Extrusion

Extruded aluminium with several hollow cavities; T

slots allow bars to be joined with special connectors.

Extrusion is a process used to create

objects of a fixed cross-sectional profile. A
material is pushed through a die of the
desired cross-section. The two main
advantages of this process over other
manufacturing processes are its ability to
create very complex cross-sections, and to
work materials that are brittle, because the
material only encounters compressive and
shear stresses. It also forms parts with an
excellent surface finish.[1]

Drawing is a similar process, which uses

the tensile strength of the material to pull
it through the die. This limits the amount
of change which can be performed in one
step, so it is limited to simpler shapes, and
multiple stages are usually needed.
Drawing is the main way to produce wire.
Metal bars and tubes are also often drawn.
Extrusion may be continuous (theoretically
producing indefinitely long material) or
semi-continuous (producing many pieces).
The extrusion process can be done with
the material hot or cold. Commonly
extruded materials include metals,
polymers, ceramics, concrete, modelling
clay, and foodstuffs. The products of
extrusion are generally called "extrudates".

HDPE pipe during extrusion. The HDPE material is

coming from the heater, into the die, then into the
cooling tank. This Acu-Power conduit pipe is co-
t d d bl k i id ith thi j k t t
extruded - black inside with a thin orange jacket, to
designate power cables.

Also referred to as "hole flanging", hollow

cavities within extruded material cannot
be produced using a simple flat extrusion
die, because there would be no way to
support the centre barrier of the die.
Instead, the die assumes the shape of a
block with depth, beginning first with a
shape profile that supports the center
section. The die shape then internally
changes along its length into the final
shape, with the suspended center pieces
supported from the back of the die. The
material flows around the supports and
fuses together to create the desired closed
shape.

The extrusion process in metals may also

increase the strength of the material.

History
This section needs additional citations for
verification. Learn more

In 1797, Joseph Bramah patented the first

extrusion process for making pipe out of
soft metals. It involved preheating the
metal and then forcing it through a die via
a hand-driven plunger. In 1820 Thomas
Burr implemented that process for lead
pipe, with a hydraulic press (also invented
by Joseph Bramah). At that time the
process was called "squirting". In 1894,
Alexander Dick expanded the extrusion
process to copper and brass alloys.[2]

Process

Extrusion of a round blank through a die.

The process begins by heating the stock
material (for hot or warm extrusion). It is
then loaded into the container in the press.
A dummy block is placed behind it where
the ram then presses on the material to
push it out of the die. Afterward the
extrusion is stretched in order to
straighten it. If better properties are
required then it may be heat treated or
cold worked.[2]

The extrusion ratio is defined as the

starting cross-sectional area divided by
the cross-sectional area of the final
extrusion. One of the main advantages of
the extrusion process is that this ratio can
be very large while still producing quality
parts.

Hot extrusion

Hot extrusion is a hot working process,

which means it is done above the
material's recrystallization temperature to
keep the material from work hardening
and to make it easier to push the material
through the die. Most hot extrusions are
done on horizontal hydraulic presses that
range from 230 to 11,000 metric tons (250
to 12,130 short tons). Pressures range
from 30 to 700 MPa (4,400 to 101,500 psi),
therefore lubrication is required, which can
be oil or graphite for lower temperature
extrusions, or glass powder for higher
temperature extrusions. The biggest
disadvantage of this process is its cost for
machinery and its upkeep.[1]

Hot extrusion temperature for various metals[1]

Material Temperature [°C (°F)]

Magnesium 350–450 (650–850)

Aluminium 350–500 (650–900)

Copper 600–1100 (1200–2000)

Steel 1200–1300 (2200–2400)

Titanium 700–1200 (1300–2100)

Nickel 1000–1200 (1900–2200)

Refractory alloys up to 2000 (4000)

The extrusion process is generally

economical when producing between
several kilograms (pounds) and many
tons, depending on the material being
extruded. There is a crossover point where
roll forming becomes more economical.
For instance, some steels become more
economical to roll if producing more than
20,000 kg (50,000 lb).[2]

Aluminium hot extrusion die

  

Front side of a four family die. For

reference, the die is 228 mm (9.0 in) in
diameter.

Close up of the shape cut into the die.

Notice that the walls are drafted and that
the back wall thickness varies.
  

Back side of die. The wall thickness of the

extrusion is 3 mm (0.12 in).

Cold extrusion

Cold extrusion is done at room

temperature or near room temperature.
The advantages of this over hot extrusion
are the lack of oxidation, higher strength
due to cold working, closer tolerances,
better surface finish, and fast extrusion
speeds if the material is subject to hot
shortness.[1]

Materials that are commonly cold

extruded include: lead, tin, aluminum,
copper, zirconium, titanium, molybdenum,
beryllium, vanadium, niobium, and steel.

Examples of products produced by this

process are: collapsible tubes, fire
extinguisher cases, shock absorber
cylinders and gear blanks.

Warm extrusion

In March 1956, a US Patent was filed for

"process for warm extrusion of metal."
Patent US3156043 A outlines that a
number of important advantages can be
achieved with warm extrusion of both
ferrous and non-ferrous metals and alloys
if a billet to be extruded is changed in its
physical properties in response to physical
forces by being heated to a temperature
below the critical melting point.[3] Warm
extrusion is done above room temperature,
but below the recrystallization temperature
of the material the temperatures ranges
from 800 to 1800 °F (424 to 975 °C). It is
usually used to achieve the proper balance
of required forces, ductility and final
extrusion properties.[4]
Friction extrusion

Friction extrusion was invented at The

Welding Institute in the UK and patented in
1991. It was originally intended primarily
as a method for production of
homogenous microstructures and particle
distributions in metal matrix composite
materials[5]. Friction extrusion differs from
conventional extrusion in that the charge
(billet or other precursor) rotates relative
to the extrusion die. An extrusion force is
applied so as to push the charge against
the die. In practice either the die or the
charge may rotate or they may be counter-
rotating. The relative rotary motion
between the charge and the die has
several significant effects on the process.
First, the relative motion in the plane of
rotation leads to large shear stresses,
hence, plastic deformation in the layer of
charge in contact with and near the die.
This plastic deformation is dissipated by
recovery and recrystallization processes
leading to substantial heating of the
deforming charge. Because of the
deformation heating, friction extrusion
does not generally require preheating of
the charge by auxiliary means potentially
resulting in a more energy efficient
process. Second, the substantial level of
plastic deformation in the region of
relative rotary motion can promote solid
state welding of powders or other finely
divided precursors, such as flakes and
chips, effectively consolidating the charge
(friction consolidation) prior to extrusion[6].

Microextrusion

Microextrusion is a microforming
extrusion process performed at the
submillimeter range. Like extrusion, metal
is pushed through a die orifice, but the
resulting product's cross section can fit
through a 1mm square. Several
microextrusion processes have been
developed since microforming was
envisioned in 1990.[7][8][9] Forward (ram
and billet move in the same direction) and
backward (ram and billet move in the
opposite direction) microextrusion were
first introduced, with forward rod-
backward cup and double cup extrusion
methods developing later.[8][10] Regardless
of method, one of the greatest challenges
of creating a successful microextrusion
machine is the manufacture of the die and
ram. "The small size of the die and ram,
along with the stringent accuracy
requirement, needs suitable
manufacturing processes."[8] Additionally,
as Fu and Chan pointed out in a 2013
state-of-the-art technology review, several
issues must still be resolved before
microextrusion and other microforming
technologies can be implemented more
widely, including deformation load and
defects, forming system stability,
mechanical properties, and other size-
related effects on the crystallite (grain)
structure and boundaries.[8][9]

Extrusion defects

Surface cracking occurs when the

surface of an extrusion splits

. This is often caused by the extrusion

temperature, friction, or speed being too
high. It can also happen at lower
temperatures if the extruded product
temporarily sticks to the die.

Pipe – A flow pattern that draws the

surface oxides and impurities to the
center of the product. Such a pattern is
often caused by high friction or cooling
of the outer regions of the billet.
Internal cracking – When the center of
the extrusion develops cracks or voids.
These cracks are attributed to a state of
hydrostatic tensile stress at the
centerline in the deformation zone in the
die. (A similar situation to the necked
region in a tensile stress specimen)
 Surface lines – When there are lines
visible on the surface of the extruded
profile. This depends heavily on the
quality of the die production and how
well the die is maintained, as some
residues of the material extruded can
stick to the die surface and produce the
embossed lines.

Equipment

A horizontal hydraulic press for hot aluminum

extrusion (loose dies and scrap visible in foreground)
There are many different variations of
extrusion equipment. They vary by four
major characteristics:[1]

1. Movement of the extrusion with

relation to the ram. If the die is held
stationary and the ram moves
towards it then it is called "direct
extrusion". If the ram is held
stationary and the die moves towards
the ram it is called "indirect
extrusion".
2. The position of the press, either
vertical or horizontal.
 3. The type of drive, either hydraulic or
mechanical.
4. The type of load applied, either
conventional (variable) or hydrostatic.

A single or twin screw auger, powered by

an electric motor, or a ram, driven by
hydraulic pressure (often used for steel
and titanium alloys), oil pressure (for
aluminium), or in other specialized
processes such as rollers inside a
perforated drum for the production of
many simultaneous streams of material.

Typical extrusion presses cost more than

$100,000, whereas dies can cost up to
$2000.
Forming internal cavities

Two-piece aluminum extrusion die set (parts shown

separated.) The male part (at right) is for forming the
internal cavity in the resulting round tube extrusion.

There are several methods for forming

internal cavities in extrusions. One way is
to use a hollow billet and then use a fixed
or floating mandrel. A fixed mandrel, also
known as a German type, means it is
integrated into the dummy block and stem.
A floating mandrel, also known as a
French type, floats in slots in the dummy
block and aligns itself in the die when
extruding. If a solid billet is used as the
feed material then it must first be pierced
by the mandrel before extruding through
the die. A special press is used in order to
control the mandrel independently from
the ram.[1] The solid billet could also be
used with a spider die, porthole die or
bridge die. All of these types of dies
incorporate the mandrel in the die and
have "legs" that hold the mandrel in place.
During extrusion the metal divides, flows
around the legs, then merges, leaving weld
lines in the final product.[11]
Direct extrusion

Plot of forces required by various extrusion processes.

Direct extrusion, also known as forward

extrusion, is the most common extrusion
process. It works by placing the billet in a
heavy walled container. The billet is
pushed through the die by a ram or screw.
There is a reusable dummy block between
the ram and the billet to keep them
separated. The major disadvantage of this
process is that the force required to
extrude the billet is greater than that
needed in the indirect extrusion process
because of the frictional forces introduced
by the need for the billet to travel the entire
length of the container. Because of this the
greatest force required is at the beginning
of process and slowly decreases as the
billet is used up. At the end of the billet the
force greatly increases because the billet
is thin and the material must flow radially
to exit the die. The end of the billet (called
the butt end) is not used for this reason.[12]
Indirect extrusion

In indirect extrusion, also known as

backwards extrusion, the billet and
container move together while the die is
stationary. The die is held in place by a
"stem" which has to be longer than the
container length. The maximum length of
the extrusion is ultimately dictated by the
column strength of the stem. Because the
billet moves with the container the
frictional forces are eliminated. This leads
to the following advantages:[13]

A 25 to 30% reduction of friction, which

allows for extruding larger billets,
 increasing speed, and an increased
ability to extrude smaller cross-sections
There is less of a tendency for
extrusions to crack because there is no
heat formed from friction
The container liner will last longer due to
less wear
The billet is used more uniformly so
extrusion defects and coarse grained
peripherals zones are less likely.

The disadvantages are:[13]

Impurities and defects on the surface of

the billet affect the surface of the
extrusion. These defects ruin the piece
 if it needs to be anodized or the
aesthetics are important. In order to get
around this the billets may be wire
brushed, machined or chemically
cleaned before being used.
This process isn't as versatile as direct
extrusions because the cross-sectional
area is limited by the maximum size of
the stem.

Hydrostatic extrusion

In the hydrostatic extrusion process the

billet is completely surrounded by a
pressurized liquid, except where the billet
contacts the die. This process can be
done hot, warm, or cold, however the
temperature is limited by the stability of
the fluid used. The process must be
carried out in a sealed cylinder to contain
the hydrostatic medium. The fluid can be
pressurized two ways:[13]

1. Constant-rate extrusion: A ram or

plunger is used to pressurize the fluid
inside the container.
2. Constant-pressure extrusion: A pump
is used, possibly with a pressure
intensifier, to pressurize the fluid,
which is then pumped to the
container.

The advantages of this process include:[13]

 No friction between the container and
the billet reduces force requirements.
This ultimately allows for faster speeds,
higher reduction ratios, and lower billet
temperatures.
Usually the ductility of the material
increases when high pressures are
applied.
An even flow of material.
Large billets and large cross-sections
can be extruded.
No billet residue is left on the container
walls.

The disadvantages are:[13]

 The billets must be prepared by tapering
one end to match the die entry angle.
This is needed to form a seal at the
beginning of the cycle. Usually the entire
billet needs to be machined to remove
any surface defects.
Containing the fluid under high
pressures can be difficult.
A billet remnant or a plug of a tougher
material must be left at the end of the
extrusion to prevent a sudden release of
the extrusion fluid.

Drives

Most modern direct or indirect extrusion

presses are hydraulically driven, but there
are some small mechanical presses still
used. Of the hydraulic presses there are
two types: direct-drive oil presses and
accumulator water drives.

Direct-drive oil presses are the most

common because they are reliable and
robust. They can deliver over 35 MPa
(5000 psi). They supply a constant
pressure throughout the whole billet. The
disadvantage is that they are slow,
between 50 and 200 mm/s (2–8 ips).[14]

Accumulator water drives are more

expensive and larger than direct-drive oil
presses, and they lose about 10% of their
pressure over the stroke, but they are
much faster, up to 380 mm/s (15 ips).
Because of this they are used when
extruding steel. They are also used on
materials that must be heated to very hot
temperatures for safety reasons.[14]

Hydrostatic extrusion presses usually use

castor oil at pressure up to 1400 MPa (200
ksi). Castor oil is used because it has good
lubricity and high pressure properties.[15]

Die design
The design of an extrusion profile has a
large impact on how readily it can be
extruded. The maximum size for an
extrusion is determined by finding the
smallest circle that will fit around the
cross-section, this is called the
circumscribing circle. This diameter, in turn,
controls the size of the die required, which
ultimately determines if the part will fit in a
given press. For example, a larger press
can handle 60 cm (24 in) diameter
circumscribing circles for aluminium and
55 cm (22 in) diameter circles for steel
and titanium.[1]

The complexity of an extruded profile can

be roughly quantified by calculating the
shape factor, which is the amount of
surface area generated per unit mass of
extrusion. This affects the cost of tooling
as well as the rate of production.[16]

Thicker sections generally need an

increased section size. In order for the
material to flow properly legs should not
be more than ten times longer than their
thickness. If the cross-section is
asymmetrical, adjacent sections should be
as close to the same size as possible.
Sharp corners should be avoided; for
aluminium and magnesium the minimum
radius should be 0.4 mm (1/64 in) and for
steel corners should be 0.75 mm
(0.030 in) and fillets should be 3 mm
(0.12 in). The following table lists the
minimum cross-section and thickness for
various materials.[1]

Material Minimum cross-section [cm² (sq. in.)] Minimum thickness [mm (in.)]

Carbon steels 2.5 (0.40) 3.00 (0.120)

Stainless steel 3.0–4.5 (0.45–0.70) 3.00–4.75 (0.120–0.187)

Titanium 3.0 (0.50) 3.80 (0.150)

Aluminium < 2.5 (0.40) 0.70 (0.028)

Magnesium < 2.5 (0.40) 1.00 (0.040)

Materials
Metal

Metals that are commonly extruded

include:[17]

Aluminium is the most commonly

extruded material. Aluminium can be
hot or cold extruded. If it is hot extruded
it is heated to 575 to 1100 °F (300 to
600 °C). Examples of products include
profiles for tracks, frames, rails,
mullions, and heat sinks.
Brass is used to extrude corrosion free
rods, automobile parts, pipe fittings,
engineering parts.
Copper (1100 to 1825 °F (600 to
1000 °C)) pipe, wire, rods, bars, tubes,
and welding electrodes. Often more than
100 ksi (690 MPa) is required to extrude
copper.
Lead and tin (maximum 575 °F (300 °C))
pipes, wire, tubes, and cable sheathing.
Molten lead may also be used in place
of billets on vertical extrusion presses.
Magnesium (575 to 1100 °F (300 to
600 °C)) aircraft parts and nuclear
industry parts. Magnesium is about as
extrudable as aluminum.
Zinc (400 to 650 °F (200 to 350 °C))
rods, bar, tubes, hardware components,
fitting, and handrails.
Steel (1825 to 2375 °F (1000 to
1300 °C)) rods and tracks. Usually plain
carbon steel is extruded, but alloy steel
and stainless steel can also be
extruded.
 Titanium (1100 to 1825 °F (600 to
1000 °C)) aircraft components including
seat tracks, engine rings, and other
structural parts.

Magnesium and aluminium alloys usually

have a 0.75 μm (30 μin) RMS or better
surface finish. Titanium and steel can
achieve a 3 micrometres (120 μin) RMS.[1]

In 1950, Ugine Séjournet, of France,

invented a process which uses glass as a
lubricant for extruding steel.[18] The Ugine-
Sejournet, or Sejournet, process is now
used for other materials that have melting
temperatures higher than steel or that
require a narrow range of temperatures to
extrude, such as the platinum-iridium alloy
used to make kilogram mass
standards.[19] The process starts by
heating the materials to the extruding
temperature and then rolling it in glass
powder. The glass melts and forms a thin
film, 20 to 30 mils (0.5 to 0.75 mm), in
order to separate it from chamber walls
and allow it to act as a lubricant. A thick
solid glass ring that is 0.25 to 0.75 in (6 to
18 mm) thick is placed in the chamber on
the die to lubricate the extrusion as it is
forced through the die. A second
advantage of this glass ring is its ability to
insulate the heat of the billet from the die.
The extrusion will have a 1 mil thick layer
of glass, which can be easily removed
once it cools.[4]

Another breakthrough in lubrication is the

use of phosphate coatings. With this
process, in conjunction with glass
lubrication, steel can be cold extruded. The
phosphate coat absorbs the liquid glass to
offer even better lubricating properties.[4]

Plastic

Sectional view of a plastic extruder showing the

components
 

Sectional view of how a caterpillar haul-off provides

line tension

Plastics extrusion commonly uses plastic

chips or pellets, which are usually dried, to
drive out moisture, in a hopper before
going to the feed screw. The polymer resin
is heated to molten state by a combination
of heating elements and shear heating
from the extrusion screw. The screw, or
screws as the case with twin screw
extrusion, forces the resin through a die,
forming the resin into the desired shape.
The extrudate is cooled and solidified as it
is pulled through the die or water tank. A
"caterpillar haul-off" (called a "puller" in the
US) is used to provide tension on the
extrusion line which is essential for overall
quality of the extrudate. Pelletizers can
also create this tension while pulling
extruded strands in to be cut. The
caterpillar haul-off must provide a
consistent pull; otherwise, variation in cut
lengths or distorted product will result. In
some cases (such as fibre-reinforced
tubes) the extrudate is pulled through a
very long die, in a process called
"pultrusion". The configuration of the
interior screws are a driving force
dependent on the application. Mixing
elements or convey elements are used in
various formations. Extrusion is common
in the application of adding colorant to
molten plastic thus creating specific
custom color.

A multitude of polymers are used in the

production of plastic tubing, pipes, rods,
rails, seals, and sheets or films.

Ceramic

Ceramic can also be formed into shapes

via extrusion. Terracotta extrusion is used
to produce pipes. Many modern bricks are
also manufactured using a brick extrusion
process.[20] {403 forbidden link 12Jul15}

Applications
Food

This section does not cite any sources.

Learn more

Elbow macaroni is an extruded hollow pasta.

With the advent of industrial
manufacturing, extrusion found
application in food processing of instant
foods and snacks, along with its already
known uses in plastics and metal
fabrication. The main role of extrusion was
originally developed for conveying and
shaping fluid forms of processed raw
materials. Present day, extrusion cooking
technologies and capabilities have
developed into sophisticated processing
functions including: mixing, conveying,
shearing, separation, heating, cooling,
shaping, co-extrusion, venting volatiles
and moisture, encapsulation, flavor
generation and sterilization.[21] Products
such as certain pastas, many breakfast
cereals, premade cookie dough, some
french fries, certain baby foods, dry or
semi-moist pet food and ready-to-eat
snacks are mostly manufactured by
extrusion. It is also used to produce
modified starch, and to pelletize animal
feed.

Generally, high-temperature extrusion is

used for the manufacture of ready-to-eat
snacks, while cold extrusion is used for
the manufacture of pasta and related
products intended for later cooking and
consumption. The processed products
have low moisture and hence considerably
higher shelf life, and provide variety and
convenience to consumers.

In the extrusion process, raw materials are

first ground to the correct particle size.
The dry mix is passed through a pre-
conditioner, in which other ingredients may
be added, and steam is injected to start
the cooking process. The preconditioned
mix is then passed through an extruder,
where it is forced through a die and cut to
the desired length. The cooking process
takes place within the extruder where the
product produces its own friction and heat
due to the pressure generated (10–
20 bar). The main independent parameters
during extrusion cooking are feed rate,
particle size of the raw material, barrel
temperature, screw speed and moisture
content. The extruding process can induce
both protein denaturation and starch
gelatinization, depending on inputs and
parameters. Sometimes, a catalyst is
used, for example, when producing
texturised vegetable proteins (TVP).

Drug carriers

This section needs expansion.

Learn more

For use in pharmaceutical products,

extrusion through nano-porous, polymeric
filters is being used to produce
suspensions of lipid vesicles liposomes or
transfersomes with a particular size of a
narrow size distribution. The anti-cancer
drug Doxorubicin in liposome delivery
system is formulated by extrusion, for
example. Hot melt extrusion is also
utilized in pharmaceutical solid oral dose
processing to enable delivery of drugs with
poor solubility and bioavailability. Hot melt
extrusion has been shown to molecularly
disperse poorly soluble drugs in a polymer
carrier increasing dissolution rates and
bioavailability. The process involves the
application of heat, pressure and agitation
to mix materials together and ‘extrude’
them through a die. Twin-screw high shear
extruders blend materials and
simultaneously break up particles. The
resulting particle can be blended with
compression aids and compressed into
tablets or filled into unit dose capsules.[22]

Biomass briquettes

The extrusion production technology of

fuel briquettes is the process of extrusion
screw wastes (straw, sunflower husks,
buckwheat, etc.) or finely shredded wood
waste (sawdust) under high pressure
when heated from 160 to 350°C. The
resulting fuel briquettes do not include any
of the binders, but one natural – the lignin
contained in the cells of plant wastes. The
temperature during compression causes
melting of the surface of bricks, making it
more solid, which is important for the
transportation of briquettes.

See also
Equal channel angular extrusion
Impact extrusion
Extrusion coating
Fused deposition modeling
HDPE Pipe
3D printer extruder
 Curtain coating

References
Notes

1. Oberg et al. 2000, pp. 1348–1349

2. Backus et al. 1998, pp. 13-11–12, Hot
extrusion
3. Grazioso, Charles G.; Mulder, Gerard W.
(1956-03-09). "Process for warm
extrusion of metal" . Google. Retrieved
2017-08-16.
4. Avitzur, B. (1987), "Metal forming",
Encyclopedia of Physical Science &
Technology, 8, San Diego: Academic
Press, Inc., pp. 80–109
5. “Forming metallic composite materials
by urging base materials together
under shear” US patent #5262123 A,
Inventors: W. Thomas, E. Nicholas, and
S. Jones, Original Assignee: The
Welding Institute.
6. Tang, W.; Reynolds, A.P. (2010).
"Production of wire via friction
extrusion of aluminum alloy machining
chips". Journal of Materials
Processing Technology. 210 (15):
2231–2237.
doi:10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2010.08.010
.
7. Engel, U.; Eckstein, R. (2002).
"Microforming - From Basic research
to its realization". Journal of Materials
Processing Technology. 125–126
(2002): 35–44. doi:10.1016/S0924-
0136(02)00415-6 .
8. Dixit, U.S.; Das, R. (2012). "Chapter 15:
Microextrusion" . In Jain, V.K. (ed.).
Micromanufacturing Processes. CRC
Press. pp. 263–282.
ISBN 9781439852903.
 9. Fu, M.W.; Chan, W.L. (2013). "A review
on the state-of-the-art microforming
technologies". International Journal of
Advanced Manufacturing Technology.
67 (9): 2411–2437.
doi:10.1007/s00170-012-4661-7 .
10. Fu, M.W.; Chan, W.L. (2014). "Chapter
4: Microforming Processes" . Micro-
scaled Products Development via
Microforming: Deformation
Behaviours, Processes, Tooling and its
Realization. Springer Science &
Business Media. pp. 73–130.
ISBN 9781447163268. Retrieved
19 March 2016.
11. Backus et al. 1998, pp. 13–21, Hot
extrusion: Tooling
12. Backus et al. 1998, p. 13-13, Hot
extrusion: Methods of extruding: Direct
extrusion
13. Backus et al. 1998, pp. 13–14
14. Backus et al. 1998, pp. 13–16
15. Backus et al. 1998, pp. 13–20
16. Extrusion Tooling – Edmo
17. Backus et al. 1998, pp. 13–15–16
18. Bauser, Martin; Sauer, Günther; Siegert,
Klaus (2006), Extrusion , ASM
International, p. 270, ISBN 0-87170-
837-X
19. Quinn, T. J. (1986). "New Techniques
in the Manufacture of Platinum-Iridium
Mass Standards" . Platinum Metals
Review. 30 (2): 74–79. "The forged
billet is then delivered to the National
Physical Laboratory where it is
extruded at 1200 °C, using glass as
the lubricant, to a cylinder about
43 mm in diameter."
20. Brick manufacturing process
21. Guy, R. (2001-06-25). Extrusion
Cooking: Technologies and
Applications . Elsevier.
ISBN 9781855736313.
 22. "Extrusion Spheronisation" .
PharmaCMC. Retrieved 27 September
2016.

Bibliography

Backus, Robert G.; Boshold, R. F.;

Johannisson, Thomas G.; Noble, Paul D.;
Pfeffer, Jerome B.; Schiebold, Ted A.;
Spearman, J. E. (1998) [1984]. "Drawing,
extruding, and upsetting". In Wick,
Charles; Benedict, John T.; Veilleux,
Raymond F. (eds.). Tool and
manufacturing engineers handbook . vol.
2 (4th ed.). SME. ISBN 0-87263-135-4.
Oberg, Erik; Jones, Franklin D.; Horton,
Holbrook L.; Ryffel, Henry H. (2000),
 Machinery's Handbook (26th ed.), New
York: Industrial Press, ISBN 0-8311-
2635-3.

See also
Forming (metalworking)

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