures.

 HUB
A
C

B
D

C
• A special type of network device called the hub.

• It can be used to connect the computers to form the network.

• It can also be used to connect the segment of the network.

• Any data packet coming from one port is sent to all other ports. It
is then up to the receiving computer to decide if the packet is for
it. Imagine packets going through a hub as messages going into a
mailing list. The mail is sent out to everyone and it is up to the
receiving party to decide if it is of interest.
• The biggest problem with hubs is their simplicity. Since every
packet is sent out to every computer on the network, there is a
lot of wasted transmission. This means that the network can
easily become bogged down.
• Hubs are typically used on small networks where the amount of
data going across the network is never very high.
• hubs contain eight, 12, 16, and even 24 ports.
• Hubs classify as Layer 1 devices in the OSI model
• Three different types of hubs exist:
1. passive
2. active
3. intelligent
• Passive hubs do not amplify the electrical signal
of incoming packets before broadcasting them
out to the network.
• Active hubs, on the other hand, do perform this
amplification
• Intelligent hubs: intelligent hubs include additional features
that enables an administrator to monitor the traffic passing
through the hub and to configure each port in the hub.
Intelligent hubs are also called manageable hubs.
Bridge
A bridge device filters data traffic at a network boundary. Bridges
reduce the amount of traffic on a LAN by dividing it into two
segments.
• Bridges operate at the data link layer (Layer 2) of the OSI model.
Bridges inspect incoming traffic and decide whether to forward
or discard it.
• An Ethernet bridge, for example, inspects each incoming
Ethernet frame - including the source and destination MAC
addresses, and sometimes the frame size - in making individual
forwarding decisions.
• A bridge goes one step up on a hub in that it looks at the
destination of the packet before sending. If the destination
address is not on the other side of the bridge it will not transmit
the data.
• Bridges are typically used to separate parts of a network that do
not need to communicate regularly, but still need to be
connected.
Switch
switch
• A network switch is a small hardware device that joins multiple
computers together within one local area network (LAN).
• Switches control the flow of network traffic based on the address
information in each packet and forwards packets to the
appropriate port only.
• This switching operation reduces the amount of unnecessary
traffic .
• switches divide the network into smaller, less congested sections
Router
• Routers are small physical devices that join multiple networks
together. Technically, a router is a Layer 3 device, meaning that it
connects two or more networks and that the router operates at
the network layer of the OSI model.
• A router has a lot more capabilities than other network devices
such as a hub or a switch that are only able to perform basic
network functions.
• For example, a hub is often used to transfer data between
computers or network devices, but does not analyze or do
anything with the data it is transferring.
• Routers however can analyze the data being sent over a network,
change how it is packaged and send it to another network or over a
different network. For example, routers are commonly used in home
networks to share a single Internet connection with multiple
computers.
• Home networks typically use a wireless or wired
Internet Protocol (IP) router, IP being the most common OSI network
layer protocol. An IP router such as a DSL or cable modem
broadband router joins the home's local area network (LAN) to the
wide-area network (WAN) of the Internet.
• A Router maintain the routing table for determining the path for
data transfer.
Gateways:
• Gateways make communication possible between different
architectures and environments. They repackage and convert
data going from one environment to another so that each
environment can understand the other's environment data.
• A gateway repackages information to match the requirements of
the destination system. Gateways can change the format of a
message so that it will conform to the application program at the
receiving end of the transfer.
• A gateway links two systems that do not use the same:

• Communication protocols

• Data formatting structures

• Languages

• Architecture

• For example, electronic mail gateways, such as X.400 gateway,

receive messages in one format, and then translate it, and
forward in X.400 format used by the receiver, and vice versa
WI-FI
• Wi-Fi is a popular technology that allows an electronic device to
exchange data wirelessly (using radio waves) over a
computer network, including high-speed Internet connections.
• The Wi-Fi defines Wi-Fi as any "wireless local area network
(WLAN) products that are based on the
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers' (IEEE)
802.11 standards".
• A device that can use Wi-Fi (such as a personal computer, video-
game console, smartphone, tablet, or digital audio player) can
connect to a network resource such as the Internet via a
wireless network access point. Such an access point (or hotspot)
has a range of about 20 meters (65 feet) indoors and a greater
range outdoors.
• Wi-Fi can be less secure than wired connections (such as
Ethernet) because an intruder does not need a physical
connection.
VSAT
• very small aperture terminal, an earthbound station used in
satellite communications of data, voice and video signals.
• A VSAT consists of two parts, a transceiver that is placed
outdoors in direct line of sight to the satellite and a device that is
placed indoors to interface the transceiver with the end user's
communications device, such as a PC. The transceiver receives or
sends a signal to a satellite transponder in the sky.
• The satellite sends and receives signals from a ground station
computer. Each end user is interconnected with the ground
station via the satellite. The ground station the entire operation
of the network. For one end user to communicate with another,
each transmission has to first go to the ground station that then
retransmits it via the satellite to the other end user's VSAT. VSAT
can handle up to 56 Kbps.
 Structured cabling
• A Structured Cabling is a systematic arrangement of cabling and
connectivity products that integrates data, voice, video and
various management system of a building .
• Structured cabling design and installation is governed by a set of
standards that specify wiring data centers, offices, and
apartment buildings for data or voice communications using
various kinds of cable.
Elements of a Structured Cabling System

Figure 1

Figure 1
The Advantages of Structured Cabling are:
• reduce maintenance costs : A structured approach in cabling also
helps reduce maintenance costs
• Support for multi-vendor equipment: A standard-based cable
system will support applications and hardware of different
vendors.
• Simplify moves/adds/changes: Structured cabling systems can
support any changes within the systems are less likely to down
the entire network
• Support for future applications: Structured cabling system
supports future applications like multimedia, video conferencing
etc with little or no upgrade plan.
• Fault Isolation: By dividing the entire infrastructure into simple
manageable blocks, it is easy to test and isolate the specific
points of fault and correct them with minimal disturbance to the
network.
Rack
• A computer network rack is a metal frame used to hold various
network devices such as servers, hard disk drives, modems and
other electronic equipment. Some may refer to a rack as "LAN or
network furniture" as resembles a shelving structure where
components can be attached vertically, stacked on top of one
another.
• Racks come in many different shapes and sizes, the standard
(traditional) size rack is 19-inches wide.
• Racks are usually made of aluminum or stainless steel. The
Electronics Industries Association (EIA) establishes standards for
cabinets and racks for the use of computers and other electronic
equipment.
• The rack refers specifically to the frame that provides a means
for mounting electronic equipment.
 patch panel
• A patch panel allows multiple devices, usually of the similar
type, to be connected and managed in a more efficient manner.
• Computer networks, sound studios and stages, radio and
television stations, and a number of other systems use patch
panels to help manage the large number of connections needed
to wire up and interconnect all the components of their
electronic systems.
• In the picture to the right, is an example of what a patch panel
may look like.
• Computer networks make use of switches, which are essentially
patch panels, allowing eight, sixteen or more computers to be
connected to a single device, making it easier to manage the
network connectivity to each and between each computer. In
audio and video, an s-video patch panel can connect multiple
inputs and outputs for easier management.
• Specialized patch panels, like switching routers, can make
switching between one connected device to another as simple as
the press of a button, without any need to rewire the
connections.
crimping tool
• A crimping tool is a tool designed to crimp or connect a
connector to the end of a cable. For example, network cables and
phone cables are created using a crimping tool to connect the
RJ-45 and RJ-11 connectors to the end of the cable.
• This example shows a tool capable of crimping both RJ-11 and RJ-
45 connectors.
• punch down tool, is a small hand tool used by
telecommunication and network technicians.
• It is used for inserting wire into connectors .
• Most punch down tools are of the impact type,
consisting of a handle, an internal spring
mechanism, and a removable slotted blade.
• To use the punch down tool, a wire is pre-
positioned into a slotted post, and then the punch
down tool is pressed down on top of the wire
• Once the required pressure is reached, the
internal spring is triggered, and the blade pushes
the wire into the slot, cutting the insulation
• patch cord
• patch cord
• A patch cord (sometimes called a patch cable) is a length
of cable with connectors on the ends that is used to
connect an end device .
• One of the most common uses is connecting a laptop,
desktop or other end device to a wall outlet.

• Typically, a patch cord is a copper cable that has an RJ45,

connector on both ends, although hybrid versions exist
that have different types of connectors on the ends.
• Fiber patch cords are typically called fiber jumpers and are
either standard jumpers or mode conditioning jumpers.
• A patch cord may also be used to connect a switch port or
a server to the structured cabling system.
RJ connectors
RJ connectors
• A registered jack (RJ) is a standard network interface used
to connect the devices.
• There are different registered jacks are available such as
RJ11, RJ14, RJ21, RJ45, RJ48
• Many of these interface standards are commonly used in
North America, though some interfaces are used world-
wide.
• Registered Jack-45, an eight-wire connector used commonly to
connect computers onto a local-area networks (LAN), especially
Ethernets.
• RJ-11 connectors used for connecting telephone equipment.
Information Outlets (I/O Box)
• Information outlet is widely used in buildings as telephonic
wiring system.
• Information outlet is designed mainly for the wall, where
telephone wiring terminates.
• It contains a female jack that receives a mail plug that is inserted
into it. The offered outlet is used to connect many networking
equipment like telephone, fax, telephone answering machine,
etc.
Advantages
• Extending the network:- If your department has a wired network
and you need to add an outlet for a new employee or a new
office or area which requires network access.
Media Converter
• A media converter is a simple networking device that makes it
possible to connect two dissimilar media types such as twisted
pair with fiber optic cabling.
• A media converter is composed of two transceivers or MAU
(Media Attachment Units) that can transmit data to and receive
data from each other, and a power supply.

The applications of media converters

• Media converters can be used anywhere in the network from
computer servers to workstations.
• Media converters are used to extend the network
• The most commonly used media converters are twisted pair to
fiber media converters.
 Types of Connectivity
• Internet access is the means by which individual terminals,
computers, mobile devices, and local area networks are
connected to the global Internet.
• It is a source through which users can access Internet services.

• There are different types of Connectivity to the internet – Dial

up, Digital Subscriber Link (DSL), Asynchronous Digital
Subscriber Link (ADSL) , Leased line Non Exchange , Cable Net ,
WI-FI, WI-MAX, CDMA,GSM.
1. Dial up connection
Modem/Dial-Up
• A dial-up connection is an Internet access method that uses
modem and a telephone line to connect to the Internet.
• It is the most common way to connect to the Internet by home
computer users.
• To connect to the Internet using dial-up, the user needs to
specify a username and a password to the local Internet Service
Provider (ISP).
• As dial-up connection uses normal telephone lines, the quality of
the connection is not always good and the data rate is limited to
56 Kbps (56,000 bits per second).
• Digital Subscriber Link (DSL)
Digital Subscriber Line (DSL)
• A DSL is classification of the broadband.

• A DSL connection is one that provides a high speed Internet

through the existing copper wires of the telephone network.
• A DSL connection is always on and is almost 30 times faster than
dial-up modems. Multiple users can connect the Internet through
a DSL connection at the same time, which means an increase in
productivity and network flexibility in the office.
• DSL connections utilize a bandwidth of up to 1.2 MHz and enable
data speed from 128 Kbps up to 6.144 Mbps.
Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line (ADSL)
Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line (ADSL)
• ADSL is a new form DSL technology, which allows very high
bandwidth over standard copper telephone wires.
• ADSL supports a bandwidth up to 8 Mbps for downloading
and up to 1 Mbps for uploading.
• The asymmetrical nature of ADSL technology makes it ideal
for Internet/Intranet surfing, video-on-demand, and remote
local area network (LAN) access.
• Users of ADSL typically download more information than
they send.
• But there is a problem associated with the ADSL
connections. The quality of the signals is reduced as the
distance between user network and the exchange increases.
Ideally, ADSL connections are reliable in a distance up to
12,000 feet (about 2.0 miles) from the exchange.
Leased line Non Exchange
• A leased line, a type of dedicated line, is a permanent fiber optic
or telephone line connection between two points set up by a
telecommunications carrier.
• It can be used for telephone, data, or Internet services. Often,
businesses will use a leased line to connect geographically
distant offices because it guarantees bandwidth for network
traffic.
• For example, a bank may use a leased line in order to easily
transfer financial information from one branch office to another.
• Both long and short distances can be spanned by a leased line,
and customers generally pay a flat monthly rate for the service.
• Leased lines do not have telephone numbers because each side
of the line is always connected to the other. In contrast,
telephone lines reuse the same lines for different purpose.

Advantages of leased line

1. They typically offer faster download and upload speeds.

2. better security and privacy, as the lines are dedicated to the

company
3. Reliable bandwidths are available.
4. Constant Connectivity are available.
Cable Net
• WI-MAX
WI-MAX
• (Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access) is a wireless
communications standard designed to provide 30 to 40 megabit-
per-second data rates.
• WiMAX is based on IEEE 802.16 specification and it is expected
to deliver high quality broadband services.
• WiMAX can provide at-home or mobile Internet access across
whole cities or countries.
• This technology provides fixed as well as fully mobile high speed
broadband connectivity along with roaming feature.
• Wimax Technology perform a variety of task at a time such as
offering high speed internet, providing telephone service,
transformation of data, video streaming, voice application etc
• CDMA
• CDMA stands for "Code Division Multiple Access."

• CDMA is a wireless transmission technology.

• CDMA is a popular communications method used by many cell

phone companies.
• CDMA transmits over the entire frequency range available. It
does not assign a specific frequency to each user on the
communications network. This method, called multiplexing.
• CDMA does not limit each user's frequency range, there is more
bandwidth available. This allows more users to communicate on
the same network at one time.
• CDMA is a digital technology, analog audio signals must be
digitized before being transmitted on the network. CDMA is used
by 2G and 3G wireless communications and typically operates in
the frequency range of 800 MHz to 1.9 GHz.
GSM
• GSM stands for Global System for Mobile Communication and it
is used for transmitting mobile voice and data services.
• The GSM standard is the most widely accepted standard and is
implemented globally.
• The GSM is a circuit-switched system that divides each 200kHz
channel into eight 25kHz time-slots.
• The GSM makes use of Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)
technique for transmitting signals.
• The GSM was developed using digital technology. It has an ability
to carry 64 kbps to 120 Mbps of data rates.
• Presently GSM support more than one billion mobile subscribers
in more than 210 countries throughout of the world.
• The GSM provides basic to advanced voice and data services
including Roaming service. Roaming is the ability to use your
GSM phone number in another GSM network.
Advantages of GSM
• Improved spectrum efficiency.
• International roaming.
• Low-cost mobile sets and base stations (BSs)
• High-quality speech
• Compatibility with Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) and
other telephone company services.
• Support for new services
network operating system
• An operating system that includes special functions for
connecting computers and devices into a local-area network
(LAN).
• A network operating system (NOS) provides services to clients
over a network. Network Operating Systems are based on a
client/server architecture in which a server enables multiple
clients to share resources.
• The network operating system is designed to allow
shared file and printer access among multiple computers in a
network, typically a local area network (LAN), a private network
or to other networks.
• The most popular network operating systems are Microsoft
Windows Server 2003, Microsoft Windows Server 2008, UNIX,
Linux, Mac OS X, and Novell NetWare.

Functions of NOS

Providing access to remote printers

Enabling and managing access to files on remote systems

Granting access to remote applications and resources

Providing routing services

Monitoring the system security

Providing basic network administration
 Unit -4
Internet protocol
• ARP/RARP: Resolution

• Address Resolution Protocol, a network layer protocol used to

convert an IP address into a physical address.
• A host wishing to obtain a physical address broadcasts an ARP
request onto the TCP/IP network. The host on the network that
has the IP address in the request then replies with its physical
hardware address.
• On a typical physical network, such as a LAN, each device on a
link is identified by a physical therefore ARP is required to map
the logical address into the physical address.
Figure 7.1 ARP and RARP

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 250

Figure 7.2 Position of ARP and RARP in TCP/IP protocol suite

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 251

Figure 7.3 ARP operation

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 252

 Note:

An ARP request is broadcast;

an ARP reply is unicast.

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 253

ARP packet Format

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 254

• Hardware type:-This field specifies the network hardware type.
Example: Ethernet is 1.
• Protocol type :-This field specifies the internetwork protocol for
which the ARP request is intended. For IPv4, this has the value
0x0800.
• Hardware length :-This field specify the Length of a hardware
address.
• Protocol length :- This field specify the Length of a protocol
address.
•
• Operation :- This field Specifies the operation that the
sender is performing: 1 for request, 2 for reply.
• Sender hardware address :- This field specify hardware
address of the sender .
• Sender protocol address:- This field specify IP protocol
address of the sender .
• Target hardware address :- This field specify Hardware
address of the target . This field is ignored in requests.
• Target protocol address :- This field specify the IP protocol
address of the target
RARP
• Reverse Address Resolution Protocol finds the logical address
for a machine that only knows its physical address.
• A network administrator creates a table in a local area network's
gateway router that maps the physical machine addresses to
corresponding Internet Protocol addresses.
• When a new machine is set up, its RARP client program requests
from the RARP server on the router to be sent its IP address.
• Assuming that an entry has been set up in the router table, the
RARP server will return the IP address to the machine which can
store it for future use.
 Note:

The RARP request packets are broadcast;

the RARP reply packets are unicast.

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 258

Figure 7.10 RARP operation

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 259

Figure 7.11 RARP packet

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 260

• Hardware type:-This field specifies the network hardware type.
Example: Ethernet is 1.
• Protocol type :-This field specifies the internetwork protocol for
which the ARP request is intended. For IPv4, this has the value
0x0800.
• Hardware length :-This field specify the Length of a hardware
address.
• Protocol length :- This field specify the Length of a protocol
address.
•
• Operation :- This field Specifies the operation that the
sender is performing: 3 for request, 4 for reply.
• Sender hardware address :- This field specify hardware
address of the sender .
• Sender protocol address:- This field specify IP protocol
address of the sender .
• Target hardware address :- This field specify Hardware
address of the target .
• Target protocol address :- This field specify the IP protocol
address of the target . This field is ignored in requests.
 Encapsulation
• When referring to networking, encapsulation is the process of
taking data from one protocol and translating it into another
protocol, so the data can continue across a network.
 ARP Encapsulation
• In ARP Encapsulation the ARP packet is converted into the
Ethernet frame.
Figure 7.5 Encapsulation of ARP packet

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 265

 RARP Encapsulation
• In RARP Encapsulation, the RARP packet is converted into the
Ethernet frame.
Figure 7.12 Encapsulation of RARP packet

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 267

Internet protocol
Figure 8.1 Position of IP in TCP/IP protocol suite

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 269

• IP (Internet Protocol) is the primary network protocol used on
the Internet.
• On the Internet and many other networks, IP is often used
together with the Transport Control Protocol (TCP) and referred
to interchangeably as TCP/IP.
• IP supports unique addressing for computers on a network. Most
networks use the Internet Protocol version 4 (IPv4) standard that
features IP addresses four bytes (32 bits) in length.
• The newer Internet Protocol version 6 (IPv6) standard features
addresses 16 bytes (128 bits) in length.
• Data on an Internet Protocol network is organized into packets.
Each IP packet includes both a header (that specifies source,
destination, and other information about the data) and the
message data itself.
• IP functions at layer 3 of the OSI model.
• Its routing function enables internetworking, and essentially
establishes theInternet.
• The Internet Protocol is responsible for addressing hosts and for
routing datagram (packets) from a source host to a destination
host across one or more IP networks. For this purpose, the
Internet Protocol defines the format of packets and provides an
addressing system that has two functions: identifying hosts and
providing a logical location service.
 Virtual network
• A virtual network is a computer network that consists of virtual

network links.

• A virtual network link is a link that does not consist of a physical

(wired or wireless) connection between two computing devices

but is implemented using methods of network virtualization.

• The two most common forms of network virtualization are
protocol-based virtual networks, (such as VLANs, VPNs, and
VPLSs) and virtual networks that are based on virtual devices.
1. Virtual LANs (VLANs) are logical local area network s (LANs) based
on physical LANs. A VLAN can be created by partitioning a
physical LAN into multiple logical LANs using a VLAN ID.
• several physical LAN's can function as a single logical LAN

2. VPN is a private network that uses a public network (usually the

Internet) to connect remote sites or users together. The VPN uses
"virtual" connections routed through the Internet from the
business's private network to the remote site or employee.

By using a VPN, businesses ensure security -- anyone intercepting

the encrypted data can't read it.
• The goal of a VPN is to provide the organization with the same
capabilities as leased line, but at a much lower cost.
• These systems use encryption and other security mechanisms to
ensure that only authorized users can access the network and
that the data cannot be intercepted.
• Virtual private LAN service (VPLS) is a technology that makes it
possible to connect local area networks (LANs) over the Internet.
• A VPLS uses multiprotocol label switching (MPLS) to create the
appearance of a virtual private network (VPN) at each subscriber
location.
• A VPLS is easy to use because subscribers do not have to connect
directly to the Internet
• A VPLS can provide point-to-point and multipoint services.

• It is possible to build a VPLS over a wide geographic area, and the

technology allows for subscribers to change locations easily. The
service is also scalable. A VPLS can serve anywhere from a few
subscribers up to hundreds of thousands.
 IP as a Connectionless Network

• Delivery of a packet can be accomplished by using either a

connection-oriented or a connectionless network service.

• In a connection-oriented service, the source first makes a

connection with the destination before sending a packet.

• When the connection is established, a sequence of packets from

the same source to the same destination can be sent one after
another.

• In this case, there is a relationship between packets.

• They are sent on the same path in sequential order.

• When all packets of a message have been delivered, the
connection is terminated.

• In a connection-oriented protocol, the decision about the route

of a sequence of packets with the same source and destination
addresses can be made only once, when the connection is
established.

• Switches do not recalculate the route for each individual

• packet.

• This type of service is used in a virtual-circuit approach to packet

switchingsuch as in Frame Relay and ATM.
• In connectionless service, the network layer protocol treats each
packet independently, with each packet having no relationship to
any other packet.

• A station sends data packets to another station when-ever the

packets are ready.

• There is no connection establishment or connection

termination.

• This type of service is used in the datagram approach to packet

switching.

• The Internet has chosen this type of service at the network layer
• The switch (packet switch) does not keep information about the
connection state.
• IP transports data in packets called datagrams, each of which is
transported separately.
• Datagrams can travel along different routes and can arrive out of
sequence or be duplicated.
• IP does not keep track of the routes and has no facility for
reordering data-grams once they arrive at their destination.
 Unreliable IP service
• IPv4 is an unreliable and connectionless datagram protocol-a
best-effort delivery service.
• The term best-effort means that IPv4 provides no error control
or flow control
• IPv4 assumes the unreliability of the under-lying layers and does
its best to get a transmission through to its destination, but with

no guarantees.
• The network layer in the Internet is unreliable (best-effort
delivery), we need to implement reliability at the transport layer.
• To understand that error control at the data link layer does not
guarantee error control at the transport layer.
IP header Format
• A datagram is a variable-length packet consisting of two parts:
header and data
• The header is 20 to 60 bytes in length and contains information
essential to routing and delivery
• Version (VER). This 4-bit field defines the version of the IP
protocol. Currently the version is 4.
• Header length (HLEN). This 4-bit field defines the total length of
the datagram header in 4-byte words. This field is needed
because the length of the header is variable (between 20 and 60
bytes). When there are no options, the header length is 20 bytes,
and the value of this field is 5 (5 x 4 = 20). When the option field
is at its maximum size, the value of this field is 15 (15 x 4 = 60).
• Type of Service: 8 bits
• The first three bits of this field are known as precedence bits and are
ignored as of today. The next 4 bits represent type of service and the
last bit is left unused. The 4 bits that represent TOS are : minimize
delay, maximize throughput, maximize reliability and minimize cost.

Total length. This is a 16-bit field that defines the total length (header
plus data)of the IPv4 datagram in bytes.
To find the length of the data coming from the upper layer, subtract
the header length from the total length.
The header length can be found by multiplying the value in the HLEN
field by 4.Length of data =total length - header length
• Identification.
• This 16-bit field identifies a datagram originating from the source
• host.
• The combination of the identification and source IPv4 address
must uniquely define a datagram as it leaves the source host.
• To guarantee uniqueness, the IPv4 protocol uses a counter to
label the datagrams.
• Flags. Flags. This is a 3-bit field. The first bit is reserved. The
second bit is called the do not fragment bit. If its value is 1, If
• its value is 0, the datagram can be fragmented if necessary. The
third bit is called the more fragment bit. If its value is 1, it means
the datagram is not the last fragment; there are more fragments
after this one. If its value is 0, it means this is the last or only
fragment .
• Fragmentation offset. This 13-bit field shows the
relative position of this fragment with respect to
the whole datagram. It is the offset of the data in
the original datagram measured in units of 8
bytes.
0-1399 Fragmentation offset 0 (0/8=0)
byte

1400-
2799 Fragmentation offset 175 (1400/8)
4000 byte
byte
2800-
3999 Fragmentation offset 350 (2800/8 =350
byte
• Time to live. A datagram has a limited lifetime in its travel
through an internet.
• This field was originally designed to hold a timestamp, which was
decremented by
• each visited router. The datagram was discarded when the value
became zero.

• Protocol. This 8-bit field defines the higher-level protocol that

uses the services of the IPv4 layer. An IPv4 datagram can
encapsulate data from several higher-level protocols such as TCP,
UDP, ICMP, and IGMP. This field specifies the final destination
protocol to which the IPv4 datagram is delivered.
• maximum transmission unit (MTU)
• A maximum transmission unit (MTU) is the largest size packet or frame,
specified in octets (eight-bit bytes), that can be sent in a packet- or frame-
based network such as the Internet.
• The value of the MTU differs from one physical network protocol to
another. Forexample, the value for the Ethernet LAN is 1500 bytes, for
FDDI LAN is 4352 bytes,and for PPP is 296 bytes.
• Too large an MTU size may mean retransmissions if the packet encounters
a router that can't handle that large a packet. Too small an MTU size
means relatively more header overhead and more acknowledgements
that have to be sent and handled. Most computer operating systems
provide a default MTU value that is suitable for most users.
• In order to make the IP protocol independent of the physical network,
the designers decided to make the maximum length of the IP
datagram equal to 65,535 bytes. This makes transmission more
efficient if we use a protocol with an MTU of this size. How-ever, for
other physical networks, we must divide the datagram to make it
possible to pass through these networks. This is called fragmentation.
• When a datagram is fragmented, each fragment has its own header
with most of the fields repeated, but some changed. A fragmented
datagram may itself be frag-mented if it encounters a network with an
even smaller MTU. In other words, a data-gram can be fragmented
several times before it reaches the final destination.
• ·
 Routing Algorithm
• Routing algorithm is the process of selecting paths in a network
along which to send network traffic.
• Routing algorithm uses the routing table .

• In Routing ,every packet in a datagram network carries a header

that contains the destination address of the packet. When the
switch receives the packet, this destination address is examined;
the routing table is consulted to find the corresponding port
through which the packet should be forwarded.
• The routing performs at the network layer.
• Different types of routing algorithms used in network.

1. Distance vector algorithms

• In distance vector routing, the least-cost route between any two
nodes is the route with minimum distance.
• In this algorithm, each node maintains a vector (table) of
minimum distances to every node.
• The table at each node also guides the packets to the desired
node by showing the next stop in the route (next-hop routing).
• Link-state algorithms
• A router periodically broadcasts link state information to all other routers in
the network.
• Dijkstra's algorithm is generally used in Link-state algorithms
• In link state routing, four sets of actions are required to ensure that each
node has the routing table showing the least-cost node to every other node.
• 1. Creation of the states of the links by each node, called the link state
packet (LSP).
• 2. spreading of LSPs to every other router, called flooding, in an efficient and
reliable way.
• 3. Formation of a shortest path tree for each node.
• 4. Calculation of a routing table based on the shortest path tree.
Path Vector Routing
• Distance vector and link state routing are both intradomain
routing protocols.
• They can be used inside an autonomous system, but not
between autonomous systems.
• The principle of path vector routing is similar to that of distance
vector routing.
• In path vector routing, we assume that there is one node in each
autonomous system that acts on behalf of the entire autono-
mous system. Let us call it the speaker node. The speaker node in
an AS creates a routing table and advertises it to speaker nodes
in the neighboring ASs.
• The idea is the same as for distance vector routing except that
only speaker nodes in each AS can communicate with each other.
However, what is advertised is different. A speaker node
advertises the path, not the metric of the nodes, in its
autonomous system or other autonomous systems.
 IP Checksum
• This field is used to detect errors over the entire datagram
(header plus data).
• The Internet has been using a 16-bit checksum. The sender
calculates the
• checksum by following these steps.
• Sender site:
• 1. The message is divided into 16-bit words.
• 2. The value of the checksum word is set to O.
• 3. All words including the checksum are added
• 4. The sum is complemented and becomes the checksum.
• 5. The checksum is sent with the data.
• The receiver uses the following steps for error detection.

• Receiver site:

• 1. The message (including checksum) is divided into 16-bit words.

• 2. All words are added.

• 3. The sum is complemented and becomes the new checksum.

• 4. If the value of checksumis 0, the message is accepted;

otherwise, it is rejected.
 Internet Control Message Protocol
• The Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) is a mechanism
used by hosts and gateways to send notification of datagram
problems back to the sender. ICMP send query and error
reporting messages.

IP Packet
IP Packet

Sender Gateway Receiver

ICMP
ICMP
Figure 8.1 Position of IP in TCP/IP protocol suite

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 304

• ICMP provides alerts. It reports congestion and some types of
errors in the network or destination host.
• One of the main responsibilities of ICMP is to report errors.

• ICMP always reports error messages to the original source.

• ICMP messages are divided into two broad categories: error-

reporting messages and query messages.

1. The error-reporting messages report problems that a router or a

host (destination) may encounter when it processes an IP packet.

2. The query messages, which occur in pairs, help a host or a

network manager get specific information from a router or
another host.
 ICMP Header Format
 An ICMP message has an 8-byte header and a variable-size data
section. the first 4 bytes are common to all.
• ICMP type :- The first field, ICMP type, defines the type of the
message. for example message may be Destination Unreachable,
Time Exceeded, Query etc.
• Code field (8 bits) is used to specify the type of error, and can be
any of the following:

Code Description

0 Network unreachable error.

1 Host unreachable error.

2 Protocol unreachable error

3 Port unreachable error

4 The datagram is too big.
• Checksum: This field is used to detect errors over the ICMP
header First, the value of the checksum field is set to O. Then the
entire header is divided into 16-bit sections and added together.
The result (sum) is complemented and inserted into the
checksum field.
• Rest of Header – Four byte field. Will vary based on the ICMP
type and code.
• The data section :- The data section in error messages carries
information for finding the original packet that had the error.
 IGMP (Internet Group Management Protocol )
• IGMP is not a multicasting routing protocol; it is a protocol that
manages group membership.
• In any network, there are one or more multicast routers that
distribute multicast packets to hosts or other routers.
• The IGMP protocol gives the multicast routers information about
the membership status of hosts (routers) connected to the
network.
• A multicast router may receive thousands ofmulticast packets
every day for different groups. If a router has no knowledge
about the membership status of the hosts, it must
• broadcast all these packets.

• This creates a lot of traffic and consumes bandwidth.

• A better solution is to keep a list of groups in the network for
which there is at least one loyal member. IGMP helps the
multicast router create and update this list.
 IGMP header format
8 bits 8 bits 16 bits
Maximum
Type Response Checksum
Time

Group Address
• Type. This 8-bit field defines the type of message. Message type
may be
• General or special query

• Membership report
• Leave report

• Maximum Response Time. This 8-bit field defines the amount of

time in which a query must be answered. The value is in tenths
of a second; for example, if the value is 100, it means 10 s.
• Checksum. This is a 16-bit field carrying the checksum.
• Group address. The value defines the groupid (multicast address
of the group)
 Unit-5
HOST TO HOST PROTOCOLS
UDP
• Real communication takes place between two processes (application
programs). We need process-to-process delivery.
• The transport layer is responsible for process-to-process delivery
• At the transport layer, TCP/IP defines three protocols: Transmission
Control Protocol (TCP), User Datagram Protocol (UDP), and Stream
Control Transmission Protocol (SCTP).
• The User Datagram Protocol (UDP) is called a connectionless,
unreliable transport protocol. It does not add anything to the
services of IP except to provide process-to-process communication
instead of host-to-host communication. Also, it performs verylimited
error checking.
• UDP is a very simple protocol using a minimum of overhead.

• If a process wants to send a small message and does not care

much about reliability, it can use UDP. Sending a small message by
using UDP takes much less Interaction between the sender and
receiver than using TCP or SCTP.
• UPD Header Format

8 Byte

Source port number Destination port number

16 bits 16 bits

Total length Checksum

16 bits 16 bits

• UDP packets, called user datagrams, have a fixed-size header of 8

bytes.
1. Source port number:- This is the port number used by
the process running on the source host. It is 16 bits long.

2. Destination port number:- This is the port number used

by the process running on the destination host. It is also 16 bits
long.

3. Total Length:-This is a 16-bit field that defines the total length of

the user datagram, header plus data.
4. Checksum:- This field is used to detect errors over the entire
user datagram (header plus data).
Pseudo Header
• The pseudo header conceptually prefixed to the UDP header
contains the source address, the destination address, the
protocol, and the UDP length.
• This information gives protection against misrouted datagrams.
• This checksum procedure is the same as is used in TCP.
• Pseudo Header Format
• source and destination addresses :-The source and destination
addresses are those in the IPv4 header.
• Protocol field:- The protocol field is added to ensure that the
packet belongs to UDP.
• UDP length field :- The UDP length field is the length of the UDP
header and data.
• zero :-If the computed checksum is zero, it is transmitted as all
ones (the equivalent in one's complement arithmetic). An all zero
transmitted checksum value means that the transmitter
generated no checksum.
 Multiplexing & De-multiplexing

• The addressing mechanism allows multiplexing and de-

multiplexing by the transport layer.
Multiplexing
• At the sender site, there may be several processes that need to
send packets. However , there is only one transport layer
protocol at any time. This is a many-to-one relationship and
requires multiplexing.
• The protocol accepts messages from different processes,
differentiated by their assigned port numbers.
• After adding the header, the transport layer passes the packet to
the network layer.
De-multiplexing
• At the receiver site, the relationship is one-to-many and requires
de-multiplexing.
• The transport layer receives datagrams from the network layer.
After error checking and dropping of the header, the transport
layer delivers each message to the appropriate process based on
the port number.
Figure 15.1 TCP/IP protocol suite

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 326

TCP(Transmission Control Protocol)
• TCP provides process-to-process communication using port
numbers.
• TCP is one of the main protocols in TCP/Ip networks.
• TCP enables two hosts to establish a connection and exchange
streams of data.
• TCP guarantees delivery of data and also guarantees that packets
will be delivered in the same order in which they were sent.
• TCP provide connection oriented service.
• TCP offers reliable service. It uses an acknowledgment
mechanism to check the safe and sound arrival of data.
• TCP offers full-duplex service, where data can flow in both
directions at the same time.
• TCP performs multiplexing at the sender and de-multiplexing at
the receiver.
• TCP provides flow control mechanism.

• TCP implements an error control mechanism.

 Port
• In TCP/IP and UDP networks, a port is an endpoint to a logical
connection.
• With the help of port a client program specifies a specific server
program on a computer in a network.
• Some ports have numbers that are pre-assigned to them.
• List of Well-Known Ports
• Port numbers range from 0 to 65536, but only ports numbers 0
to 1024 are reserved for privileged services and designated as
well-known ports. This list of well-known port numbers specifies
the port used by the server process as its contact port.
S. N Port no Description
1. 20 FTP -- Data
2. 21 FTP – Control
3. 23 Telnet
4. 53 Domain Name System (DNS)
5. 80 HTTP
6. 115 Simple File Transfer Protocol (SFTP)
7. 546 DHCP Client
8. 547 DHCP Server
TCP Segment Format
• A packet in TCP is called a segment.
• The segment consists of a header of 20 to 60 bytes.
• The header is 20 bytes if there are no options and up to 60 bytes
if it contains options.
• Source port address:- This is a 16-bit field that defines the port
number of the application program in the host that is sending the
segment.
• Destination port address:- This is a 16-bit field that defines the
port number of the application program in the host that is
receiving the segment.
• Sequence number:- This 32-bit field defines the number assigned
to the first byte of data contained in this segment.
• Acknowledgment number:- This 32-bit field defines the byte
number that the receiver of the segment is expecting to receive
from the other party.
Header length:- This 4-bit field indicates the number of 4-byte
words in the TCP header. The length of the header can be
between 20 and 60 bytes. Therefore, the value of this field is
always between 5 (5 × 4 = 20) and 15 (15 × 4 = 60.

Reserved:- This is a 6-bit field reserved for future use.

Control.:- This field defines 6 different control bits or flags.

One or more of these bits can be set at a time. These bits
enable flow control, connection establishment and termination,
connection abortion, and the mode of data transfer in TCP.
• Window size:-This field defines the window size of the sending
TCP in bytes. Note that the length of this field is 16 bits, which
means that the maximum size of the window is 65,535 bytes.

• Checksum:- This 16-bit field contains the checksum.

checksum computation
Establishing a TCP Connection
TCP transmits data in full-duplex mode. When two TCPs in two
machines are con-nected, they are able to send segments to
each other simultaneously. TCP uses Three-Way Handshaking
method to Establishing a TCP Connection

Three-Way Handshaking
• The connection establishment in TCP is called three-way
handshaking.
• The three steps in Three-Way Handshaking are as follows.
1. The client sends the first segment, a SYN segment, in which
only the SYN flag is set. This segment is for synchronization of
sequence numbers. This sequence number is called the initial
sequence number (ISN). Note that this segment does not
contain an acknowledgment number. It does not define the
window size.SYN segment is a control segment and carries no
data. When the data transfer starts, the ISN is incremented by
1.
2. The server sends the second segment, a SYN + ACK segment with
two flag bits set:SYN and ACK. This segment has a dual purpose.
First, it is a SYN segment for com-munication in the other
direction. The server uses this segment to initialize a sequence
number for numbering the bytes sent from the server to the
client. The server also acknowledges the receipt of the SYN
segment from the client by setting the ACK flag and displaying
the next sequence number it expects to receive from the client.
3. The client sends the third segment. This is just an ACK segment.
It acknowledges the receipt of the second segment with the ACK
flag and acknowledgment number field. Note that the sequence
number in this segment is the same as the one in the SYN
segment; the ACK segment does not consume any sequence
numbers.
 UNIT-6

• APPLICATION LAYER PROTOCOL

• FTP
• FTP is an application layer protocol.
• File Transfer Protocol (FTP) is the standard mechanism provided
by TCP/IP for copying a file from one host to another.
• FTP establishes two connections between the hosts. One
connection is used for data transfer, the other for control
information.
• FTP is commonly used for uploading Web page files from client
to Server and It's also commonly used to download programs
from server to client.
• FTP uses the services of TCP. It needs two TCP connections. The
well-known port 21 is used for the control connection and the
well-known port 20 for the data connection.
• Atfer logon to an FTP server, you can also update (delete,
rename, move, and copy) files at a server.
TELNET
• TELNET is stands for TErminaL NETwork.

• It provides virtual terminal service and operate at application

layer.
• TELNET is a general-purpose client-server application program.

• TELNET establish a connection to a remote system in such a way

that the remote system appears to be a local terminal.
• TELNET operate in Time-Sharing Environment.

• TELNET uses the ip address of the destination to connect.

• TELNET requires user id and password to connect remote server

• NFS
• NFS stands for Network File System, a file system developed by Sun
Microsystems. It is a client/server system that allows users to access
files across a network
• The NFS protocol is designed to be independent of the computer,
operating system, network architecture, and transport protocol.
• NFS allows a server to share directories and files with clients over a
network
• NFS allows to access files on remote hosts in exactly the same way as
a user would access any local files
• NFS available in different version such as NFSv2, NFSv3 & NFSv4.
• NFS is often used with Unix operating systems.
• SMTP(Simple Mail Transfer Protocol)
• Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) define electronic mail
service on the Internet.
• It's a set of communication guidelines that allow software to
transmit email over the Internet
• SMTP is used two times, between the sender and the sender's
mail server and between the two mail servers.
• The greatest strengths of SMTP are reliability and simplicity.

• SMTP is independent of the particular transmission subsystem.

• SMTP is used for sending email, and It only works for outgoing
messages.
• Most servers these days actually us a slightly updated version of
the SMTP protocol called ESMTP (Extended Simple Mail Transfer
Protocol).
• remote login (rlogin)
• The process of logging on to a remote computer from a terminal
connected to a local computer.
• Remote Login When a user wants to access an application
program or utility located on a remote machine, he or she
performs remote login. Here the TELNET client and server
programs come into use. The user sends the keystrokes to the
terminal driver where the local operating system accepts the
characters but does not interpret them. The characters are sent
to the TELNET client, which transforms the characters to a
universal character set called Network Virtual Terminal (NVT)
characters and delivers them to the local TCP/IP.
• The commands or text, in NVT form, travel through the Internet
and arrive at the TCP/IP stack at the remote machine. Here the
characters are delivered to the operating system and passed to
the TELNET server.
SNMP (Simple Network Management Protocol )
• SNMP is a framework for managing devices in an internet using
the TCP/IP protocol.
• It provides a set of fundamental operations for monitoring and
maintaining an internet.
• SNMP uses the concept of manager and agent. That is, a
manager, usually a host, controls and monitors a set of agents,
usually routers or servers
• The protocol is designed at the application level so that it can
monitor devices made by different manufacturers and installed
on different physical networks.
• A management station, called a manager, is a host that runs the
SNMP client program. A managed station, called an agent, is a
router (or a host) that runs the SNMP server program.
Management is achieved through simple interaction between a
manager and an agent.
• SNMP defines the format of the packet to be sent from a
manager to an agent and vice versa.
Domain Name System (DNS)
• DNS is a client/server application program used to help other
application programs.
• DNS is used to map a host name in the application layer to an IP
address in the network layer.

NEED FOR DNS

• To identify an entity, TCP/IP protocols use the IP address, which
uniquely identied the connection of a host to the Internet.
However, people prefer to use names instead of numeric
addresses. Therefore, we need a system that can map a name to
an address oran address to a name.
• a user wants to use a file transfer client to access the
corresponding file transfer server running on a remote host. The
user knows only the file transfer
• server name, such as forouzan.com. However, the TCP/IP suite
needs the IP address of the file transfer server to make the
connection.
• The following six steps map the host
• name to an IP address.
1. The user passes the host name to the file transfer client.
2. The file transfer client passes the host name to the DNS client.
3. Each computer, after being booted, knows the
address of one DNS server. The DNS client sends a message to a
DNS server with
a query that gives the file transfer server name using the known
IP address of theDNS server.
4. The DNS server responds with the IP address of the desired file
transfer server.
5. The DNS client passes the IP address to the file transfer server.
6. The file transfer client now uses the received IP address to
access the file transferserver.
 DYNAMIC HOST
CONFIGURATION PROTOCOL
• Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) is a network
application protocol used by devices (DHCP clients) to obtain
configuration information for operation in an Internet Protocol
network.
• This protocol reduces system administration workload,
allowing devices to be added to the network with little or no
manual intervention.
• Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol automates network
parameter assignment to network devices from one or
multiple, DHCP servers.
• DHCP is also recommended for servers whose addresses
rarely change.
• When a DHCP-configured client connects to a network, the
DHCP client sends a broadcast query requesting necessary
information from a DHCP server. The DHCP server manages a
pool of IP addresses and information about client
configuration parameters such as the default gateway, the
domain name, the DNS servers, other servers such as time
servers, and so forth.
• Without DHCP, the IP address must be entered manually at
each computer in an organization and a new IP address must
be entered each time a computer moves to a new location on
the network.
• DHCP lets a network administrator supervise and distribute IP
addresses from a central point and automatically sends a new
IP address when a computer is plugged into a different place
in the network.
IPv6 Addressing
• Internet Protocol version 6 (IPv6) is the latest version of the
Internet Protocol (IP)
• An IPv6 address is 128 bits or 16 bytes long.

• The address length in IPv6 is four times of the length address in

IPv4.
• The address space of IPv6 contains 2128 addresses. This address
space is 296 times of the IPv4 address.
• IPv6 was developed by the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF)
to solve the problem of IPv4 address exhaustion.
Notations
• IPv6 Uses the following notations
1. Dotted-Decimal Notation
• 221.14.65.11.105.45.170.34.12.234.18.0.14.0.115.255
2. Colon Hexadecimal Notation
• To make addresses more readable, IPv6 specifies colon
hexadecimal notation

3. Mixed Representation
• FDEC:14AB:2311:BBFE:AAAA:BBBB:130.24.24.18
Benefits Of IPv6
• More Efficient Routing.
• More Efficient Packet Processing
• Simplified Network Configuration.
• Support For New Services
• Provide better Security
ICMPv6
• ICMPv6 is a combination of three protocols ICMP, IGMP, and ARP.

• ICMPv6, however, is more complicated than ICMPv4: some

protocols that were independent in version 4 are now part of
ICMPv6 and some new messages have been added to make it
more useful.
• ICMPv6 is message-oriented protocol.

• ICMPv6 messages are divided into four categories:

1. Error messages.

2. Informational messages.

3. Neighbor-discovery messages

4. group-membership messages.
 Unit -7

ROUTING AND MULTICASTING

ROUTING AND MULTICASTING

Routing
• Routing is the process of selecting best paths in a network.
Distance vector routing protocol
• Distance vector protocol maintain vectors (arrays) of distances to
other nodes in the network.
• Routers using distance-vector protocol do not have knowledge of
the entire path to a destination.
• Distance-vector protocols are based on calculating the direction
and distance to any link in a network.
• Direction" usually means the next hop address and the exit
interface. "Distance" is a measure of the cost to reach a certain
node.
• Each node knows the distance (=cost) to its directly connected
neighbors
• A node sends periodically a list of routing updates to its
neighbors.
• New nodes advertise themselves to their neighbors
Characteristic of Distance Vector Routing Protocols
1. Periodic Updates
• Periodic updates means that at the end of a certain time period,
updates will be transmitted.
2. Updates to Neighbors
• Neighbors means routers sharing a common data link. A distance
vector routing protocol sends its updates to neighboring routers.
3. Broadcast Updates
Updates are sent to the broadcast address 255.255.255.255.
4. Full table updates
When an update is sent, the entire routing table is sent.
5. Triggered updates
Also known as Flash updates, these are sent when a change
occurs outside the update interval.
Distance-Vector Routing Example
1. The starting assumption for distance-vector routing is that each
node knows the cost of the link to each of its directly connected
neighbors.

2. A link that is down is assigned an infinite cost.

A 1

B
1
3
2
C
D
1
 Initial State

A 1

B
1
3
2
C
D
1

Stored at Distance to reach a node

a node

A B C D
A 0 1 3 ?
B 1 0 1 2
C 3 1 0 1
D ? 2 1 0
 State 2

A 1

B
1
3
2
C
D
1

Stored at Distance to reach a node

a node

A B C D
A 0 1 2 (vi B) 3(vi B)
B 1 0 1 2
C 2(vi B) 1 0 1
D 3 (vi B) 2 1 0
Link state routing protocol
• Link State protocols track the status and connection type of
each link and produces a calculated metric based on these
and other factors, including some set by the network
administrator.
• Link state protocols know whether a link is up or down and
how fast it is and calculates a cost.
• Link State protocols will take a path which has more hops,
but that uses a faster medium over a path using a slower
medium with fewer hops.
• Because of their awareness of media types and other
factors, link state protocols require more processing power
and memory
• Hardware broadcast address
• This is a special network address used for broadcasting messages
to the entire network.
• In this case there is just one sender, but the information is sent
to all connected receivers.
• Packets sent to the broadcast address, all one bits, are received
by all stations on a local area network. In hexadecimal the
broadcast address would beFF:FF:FF:FF:FF:FF. A broadcast frame
is flooded and is forwarded to and accepted by all other nodes in
a network.
• Broadcast transmission is supported on most LANs (e.g. Ethernet
), and may be used to send the same message to all computers
on the LAN (e.g. the address resolution protocol (arp) uses this to
send an address resolution query to all computers on a LAN).
• Network layer protocols (such as IPv4) also support a form of
broadcast that allows the same packet to be sent to every system
in a logical network (in IPv4 this consists of the IP network ID and
an all 1's host number).
• Hardware Multicast address
• Multicast addresses are used to define a group of hosts instead
of just one.
• A packet sent to a multicast address must be delivered to each
member of the group.
• Packets sent to a multicast address are received by all stations on
a LAN that have been configured to receive packets sent to that
address
• IGMP uses this address to manage the membership of the group.

• Reserved the multicast address range of 01-00-5E-00-00-00 to

01-00-5E-7F-FF-FF for Ethernet
• Mapping IP Multicast to MAC-Layer Multicast
• To support IP multicasting, the Internet authorities have reserved
the multicast address range of 01-00-5E-00-00-00 to 01-00-5E-7F-
FF-FF for Ethernet and Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI)
• In media access control (MAC) addresses, the high order 25 bits
of the 48-bit MAC address are fixed and the low order 23 bits are
variable. And this 23 bits are consider form low order bits of IP
address.
WIRELESS NETWORKING
Hardware and Software Requirement for wireless network.
1. Wireless Network Adapters:- Wireless network adapters (also
known as wireless NICs or wireless network cards) are required
for each device on a wireless network. All newer laptop
computers include wireless adapters as a built-in feature of the
system. Separate add-on adapters must be purchased for older
laptop PC.
2. Wireless Modem /router:-
• A wireless router is a device that performs the functions of a
router but also includes the functions of a wireless access point.
It is commonly used to provide access to the Internet or a
computer network. It does not require a wired link, as the
connection is made wirelessly, via radio waves
3. Wireless Antennas
• Access points and routers often utilize a Wi-Fi wireless antenna
that significantly increase the communication range of the
wireless radio signal.

4. Wireless Repeaters
• A wireless repeater connects to a router or access point. Often
called signal boosters or range expanders
• Software Requirement:-
1. Driver support software for Wireless card.
2. Driver support software for Wireless Access Point.
3. Driver support software for Wireless Router.
4. Operating System:- Windows XP, Windows 7 / Windows Vista
• Types of wireless networks
1. Wireless PAN:- Wireless personal area networks
(WPANs) interconnect devices within a relatively
small area, that is generally within a person's reach.
[ For example, Bluetooth network

2. Wireless LAN:- A wireless local area network

(WLAN) links two or more devices over a short
distance using a wireless method.
3. Wireless mesh network:- A wireless mesh network
is a wireless network made up of radio nodes
organized in a mesh topology
4. Wireless MAN:-Wireless metropolitan area networks
are a type of wireless network that connects
several wireless LANs.
5. Wireless WAN:- Wireless wide area networks are
wireless networks that typically cover large areas,
such as between neighboring towns and cities
6. Cellular network:-A cellular network or mobile
network is a radio network distributed over land
areas called cells,
7. Global area network:- A global area network (GAN)
is a network used for supporting mobile across an
arbitrary number of wireless LANs.
1. Space network: Space networks are networks used
for communication between spacecraft.
The example of this is NASA's Space Network.
• Wireless networking standards:-
1. 802.11a
2. The 802.11a standard developed by the IEEE for
wireless network technology. 802.11a applies
to wireless local area networks and supports a
maximum a maximum connect rate of 54 Mbps
throughput in the 5GHz band.
• 802.11b
• The 802.11 standard developed by the IEEE for
wireless network technology. 802.11b applies to
wireless local area networks and supports a
maximum connect rate of 11 Mbps with 2.4GHz
ISM band.
• 802.11g
• An extension to the 802.11 standard that allows
for a maximum connect rate of 54 Mbps while
maintaining compatibility with the 802.11b
standard in the 2.4Ghz band.
• 802.11i
• An extension to the 802.11 standard to provide
improved security over that which is available
under 802.11 extensions.
• 802.11n
• Uses multiple transmitter and receiver antennas
(MIMO) to allow for increased data throughput
and range.
• 8 Applications of wireless technology
– 8.1 Mobile telephones
– 8.2 Wireless data communications
– 8.3 Wireless energy transfer
– 8.4 Wireless Medical Technologies
– 8.5 Computer interface devices
• 8 Applications of wireless technology
– 8.1 Mobile telephones
– 8.2 Wireless data communications
– 8.3 Wireless energy transfer
– 8.4 Wireless Medical Technologies
– 8.5 Computer interface devices