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1.1 INTRODUCTION—WHAT IS A
COMPUTER?
The Oxford Dictionary
1.2 EVOLUTION OF COMPUTERS—A BRIEF
HISTORY
Computing in the mechanical era
abacus
2
Analytical Engine
Computing in the electrical era
Z3.
Colossus
FORTRAN
ALGOL, COBOL, BASIC, PASCAL, C/C++, ADA JAVA
ENIAC
IAS
UNIX MSDOS
MS-WINDOWS
LINUX
1.3 GENERATIONS OF COMPUTERS
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Table 1.1 Technology used in different generations of computers
Generation Technology Operating Year of introduction
number system
1 Vacuum Tube None 1945 Mark 1
2 Transistor None 1956 IBM 1401, ICL 1901, B5000, MINSK-2
3 SSI and MSI Yes 1964 IBM S/360/370, UNIVAC 1100,
HP 2100A, HP 9810
4 LSI and VLSI Yes 1971 ICL 2900, HP 9845A, VAX 11/780, ALTAIR 8800, IBM PC
5 HAL Yes Present and beyond –
1.4 CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS
Desktop computer
Laptop computer
Palmtop computer/Digital diary/Notebook/PDAs
Supercomputer
1.5 ANATOMY OF A COMPUTER
Mainframe
hardware
software
1.5.1 Hardware
Minicomputers
Microcomputers Input devices
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Keyboard
Character keys
Scanner
Function keys
Output devices
Control keys
Navigation keys
Toggle keys
Monitor
Miscellaneous keys
key
matrix
Mouse
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laser printer
, ,
Central processing unit (CPU)
.
Printer
impact
printer
Registers
Wide-carriage dot matrix printer. Courtesy:
non–impact printer Dale Mahalko
the Creative Commons Attribution-
Share Alike 3.0 Unported license; http://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/
deed.en)
Arithmetic logic unit (ALU)
dot matrix printer
Control unit (CU)
instruction decoding circuit
inkjet
printer
control and timing circuit
cache memory
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primary memory
secondary memory
Primary memory
main memory
clock cycle
dual-core processor quad core
processor cache memory
Note
An integrated circuit, or IC, is a matrix of transistors and
other electrical components embedded in a small slice of
silicon.
A microprocessor is a digital electronic component with
miniaturized transistors on a single semiconductor
integrated circuit (IC). One or more microprocessors
typically serve as a central processing unit (CPU) in a
computer system or handheld device allocating space to
hold the data object.
Secondary memory
Memory unit
auxiliary memory
bits Note
The memory unit is composed of an ordered sequence of
storage cells, each capable of storing one byte of data.
Each memory cell has a distinct address which is used to
refer while storing data into it or retrieving data from it.
Both RAM and cache memory are referred to as primary
memory. Primary memory is comparatively expensive,
and loses all its data when the power is turned off.
Secondary memory provides less expensive storage that
is used to store data and instructions on a permanent
basis.
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Memory operations
Read
Write
Unit of memory
Fig. 1.1 Memory hierarchy
peripherals.
Interface unit
Word
size
Data bus
Address bus memory or Input/output device
Control bus
Memory hierarchy
controller
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Fig. 1.2 Bus-based computer organization
Motherboard
Fig. 1.3 Motherboard
Interface module
CPU socket
ROM integrated chip
Memory sockets Ports and expansion slots
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ISA slots Note
PCI slots The motherboard is a printed circuit board which contains
the circuitry and connections that allow the various
Advanced graphics port (AGP) components of the computer system to communicate
with each other. In most computer systems, the CPU,
memory, and other major components are mounted to
Parallel port wiring on the motherboard.
The input, output, and storage equipment that might be
added to a computer system to enhance its functionality
Serial ports are known as peripheral devices. Popular peripheral
devices include printers, digital cameras, scanners,
joysticks, and speakers.
1.5.2 Software
USB (universal serial bus)
CMOS
Table 1.2 Comparison between computer program and software
Computer program Software
Programs are developed A large number of developers are
System unit by individuals. A single involved.
developer is involved.
Small in size and have Extremely large in size and has
limited functionality enormous functionality.
The user interface may For a software product, user
not be very important, interface must be carefully designed
because the programmer and implemented because
is the sole user. developers of that product and users
of that product are totally different.
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System software
Note
operating system
Without any software, the computer is called a bare
machine, having the potential to perform many functions
but no ability to do so on its own.
1.6 MEMORY REVISITED
loader
1.6.1 Primary Memory
Random Access Memory (RAM).
device driver
plug-
and-play
Application software
dynamic static
Dynamic RAM (DRAM)
custom
software pre-written software packages
custom software
A pre-written software package
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Static RAM
(SRAM)
Fig. 1.4 Types of memory
Table 1.3 Static RAM versus dynamic RAM
Static RAM Dynamic RAM
It does not require It requires extra electronic
refreshing. circuitry that ‘‘refreshes’’
memory periodically; otherwise
its content will be lost.
It is more expensive than It is less expensive than static
dynamic RAM. RAM.
It is lower in bit density. It holds more bits of storage in
a single integrated circuit.
Double Data Rate
It is faster than dynamic It is slower than SRAM, due to
RAM. refreshing.
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Note
RAM holds raw data waiting to be processed as well as
the program instructions for processing that data. It also
stores the results of processing until they can be stored
more permanently on secondary storage media. Most
important point to be noted is that RAM holds operating
system instructions which are loaded at start-up and time
Level 1 (Primary) cache to time as and when required.
Dynamic RAM is less expensive, consumes less electrical
power, generates less heat, and can be made smaller,
Level 2 (Secondary) cache with more bits of storage in a single integrated circuit.
Static RAM provides faster access with lower bit density
and are more expensive than dynamic RAM.
ROM contains a small set of instructions that tell the
Read Only Memory (ROM) system, and load it into RAM. After the operating system
is loaded, the computer can accept input, display output,
run software, and access data.
The programmable read-only memory (PROM) is non-
volatile and can be reprogrammed only once by a special
write device after fabrication. An erasable programmable
ROM (EPROM) can be erased by ultraviolet (UV) light or
by high-voltage pulses.
1.6.2 Secondary Memory
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drives
The
Fig. 1.5 Hard disk organization
CD
hard disk
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1.7 INTRODUCTION TO OPERATING The kernel
SYSTEMS
Process(or) management
1.7.1 Loading an Operating System
Memory management
Device management
File management
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Booting
fetched
decoded
execution
address register
stored
Master Boot Record
bootstrap
loader
Fig. 1.6
Note
Note
Cold boot describes the process of starting the computer
and loading its operating system by turning the power on. A register is a single, permanent storage location within the
If the computer is running, one can carry out cold boot by
several important registers such as
Warm boot describes the process of restarting the The program counter(PC) register holds the address of
computer and loading its operating system again without the current instruction being executed.
switching it off after it has already been running. The instruction register (IR) holds the actual instruction
being executed currently by the computer.
To access data in memory, CPU makes use of two internal
registers:
1.8 OPERATIONAL OVERVIEW OF A CPU The memory address register (MAR) holds the address
of a memory location.
The memory data register (MDR), sometimes known as
the memory buffer register, will hold a data value that is
instruction cycle
being stored to or retrieved from the memory location
currently addressed by the memory address register.
fetch, decode, execute, and store
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SUMMARY
KEY TERMS
ALU CPU
BIOS Hardware
RAM
Cache memory
ROM
CMOS
Software
Control unit
Computer
FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTIONS
1. What is a microprocessor? booting
5. Where is the operating system stored?
2. What is a chip?
kernel
3. What is a chipset?
chipset
6. What is a plug-and-play device?
4. What is booting?
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7. If a computer contains RAM, why does it need ROM too?
EXERCISES
1. 10.
11.
12.
2. 13.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
