EM 311 Principles of Mining

Prepared by:
Maximo C. Tangente, Jr.,
REM, RME, MEME II

i Introduction to Mining Industry

Reference Book:
• Mining Engineering Handbook by
Master of Engineering - Mechanical Peele or Cummins & Given
Engineering • Introduction to Mining Engineering by
Graduate School of Engineering Howard L. Hartman
ii Contents
1. Elements of Mining
2. Development of Mining Technology
3. Types of Mining
1. Open Cast
2. Underground
4. Mining Methods (Conventional)
5. Mining Laws
6. Mine Supports
7. Drilling & Blasting
8. Mode of Entry to a Mine
9. Haulage & Hoisting
1.0.0 Introduction to Mining Industry
What are the elements of Mining ?
oMine
oMining
oMining Engineering
oRock
oMineral
1.1.0 Introduction to Mining Industry
What is Mining ?
o Mining is the process of extracting minerals like gold, silver, copper, nickel and
uranium (metallic) and salt, potash, coal and oil (nonmetallic) formations
that concentrate naturally in the earth.
o Mining has been defined as “the art or practice of operating mines profitably.”
• Sound Mining Economy is a body of scientific knowledge that can be applied in
the management of mining enterprises to obtain the most profitable employment
of capital.
• Ore, according to the US Geological Survey, is “a natural aggregation of one or
more minerals from which useful metals may be profitably extracted.”
the concept of economic value is inextricably fused with the technical
development of every mining undertaking.
1.1.1 Introduction to Mining Industry
• Ore, according to the US
Geological Survey, is “a natural
aggregation of one or more
minerals from which useful metals
may be profitably extracted.”

the concept of economic value is

inextricably fused with the technical
development of every mining
undertaking.
1.1.2 Introduction to Mining Industry
1.1.3 Introduction to Mining Industry
Three categories of commercial minerals
1. Metallic ores (ferrous, base, radioactive)
2. Non metallic ores
3. Mineral fuels

Base metal … is used to refer to a metal that oxidizes or corrodes

relatively easily, and reacts variably with diluted hydrochloric acid
(HCl) to form hydrogen.
1.1.4 Introduction to Mining Industry
Before mining geological investigations
After mining mineral processing (e.g gravity separation).
Smelting
Refining
marketing
1.1.5 Introduction to Mining Industry
Smelting &
refining
1.1.6 Introduction to Mining Industry
Civil and military excavations
Vehicular tunnels
Storage reservoirs
Military installations
1.1.7 Introduction to Mining Industry
Storage
reservoirs
1.1.8 Introduction to Mining Industry
Vehicular
tunnels
1.1.9 Introduction to Mining Industry
Geology deals with locating and exploring mineral deposit

Mining
Proving, planning, developing and exploiting of ore

Metallurgy
Processing ,smelting, refining
1.2.00 Development of mining technology
The long period of prehistoric times is divided into different
ages which are named from the material which man used in
the manufacture of his weapons and tools.

The Paleolithic or Old Stone Age … the earliest one

The Neolithic or New Stone Age … the following one
The Age of Metals … the later period
1.2.01 Development of mining technology
Definitions
Prehistoric times
… refers to all the time preceding human existence and the
invention of writing
Paleo-lithic, old-stone age
… is the period during which human beings lived entirely by
hunting

Neolithic
… is the following interval during which plant and animal
domestication started
1.2.02 Development of mining technology
Mining starts 450,000 years ago.

Flint (or flintstone) is a hard, sedimentary form of the mineral

quartz categorized as a variety of chert.

Flint was used for the manufacture of flint tools during the
Stone Age as it splits into thin, sharp splinters called flakes or
blades (depending on the shape) when struck by another hard
object.
1.2.03 Development of mining technology
1.2.04 Development of mining technology
1.2.05 Development of mining technology
In beginning only surface mining

First underground mine in old stone age 40000 years ago.

(Hematite, Swaziland)

Systematic opening in new stone age 2-3 ft high 30 feet

deep.

Depth 800 feet on Egyptian time.

1.2.06 Development of mining technology
Initially metals used in native form, by washing.

In bronze and iron age smelting.

Rock breakage
By bones wood or stone tools. (wedging)

Then by fire setting

In 17th century black powder.

1.2.07 Development of mining technology
Firstly slaves and convicts

Egyptians organized mining

Romans industrialized it

Mining suffered dark age

Dark age a period of intellectual darkness 6th to 13th
centuries. It came after the fall of Roman Empire.

1185 A.D … bishop of trent

1.2.08 Development of mining technology
18th century … industrial revolution

20th century … mechanized mining, computerization.

• Low grade deposits can be mined
• New world, America is regarded as the new world
1.2.10 Development of mining technology
Chronological Development of Mining Technology
450,000 … First mining (at surface), by Paleolithic humans
for stone implements.

40,000 … Surface mining progresses underground, in

Swaziland, Africa.

30,000 … Fired clay pots used in Czechoslovakia.

18,000 … Possible use of gold and copper in native form.
5000 … Fire setting, used by Egyptians to break rock.
4000 … Early use of fabricated metals; start of Bronze Age.
1.2.11 Development of mining technology
1.2.12 Development of mining technology
1.2.13 Development of mining technology
Video stone cutting

Turquoise is an opaque, blue-to-green mineral that is a

hydrous phosphate of copper and aluminium
1.2.14 Development of mining technology … B.D.
3400 … First recorded mining, of turquoise by Egyptians in Sinai.

3000 … Probable first smelting, of copper with coal by Chinese;

first use of iron implements by Egyptians.

2000 … Earliest known gold artifacts in New World, in Peru.

1000 … Steel used by Greeks.

1.2.14 Development of mining technology … A.D.
100 A.D … Thriving Roman mining industry.

122 … Coal used by Romans in present-day United Kingdom.

1185 … Edict by bishop of Trent gives rights to miners

1.2.15 Development of mining technology … 1500
1524 … 1st recorded mining in New World, by Spaniards in
Cuba.
1550 … 1st use of lift pump, at Joachimstal, Czechoslovakia.

1556 … 1st mining technical work, De Re Metallica, published in

Germany by Georgius Agricola.
1585 … Discovery of iron ore in North America, in North
Carolina.
1.2.15 Development of mining technology … 1600
1600s … Mining commences in eastern United States (iron,
coal, lead, gold ).

1627 … Explosives first used in European mines, in Hungary

(possible prior use in China).

1646 … First blast furnace installed in North America, in

Massachusetts.
1.2.16 Development of mining technology … 1700
1716 … First school of mines established, at Joachimstal,
Czechoslovakia.

1780 … Beginning of Industrial Revolution; pumps are

first modern machines used in mines.
1.2.17 Development of mining technology … 1800
1800s … Mining progresses in United States; gold rushes
help open the West.
A gold rush is a period of migration of workers into an
area of dramatic discovery of gold.

1815 … Sir Humphrey Davy invents miner’s Safety Lamp

in England.

1855 … Bessemer Steel Process first used, in England.

1867 … Dynamite invented by Nobel, applied to mining

for blasting.
1.2.18 Development of mining technology … 1900
1903 … Era of mechanization and mass production opens in
U.S. mining with development of first low-grade copper
porphyry in Utah;
although the first modern mine was an open pit, subsequent
operations were underground as well.

1940 … First continuous miner initiates the era of mining

without explosives.

1945 … Tungsten carbide bits used for mine drilling

developed by McKenna Metals Company (now
Kennametal)
1.2.19 Development of mining technology
1.2.20 Evaluative Measures
• Assignment No. 1 (before Prelim Exam)
• Submit on or before July 12, 2017
• Write an article about the

“History of Mining”
2.0.00 Mining Methods
What are the Types of Mining ?
oTwo Types of Mining Methods … is done depending upon on
geologic, environmental, economic and legal conditions.
1. Surface Mining:
1. Alluvial Mining … A method of extracting minerals by dredging
alluvial deposits.
2. Open Cast Mining … Open cast mining refers to a method of
extracting rock or minerals from the earth by their removal
from an open pit.
2. Underground mining … is a technique used to extract ores and
valuable minerals beneath the earth’s subsurface.
2.1.00 Alluvial Mining
What are the different Methods of Alluvial Mining ?
Pan & Batea : In this manual method, The soft alluvial material dug
up, is place in the Pan or Batea, and washed.
2.1.00
2.1.00
2.1.01 Alluvial Mining
Rocker : A rocker consists of a metal screen mounted at the bottom
of a strong wooden box and stand on two semi circular iron hoops. A
handle is also fitted to one side of the box.
2.1.00
2.1.02 Alluvial Mining
Sluicing method … In this method water from flowing stream is
diverted into the area occupied by alluvial deposit through a channel.
Men standing on the banks, of the channel, shovel the placer material,
into the water.
2.1.00
2.1.00
2.1.03 Alluvial Mining
Dredging : This method is mostly used for placer mining. The dredge
is large flat bottom barge, it’s provided with a chain of large shallow
buckets, which is lowered down to the bottom of pond, from where soils
are bring up.
 Open Cast “Pit” Mining
Jhamarkotra Mine is a great examples of India’s Open Pit Mining.
Open Cast “Pit” Mining
 Open Cast “Pit” Mining
What are the Techniques in Open Cast Mining ?
Loading by hand : It’s economical up to a depth of 50 to 100 feet.
Buckets can be used for lifting and skidding arrangement. For
purpose of transport cars, or skips or cableway or aerial ropeway can
be used.
 Open Cast “Pit” Mining
Loading by machine : Common machines are used, e.g- Dragline,
power shovels, scrapers and land dredges.
Figure :
Dragline machine
 Open Cast “Pit” Mining
Power shovel: It is more positive in action than the dragline.

Fig : using power

shovel in mining.
 Open Cast “Pit” Mining
Glory Hole : Pit is opened up in
method, and developed in such a
way, that working faces are arranged
in the form of concentric step. It is
very cheap method of mining and
loading ore.
Lignite mine in North
Bohemia is a great
example of this method.
 Open Cast “Pit” Mining
Kaolin Mining in cornwall :
This is special modification of open casting and hydraulicking.
Evaluative Measures
Plate No. 1
Sketch the

“Open Pit Mining”

(Submit on July 12, 2017)
 Underground Mining
Underground mining is a technique used to extract ores and valuable
minerals beneath the earth’s subsurface.
Underground Mining
Underground Mining
Underground Mining
Underground Mining
Underground Mining

Generally it is Open Stopes

devided into to
types Overhand Stoping
 Underground Mining
 Open Stopes :

Gopharing

Breast stoping
These techniques are
Open underhand
used for open stopes..
Open overhand

Milling, etc
 Underground Mining
Gophering :
• It is used for small, irregular and unsystematic underground working.
• Comprise drift or other openings which follow the ore chute and vein.
• Rajasthan and singbhum copper area is a great ancient example of
Gophering.

Breast stoping :
• In this mining system working face is vertical upto 10-12 ft.
• It employed in horizontal or low dipping ore bodies, up to 15 to 18 ft
thick.
• The hanging and footwall should be strong.
Underground Mining
Room and Pillar mining :
It is designed for flat bedded deposits of limited
thickness.
It is used to recover resources in open stopes.
Three typical variations are :
1. Classic room and pillar
2. Post room and pillar
3. Step room and pillar
Underground Mining
Open Underhand stoping :
• It is best suited to narrow steeply dipping veins with strong
walls.
• Ore requires No sorting.

Open Overhand stoping :

• In this method stoping is started from a raise, in the lower level
and progesses upwards.
• Working face is free for miners.
• It’s use higher and low dip deposits.
 Underground Mining
 Overhand stopes :
In this method a certain amount of support is used.
Different overhand method are :

Mitchell
Timbered Filled Srinkage Caving
slicing
stopes stopes stopes method
system
Underground Mining
Timbered stopes : This method is used where the ore body
and walls are weak due to presence of faults.
Underground Mining
• Timbered stopes is generally use according to following
method :
Flate back stopes.

Domes stopes

Rill stopes

Vertical face stopes

Underhand square set stopes.

 Underground Mining
Flat backed stopping :
It is used when the ore body
steeply dipping and has a
complicated vein system.

Stopping width very between

4-100 ft.

Numerous faults which

cause collapse of the walls
are taken in to consideration.
 Underground Mining
Domed stopes :
It is used in case of massive
ore bodies containing either
strong or weak ore.

It is used in case of strong

hanging wall that the arched
back is able to support the
stope partially.
 Underground Mining
Rill Stope :
Overhand stope is
developed so that, the back
has a stepped appearance
and the gradient is slightly in
excess of the angle of
repose.

This method is designed to

utilize waste filling of stopes,
and filling the stope, with
waste by gravity.
 Underground Mining
Vertical face stopes :
It is used incase of inclined
ore body.

The stopping is initiated in

the ore body by placing lead
set as a hanging wall.

The ore body face is kept

vertical.
2.1.00
 Underground Mining
Underhand square sets :
It is employed where the ore
body is nearly vertical.

Stoping starts by making

vertical slice between sets,
and extended gradually from
hanging to foot wall.
 Underground Mining
Advantages:- Disadvantages:-

Irregular ore body may be The cost of mining is high.

worked by this method.

It is easy to control the grade of Extraction of ore is low.

ore.

Accident rate is high.

Only a small space is exposed
at a time.
 Underground Mining
Filled stopes:- In this method, the stope is quickly supported
either by stowing or picking or by running in waste etc.

For the successful operation of this method it is preferable that

material of the ore body is strong, while the walls are weaker.
 Underground Mining
Shrinkage Method :
In this method of mining, over hand stopes are developed and
the broken ore is not removed from the stope but utilize to support
the stope.

Soon after the each blast, the broken ore fills up a considerable
part of the stope and the stope appears to shrink or become
smaller in size.

Shrinkage stopping is practiced in most metal mines, when the

condition are favorable.
 Underground Mining
Advantages : Disadvantages :
It can be employed in case of Dilution of ore is a
steeply dipping loads with consequent danger.
strong walls. Chutes may be closely
spaced, if the ore is to be
Broken ore serves to support drawn out easily, from the
the walls. stopes.
As the miners work on a solid Oxidation may leads to fire.
floor, they obtain a firm footing Collapse may occur during
and work with greater efficiency. drawing of ore from the
stopes.
Good condition for ventilation.
Method is cheap.
 Underground Mining
Mitchell slicing system:-
It is a modification of square set stoping which is applied under
certain condition such as when the ore is flat bedded, hanging wall
is well supported, thickness of ore body is about 50-60ft.

Advantages:-
Saving in labor, and time as compared to square set method.
Greater safety.
Increase in speed of mining with larger tonnage of output.
 Underground Mining
Caving Method:- It comprise of following techniques:-

A. Top Slicing:- The method is used where wide veins or massive

ore bodies are worked, when clean ore and high% of recovery is
required. It is used when both roof and ground surface need not
required any support.

The ore is mined in horizontal surface, comprising S1, S2 S3 S4 .

When each slice is completed the roof is allowed to cave in.
 Underground Mining
Advantage : Disadvantage :
Top slicing is a safe method It is more expansive.
of mining in heavy ground. Where the surface is to be
A very high% of extraction of protected, this method is not
ore is possible, with emplloyed.
practically no dilution from Ventilation is not easy.
the capping and walls.
Considerable tonnage can This method is not adopted,
be get. where sorting of waste, in
stopes, is required.
 Underground Mining
 Sub level caving : This method can be used where the ore
body is wide, and comprises soft or loose material.

Advantage : Disadvantage :
• The cost of mining is • There is practically no
comparatively low. possibility of sorting ore, in the
• The ore is mined rapidly. stope.
• The method can be applied to • Stopes are difficult to ventilate
soft and sticky ore.which is
not suitable for block caving.
 Underground Mining
Block caving :
• It is applicable to wide vein or thick beds and to massive homogeneous ore
body.
• It can be used in low grade ore.
• The block cave can be 200 – 250 ft. long, and 100-125 ft. high.
Mining Laws
1.2.22 Evaluative Measures
• Assignment No. 2 (before Midterm)
• Submit on or before August 16, 2017
• Write an article about the

Laws about Mining

Starting from the Spanish regime up to present 2020
Supports of Mine Excavation
1.2.22 Evaluative Measures
• Assignment No. 3 (before Semi-final)
• Submit on or before September 13, 2017
• Write an article about the

Different Types of
Drilling
Equipment
Drilling
Blasting
Mode of Entries to a Mine
Haulage & Hoisting
5.0.0 End