JAWAHARLAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

BORAWAN

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL
ENGINEERING

RAJIV GANDHI TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY BHOPAL

MINOR PROJECT
ON
“HYPERLOOP”

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 DECLARATION
I sincerely declare that

1. I am the sole writer of this report

2. The details of training and experience obtain in this report described my
involvement as a trainee in the field of mechanical engineering
3. All the information contain in this report is certain and correct to the
knowledge of the author

Signature: -

Name: - Piyush Vaidya

Enrollment no: -0805me131078

Date: -

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 Acknowledgement
I would like to thank Mr. Pradeep yadav sir our project guide who help us to get
the basic knowledge of the project he also help us to have a brief outlook of the
project due to his guidance and constant support we are able to complete our
project

I would also like to thank Abhishek yadav sir for his constant support and look on
the project. He also motivated us to take this task and bring this idea to the people

Thanks to all the faculties of mechanical department for their regular support and
guidance. And for being always ready to clear our doubts

At last I would like to thank my parents and my family for investing on my project
and for their blessing for this project

Piyush Vaidya

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 Content

s. no heading Page no

1 Abstract 5

2 Background 7

3 Hyperloop transportation system 8

4 Capsule 10

5 Geometry 11

6 Interior 12

7 Compressor 14

8 Suspension 16

9 On board power 19

10 Propulsion 19

11 Capsule cost 21

12 Tube 24

13 Tube construction 27

14 Pylon and tunnels 29

15 Safety & reliability 30

16 Overall cost 33

17 Conclusion 34

18 Future work 35

19 Bibliography 36

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 HYPERLOOP ALPHA

Abstract

Existing conventional modes of transportation of people consists of four

unique types: rail, road, water, and air. These modes of transport tend to be
either relatively slow (i.e., road and water), expensive (i.e., air), or a
combination of relatively slow and expensive (i.e., rail). Hyperloop is a new
mode of transport that seeks to change this paradigm by being both fast and
inexpensive for people and goods. Hyperloop is also unique in that it is an
open design concept, similar to Linux. Feedback is desired from the
community that can help advance the Hyperloop design and bring it from
concept to reality.
Hyperloop consists of a low pressure tube with capsules that are transported
at both low and high speeds throughout the length of the tube. The capsules
are supported on a cushion of air, featuring pressurized air and aerodynamic
lift. The capsules are accelerated via a magnetic linear accelerator affixed at
various stations on the low pressure tube with rotors contained in each

5
capsule. Passengers may enter and exit Hyperloop at stations located either
at the ends of the tube, or branches along the tube length.
In this study, the initial route, preliminary design, and logistics of the
Hyperloop transportation system have been derived. The system consists of
capsules that travel between Los Angeles, California and San Francisco,
California. The total trip time is approximately half an hour, with capsules
departing as often as every 30 seconds from each terminal and carrying 28
people each. This gives a total of 7.4 million people each way that can be
transported each year on Hyperloop. The total cost of Hyperloop in this
analysis is under $6 billion USD. Amortizing this capital cost over 20 years
and adding daily operational costs gives a total of about $20 USD (in current
year dollars) plus operating costs per one-way ticket on the passenger
Hyperloop.

6
 Background

The corridor between San Francisco, California and Los Angeles, California
is one of the most often travelled corridors in the American West. The
current practical modes of transport for passengers between these two major
population centers include:
1. Road (inexpensive, slow, usually not environmentally sound)
2. Air (expensive, fast, not environmentally sound)
3. Rail (expensive, slow, often environmentally sound)
A new mode of transport is needed that has benefits of the current modes
without the negative aspects of each. This new high speed transportation
system has the following requirements:
1. Ready when the passenger is ready to travel (road)
2. Inexpensive (road)
3. Fast (air)
4. Environmentally friendly (rail/road via electric cars)
The current contender for a new transportation system between southern and
northern California is the “California High Speed Rail.” The parameters
outlining this system include:
1. Currently $68.4 billion USD proposed cost
2. Average speed of 164 mph (264 kph) between San Francisco and Los
Angeles
3. Travel time of 2 hours and 38 minutes between San Francisco and Los
Angeles
a. Compare with 1 hour and 15 minutes by air
b. Compare with 5 hours and 30 minutes by car
4. Average one-way ticket price of $105 one-way (reference)
a. Compare with $158 round trip by air for September 2013
b. Compare with $115 round trip by road ($4/gallon with 30 mpg
vehicle)
A new high speed mode of transport is desired between Los Angeles and San
Francisco; however, the proposed California High Speed Rail does not reduce
current trip times or reduce costs relative to existing modes of transport. This
preliminary design study proposes a new mode of high speed transport that reduces
both the travel time and travel cost between Los Angeles and San Francisco.
Options are also included to increase the transportation system to other major

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population centers across California. It is also worth noting the energy cost of this
system is less than any currently existing mode of transport

Figure1. Energy cost per passenger for a journey between Los Angeles and
San Francisco for various modes of transport

Hyperloop Transportation System

Hyperloop (Figure 2 through Figure 3) is a proposed transportation system
for travelling between Los Angeles, California, and San Francisco,
California in 35 minutes. The Hyperloop consists of several distinct
components, including:
1. Capsule:

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 a. Sealed capsules carrying 28 passengers each that travel along
the interior of the tube depart on average every 2 minutes from
Los Angeles or San Francisco (up to every 30 seconds during
peak usage hours).
b. A larger system has also been sized that allows transport of 3
full size automobiles with passengers to travel in the capsule.
c. The capsules are separated within the tube by approximately 23
miles (37 km) on average during operation.
d. The capsules are supported via air bearings that operate using a
compressed air reservoir and aerodynamic lift.
2. Tube:
a. The tube is made of steel. Two tubes will be welded together in
a side by side configuration to allow the capsules to travel both
directions.
b. Pylons are placed every 100 ft (30 m) to support the tube.
c. Solar arrays will cover the top of the tubes in order to provide
power to the system.
3. Propulsion:
a. Linear accelerators are constructed along the length of the tube
at various locations to accelerate the capsules.
b. Stators are located on the capsules to transfer momentum to the
capsules via the linear accelerators.
4. Route:
a. There will be a station at Los Angeles and San Francisco.
Several stations along the way will be possible with splits in the
tube.
b. The majority of the route will follow I-5 and the tube will be
constructed in the median.

Los

Angeles, San

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 Conceptual diagram
In addition to these aspects of the Hyperloop, safety and cost will also be
addressed in this study.
The Hyperloop is sized to allow expansion as the network becomes
increasingly popular. The capacity would be 840 passengers per hour which
more than sufficient to transport all of the 6 million passengers travelling
between Los Angeles and San Francisco areas per year. In addition, this
accounts for 70% of those travellers to use the Hyperloop during rush hour.
The lower cost of travelling on Hyperloop is likely to result in increased
demand, in which case the time between capsule departures could be
significantly shortened.

Capsule
Two versions of the Hyperloop capsules are being considered: a passenger
only version and a passenger plus vehicle version.
Hyperloop Passenger Capsule

Assuming an average departure time of 2 minutes between capsules, a

minimum of 28 passengers per capsule are required to meet 840 passengers
per hour. It is possible to further increase the Hyperloop capacity by
reducing the time between departures. The current baseline requires up to 40
capsules in activity during rush hour, 6 of which are at the terminals for
loading and unloading of the passengers in approximately 5 minutes.

Hyperloop Passenger Plus Vehicle Capsule

The passenger plus vehicle version of the Hyperloop will depart as often as
the passenger only version, but will accommodate 3 vehicles in addition to
the passengers. All subsystems discussed in the following sections are
featured on both capsules.
For travel at high speeds, the greatest power requirement is normally to
overcome air resistance. Aerodynamic drag increases with the square of

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speed, and thus the power requirement increases with the cube of speed. For
example, to travel twice as fast a vehicle must overcome four times the
aerodynamic resistance, and input eight times the power.
Just as aircraft climb to high altitudes to travel through less dense air,
Hyperloop encloses the capsules in a reduce pressure tube. The pressure of
air in Hyperloop is about 1/6 the pressure of the atmosphere on Mars. This is
an operating pressure of 100 Pascals, which reduces the drag force of the air
by 1,000 times relative to sea level conditions and would be equivalent to
flying above 150,000 feet altitude. A hard vacuum is avoided as vacuums
are expensive and difficult to maintain compared with low pressure
solutions. Despite the low pressure, aerodynamic challenges must still be
addressed. These include managing the formation of shock waves when the
speed of the capsule approaches the speed of sound, and the air resistance
increases sharply. Close to the cities where more turns must be navigated,
capsules travel at a lower speed. This reduces the accelerations felt by the
passengers, and also reduces power requirements for the capsule. The
capsules travel at
760 mph (1,220 kph, Mach 0.91 at 68 ºF or 20 ºC).
The proposed capsule geometry houses several distinct systems to reside
within the outer mould line (Figure 4).

Geometry
In order to optimize the capsule speed and performance, the frontal area has
been minimized for size while maintaining passenger comfort

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The vehicle is streamlined to reduce drag and features a compressor at the
leading face to ingest oncoming air for levitation and to a lesser extent
propulsion. Aerodynamic simulations have demonstrated the validity of this
‘compressor within a tube’ concept

Interior
The interior of the capsule is specifically designed with passenger safety and
comfort in mind. The seats conform well to the body to maintain comfort
during the high speed accelerations experienced during travel. Beautiful
landscape will be displayed in the cabin and each passenger will have access
their own personal entertainment system.
Hyperloop Passenger Capsule

The Hyperloop passenger capsule (Figure 8 and Figure 9) overall interior

weight is expected to be near 5,500 lb (2,500 kg) including the seats,
restraint systems, interior and door panels, luggage compartments, and
entertainment

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 Hyperloop capsule door open at station

Passenger sitting arrangement in Hyperloop

Hyperloop Passenger Plus Vehicle Capsule

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The Hyperloop passenger plus vehicle capsule overall interior weight is
expected to be near 6,000 lb (2,700 kg) including the seats, restraint systems,
interior and door panels, luggage compartments, and entertainment displays.
The overall cost of the interior components is targeted to be no more than
$185,000.

Compressor
One important feature of the capsule is the onboard compressor, which
serves two purposes. This system allows the capsule to traverse the
relatively narrow tube without choking flow that travels between the capsule
and the tube walls (resulting in a build-up of air mass in front of the capsule
and increasing the drag) by compressing air that is bypassed through the
capsule. It also supplies air to air bearings that support the weight of the
capsule throughout the journey.
The air processing occurs as follows (Figure 10 and Figure 11) (note mass
counting is tracked in Section 4.1.4):
Hyperloop Passenger Capsule

1. Tube air is compressed with a compression ratio of 20:1 via an axial

compressor.
2. Up to 60% of this air is bypassed:
a. The air travels via a narrow tube near bottom of the capsule to
the tail.
b. A nozzle at the tail expands the flow generating thrust to
mitigate some of the small amounts of aerodynamic and bearing
drag.
3. Up to 0.44 lb/s (0.2 kg/s) of air is cooled and compressed an
additional 5.2:1 for the passenger version with additional cooling
afterward.
a. This air is stored in onboard composite overwrap pressure vessels.
b. The stored air is eventually consumed by the air bearings to
maintain distance between the capsule and tube walls.
4. An onboard water tank is used for cooling of the air.
a. Water is pumped at 0.30 lb/s (0.14 kg/s) through two
intercoolers (639 lb or 290 kg total mass of coolant).
b. The steam is stored onboard until reaching the station.
c. Water and steam tanks are changed automatically at each stop.
5. The compressor is powered by a 436 hp (325 kW) onboard electric
motor:

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 a. The motor has an estimated mass of 372 lb (169 kg), which
includes power electronics.
b. An estimated 3,400 lb (1,500 kg) of batteries provides 45
minutes of onboard compressor power, which is more than
sufficient for the travel time with added reserve backup power.
c. Onboard batteries are changed at each stop and charged at the
stations

Hyperloop Passenger Plus Vehicle Capsule

1. Tube air is compressed with a compression ratio of 20:1 via an axial

compressor.
2. Up to 85% of this air is bypassed:
a. The air travels via a narrow tube near bottom of the capsule to
the tail.
b. A nozzle at the tail expands the flow generating thrust to
mitigate some of the small amounts of aerodynamic and
bearing drag.
3. Up to 0.44 lb/s (0.2 kg/s) of air is cooled and compressed an
additional 6.2:1 for the passenger plus vehicle version with
additional cooling afterward.
a. This air is stored in onboard composite overwrap pressure vessels.
b. The stored air is eventually consumed by the air bearings to
maintain distance between the capsule and tube walls.

4. An onboard water tank is used for cooling of the air.

a. Water is pumped at 0.86 lb/s (0.39 kg/s) through two
intercoolers (1,800 lb or 818 kg total mass of coolant).
b. The steam is stored onboard until reaching the station.
c. Water and steam tanks are changed automatically at each stop.

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 5. The compressor is powered by a 1,160 hp (865 kW) onboard
electric motor:
a. The motor has an estimated mass of 606 lb (275 kg), which
includes power electronics.
b. An estimated 8,900 lb (4,000 kg) of batteries provides 45
minutes of onboard compressor power, which is more than
sufficient for the travel time with added reserve backup
power.

Suspension
Suspending the capsule within the tube presents a substantial technical
challenge due to transonic cruising velocities. Conventional wheel and axle
systems become impractical at high speed due frictional losses and dynamic
instability. A viable technical solution is magnetic levitation; however the
cost associated with material and construction is prohibitive. An alternative
to these conventional options is an air bearing suspension. Air bearings offer

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Figure 12: Schematic of air bearing skis that support the capsule.

Externally pressurized and aerodynamic air bearings are well suited for the
Hyperloop due to exceptionally high stiffness, which is required to maintain
stability at high speeds. When the gap height between a ski and the tube wall
is reduced, the flow field in the gap exhibits a highly non-linear reaction
resulting in large restoring pressures. The increased pressure pushes the ski
away from the wall, allowing it to return to its nominal ride height. While a
stiff air bearing suspension is superb for reliability and safety, it could create
considerable discomfort for passengers onboard. To account for this, each
ski is integrated into an independent mechanical suspension, ensuring a
smooth ride for passengers. The capsule may also include traditional
deployable wheels similar to aircraft landing gear for ease of movement at
speeds under 100 mph (160 kph) and as a component of the overall safety
system.
Hyperloop Passenger Capsule

Hyperloop capsules will float above the tube’s surface on an array of 28 air
bearing skis that are geometrically conformed to the tube walls. The skis,
each 4.9 ft (1.5 meters) in length and 3.0 ft (0.9 meters) in width, support the
weight of the capsule by floating on a pressurized cushion of air 0.020 to
0.050 in. (0.5 to 1.3 mm) off the ground. Peak pressures beneath the skis
need only reach 1.4 psi (9.4 kPa) to support the passenger capsule (9% of
sea level atmospheric pressure). The skis depend on two mechanisms to
pressurize the thin air film: external pressurization and aerodynamics.
The aerodynamic method of generating pressure under the air bearings
becomes appreciable at moderate to high capsule speeds. As the capsule
accelerates up to cruising speed, the front tip of each ski is elevated relative

17
to the back tip such that the ski rests at a slight angle of 0.05º. Viscous forces
trap a thin film of air in the converging gap between the ski and the tube
wall. The air beneath the ski becomes pressurized which alters the flow field
to satisfy fundamental laws of mass, momentum, and energy conservation.
The resultant elevated pressure beneath the ski relative to the ambient
atmosphere provides a net lifting force that is sufficient to support a portion
of the capsule’s weight.
However, the pressure field generated by aerodynamics is not sufficient to
support the entire weight of the vehicle. At lower speeds, very little lift can
be generated by aerodynamic mechanisms. Temperature and density in the
fluid film begin to rise more rapidly than pressure at high speeds, thus lift
ceases to increase as the capsule accelerates into the transonic regime.
Lift is supplemented by injecting highly pressurized air into the gap. By
applying an externally supplied pressure, a favorable pressure distribution is
established beneath the bearing and sufficient lift is generated to support the
capsule. This system is known as an external pressure (EP) bearing and it is
effective when the capsule is stationary or moving at very high speeds. At
nominal weight and g-loading, a capsule on the Hyperloop will require air
injection beneath the ski at a rate of 0.44 lb/s (0.2 kg/s) at 1.4 psi (9.4 kPa)
for the passenger capsule. The air is introduced via a network of grooves in
the bearing’s bottom surface and is sourced directly from the high pressure
air reservoir onboard the capsule.
The aerodynamically and externally pressurized film beneath the skis will
generate a drag force on the capsule. The drag may be computed by
recognizing that fluid velocity in the flow field is driven by both the motion
of the tube wall relative to the ski and by a pressure gradient, which is
typically referred to as a Couette-Poiseuille flow. Such flows are well
understood, and the resultant drag can be computed analytically (as done in
this alpha study) and improved and/or validated by computational methods.
The predicted total drag generated by the 28 air bearings at a capsule speed
of 760 mph (1,220 kph) is 31 lbf (140 N), resulting in a 64 hp (48 kW)
power loss.
The passenger capsule air bearing system weight is expected to be about
6,200 lb (2,800 kg) including the compressors, air tank, plumbing,
suspension, and bearing surfaces. The overall cost of the air bearing
components is targeted to be no more than $475,000.

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Hyperloop Passenger Plus Vehicle Capsule

The passenger plus vehicle version of the Hyperloop capsule places more
aggressive lifting requirements on the air bearings, but the expanded
diameter of the tube provides a greater surface area for lift generation. For
this version, an extra 12 in. (30 cm) of width would be added to each
bearing. The nominal
air supply pressure would increase to 1.6 psi (11.2 kPa), but the flow rate
required would remain 0.44 lb/s (0.2 kg/s) thanks to the increased area under
the skis. Drag on the skis at 42 lbf (187 N), results in a power loss of 85 hp
(63 kW)
The passenger plus vehicle capsule air bearing system weight is expected to
be about 8,400 lb (3,800 kg) including the compressors, air tank, plumbing,
suspension, and bearing surfaces. The overall cost of the air bearing
components is targeted to be no more than $565,000.

Onboard Power
The passenger capsule power system includes an estimated 5,500 lb (2,500
kg) of batteries to power the onboard compressor and capsule systems in
addition to the compressor motor and coolant. The battery, motor, and
electronic components cost is estimated to be near $150,000 per capsule in
addition to the cost of the suspension system.
The passenger plus vehicle capsule power system includes an estimated
12,100 lb (5,500 kg) of batteries to power the onboard compressor and
capsule systems in addition to the compressor motor and coolant. The
battery, motor and electronic components cost is estimated to be near
$200,000 per capsule in addition to the cost of the suspension system.

Propulsion
In order to propel the vehicle at the required travel speed, an advanced linear
motor system is being developed to accelerate the capsule above 760 mph
(1,220 kph) at a maximum of 1g for comfort. The moving motor element
(rotor) will be located on the vehicle for weight savings and power
requirements while the tube will incorporate the stationary motor element
(stator) which powers the vehicle. More details can be found in the section
4.3.
Hyperloop Passenger Capsule

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 The overall propulsion system weight attached to the capsule is expected to
be near 2,900 lb (1,300 kg) including the support and emergency braking
system. The overall cost of the system is targeted to be no more than
$125,000. This brings the total capsule weight near 33,000 lb (15,000 kg)
including passenger and luggage weight.
Hyperloop Passenger Plus Vehicle Capsule

The overall propulsion system weight attached to the capsule is expected to be

near 3,500 lb (1,600 kg) including the support and emergency braking system.
The overall cost of the system is targeted to be no more than $150,000. This
brings the total capsule weight near 57,000 lb (26,000) kg including passenger,
luggage, and vehicle weight.

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 Cost
The overall cost of the Hyperloop passenger capsule version (Table 1) is
expected to be under $1.35 million USD including manufacturing and
assembly cost. With 40 capsules required for the expected demand, the total
cost of capsules for the Hyperloop system should be no more than $54
million USD or approximately 1% of the total budget.
Although the overall cost of the project would be higher, we have also
detailed the expected cost of a larger capsule (Table 2) which could carry not
only passengers but cargo and cars/SUVs as well. The frontal area of the
capsule would have to be increased to 43 ft2 (4 m2) and the tube diameter
would be increased to 10 ft 10 in. (3.3 m).
Table 1. Crew capsule weight and cost breakdown

Vehicle Component Cost ($) Weight (kg)

Capsule Structure & Doors: $ 245,000 3100

Interior & Seats: $ 255,000 2500

Propulsion System: $ 75,000 700

Suspension & Air Bearings: $ 200,000 1000

Batteries, Motor & Coolant: $ 150,000 2500

Air Compressor: $ 275,000 1800

Emergency Braking: $ 50,000 600

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General Assembly: $ 100,000 N/A

Passengers & Luggage: N/A 2800

Total/Capsule: $ 1,350,000 15000

Total for Hyperloop: $ 54,000,000

Table 2. Cargo and crew capsule weight and cost breakdown

Vehicle Component Cost ($) Weight (kg)

Capsule Structure & Doors: $ 275,000 3500

Interior & Seats: $ 185,000 2700

Propulsion System: $ 80,000 800

Suspension & Air Bearings: $ 265,000 1300

Batteries, Motor & Coolant: $ 200,000 5500

Air Compressor: $ 300,000 2500

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Emergency Braking: $ 70,000 800

General Assembly: $ 150,000 N/A

Passengers & Luggage: N/A 1400

Car & Cargo: N/A 7500

Total/Capsule: $ 1,525,000 26000

Total for Hyperloop: $ 61,000,000

Tube
The main Hyperloop route consists of a partially evacuated cylindrical tube
that connects the Los Angeles and San Francisco stations in a closed loop
system (Figure 2). The tube is specifically sized for optimal air flow around
the capsule improving performance and energy consumption at the expected
travel speed. The expected pressure inside the tube will be maintained
around 0.015 psi (100 Pa, 0.75 tor), which is about 1/6 the pressure on Mars.
This low pressure minimizes the drag force on the capsule while maintaining
the relative ease of pumping out the air from the tube. The efficiency of
industrial vacuum pumps decreases exponentially as the pressure is reduced
(Figure 13), so further benefits from reducing tube pressure would be offset
by increased pumping complexity.

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Figure 13. Typical vacuum pump speed for functional pressure range.

In order to minimize cost of the Hyperloop tube, it will be elevated on pillars

which greatly reduce the footprint required on the ground and the size of the
construction area required. Thanks to the small pillar footprint and by
maintaining the route as close as possible to currently operated highways, the
amount of land required for the Hyperloop is minimized. More details are
available for the route in section 4.4.
The Hyperloop travel journey will feel very smooth since the capsule will be
guided directly on the inner surface of the tube via the use of air bearings
and suspension; this also prevents the need for costly tracks. The capsule
will bank off the walls and include a control system for smooth returns to
nominal capsule location from banking as well. Some specific sections of
the tube will incorporate the stationary motor element (stator) which will
locally guide and accelerate (or decelerate) the capsule. More details are
available for the propulsion system in section 4.3. Between linear motor
stations, the capsule will glide with little drag via air bearings.

Geometry
The geometry of the tube depends on the choice of either the passenger
version of Hyperloop or the passenger plus vehicles version of Hyperloop.
In either case, if the speed of the air passing through the gaps accelerates to
supersonic velocities, then shock waves form. These waves limit how much
air can actually get out of the way of the capsule, building up a column of air
in front of its nose and increasing drag until the air pressure builds up
significantly in front of the capsule. With the increased drag and additional
mass of air to push, the power requirements for the capsule increase
significantly. It is therefore very important to avoid shock wave formation
around the capsule by careful selecting of the capsule/tube area ratio. This
ensures sufficient mass air flow around and through the capsule at all

24
 operating speeds. Any air that cannot pass around the annulus between the
capsule and tube is bypassed using the onboard compressor in each capsule.

Figure 14. Hyperloop capsule in tube cutaway with attached solar arrays.

Passenger Hyperloop Tube

The inner diameter of the tube is optimized to be 7 ft 4 in. (2.23 m) which is

small enough to keep material cost low while large enough to provide some
alleviation of choked air flow around the capsule. The tube cross-sectional
area is 42.2 ft2 (3.91 m2) giving a capsule/tube area ratio of 36% or a
diameter ratio of 60%. It is critical to the aerodynamics of the capsule to
keep this ratio as large as possible, even though the pressure in the tube is
extremely low. As the capsule moves through the tube, it must displace its
own volume of air, in a loosely similar way to a boat in water. The
displacement of the air is constricted by the walls of the tube, which makes it
accelerate to squeeze through the gaps. Any flow not displaced must be
ingested by the onboard compressor of each capsule, which increases power
requirements.
The closed loop tube will be mounted side by side on elevated pillars as seen
in Figure 5. The surface above the tubes will be lined with solar panels to
provide the required system energy. This represents a possible area of 14 ft
(4.25 m) wide for more than 350 miles (563 km) of tube length. With an
expected solar panel energy production of 0.015 hp/ft2 (120 W/m2), we can
expect the system to produce a maximum of 382,000 hp (285 MW) at peak
solar activity. This would actually be more energy than needed for the

25
Hyperloop system and the detailed power requirements will be detailed in
section 4.3.
Passenger Plus Vehicle Hyperloop Tube
The inner diameter of the tube is optimized to be 10 ft 10 in. (3.30 m), larger
than the passenger version to accommodate the larger capsule. The tube
cross-sectional area is 92.1 ft2 (8.55 m2) giving a capsule/tube area ratio of
47% or a diameter ratio of 68%.
The closed passenger plus vehicle Hyperloop tube will be mounted side by
side in the same manner as the passenger version as seen in Figure 5. The
surface above the tubes will be lined with solar panels to provide the
required system energy. This represents a possible area of 22 ft (6.6 m) wide
for more than 350 miles (563 km) of tube length. With an expected solar
panel energy production of 0.015 hp/ft2 (120W/m 2), we can expect the
system to produce a maximum of 598,000 hp (446 MW) at peak solar
activity. This would actually be more energy than needed for the passenger
plus vehicle Hyperloop system and the detailed power requirements will be
detailed in section 4.3.
Station Connections

The stations are isolated from the main tube as much as possible in order to
limit air leaks into the system. In addition, isolated branches and stations off
the main tubes could be built to access some towns along the way between
Los Angeles and San Francisco. Vacuum pumps will run continuously at
various locations along the length of the tube to maintain the required
pressure despite any possible leaks through the joint and stations. The
expected cost of all required vacuum pumps is expected to be no more than
$10 million USD.

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 Tube Construction
In order to keep cost to a minimum, a uniform thickness steel tube
reinforced with stringers was selected as the material of choice for the inner
diameter tube sections would be pre-fabricated and installed between pillar
supports spaced 100 ft (30 m) on average, varying slightly depending on
location. This relatively short span allows keeping tube material cost and
deflection to a minimum.
The steel construction allows simple welding processes to join different tube
sections together. A specifically designed cleaning and boring machine will
make it possible to surface finish the inside of the tube and welded joints for
a better gliding surface. In addition, safety emergency exits and
pressurization ports will be added in key locations along the length of the
tube.
Passenger Hyperloop Tube

A tube wall thickness between 0.8 and 0.9 in. (20 to 23 mm) is necessary to
provide sufficient strength for the load cases considered such as pressure
differential, bending and buckling between pillars, loading due to the
capsule weight and acceleration, as well as seismic considerations.
The expected cost for the tube is expected to be less than $650 million USD,
including pre-fabricated tube sections with stringer reinforcements and
emergency exits. The support pillars and joints which will be detailed in
section 4.2.3.
Passenger Plus Vehicle Hyperloop Tube

The tube wall thickness for the larger tube would be between 0.9 and 1.0 in
(23 to 25 mm). Tube cost calculations were also made for the larger
diameter tube which would allow usage of the cargo and vehicle capsule in
addition to the passenger capsule. In that case, the expected cost for the tube
is expected to be less than $1.2 billion USD. Since the spacing between
pillars would not change and the pillars are more expensive than the tube,
the overall cost increase is kept to a minimum

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 Pylons and Tunnels
The tube will be supported by pillars which constrain the tube in the vertical
direction but allow longitudinal slip for thermal expansion as well as
dampened lateral slip to reduce the risk posed by earthquakes. In addition,
the pillar to tube connection nominal position will be adjustable vertically
and laterally to ensure proper alignment despite possible ground settling.
These minimally constrained pillars to tube joints will also allow a smoother
ride. Specially designed slip joints at each stations will be able take any tube
length variance due to thermal expansion. This is an ideal location for the
thermal expansion joints as the speed is much lower nearby the stations. It
thus allows the tube to be smooth and welded along the high speed gliding
middle section.

The spacing of the Hyperloop pillars retaining the tube is critical to achieve
the design objective of the tube structure. The average spacing is 100 ft (30
m), which means there will be near 25,000 pillars supporting both tubes and
solar panels. The pillars will be 20 ft (6 m) tall whenever possible but may
vary in height in hilly areas or where obstacles are in the way. Also, in some
key areas, the spacing will have to vary in order to pass over roads or other
obstacles. Small spacing between each support reduces the deflection of the
tube keeping the capsule steadier and the journey more enjoyable. In
addition, reduced spacing has increased resistance to seismic loading as well
as the lateral acceleration of the capsule.
Due to the sheer quantity of pillars required, reinforced concrete was
selected as the construction material due to its very low cost per volume. In
some short areas, tunnelling may be required to avoid going over mountains
and to keep the route as straight as possible. The expected cost for the pillar
construction and tube joints is expected to be no more than $2.55 billion
USD for the passenger version tube and $3.15 billion USD for the passenger
plus vehicle version tube. The expected cost for the tunneling is expected to
be no more than $600 million USD for the smaller diameter tube and near
$700 million USD for the larger diameter tube.
Structural simulations (Figure 15 through Figure 20) have demonstrated the
capability of the Hyperloop to withstand atmospheric pressure, tube weight,
earthquakes, winds, etc. Dampers will be incorporate between the pylons
and tubes to isolate movements in the ground from the tube.

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Figure 15. First mode shape of Hyperloop at 2.71Hz (magnified x1500).

Figure 18. Maximum principal stress at 1g Inertia in X (psi) (magnified x10).

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 Safety and Reliability
The design of Hyperloop has been considered from the start with safety in
mind. Unlike other modes of transport, Hyperloop is a single system that
incorporates the vehicle, propulsion system, energy management, timing,
and route. Capsules travel in a carefully controlled and maintained tube
environment. The system is immune to wind, ice, fog, and rain. The
propulsion system is integrated into the tube and can only accelerate the
capsule to speeds that are safe in each section. With human control error and
unpredictable weather removed from the system, very few safety concerns
remain.
Some of the safety scenarios below are unique to the proposed system, but
all should be considered relative to other forms of transportation. In many
cases Hyperloop is intrinsically safer than airplanes, trains, or automobiles.
Onboard Passenger Emergency
All capsules would have direct radio contact with station operators in case of
emergencies, allowing passengers to report any incident, to request help and
to receive assistance. In addition, all capsules would be fitted with first aid
equipment
The Hyperloop allows people to travel from San Francisco to LA in 30
minutes. Therefore in case of emergency, it is likely that the best course of
action would be for the capsule to communicate the situation to the station
operator and for the capsule to finish the journey in a few minutes where
emergency services would be waiting to assist.
Typical times between an emergency and access to a physician should be
shorter than if an incident happened during airplane takeoff. In the case of
the airplane, the route would need to be adjusted, other planes rerouted,
runways cleared, airplane landed, taxi to a gate, and doors opened. An
emergency in a Hyperloop capsule simply requires the system to complete
the planned journey and meet emergency personnel at the destination.

Capsule Stranded in Tube

A capsule becoming stranded in the Hyperloop tube is highly unlikely as the
capsule coasts the majority of the distance at high speed and so there is no
propulsion required for more than 90% of the journey.

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If a capsule were somehow to become stranded, capsules ahead would
continue their journeys to the destination unaffected. Capsules behind the
stranded one would be automatically instructed to deploy their emergency
mechanical braking systems. Once all capsules behind the stranded capsule
had been safely brought to rest, capsules would drive themselves to safety
using small onboard electric motors to power deployed wheels.
All capsules would be equipped with a reserve air supply great enough to
ensure the safety of all passengers for a worst case scenario event.
4.5.6. Human Related Incidents

Hyperloop would feature the same high level of security used at airports.
However, the regular departure of Hyperloop capsules would result in a
steadier and faster flow of passengers through security screening compared
to airports. Tubes located on pylons would limit access to the critical
elements of the system. Multiple redundant power sources and vacuum
pumps would limit the impact of any single element.
Reliability
The Hyperloop system comprising all infrastructure, mechanical, electrical,
and software components will be designed so that it is reliable, durable, and
fault tolerant over its service life (100 years), while maintaining safety levels
that match or exceed the safety standard of commercial air transportation.

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 Cost
The total cost of the Hyperloop passenger transportation system as outlined
is less than $6 billion The passenger plus vehicle version of Hyperloop is
including both passenger and cargo capsules and the total cost is outlined as
$7.5 billion USD
Component Cost
(million USD)

Capsule 54 (40 capsules)

Capsule Structure & Doors 9.8
Interior & Seats 10.2
Compressor & Plumbing 11
Batteries & Electronics 6
Propulsion 5
Suspension & Air Bearings 8
Components Assembly 4
Tube 5,410
Tube Construction 650
Pylon Construction 2,550
Tunnel Construction 600
Propulsion 140
Solar Panels & Batteries 210
Station & Vacuum Pumps 260
Permits & Land 1,000
Cost Margin 536
Total 6,000

Component Cost
(million USD)

Cargo Capsule 30.5 (20 capsules)

Capsule Structure & Doors 5.5
Interior & Seats 3.7
Compressor & Plumbing 6
Batteries, Motor & Electronics 4
Propulsion 3
Suspension & Air Bearings 5.3
Components Assembly 3

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Passenger Only Capsule 40.5 (30 capsules)
Capsule Structure & Doors 7.4
Interior & Seats 7.6
Compressor & Plumbing 8.2
Batteries, Motor & Electronics 4.5
Propulsion 3.8
Suspension & Air Bearings 6
Components Assembly 3
Tube 7,000
Tube Construction 1,200
Pylon Construction 3,150
Tunnel Construction 700
Propulsion 200
Solar Panels & Batteries 490
Station & Vacuum Pumps 260
Permits & Land 1,000
Cost Margin 429
Total 7,500

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 Conclusions
A high speed transportation system known as Hyperloop has been developed
in this document. The work has detailed two version of the Hyperloop: a
passenger only version and a passenger plus vehicle version. Hyperloop
could transport people, vehicles, and freight between Los Angeles and San
Francisco in 35 minutes. Transporting 7.4 million people each way and
amortizing the cost of $6 billion over 20 years gives a ticket price of $20 for
a one-way trip for the passenger version of Hyperloop. The passenger plus
vehicle version of the Hyperloop is less than 9% of the cost of the proposed
passenger only high speed rail system between Los Angeles and San
Francisco.
An additional passenger plus transport version of the Hyperloop has been
created that is only 25% higher in cost than the passenger only version. This
version would be capable of transport passengers, vehicles, freight, etc. The
passenger plus vehicle version of the Hyperloop is less than 11% of the cost
of the proposed passenger only high speed rail system between Los Angeles
and San Francisco. Additional technological developments and further
optimization could likely reduce this price.
The intent of this document has been to create a new open source form of
transportation that could revolutionize travel. The authors welcome feedback
and will incorporate it into future revisions of the Hyperloop project,
following other open source models such as Linux.

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 Future Work
Hyperloop is considered an open source transportation concept. The
authors encourage all members of the community to contribute to the
Hyperloop design process. Iteration of the design by various individuals
and groups can help bring Hyperloop from an idea to a reality.
The authors recognize the need for additional work, including but not
limited to:
1. More expansion on the control mechanism for Hyperloop capsules,
including attitude thrusters or control moment gyros.
2. Detailed station designs with loading and unloading of both
passenger and passenger plus vehicle versions of the Hyperloop
capsules
3. Trades comparing the costs and benefits of Hyperloop with more
conventional magnetic levitation systems.
Sub-scale testing based on a further optimized design to demonstrate the
physics of Hyperloop.

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 Bibliography
 www.google.com (Hyperloop construction)
 www.wikipedia.com (Hyperloop description)
 www.yahoo.com (problems faced and overcome by Hyperloop)
 www.youtube.com (Elon Musk on Hyperloop)
 www.hyperloop-one.com
 www.spaceX.com
 www.Hyperlooptransp.com

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