BIOLOGY FIITJEE CHENNAI CENTRE

Class Learning Improvement Program (CLIP) Sheet for CBSE NCERT

Board Preparation on Cell The Unit of Life
CBSE Notes for Class 9 Biology – CBSE Notes for Class 9 Biology
Topic 1 Cell: An Overview

An organism consists of one or more cells, accordingly, there are two types of
organisms, i.e., unicellular (composed of a single cell) and multicellular (composed of
many cells).
Cell Theory

 The cell theory was formulated by two German Scientists, Matthias Schneider
and Theodore Schwinn independently. Schneider (1838) examined a large
variety of plant tissues and observed that all plants are composed of different
kinds of cells.
 At about the same time, Schwinn (1839), closely studied different types of
animal cells and found that the animal cell had a very thin outer layer known
as the plasma membrane.
 He also concluded, from his studies based on plant tissues that animal cells
differ from plant cells in lacking a cell wall.
 Objections to Cell Theory Cell theory failed to explain how and from where
the new cells were formed.
 All these observations lead to a major expansion of cell theory that was
expressed by Rudolf Virchow in 1855 modified the hypothesis of Schneider
and Schwinn and explained in his statement that cells divide and new cells are
formed from pre-existing cells, i.e., Omnis cellula-e- cellula.
 Thus, the cell theory states that Outer membrane, the boundary of the cell,
which provides protection to the cell and controls the exchange of ions,
molecules and other components in and out of the cell.
 The outer membrane of a cell contains cell wall (only in plant cells) and
plasma membrane.
 Details of the above-mentioned cell components and organelles are given
later in the chapter in the second topic.
Microscopes

 Microscopes allow us to study the structure of cells.

 two types are l commonly used, i.e., light microscopes and electron
microscopes.
  Cells are divided into compartments that help segregate functions,
leading to more efficient performance
 human cells consist of two l major compartments, i.e., the cytoplasmic
and nuclear.
 Size of a Cell The cells exhibit an endless variation in size, life span
and cellular activities, e.g., Mycoplasma (smallest cell) or PPLOs
(Pleuro-Pneumonia Like Organisms) is only 0.3 Jim in length and
bacteria are approx. 3-5 Jim in size.
 An ostrich egg, which is known to be the largest isolated single cell
measures about 170 X 135 mm.
 Human Red Blood Cells (RBCs) are about 7 Jim in diameter and the
nerve cell of a human being is the longest cell having length of 90-
100 cm.
 The shape of a Cell The cells also vary in their shapes.
 They may be polygonal, disc-like amoeboid, thread-like, cuboid or
irregular.
 The cell shape is always related and vary with the function they
perform.
The cell doctrine

(i) All living organisms are composed of cells and their products.
(ii) All cells arise from pre-existing cells.
(iii) Cells show similarity in chemical composition and metabolic activities.
(iv) Cells are the structural and functional unit of the living organism.

Structural Outline of a Cell

 The onion cell, which is a typical plant cell has a distinct cell wall as its
outer boundary and just within it is the cell membrane.
 The human and animal cell has an outer membrane, inside which is a
dense membrane-bound structure called nucleus.
 Each cell consists of
(i) Nucleus, the central part of the cell, which is spherical in shape.
Its number can be one or more per cell. It is denser than the
surrounding cytoplasm. The nucleus is composed of
chromosomes (contains the genetic material, i.e., DNA), nuclear
membrane and centrioles (non-membrane bound organelle
present in only animal cells, which helps in cell division).
(ii) Cytoplasm, a semi-fluid matrix that occupies the volume of the
cell. It is mainly composed of water with free-floating molecules.
Inside the cytoplasm, all cellular activities like a gaseous
exchange, elimination of wastes, hereditary mechanisms, etc
occur. Eukaryotic cells also contain other cell-membrane-bound
distinct structures called cell organelles, like mitochondria,
vacuoles, Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER), Golgi complex, etc. The
 prokaryotic cells lack all these membrane-bound organelles. It is
to be noted that as ribosomes are not bounded by the
membrane and are found in all cells. Ribosomes are also found
in chloroplasts (in plants) and mitochondria and on rough ER
other than the cytoplasm.
 Types of Cell On the basis of the organisation, complexity and variety, all cells
can be grouped into two types, i. e., prokaryotic cells and eukaryotic cells.
 Prokaryotic Cell-Cell which do not have a nuclear membrane and other
membrane-bound organelles, is called prokaryotic cell.
 Occurrence Prokaryotic cells are placed in kingdom-Monera. These cells are
represented by bacteria, cyanobacteria (blue-green algae), mycoplasma or
PPLO.
 Bacteria are the simplest and common most type of organism amongst
prokaryotes.
 They are generally smaller and multiply more rapidly than the eukaryotic cell.
 The bacteria are found in almost every place like deep in the soil, human
intestine, deep in seawater, etc. Size Bacteria tends to vary greatly in size.
 it normally ranges from 0.3-1.5p.m with some exceptions.
 Shape The four basic shapes of bacteria are bacillus (rod-like), coccus
(spherical), vibrio (comma-shaped) and spirillum (spiral).
 All prokaryotic cells are similar in their organisation although they exhibit a
wide variety of shapes and functions.

Components of a Prokaryotic (Bacterial) Cell

 A bacterial cell is composed of various components as genetic material, cell
envelope, cytoplasm, nucleoid, inclusion bodies, ribosomes, flagella, pili,
fimbriae, etc.
 Genetic Material Nucleoid represents the genetic material in case of
prokaryotes that is naked, not enveloped by a nuclear membrane.
 Many bacteria contain a small circular DNA known as plasmid other than the
chromosomal or genomic DNA.
 These plasmids confer certain unique characters to bacteria like antibiotic
resistance, sex factor, etc.
Cell Envelope and Its Modifications
 Cell envelope is the outermost covering of protoplasm of the bacterial cell. It
is known to protect the cell from mechanical shocks and injuries.
 It is composed of the following three layers, which perform specialised
functions i- Glycocalyx (Mucilage Sheath) It is the outermost layer, made up of
macromolecules that gives sticky character to the cell.
 Glycocalyx differs in composition and thickness among different bacteria. It
could be in the form of loose mucilaginous sheath called slime layer or thick
and tough covering called capsule.
 This Function help in resisting phagocytosis.
Cell Wall
 It is present just below the glycocalyx made up of peptidoglycan or murein in
all eubacteria and cyanobacteria.
 It is a rigid and solid covering that gives shape and strong structural support
to the cell.
 Cell wall performs the following functions
(a) It helps in preventing the cell from bursting or collapsing.
(b) It allows the material to pass in and out of the cell.
(c) It wards off the attack of pathogens like viruses, bacteria, fungi,
protozoans.
(d) Provides mechanical support to the cell against gravity.
Gram-Positive and Gram-Negative Bacteria
 According to Christian Gram (1884) various types of reactions are shown by
the cell walls of different bacteria.
 Thus, on the basis of the differences in the cell wall and the | response to the
staining procedure developed by Gram, bacteria are classified into the
following two types (i) Gram-positive (+ve) bacteria are those that take up
the Gram stain and retain blue or purple colour, e.g., Bacillus subtilis,
Clostridium, etc. (ii) Gram-negative (-ve) bacteria are those that do not take
up Gram stain and loose the blue or purple colour, e.g., Escherichia coli,
(E.coli), Acetobacter, etc.
 Plasma Membrane It is the innermost layer of the cell envelope.
 It is semi-permeable in nature and is responsible for the interaction of the
cell with the outside environment.
 It performs a number of functions as follows
It helps in the regulation of the exchange of specific materials between
the cytoplasm and extracellular medium.
(b) Selectively permits particular molecules to pass and prevents
others.
(c) Prevents the loss of components from the cells through the leakage.
Note: * The plasma membrane is vital to cellular homeostasis and
therefore, the health and welfare of all living organisms. * Molecules
move through membranes either passively, flowing down
concentration gradients or actively, being pumped in or out of cells. *
Membrane in prokaryotes is. structurally similar to eukaryotes.
Membranous Structures Prokaryotic cells lack the complex membrane-
bound organelles (such as chloroplast, mitochondria, etc). However,
some other special membranous structures are found in them (i.e.,
mesosomes and chromatophores). Mesosomes These are formed by
the extensions of the plasma membrane into the cell in the form of
vesicles, tubules and lamellae. Mesosomes are equal to mitochondria in
eukaryotes, as these structures participate in aerobic cellular respiration
in prokaryotes. Mesosomes perform the following junctions in a
bacterium (a) Helps in respiration, cellular secretion, etc. (b) Helps in
 increasing the enzymatic content and surface area of the plasma
membrane. (c) Helps in the formation of a cell wall. (d) Helps in the
replication of DNA and distribution of genetic material to daughter
cells during fission. Chromatophores They are other membranous
structures present in some prokaryotes like cyanobacteria, etc. They are
internal membrane systems of photosynthetic forms, which possess
photosynthetic pigments. These pigments are light-reflecting. Flagella
Bacteria can be motile or non-motile. Thus, motile bacteria possess one
or more thread-like appendages extending from their cell wall called
flagella (sing, flagellum). Bacteria are also classified according to the
number and arrangement of the flagellum in them. Each flagellum is
about 1-7 nm long covered by a protein coat. The bacterial flagellum is
differentiated into the following three parts (i) Filament, the longest
portion, extending from the cell surface to the outside. It is made up of
a protein called flagellin. (ii) Hook, a curved and tubular structure made
up of protein subunits. Pili Fimbriae
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They occur only in Gram-negative bacteria. They occur in both Gram-positive and
Gram-negative bacteria. They are longer and broader. They are shorter and narrower.
They are responsible for sex duction (conjugation) in bacteria. They are specialised
for attachment of bacteria to its host (e.g., Bacteria, Salmonella typhimurium,
Neisseria gonorrhoea, etc). They are tubular structures. They are bristle-like solid
structures. (iii) Basal body, the most complex part of the flagellum.
They help in locomotion i.e., moving from one place to another. Pili and Fimbriae
These are also surface structures but does not play any role in locomotion of
bacteria. The pili are the elongated, tubular structures made of a special protein
called pilin and fimbriae are the small bristle-like fibres coming out of the cell. The
pili help in forming a conjugation tube during the transfer of genetic material
between donor and recipient cell. While the fimbriae help the bacteria to attach to
solid surfaces. Differences between Pili and Fimbriae
Ribosomes and Inclusion Bodies Cytoplasm in prokaryotes appear granular, due to
the presence of following structures: i. Ribosomes Like eukaryotes, ribosomes are
also found in prokaryotes and serves a common function, i.e., acts as a site of protein
synthesis. Ribosomes are small but are complex both in structure and chemical
composition. They are about 15-20 nm in size.
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In prokaryotes, ribosomes are found in association with the plasma membrane of the
cell (as it lacks endoplasmic reticulum) in the cytoplasmic matrix. The prokaryotic
ribosomes are of a 70S type. It has the following two subunits (a) Smaller subunit
(the 30S) (b) Larger subunit (50S) Ribosomes generally occur in helical groups called
polysome or polyribosomes. In each polysome, 4-8 ribosomes are attached to a
single strand of wRNA. The ribosomes of a polysome help in the translation
(mechanisms to synthesise several copies of the same protein) of wzRNA into
protein. ii. Inclusion Bodies They are non-living structures present in the cytoplasm
and not bound by any membrane system. They may either lie free in the cytoplasm
(e.g., Cyanophycean granules, glycogen granules) or may be covered by 2-4 nm
thick, non-protein membrane (e.g., Gas vacuoles, sulphur granules, etc). Note: * Gas
vacuoles are gas storing vacuoles that do not have any coverage of their own. They
are found in cyanobacteria (blue-green algae), purple and green photosynthetic
bacteria. * These are named so because they are permeable to atmospheric gases
but not to water.
Topic 2 Eukaryotic Cell
A cell which has a well-organised nucleus with a nuclear envelope and several
membrane-bound organelles is called eukaryotic cell. The internal organisation of
eukaryotic cells is more advanced and elaborate than the prokaryotic cells. All
eukaryotic cells are not identical. Except for monerans, the eukaryotic organisation is
seen in all the protists, plants, fungi and animals. A eukaryotic cell is larger than the
prokaryotic cell (i.e., around 10-100 cm in size). Generalised Structure An extensive
compartmentalisation of cytoplasm is seen through the presence of membrane-
bound organelles. Eukaryotic cells also possess a variety of locomotory and
cytoskeletal structures. All eukaryotic cell are not-identical, instead, they differ from
each other on the basis of structure and function. The cell wall is a special membrane,
being present in plants, fungi and some protists. Plants cells also contain a large
vacuole and plastids, which are absent in animal cells, while animal cells possess
centrioles, which are absent in plant cells. Differences between Plant and Animal Cell
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Components of a Eukaryotic Cell An eukaryotic cell is composed of various cell
components as a cell membrane, cell wall (only in plants), mitochondria, chloroplast,
Golgi bodies, ribosomes, centrioles (only in animals), etc. All these are described
hereunder in detail. Cell Membrane Every living cell is covered by a thin, elastic,
transparent, semi-permeable and regenerative membrane called cell membrane also
called plasma membrane or plasmalemma. The plasma membrane separates the
internal environment of the cell from the external environment. As this membrane
helps in regulating the entrance and exit of molecules into and out of the cell. In the
1950s with the advancement of the electron microscope, the detailed structure of the
membrane was studied. Most of the initial studies on cell membrane structure, i.e.,
especially on the human Red Blood cells (RBCs), which enabled the scientists to
deduce the possible structure of the plasma membrane. Human RBCs are considered
to be the best material for the: study of the biochemical composition of the cell
membrane because they lack nucleus as well as cytoplasmic organelles. Structure
Studies on human RBCs concluded that the cell membrane is composed of lipid
which forms
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a bilayer with protein molecules embedded in it at places. Later it was revealed that
cell membranes also possess protein and carbohydrates. Lipid The lipid molecules
are amphipathic in nature and are arranged within the membrane by the help of two
types of ends. These are as follows (i) Polar Hydrophilic End This region is in the form
of (water-loving) head, which faces towards the outer sides of the cell membrane to
interact with the aqueous environments on both sides. (ii) Non-polar Hydrophobic
End This region is in the form of (water-repelling) tail, both ends of which face each
other that occur towards the centre of the cell membrane. The proportion of lipid
molecules varies in the plasma membrane of different cell types. These are formed of
cholesterol (25-32%) and mainly of phosphoglycerides or phospholipids (55- 75%).
Outside of cell Phosphatidylcholine
Proteins Depending upon the ease of extraction, the ratio of protein and lipid varies
considerably in different cell types. In human beings, the membrane of the
erythrocytes (RBCs) has approximately 52% protein and 40% lipid. The membrane
proteins can be classified as (i) Integral Proteins (intrinsic protein) They have a
stronger association and bound firmly to the membrane. These proteins are buried
partially or totally in the phospholipid bilayer. (ii) Peripheral Proteins (extrinsic
protein) They have a weaker association and are bound to lipids of the membrane by
electrostatic interactions. Carbohydrates These constitute about 1-5% of the
chemical composition of the plasma membrane. These are associated with the
phospholipids or with the peripheral proteins to form glycolipids and glycoproteins
respectively. To understand the structure of plasma membrane various models are
given out of which the most accepted model is the Fluid Mosaic Model.
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Fluid Mosaic Model This model was given by Singer and Nicholson (1972). According
to this model, the lipid bilayer and integral proteins appear like a mosaic
arrangement and the quasi-fluid nature of lipid enables the lateral movement of the
proteins within the overall bilayer. This ability of proteins to move within the
membrane indicates the fluidity of the lipid part.
The fluidity of Membrane The fluid nature of the membrane is important from the
point of view of interactions of molecules within the membrane as well as other
functions like the formation of intercellular junctions, cell growth, secretion,
endocytosis, cell division, etc. Passage of substances across the membrane occurs
mainly by two methods i- Active Transport: Active transport is the movement of the
molecules across the membrane against their concentration gradient, i.e., from lower
to the Tighter concentration. It is an energy-dependent process, in which ATP is
utilised. It occurs in few ions and molecules, e.g., Na+ / K+ pump. Polar molecules
require a carrier protein of the membrane to facilitate their transport across the
membrane because they cannot pass through the non-polar lipid bilayer. ii- Passive
Transport:- Passive transport is the mode of movement of molecules or substances
across the membrane without any requirement of energy. It can be further of
following three types (a) Osmosis It is the process by which water molecules pass
through a membrane from a region of higher concentration to a lower concentration.
(b) Simple Diffusion In this process, neutral molecules move across the membrane
along the concentration gradient (from higher to lower concentration), e.g., Gases
and small molecules. (c) Facilitated Diffusion In this process, the molecules are
transported along a concentration gradient by the help of ion channels and
permeases. Energy is not required in this process.
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Differences between Active and Passive Transport
Functions Cell membrane possess the following functions (i) It is a selectively
permeable or semi-permeable membrane, allows only selected substances to pass
inwardly. (ii) It protects the cell from injury. (iii) Membranes have carrier proteins for
active transport. (iv) The cell membrane contains enzymes which perform certain
reaction on their surface, e.g., ATPase, phosphatase, etc. Cell Wall It was first
discovered by Robert Hooke (1665). It is a rigid and non-living structure which forms
an outer covering of the plasma membrane in plants and fungi. It is absent in animal
cells. The cell wall is metabolically active in nature and is capable of growth. Its
thickness varies from 0.1-10 pm. Cell wall not only gives shape to the cell and
protects the cell from mechanical damage and infection, but it also helps in the cell
to cell infraction and provides a barrier to undesirable macromolecules. Chemical
Composition The cell wall of algae is made up of cellulose, Galatians, mannans and
minerals like calcium carbonate, etc., while cell wall of the plant is composed of
cellulose, hemicellulose, pectins and proteins. i. Structure of Cell Wall On the basis of
the structure, the cell wall is differentiated into the following three parts Middle
Lamella It is the layer mainly made up of calcium and magnesium pectates. It
cements the cell walls of two adjoining cells together. It is absent on the outer side of
surface cells middle lamella along with a cell wall transversed by plasmodesmata
which connect the cytoplasm of ^ neighbouring cells. ii. Primary Cell Wall
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It is produced inner to the middle lamella in a young and growing cell. It is capable
of growth and extension. It tends to diminish gradually as the cell attain maturity. iii.
Secondary Cell Wall The thick secondary wall is formed inner towards the membrane
to the primary wall. As the cell gets fully matured. Its composition is similar to the
primary wall. Functions Cell wall possess the following Junctions (i) It helps in
providing a definite shape to the cell and also protects protoplasm against any
mechanical injury, i.e., damage and infection. (ii) It also helps in cell-to-cell
interaction. (iii) It provides a barrier to undesirable macromolecules and the attack of
pathogens. Endomembrane System The endomembrane system consists of the
nuclear envelope, Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER), Golgi complex, lysosomes and
vacuoles suspended in the cytoplasm. These are considered together as an
endomembrane system because their functions are coordinated with each other, in
spite of this that each membranous organelles are distinct in terms of its structure
and functioning. Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) The endoplasmic reticulum is a
complicated system of membranous channels and flattened vesicles. It is physically
continuous with the outer membrane of the nuclear envelope. It is revealed from the
electron microscopic studies of eukaryotic cells that there is a presence of a network
or reticulum of tiny tubular structures that are being scattered in the cytoplasm. ER is
known to be absent in prokaryotes but is present in all eukaryotic cells except
germinal cells and mature human RBCs. Endoplasmic reticulum divides the
intracellular space into two main compartments (i) Luminal (inside ER) compartment
(ii) Extra-luminal (cytoplasm) compartment, Types of Endoplasmic Reticulum:-

The endoplasmic reticulum is mainly of two types, depending upon the nature of its
membranes (i) Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (SER) These are smooth because they
do not bear ribosomes in the form of granules on their surfaces. It is present in cells
where they act as a major site for the synthesis of lipid and also helps in the synthesis
of steroidal hormone in animal cells. (ii) Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER) They
are found extensive and continuous with the outer membrane of the nucleus. These
have rough membrane because they bear ribosomes being attached to their
surfaces. They are actively being seen in the cells which have their involvement in the
synthesis and secretion of proteins. Functions
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Endoplasmic reticulum possesses the following functions (i) It provides support to
the colloidal cytoplasmic matrix. (ii) Helps in the rapid intracellular transport of the
material. (iii) ER membranes contain a variety of enzymes for various metabolic
processes, e.g., ATPase, phosphatases, etc.
Differences between SER and RER
2. Golgi Apparatus It was first discovered by Camillo Golgi (1898) when he was
observing the densely stained reticular structures being present near the nucleus of
the cell. These structures were named Golgi bodies after his discovery. Golgi complex
or Golgi apparatus is a major complex protoplasmic structure being made up of
many flat, disc-shaped sacs or cisternae (0.5-1.0 nm) in diameter. Occurrence Golgi
complex occurs in all cells except prokaryotes (i.e., PPLO, bacteria, cyanobacteria) and
some eukaryotes such as human RBCs, sieve tubes of plants, etc.
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Cisternae of Golgi apparatus are found stacked parallel to each other. They vary in
number in a Cell. They are often curved-like shallow bowls to give Golgi complex a
definite polarity. They are concentrically arranged near the nucleus with two distinct
faces (i) Cis face {forming face) This is convex in shape that lies towards the cell
membrane and is responsible for receiving secretory materials through the
transitional vesicles, which are pinched off from the SER. (ii) Trans face (maturing
face) This is concave in shape that lies towards the nucleus and is responsible for
releasing the material, which is being secreted by cis face and modified in the
cisternae. Note: * Although the cis and the trans faces of the organelle are entirely
different in origin, they interconnect each other. * Proteins that are synthesised by
ribosomes on ER are first modified in cisternae before they released from its trans
face. The Golgi apparatus acts as a site where the material to be released is being
packaged in the form of vesicles delivered either to the intracellular targets or
secreted outside the cell. Functions Golgi apparatus possess the following functions
(i) The Golgi apparatus is involved in the formation of lysosomes, vesicles that
contain proteins and remains within the cell. (ii) It performs the function of packaging
material. (iii) It acts as an important site for the formation of glycoproteins and
glycolipids. (iv) It helps in the production of complex carbohydrates other than
glycogen and starch. (d) It helps in the formation of the cell wall. 3. Lysosomes These
are membrane-bounded vesicles that are produced by the Golgi apparatus. They are
rich in several hydrolytic digestive enzymes (hydrolases-lipases, proteases,
carbohydrates, etc). As these are optimally active at the acidic pH (less than 7).
Therefore, are also called acid hydrolases and are capable of digesting
macromolecules from various sources like
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carbohydrates, lipids and nucleic acids. Functions Lysosomes possess the following
junctions (i) They digest the food contents (intracellular digestion). (ii) They also
perform extracellular digestion. (iii) They also digest the old and useless organelles of
the cells. (iv) They also have functioned in cell division. These are called suicidal bags
due to the presence of hydrolytic enzymes. De Duve observed the rounded bodies in
liver cells and called them pericanalicular dense bodies (1949). 4. Vacuoles Vacuole is
a large membranous sac found in the cytoplasm. These store substances that are not
essentially useful for the cell (like water, sap, excretory product and other materials).
Plant vacuoles contain not only water, sugars and salts but also contain pigments
and toxic molecules and also occupy up to 90% of the volume of the cell. The
vacuole is bounded by a single membrane structure known as tonoplast which in
plant cells, facilitates the transport of materials and some ions against the
concentration gradient inside the vacuole. Thus, the concentration of material tends
to be the higher in a vacuole, than to be in the cytoplasm Animal cells also have
vacuole, but they are much more prominent in case of plant cells. Thus, plant cells
have typically large central vacuole filled with a watery fluid that gives added support
to the cell. Following types of vacuoles are being found in different organisms (i)
Contractile Vacuole They play an important part in osmoregulation and excretion in
Amoeba, etc. It occurs mostly in protistan and algal cells that are found mainly in
water. (ii) Food Vacuole They occur in the cells of mainly protozoan protists. These
are formed by engulfing the food particles, i.e., by the fusion of lysosome and
phagosome. The digested material thus passes out into the surrounding cytoplasm.
Air vacuoles and sap vacuoles are other types of vacuoles being formed by the cells.
Mitochondria:- Mitochondria are membrane-bound cell organelles, essential for
aerobic respiration of eukaryotic cells. These are also known as the powerhouse of
the cell. Thus, they produce cellular energy in the form of ATP. Occurrence
Mitochondria are present in all living cell except, prokaryotic cell and certain
specialised eukaryotic cells such as anaerobic cells and mature RBCs. It is revealed
from the studies that mitochondria are not easily visible unless it is specifically
stained. Shape and Size
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Mitochondria vary considerably according to shape and size. They have a varying
shape such as granular fibrillar, spherical, oval, discoidal, etc. The average size of
mitochondria is 2-6 |im in length and 0.5 pm in diameter (typical cylindrical or
sausage-shaped mitochondria has a diameter of 0.2-1.0 Jim). Ultrastructure A
mitochondrion contains two membranes, i.e., outer and inner. Out of which outer
membrane is smooth and forms the continuous boundary of the organelle. The inner
membrane is semipermeable to some metabolites. It is infolded into the matrix as an
incomplete partition called cristae. The cristae are responsible for increasing the
physiological active area or surface area. The density of cristae determines the
intensity of respiration.
The outer and the inner membranes divide its lumen into two aqueous
compartments separately, i.e., the outer and the inner compartment. The inner
compartment is also called matrix, which forms the inner core of the mitochondrion.
The matrix also possesses single circular DNA molecule, a few RNA molecules,
ribosomes (the 70S) and the components required for the synthesis of proteins. The
mitochondria divide by fission. The two membranes of mitochondria have their own
specific enzymes associated with mitochondrial function. Functions Mitochondria
possess the following functions (i) Mitochondria provide important intermediates for
the synthesis of several biochemicals like pyrimidines, alkaloids, etc. (ii) The inner
chamber matrix of the mitochondria has enzyme for the synthesises of fatty acids. (iii)
Helps in the regulation of cellular metabolism. (iv) Helps in apoptosis (programmed
cell death). (v) Each of membrane potential.
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The mitochondrion is the second-largest cell organelle and is more in animal cells
than in plant cells. Plastids These are semi-autonomous organelles that have a
double-membrane envelope. Plastids have their own genetic material (i.e., DNA). Due
to their large size, they are easily seen under the microscope. Occurrence Plastids are
found in all plant cells and euglenoids except in some protistans (e.g., Euglena,
Dinophyceae, etc). Types Plastids are differentiated into three different types on the
basis of the colour, i.e., type of pigments found in them. Leucoplasts These are the
colourless plastids of varied shapes and sizes with stored nutrients in the form of
carbohydrates lipids and proteins. These are of following three types (а) Amyloplasts
are the carbohydrates (starch) containing leucoplast, e.g., Rice, wheat, potato, etc.
Amyloplasts are larger than the normal/original size of leucoplast. (b) Elaioplasts are
the leucoplast which stores oils and fats, e.g, Tuberose endosperm of castor seeds,
etc. (c) Aleuroplasts are the protein storing leucoplast. e.g., Maize (aleurone cells). ii.
Chromoplasts These are the leucoplast, which is yellow or reddish in appearance
because of the presence of fat-soluble carotenoid pigment carotene. Xanthophyll
and some other pigments are also present as the fat-soluble carotenoid pigment
other than carotene, e.g., Orange colour of a carrot, etc. iii. Chloroplasts These are
the plastids which are greenish in colour containing photosynthetic pigments
chlorophyll and carotenoids. These pigments are responsible for trapping the light
energy, essential for the photosynthesis, i.e., the synthesis of organic food from
inorganic raw materials in the presence of sunlight. Occurrence Chloroplasts occur in
major number in the photosynthetic mesophyll cells of leaves and green stem. Shape
and Size
• They may be lens-shaped, oval, spherical, discoid or even ribbon-like organelles.
They also have variable length (5-10 mm) and width (2-4 mm).
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Number Their number also varies from one per cell of the Chlamydomonas (a green
alga) to 2-40 per cell in the mesophyll. infrastructure Chloroplasts are also bounded
by double-membrane envelope like mitochondria, the two membranes are smooth
and are thick of about 90-100 A. The inner membrane of chloroplast is less
permeable than the other one. The inner membrane is grounded by a space known
as stroma or matrix, a dense, colourless and a granular substance mainly formed of
soluble proteins. It also contains enzymes which are essential for the synthesis of
carbohydrates, lipids and proteins.
Thylakoids are a number of membranous like flattened structures that run
throughout the matrix or stroma. When several thylakoids are arranged or organised
in the stack (like the piles of coins), called grana or the intergranal thylakoids. Many
flat membranous tubules interconnect the thylakoids of different grana known as
stroma lamellae. Functions Chloroplasts possess the following functions (i) Helps in
photosynthesis, i.e., the formation of organic compounds. (ii) In consumption of C02
and release of 02 in photosynthesis. (iii) May also change into chromoplast in order
to provide colour to many flowers and fruits. (iv) Helps in storing fat and lipids. (v)
Functions in the transduction of energy. Note: * The sum total of all plastids in a cell
is called plastic dome. * The chloroplast with nitrogen-fixing genes are called
nitroplast. * The space between the two membranes is called intermembrane space,
which separates the two membranes. This space contains a narrow fluid. Stroma also
contains small, double-stranded circular DNA, molecules and ribosomes. *
Ribosomes of chloroplasts are smaller (the 70S) than the ribosomes of cytoplasm
(80S).Ribosomes These are the small sub-spherical granular organelles, not bound by
any membrane. Ribosomes were first observed by George Palade (1953), as the
dense particles under the electron microscope. Hence, are also called Palade
particles.
20
Ribosomes are mainly composed of ribonucleoproteins (i. e., RNA-t- proteins) and
are also known as protein factories, as they are primarily involved in the synthesis of
proteins or polypeptides. As studied earlier, the prokaryotic ribosomes are 70S type,
while the eukaryotic ribosomes are 80S type. Here, ‘S' (Svedberg's unit) stands for
sedimentation coefficient (a measure of density and size). Both 70S and 80S
ribosomes contain two subunits, i.e., the smaller and the larger sub-unit. Differences
between the 70S and 80S Ribosomes
Cytoskeleton The network of interconnected proteinaceous filaments and tubules,
which extends from the nucleus to the plasma membrane in eukaryotic cells.
Functions Cytoskeleton possess the following functions (i) The cytoskeletal structures
maintain the shape of the cell and its extensions. (ii) It is also involved in many
functions in a cell as mechanical support, motility, etc. Cilia and Flagella These are
hair-like projections of the cell membrane. Both cilia and flagella are almost identical
in structure but differ somewhat in length. As cilia are small structures, working as
oars (causing the movement of either the cell or the surrounding fluid), while flagella
are comparatively longer in size than cilia and are responsible for the movement of
the cell.
21
According to the electron microscopic studies, it is predicted that the cilium or the
flagellum are covered with the plasma membrane. Their core called the axoneme,
contains a number of microtubules, running parallel to the long axis. Usually, the
axoneme has nine pairs of doublets of peripheral microtubules that are radially
arranged and a pair of centrally located microtubules. This arrangement of axonemal
microtubules is referred to as the (9 + 2) array. The central tubules are connected by
bridges and are also enclosed by a central sheath, which is connected to one of the
tubules of each peripheral doublets by a radial spoke. Thus, it has been estimated
that there are nine radial spokes. The peripheral doublets are also interconnected by
linkers. Both the cilium and flagellum emerge from centriole like structure called the
basal bodies. Differences between Cilia and. flagella
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Flagella are also present in prokaryotic bacteria but these are ' structurally different
from that of eukaryotic flagella. Centrosomes and Centrioles Centrosome is an
organelle that generally has two cylindrical structures known as centrioles. They are
basically surrounded by amorphous pericentriolar materials. Both the centrioles in a
centrosome lie perpendicular to each other in which each has an organisation like
the cartwheel. They are usually made up of nine evenly spaced peripheral fibrils
(triplet in nature) of tubulin protein. With which adjacent triplets are also being
linked. The centre part of the proximal region of the centriole possesses rod-shaped
proteinaceous mass known as the hub, which is connected with tubules of the
peripheral triplets fibrils known as radial spokes (made up of protein). From the basal
body of cilia or flagella, the centrioles and spindle fibres give rise to spindle
apparatus during cell division in animal cells. Functions Centrosomes and centrioles
possess the following functions (i) These forms spindle fibres and move to the poles,
at the time of cell division, which thus, help in the movement of chromatids in
daughter cells. (ii) Help in the formation of cilia and flagella of the cells. Nucleus It is
a specialised and principle cell organelle of the cell, which contains all the genetic
information for controlling all essential processes related to metabolism and
transmission. Nucleus was first described by Robert Brown as early as 1831. Later the
name chromatin was given by Flemming when the material of the nucleus was
stained by the basic dyes. The nucleus is known to be the largest cell organelle also
known as the brain of the cell. Occurrence A nucleus is known to be present in all
eukaryotic cells except a few cell types such as RBCs of humans, sieve cells of
vascular plants, etc. Prokaryotic cell lack a well-organised nucleus, instead, they have
a nucleoid. Ultrastructure The interphase nucleus (the nucleus of a cell when it is not
dividing) has highly extended and elaborate nucleoprotein fibres called chromatin,
nuclear matrix and one or more spherical bodies called nucleoli.
23
Microscopic Structure It has been revealed from the studies of electron microscopy
that the nuclear envelope, consists of two parallel membranes with a space between
10-50 nm called the perinuclear space, which forms a barrier between the materials
present inside the nucleus and that of the cytoplasm. The outer membrane usually
bears ribosomes on it and remains continuous with the endoplasmic reticulum. The
nuclear envelope is interrupted by minute nuclear pores, at a number nuclear of
places, which are produced by the fusion of its two membranes. These nuclear pores
are the passages through which movement of RNA and protein molecules takes
place in I both directions between the nucleus and the cytoplasm. Normally, there is
only one nucleus per cell, but variations in the number of nuclei can also be seen in
various organisms. The nucleus is differentiated into the following four parts i.
Nuclear Envelope It is a double membrane-bound envelope that surrounds the
nucleus and separates the latter from the cytoplasm. ii. Nucleoplasm It is a clear,
non-staining, fluid material present in the nucleus, which contains raw materials
(nucleotides), enzymes (DNA/RNA polymerases) and metal ions for the synthesis of
RNAs and DNA. The nuclear matrix or the nucleoplasm is composed of nucleolus and
chromatin (spherical structures present in the nucleoplasm). iii. Nucleolus It is a
naked, round and slightly irregular structure, which is attached to the chromatin at a
specific region. The content of nucleolus is continuous with the rest of the
nucleoplasm as it is not a membrane-bound structure. It is a site for active ribosomal
RNA synthesis. Larger and more numerous nucleoli are present in cells actively
carrying out protein synthesis. Chromatin It is named so because it has the ability to
get stained with certain basic dyes. It is known to be the hereditary DNA protein
fibrillar complex. The chromatin fibres are distributed throughout the nucleoplasm.
24
It has two distinct regions (a) Euchromatin (lightly stained) (b) Heterochromatin
(darkly stained) Functions Nucleus possess the following functions (i) It stores
information that controls cellular functions. (ii) It controls the synthesis of structural
proteins. (iii) It also stores the genetic information for development reproduction and
behaviour. (iv) It also induces genetic variations. Chromosomes It has been already
studied in the chapter that the nucleus in the interphase has a loose and indistinct
network of nucleoprotein fibres called chromatin. But during different stages, of*cell
division cells show structured chromosomes in place of the nucleus. The
chromosomes are meant for the equal distribution of genetic material. Their number
is fixed and is the same in all individuals of a species. Chromatin is composed of DNA
and some basic proteins called histones. Some non-histone proteins and RNA are
also present in the chromatin. A single human cell has an approximately two-metre-
long thread of DNA distributed among its 46 (23 pairs) chromosomes. Each and
every chromosome is composed of a primary constriction of the centromere. On the
sides of which the disc-shaped structures are presently known as kinetochores.
On the basis of the position of the centromere, the chromosomes can be classified
into four following types i. Metacentric Chromosome It has chromosome with equal
arms and centromere lies in the centre. ii. Sub-metacentric Chromosome It has one
shorter arm and one long arm with centromere slightly away from the middle of the
chromosome. iii. Acrocentric It forms one extremely short and one very long arm and
the centromere is located near the end of the chromosome.
25
iv. Telocentric It has the terminal centromere, i.e., the centromere is placed at an
extreme end. Telocentric chromosomes are not present in humans.
Few chromosomes have a non-staining secondary constriction being present at a
constant location at some of the other time which gives the appearance of a small
fragment known a satellite. Functions Chromosomes possess the following functions
(i) Control cellular differentiation. (ii) Contains all hereditary information located in
the genes. (iii) Forms a link between the offspring and the parents. (iv) Introduce
variations, through the process of crossing over. (v) Control cell metabolism.
Microbodies These are the membrane-bound cytoplasmic elements that are
composed of enzymes and other substances. These are minute vesicles found in both
plant cells and animal cells, e.g., in the liver, kidney, Protozoa, yeast and many other
types of cells. Their shape can be ovoid, spherical, granular, etc. Peroxisomes and
glyoxysomes are the types of microbodies being found in plant cell and animal cell
respectively.
Extra questions & Answers on Cell-The Fundamental Unit of Life
26
Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs)
Question 1: Which of the following can be made into crystal? (a) A bacterium (b) An
Amoeba (c) A virus (d) A sperm Answer: (c) Viruses are considered as an intermediate
between living and non-living cells because they cannot metabolise and reproduce
on their own. They can reproduce only when enters in a host's body. They are an
exception to the cell theory. A virus crystal is a collection of thousands of viruses. A
viral crystal is a pore collection used for chemical studies.
Question 2: A cell will swell up if (a) the concentration of water molecules in the cell
is higher than the concentration of water molecules in the surrounding medium (b)
the concentration of water molecules in the surrounding medium is higher than
water molecules concentration in the cell (c) the concentration of water molecules is
the same in the cell and in the surrounding medium (d) concentration of water
molecules does not matter Answer: (b) Osmosis is a spontaneous process where
movement of solvent molecules occurs into a region of higher solute concentration
from lower solute concentration through a partially permeable membrane, so as to
tend to equalise the solute concentration on the two sides. When the movement of
the solvent takes place from outside to inside the all (inward movement) the process
is endosmosis. It occurs in a hypotonic solution and causes the swelling of the cell.
When the movement of the solvent takes place from inside to outside of the cell
(outward movement) the process is exosmosis. It occurs in a hypertonic solution. It
results in the shrinkage of the cell.
27
When the concentration of water both in the surrounding medium and in the cell is
the same, the solution in the surrounding medium is said to be isotonic and no
movement of water molecule takes place.
Question 3: Chromosomes are made up of (a) DNA (b) Protein (c) DNA and protein
(d) RNA Answer: (c) Chromosomes are thread-like structures usually present in the
nucleus which becomes visible only during cell division. Each chromosome is made
up of two components
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(i) Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) (ii) Proteins (e.g., histones and acidic proteins) These
consist of two (unreplicated) or four (duplicated) arms and a primary constriction or
centromere which gives them a particular shape due to its position. The paired
condition of the chromosome is called diploid and unpaired chromosome are said to
be haploid.
Question 4: Which of these options are not a function of ribosomes? I. It helps in the
manufacture of protein molecules. II. It helps in the manufacture of enzymes. III. In
help in the manufacture of hormones. IV. In help in the manufacture of starch
molecules. (a) I and II (b) II and III (c) III and IV (d) IV and I Answer: (c) Ribosomes are
dense, spherical and granular particles which remain freely in the matrix or remain
attached to the endoplasmic reticulum. They are not bound by a membrane and are
present in both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. They play an important role in the
synthesis of proteins. All enzymes are proteins but all hormones are not proteins
Question 5: Which of these is not related to endoplasmic reticulum?
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(a) It behaves as transport channel for proteins between nucleus and cytoplasm (b) It
transports materials between various regions in cytoplasm (c) It can be the site of
energy generation (d) It can be the site for some biochemical activities of the cell
Answer: (c) Endoplasmic reticulum exists as a membranous network, which is
connected to the outer membrane of nucleus from one side and plasma membrane
to the other. It occurs in three forms (i) Cisternae-closed fluid-filled sac (ii) Vesicles
(iii) Tubules It is of two types, smooth endoplasmic reticulum i.e., without ribosomes
on its surface and rough endoplasmic reticulum with ribosomes on its surface.
Question 6: Following are a few definitions of osmosis. Read carefully and select the
correct definition.
30
(a) Movement of water molecules from a region of higher concentration to a region
of lower concentration through a semipermeable membrane. (b) Movement of
solvent molecules from its higher concentration to lower concentration. (c)
Movement of solvent molecules from higher concentration to lower concentration of
solution through a permeable membrane. (d) Movement of solute molecules from
lower concentration to a higher concentration of solution through a semipermeable
membrane. Answer: (a) The movement of water molecules through the selectively
permeable membrane along the concentration gradient is called osmosis. It is the
passage of water from a region of high water concentration through a
semipermeable membrane to a region of low water concentration (only through the
semipermeable membrane). Unicellular freshwater organisms and most plant cells
tend to gain water through osmosis. Absorption of water by plant roots is also an
example of osmosis.
Question 7: Plasmolysis in a plant cell is defined as (a) break down (lysis) of plasma
membrane in hypotonic medium (b) shrinkage of cytoplasm in hypertonic medium
(c) shrinkage of nucleoplasm (d) None of the above Answer: (b) When a cell is
immersed in hypertonic (very concentrated) solution, water diffuses out of the cell by
the process of osmosis. This is because there is a lower concentration of water
outside the cell. Although water molecules pass the cell membrane in both directions
more amount of water goes out of the cell than the amount of water which enters it.
As a result of this, the cell shrinks. This process is called exosmosis. If exosmosis
continues in a plant cell, the cytoplasm appears to be shrunken. This is called
plasmolysis and the cell Is said to be plasmolysed.
Question 8: Which of the following are covered by a single membrane? (a)
Mitochondria (b) Vacuole (c) Lysosome (d) Plastid Answer: (c) Lysosomes are simple,
tiny spherical sac-like structures evenly distributed in the cytoplasm each lysosome is
surrounded by a double membrane and contains powerful enzymes capable of
digesting or breaking down all organic material. These enzymes are
31
made by the rough endoplasmic reticulum. They perform the following functions in
our body
1. They help in breaking down (digesting) large molecules of the cell. 2. They help in
defence against bacteria and viruses. 3. During starvation, lysosomes act on their own
cellular organelles and digest them. This results in cell death. The lysosomes are also
called suicide bags or demolition squads of the cell.
Question 9: Find out the false sentences. (a) Golgi apparatus is involved with the
formation of lysosomes. (b) Nucleus, mitochondria and plastid have DNA; hence they
are able to make their own structural proteins. (c) Mitochondria is said to be the
powerhouse of the cell as ATP is generated in them. (d) The cytoplasm is called
protoplasm. Answer:
(d) Along with the function of secretion of various enzyme proteins and producing
vacuoles, Golgi apparatus is also involved in the synthesis of the cell wall, plasma
membrane and lysosome. Nucleus, mitochondria and plastids have their own
genome (f.e., DNA) and ribosomes. They are self-replicating organelles /. e., they
have the power to divide and are able to synthesise their own structural protein
(semi-autonomous organelles). Mitochondria is the site of cellulose respiration and
synthesis of energy-rich compounds (ATP). Therefore it is called a powerhouse of the
cell. The part of the cell between the plasma membrane and nuclear envelope is
called the cytoplasm.
Question 10: Find out the correct sentence (a) Enzymes packed in lysosomes are
made through RER (Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum) (b) Rough endoplasmic reticulum
and smooth endoplasmic reticulum produce lipid and protein respectively (c)
Endoplasmic reticulum is related to the destruction of plasma membrane (d)
Nucleoid is present inside the nucleoplasm of eukaryotic nucleus Answer: (a) The
undefined nuclear region in the cytoplasm of prokaryotic cells is called nucleoid. The
prokaryotic cells consist of a single chromosome, which is direct content of the
cytoplasm /.e., there is no nuclear membrane in a eukaryotic cell, the nuclear
envelope
32
separates the nucleus from the cytoplasm. The nuclear envelope contains many
pores (the nuclear pores) and encloses the liquid ground substance, the nucleoplasm.
Within nucleoplasm two types of nuclear structures are embedded—the nucleolus
and chromatin material. The nucleolus may be one or more in number and is not
bounded by any membrane. It is rich in protein and RNA (Ribonucleic Acid)
molecules and acts as the site for ribosome formation, hence are also known as the
factory of ribosomes.
Question 11: Which cell organelle plays a crucial role in detoxifying many poisons
and drugs in a cell? (a) Golgi apparatus (b) Lysosomes (c) Smooth endoplasmic
reticulum (d) Vacuoles Answer: (c) Smooth endoplasmic reticulum in liver cells of
vertebrates helps in detoxification. It metabolises various toxic or poisonous
substances such as drugs, aspirin, insecticides (DDT), petroleum products and
pollutants. These toxic substances make their entry in animal's body through food,
air or water.
Question 12: The proteins and lipids, essential for building the cell membrane, are
manufactured by (a) endoplasmic reticulum (b) Golgi apparatus (c) plasma
membrane (d) mitochondria Answer: (a) The endoplasmic reticulum performs the
following functions (i) It increases the surface area of the cytoplasm for various
metabolic activities of the cell. (ii) It gives internal support to the colloidal matrix e.,
cytoplasm. (iii) It is associated with the synthesis, storage and transport of metabolic
products. (iv) It helps in the formation of the cell plate and the nuclear membrane
during cell division. (v) Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER) is associated with the
synthesis of proteins. (vi) Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (SER) secretes lipids which
along with proteins constitute cell membrane by a process called membrane
biogenesis.
Question 13: The undefined nuclear region of prokaryotes are also known as (a)
nucleus (b) nucleolus (c) nucleic acid (d) nucleoid Answer:
33
(d) The prokaryotic cells lack a true nucleus and a circular DNA lies naked in the
cytoplasm. The unidentified nuclear region of the cell is called nucleoid. The
prokaryotic cell lacks chromosomes and nucleolus or nuclear membrane and
nucleoplasm remain undifferentiated from the cytoplasm.
Question 14: The cell organelle involved in forming complex sugars from simple
sugars are (a) endoplasmic reticulum (b) ribosomes (c) plastids (d) Golgi apparatus
Answer: (d) Golgi body was first discovered by Camillo Golgi. Golgi bodies or Golgi
complex are formed by stacks of flattened (saucer-shaped) membranes or flattened
sacs called cisternae. Golgi bodies are usually called dictyosomes in plants. Golgi
apparatus is absent in bacteria, blue-green algae, mature sperms and red blood cells
of mammals and other animals. The Golgi apparatus arises from the membrane of
the smooth endoplasmic reticulum, which in turn originates from the rough
endoplasmic reticulum. The proximal Golgi saccules (cisternae at cis face) are formed
by the fusion of ER-derived vesicles, while distal saccules (cisternae at trans face)
"give their all" to vesicle formation and disappear. Thus, Golgi saccules are constantly
and rapidly renewed. The main functions of Golgi apparatus are (i) They store,
modify, package and condense the proteins synthesised in the ribosomes. (ii) They
form the cell plate during the cell division. (iii) They set aside digestive enzymes in
tiny membrane-bound vesicles which later become lysosomes. (vi) They synthesise
some polysaccharides for the cell membrane.
34
Question 15: Which out of the following is not a function of vacuole? (a) Storage (b)
Providing turgidity and rigidity to the cell (c) Waste excretion (d) Locomotion Answer:
(b) Vacuoles may be small or large. These are filled with liquid or sap and are
membrane-bound organelles. In animal cells, vacuoles are smaller in size and lesser
in number than in plant cells. In some plant cells, only one large vacuole is present.
The major portion of a plant cell is occupied by vacuoles. The (approx 90% in some
cases) either may be contractile (can contract) or non-contractile. When the pressure
of the contents of a contractile vacuole increase, it contracts and releases its
contents. In unicellular organisms like Amoeba, food particles are present inside food
vacuoles. But are not associated with locomotion. The main functions of vacuoles are
1. In animals, vacuoles are often associated with the maintenance of water balance. 2.
They work in osmoregulation, e., the maintenance of internal pressure. 3. They store
various substances including waste products.
(b) Endocytosis is the ingestion of material by the cells through their plasma
membrane. It is a collective term that describes three similar processes phagocytosis
(cell eating), pinocytosis (cell drinking) and receptor-mediated endocytosis. These
processes are pathways to specifically internalise solid particles, small molecules and
ion, and macromolecules, respectively. All of them require energy, so they may be
regarded as different forms of active transport. Out of this phagocytosis is the
common method of feeding among the Protozoa (e.g., Amoeba) and lower Metazoa
(e.g., sponges). In pseudopodial movement the phagocyte engulfs the particle
lysosomes, join with the vacuole containing ingested particle and pour their contents
into the vacuole to destroy the particle.
Question 16: Amoeba acquires its food through a process, termed (a) exocytosis (b)
endocytosis (c) plasmolysis (d) Both exocytosis and endocytosis both Answer: (b)
Endocytosis is the ingestion of material by the cells through their plasma membrane.
It is a collective term that describes three similar processes phagocytosis (cell eating),
35
pinocytosis (cell drinking) and receptor-mediated endocytosis. These processes are
pathways to specifically internalise solid particles, small molecules and ion, and
macromolecules, respectively. All of them require energy, so they may be regarded
as different forms of active transport. Out of this phagocytosis is the common
method of feeding among the Protozoa (e.g., Amoeba) and lower Metazoa (e.g.,
sponges). In pseudopodial movement the phagocyte engulfs the particle lysosomes,
join with the vacuole containing ingested particle and pour their contents into the
vacuole to destroy the particle.
Question 17: The cell wall of which out of these are not made up of cellulose (a)
bacteria (b) Hydrilla (c) mango tree (d) lactose Answer: (a) Plant cells, in addition to
the plasma membrane, have another rigid outer covering called the cell wall. The cell
wall lies outside the plasma membrane. The plant cell wall is mainly composed of
cellulose. Cellulose is a complex substance and provides structural strength to plants.
Bacteria is not a plant, therefore, its cell wall is made up of peptidoglycan.
Question 18: Silver nitrate solution is used to study (a) endoplasmic reticulum (b)
Golgi apparatus (c) nucleus (d) mitochondria Answer: (d) Camillo Golgi, discovered
the revolutionarily method of staining individual cell structures. This method is
raftered to as black reaction. It uses a weak solution of silver nitrate and is valuable in
tracing the processes and most delicate ramifications of cells.
Question 19: Organelle other than nucleus, containing DNA is (a) endoplasmic
reticulum (b) Golgi apparatus (c) mitochondria (d) lysosome Answer: (c) Other than
nucleus mitochondria contains DNA and are able to synthesis their own proteins they
are regarded as semiautonomous organelles.
36
Question 20: Kitchen of the cell is (a) mitochondria (b) endoplasmic reticulum (c)
chloroplast (d) Golgi apparatus Answer: (c) Chloroplasts are present in green algae
and higher plants. They have a green pigment called chlorophyll and they are
involved in the photosynthesis of food. Therefore they are also known as the
‘kitchens of the cells'. Each chloroplast is bounded by two unit membranes like the
mitochondria. It shows two distinct regions (i) Grana are the main functional units of
the chloroplast. They are stacks of membrane-bounded, flattened discoid sacs (called
thylakoids) containing the molecules of chlorophyll. (ii) Stroma is the homogeneous
matrix in which grana are embedded. It contains a large variety of photosynthetic
enzymes, starch grains DNA and ribosomes.
Question 21: Lipid molecules in the cell are synthesised by (a) smooth endoplasmic
reticulum (b) rough endoplasmic reticulum (c) Golgi apparatus (d) plastids Answer:
(a) Lipid molecules in the cell are synthesised by the smooth endoplasmic reticulum
present is the cell. (Also, refer to G. 12)
Question 22: Cell arises from the pre-existing cell was started by (a) Haeckel (b)
Virchow (c) Hooke (d) Schleiden Answer: (b) In 1938 Schleiden proposed the idea
that plants consist of cells. Later in the year 1839, Schwann independently asserted
that all animals and plants are made up of cells. This joint finding forms the basis of
cell theory. The cell theory was refined further in 1855 when R. Virchow presented
the idea that all cells arise from the pre-existing cell. His amorphism was (Omnis
Cellula-e-Cellula).
Question 23: Cell theory was given by
37
(a) Schleiden and Schwann (b) Virchow (c) Hooke (d) Haeckel Answer: (a) Schleiden
(1836) and Schwann (1834) gave the cell theory, which was further refined by R.
Virchow (1855). The main postulates of cell theory are (i) All organisms are composed
of cells and cell products. (ii) All metabolic reactions take place in cells. Thus the cell
is structural and functional units of life. (iii) All cell arise from pre-existing cells only.
No cell can originate spontaneously but they come into being only by division of
pre-existing cells. (iv) Every organism starts its life as a single cell.
Question 24: The only cell organelle seen in a prokaryotic cell is (a) mitochondria (b)
ribosomes (c) plastids (d) lysosomes Answer: (b), Unlike eukaryotic cell, a prokaryotic
cell lacks membrane-bound organelles like plastids, mitochondria and endoplasmic
reticulum but smaller and randomly scattered ribosomes are seen
Question 25: Organelle without a cell membrane is (a) ribosome (b) Golgi apparatus
(c) chloroplast (d) nucleus Answer: (a) Nucleus is surrounded by two nuclear
membranes both forming a nuclear envelope; Golgi apparatus is a set of membrane-
bounded, fluid-filled vesicles, vacuoles and flattened cisternae. Plastids are also
membrane-bound organelle but ribosomes move freely in the matrix or remain
attached to the endoplasmic reticulum.
Question 26:
Answer: (a) The micrometre is commonly known as a micron is SI derived unit of
length equalling to 10-
6 of a metre.
38
Question 27: Lysosome arises from (a) endoplasmic reticulum (b) Golgi apparatus (c)
nucleus (d) mitochondria Answer: (b) The Golgi apparatus is involved in the
formation of the lysosome. (Also, refer to Q. 8)
Question 28: Living cells were discovered by (a) Robert Hooke (b) Purkinje (c)
Leeuwenhoek (d) Robert Brown Answer: (c) In the year 1670, Anton Van
Leeuwenhoek, a Dutch biologist discovered the living cell when he looked at the
pond water under the microscope, he made of lenses.
Question 29:
Select the odd one out (a) The movement of water across a semi-permeable
membrane is affected by the number of substances dissolved in it. (b) Membranes
are made of organic molecules like proteins and lipids (c) Molecules soluble in
organic solvents can easily pass through the membrane. (d) Plasma membranes
contain chitin sugar in plants. Answer: (d) Each cell is bounded by an extremely
delicate, thin elastic living membrane, called the plasma membrane. The plasma
membrane is made up of two layers of lipid (fat) molecules with protein molecules
which are sandwiched between the lipid layer. The structure of the plasma
membrane can be observed under an electron microscope only. It is a selectively
permeable membrane which allows the flow of only some substances into the cell
and out of the cell. Viruses do not have any membranes. Functions
1. It gives a definite shape to the cell. 2. It provides protection to the contents of the
cell. 3. It regulates entry and exit of substances in to and out of the cell. 4. It can
internalise solid and liquid materials by infolding or extending around them. This is
the process of active intake of materials. 5. In animal cells, it is involved in adhesion,
recognition and in the formation of vesicles,
cilia, flagella, microvilli etc.
39
Short Answer Type Questions
Question 30: Why are lysosome known as suicidal-bags of a cell? Answer: During the
breakdown of cell structure, when the cells get damaged, the lysosomes may break
and enzymes, which are capable of digesting or breaking down all organic nutrients
may release into the cell. Due to their capability of digestion, they may eat up or
digest or break down other cell organelles leading to hampered metabolic activities
and finally death of the cell. This is the reason why lysosome is also known as suicidal
bags of cell.
Question 31: Do you agree that ‘A cell is a building unit of on organism'. If yes,
explain why? Answer: A cell is composed of various organelles which perform a
different function. A cell is the structural, functional and smallest unit of life capable
of all living functions. The number of cells varies from organism to organism. An
Ameoba is single-celled or unicellular, where all the basic functions are performed in
one cell. On the contrary, a human is multicellular having as many as 60 x 1015 cell
(weight about 60 kg). In a multicellular organism, cell form tissues, which in turn
together form organs and? different functions are performed by different organs i.e.,
they have a well-developed division of labour.
Question 32: Why does the skin of your finger shrink when you wash clothes for a
long time? Answer: Soap solution is a hypertonic solution i.e., more concentrated
than our skin cells. As we know, when the cell is immersed in a hypertonic solution,
water diffuse out of the cells by osmosis (diffusion of water across the
semipermeable membrane), due to a lower concentration of water outside the cell.
As a result, the cell shrinks. The process is called exosmosis. During the washing of
clothes, exosmosis takes place in the skin cells. This leads to shrinkage of skin over
the fingers while washing clothes for a long time.
Question 33: Why is endocytosis found in animals only? Answer: Endocytosis refers
to invagination of a small region of the plasma membrane, forming an intracellular
membrane-bound vesicle. It has been observed in many kinds of animal cells, where
the plasma membrane is in direct contact with the external medium. Endocytosis is
not shown by plant cells because a rigid cell wall is present over the plasma
membrane in them. Thus, this process is found in animals only.
Question 34: A person takes a concentrated solution of salt, after some time, he
starts vomiting. What is the phenomenon responsible for such a situation? Explain.
Answer: Concentration salt solution is a hypertonic solution (water concentration
lower as compared to the cell) therefore it causes exosmosis. The outward movement
of water from the cell results in irritation and excessive dehydration. This results in
reverse movements and hence, vomiting. {Also, refer to Q. 2 )
Question 35: Name any cell organelle which is non-membranes. Answer: A non-
membranous cell organelle is a ribosome. Ribosomes are extremely small, round
bodies found either in the free state in the cytoplasm or attached to the surface of
the ER. They are composed of ribonucleoprotein (ribonucleic acid and protein). The
main function of ribosomes is to act as a platform for the synthesis of proteins. (Also,
refer to 0.4).
Question 36: We eat food composed of all the nutrients like carbohydrates, proteins,
fats, vitamins, minerals and water. After digestion, these are absorbed in the form of
glucose, amino acids, fatty acids, glycerol, etc. What mechanisms are involved in the
absorption of digested food and water? Answer: The mechanisms involved in the
absorption of digested food and water are diffusion and osmosis respectively. (i)
Digested food-through diffusion, e., the process in which molecules move from their
region of higher concentration to their region of lower concentration till they are
uniformly distributed throughout the available space. (ii) Water-through osmosis, e.,
the passage of water from a region of high water concentration through a semi-
permeable membrane to a region of low water concentration. In this case, from the
small intestine (high concentration) to blood low concentration.
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Question 37: If you are provided with some vegetables to cook. You generally add
salt into the vegetables during the cooking process. After adding salt, vegetables
release water. What mechanism is responsible for this? Answer: On adding salt, the
external medium is made hypertonic, i.e., the concentration of water is lowered as
compared to the concentration of water inside the cell. Thus, water is released from
the vegetables due to exosmosis (water molecules goes out of the cell resulting in
shrinkage of the cell). (Also, refer to Q. 34)
Question 38: If cells of onion peel and RBC are separately kept in a hypotonic
solution, what among the following will take place? Explain the reason for yours. (a)
Both the cells will swell. (b) RBC will burst easily while cells of onion peel will extend.
(c) Both (a) and (b) are correct. (d) RBC and onion peel cells will behave similarly
Answer: (c) The solution with a higher concentration of water as compared to the cell
is termed as a hypotonic solution. When the cells are kept in a hypotonic solution
endosmosis occurs i.e., the inward movement of water takes place. This results in the
swelling up of cells. When kept in hypotonic solution the RBCs burst easily because
they are animal cells and do not possess a cell wall, while the onion peel possesses
cell wall which makes it resistant to the bursting due to swelling caused by
endosmosis. Therefore, option (c) is correct.
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Question 39: Bacteria do not have chloroplast, but some bacteria are
photoautotrophic in nature and perform photosynthesis. Which part of the bacterial
cell performs this? Answer: Bacterial cell do not have chloroplast but yet some
photoautotrophic bacteria perform photosynthesis due to the presence of
chlorophyll in cooperated in the membrane. Embedded in the cell membrane are
reaction centres which specifically absorb light energy. These reaction centres exist in
forms of sacs-tubes or sheets depending on the amount of surface area needed.
Question 40: Match the following columns
Answer: The correct matching is A.→ (4) B. → (5) C.→(3) D. → (1) E. → (2) One of the
special function of the smooth endoplasmic reticulum of the liver of vertebrate is
detoxification. {Also, refer (o 0.11) Lysosomes are called the suicidal bags of cell as
they digest the organelles of their own cell. {Also, refer to Q. 30) Nucleoid is the
undifferentiated nuclear region of a prokaryotic cell and bacteria are prokaryote.
{Also, refer to Q. 13) Food vacuoles are present in Amoeba to store the food trapped
by endocytosis. {Also, refer to Q. 16) Nucleus is composed of two membranes called
nuclear membrane, nucleoplasm, nucleolus and chromatin material.
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Question 41: Write the name of different plant parts in which chromoplast,
chloroplast and leucoplast are present. Answer: Plastids occur in most plant cells, but
are absent in animal cells. Like mitochondria, plastids also have their own genome
{l.e., DNA) and ribosomes. They are self-replicating organelles like the mitochondria,
i.e., they have the power to divide. Plastids are of following three types
1. Chromoplasts Coloured plastids (except green colour). They add colour to organs
e.g flowers fruits, for attracting animals to perform pollination and fruit dispersal. 2.
Chloroplasts Green-coloured plastids. These are the sites of photosynthesis and are
present in the leaves of the plant. 3. Leucoplasts The colourless plastids. Leucoplasts
takes part in the storage of food and can be present anywhere in an organism.
Question 42: Name the organelles which show the analogy written as under (a)
Transporting channels of the cell (b) Powerhouse of the cell (c) Packaging and
dispatching unit of the cell (d) Digestive bag of the cell (e) Storages sacs of the cell (f)
Kitchen of the cell (g) Control room of the cell Answer: (a) Transporting channel of
the cell. Endoplasmic reticular is the transporting channel of the cell as it connects
the cell membrane to the nuclear membrane. (b) Mitochondria are called the
powerhouse of the cell because they generate energy in the form of ATP (Adenosine
Triphosphate). (c) Packaging and dispatching unit of the cell is Golgi complex as they
store, modify, package and condense the proteins synthesised by ribosomes. (d)
Lysosomes are known as the digestive bags of the cell due to the presence of
enzymes in them which are capable of degrading any organic material. (e) Vacuoles
are termed as storage sacs of the cell as they store the food. (f) The chloroplast is
termed as the kitchen of the cell due to their function of performing photosynthesis.
(g) The nucleus is the control room of the cell as it regulates almost all the activities
of the cell.
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Question 43: How is bacterial cell different from onion pell? Answer: The major
differences between bacterial cell (prokaryotic) and onion peel (eukaryotic) are
tabulated below
Question 44: How do substances like carbon dioxide (C02) and water (H20) move in
and out of the cell? Answer: When (C02) accumulates in high concentration inside
the cell, diffusion occurs. C02moves out of the cell from the region of higher
concentration to a region of lower concentration. When a cell is placed in a solution
with a different solute concentration the water tends to move either in or out of the
cell according to its concentration gradient by the process of osmosis.
Question 45: How does Amoeba obtain its food? Answer: Amoeba obtains its food
by the process of phagocytosis. It literally means ‘cell eating'. It is a
45
a common method of feeding among the Protozoa and lower Metazoa. It is also the
way in which white blood cells (leucocytes) engulf cellular debris and uninvited
microbes (viruses and bacteria) in the blood. In the phagocytosis, an area of the
plasma membrane, coated initially with actin-myosin, forms a pocket and engulfs the
solid material (e.g., bacteria, debris). The membrane-enclosed vesical, phagosome,
then detach from the cell surface (plasma membrane) into the cytoplasm where its
contents are digested by lysosomal enzymes.
Question 46: Name the two organelles in a plant cell that contain their own genetic
material and ribosome. Answer: Mitochondria and plastids have their own DNA and
ribosome and hence can synthesise their own protein and genetic material. (Also,
refer to Q. 9)
Question 47: Why are lysosomes also known as scavengers of the cells? Answer:
Lysosomes contain hydrolytic enzymes synthesised by the endoplasmic reticulum.
These enzymes remove the worn-out and poorly working cell organelles by digesting
them so that, new replacements can be made. They remove the cell debris therefore,
they are known as a scavenger, cellular housekeepers and demolition squads of the
cell. (Also, refer to Q. 8)
Question 48: Which cell organelle controls most of the activities of the cell? Answer:
Nature and occurrence The nucleus is a large, centrally located spherical cellular
component. It is bounded by two nuclear membranes, both forming a nuclear
envelope.
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Nuclear envelope encloses a space between two nuclear membranes and is
connected to a system of membranes called the ER (Endoplasmic Reticulum). It
encloses nucleolus, nuclear pore and nucleoplasm.
Nucleus has very important functions as listed below
1. The nucleus controls all metabolic activities of the cell. If the nucleus is removed
from a
cell, the protoplasm ultimately dries up and dies. 2. It regulates the cell cycle. 3. It is
concerned with the transmission of hereditary traits from the parent to offspring.
Question 49: Which kind of plastid is more common in (a) roots of the plant (b)
leaves of the plant (c) flowers and fruits Answer: (a) Roots of the plant contain
leucoplast which is colourless plastids and acts as storage of food. (b) Leaves of the
plant contain green coloured chlorophyll for photosynthesis (c) Flowers and fruits
contain multicoloured chromoplast to attract pollinators. (Also, refer to Q. 41)
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Question 50: Why do plant cells possess large-sized vacuole? Answer: Plant cells are
known to have bigger vacuoles than that of animal cells as they need to store food
and water. This is because the plant doesn't possess the ability to move freely like
that of animals. Thus, they possess large vacuoles as a reservoir in unfavourable
conditions.
Question 51: How are chromatin, chromatid and chromosomes related to each
other? Answer: Inside the nucleoplasm, a tangled mass of thread-like structures is
called chromatin. They are formed of an acid called Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA) and
proteins. When a cell starts to divide, the tangled mass of chromatin condenses into
long threads and finally, rod-like bodies called chromosomes. The chromosomes
contain stretches of DNA which carry information for protein synthesis. A gene is
called the hereditary unit and DNA is called the hereditary material. A chromatid is
one copy of duplicated chromosome which is generally joined to the other copy by a
centromere.
Question 52: What are the consequences of the following conditions? (a) A cell
containing higher water concentration than the surrounding medium (b) A cell
having low water concentration than the surrounding medium. (c) A cell having equal
water concentration to its surrounding medium. Answer: (a) When a cell possesses
higher water concentration than the surrounding medium then exosmosis occurs in
the cell due to the difference in water concentration in the cell and surrounding
medium and cells shrink. (b) When a cell has low water concentration than the
surrounding medium then, endosmosis
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occurs leading to the swelling of the cell. (c) A cell having an equal concentration to
its surrounding medium will not show any changes as isotonic conditions persist in
the solvent.
Long Answer Type Questions
Question 53: Draw a plant cell and label the parts which (a) determines the function
and development of the cell. (b) packages materials coming from the endoplasmic
reticulum. (c) provides resistance to microbes to withstand hypotonic external media
without bursting. (d) is the site for many biochemical reactions necessary to sustain
life. (e) is a fluid contained inside the nucleus? Answer: A plant cell and its parts is as
below
Question 54: Illustrate only a plant cell as seen under an electron microscope. How is
it different from animal
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cell? Answer: A plant cell as seen under an electron microscope
Major differences between a plant cell and on the animal cell are (i) Presence of
chloroplast in a plant cell. (ii) Presence of large central vacuole in a plant cell. (iii)
Presence of cell wall.
Question 55: Draw a neat labelled diagram of an animal cell. Answer:
50
A diagram of an animal cell is as given below
Question 56: Draw a well-labelled diagram of a eukaryotic nucleus. How is it different
from nucleoid? Answer: A diagram of a eukaryotic nucleus is as given
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The major differences between eukaryotic and prokaryotic nucleus are that a
prokaryotic nucleus (i) is undifferentiated (ii) is not bound by a nuclear membrane (iii)
does not contain chromosome (iv) does not possess nucleolus and nucleoplasm.
Question 57: Differentiate between rough and smooth endoplasmic reticulum. How
is endoplasmic reticulum important for membrane biogenesis? Answer: The major
differences between rough and smooth endoplasmic reticulum are
52
Endoplasmic reticulum synthesises lipids (smooth endoplasmic reticulum) and
proteins (rough endoplasmic reticulum) which are responsible for the formation of
the membrane. Thus, they help in membrane biogenesis.
Question 58: In brief state what happens when (a) Dry apricots are left for some time
in pure water and later transferred to sugar solution? (b) A red blood cell is kept in
concentrated saline solution? (c) The plasma membrane of a cell breaks down? (d)
The leaves are boiled in water first and then a drop of sugar syrup is put on it? (e)
Golgi apparatus is removed from the cell? Answer: (a) Dry apricots when placed in
pure water swell due to endosmosis (inward movement of water) and later when are
transferred sugar solution exosmosis (outward movement of water) occurs and they
shrink again. (b) When a Red Blood Cell is placed in concentrated saline solution
exosmosis occurs and the RBCs shrink due to excess loss of water. (c) Breaking of the
plasma membrane leads to the scattering of the cell organelles as it forms the basic
supporting unit of the cell. (d) When Rheo leaves are boiled in water first and then a
drop of sugar syrup is put on it, osmosis does not occur, due to the death of the cells
of the leaf. This shows that selective permeability is the property of living plasma
membrane. (e) Golgi complex helps in the package, storage and transfer of proteins
synthesised by ribosomes. Thus, when ribosomes are removed the cell will not
function properly.
Question 59: Draw a neat diagram of plant cell and label any three parts which
differentiate it from an animal cell. Answer:
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(i) Cell wall in the characteristic feature of the plant cell. (ii) The chloroplast is found
in plant cell which helps in photosynthesis in plants. Animals cannot synthesise their
own food because chloroplast is not found in the animal cell. (iii) Large vacuoles are
found in plant cell which contains excretory waste of plant cell. An animal cell does
not possess vacuoles if present these are of small size.