Classification of Measuring Instruments

Basic classification of measuring instruments:

1. Mechanical instruments:- They are very reliable for static and stable conditions. The disadvantage is
they are unable to respond rapidly to measurement of dynamic and transient conditions.

2. Electrical instruments:- Electrical methods of indicating the output of detectors are more rapid than
mechanical methods. The electrical system normally depends upon a mechanical meter movement as
indicating device.

3. Electronic instruments:- These instruments have very fast response. For example a cathode ray
oscilloscope (CRO) is capable to follow dynamic and transient changes of the order of few nano seconds
(10-9 sec).

Other classification of instruments:-

1. Absolute instruments or Primary Instruments:- These instruments gives the magnitude of quantity
under measurement in terms of physical constants of the instrument e.g. Tangent Galvanometer. These
instruments do not require comparison with any other standard instrument

• These instruments give the value of the electrical quantity in terms of absolute quantities (or some
constants) of the instruments and their deflections.

• In this type of instruments no calibration or comparison with other instruments is necessary.

• They are generally not used in laboratories and are seldom used in practice by electricians and
engineers. They are mostly used as means of standard measurements and are maintained lay national
laboratories and similar institutions.

• Some of the examples of absolute instruments are:

* Tangent galvanometer

* Raleigh current balance

* Absolute electrometer

2. Secondary instruments:-These instruments are so constructed that the quantity being measured can
only be determined by the output indicated by the instrument. These instruments are calibrated by
comparison with an absolute instrument or another secondary instrument, which has already been
calibrated against an absolute instrument.
Working with absolute instruments for routine work is time consuming since every time a measurement
is made, it takes a lot of time to compute the magnitude of quantity under measurement. Therefore
secondary instruments are most commonly used.

• They are direct reading instruments. The quantity to be measured by these instruments can be
determined from the deflection of the instruments.

• They are often calibrated by comparing them with either some absolute instruments or with those
which have already been calibrated.

• The deflections obtained with secondary instruments will be meaningless untill it is not calibrated.

• These instruments are used in general for all laboratory purposes.

• Some of the very widely used secondary instruments are: ammeters, voltmeter, wattmeter, energy
meter (watt-hour meter), ampere-hour meters etc.

Classification of Secondary Instruments:

(a) Classification based on the various effects of electric current (or voltage) upon which their operation
depend. They are:

• Magnetic effect: Used in ammeters, voltmeters, watt-meters, integrating meters etc.

• Heating effect: Used in ammeters and voltmeters.

• Chemical effect: Used in dc ampere hour meters.

• Electrostatic effect: Used in voltmeters.

• Electromagnetic induction effect: Used in ac ammeters, voltmeters, watt meters and integrating
meters.

Generally the magnetic effect and the electromagnetic induction effect are utilized for the
construction of the commercial instruments. Some of the instruments are also named based on the
above effect such as electrostatic voltmeter, induction instruments, etc.

(b) Classification based on the Nature of their Operations

We have the following instruments.

• Indicating instruments: Indicating instruments indicate, generally the quantity to be measured by

means of a pointer which moves on a scale. Examples are ammeter, voltmeter, wattmeter etc.

• Recording instruments: These instruments record continuously the variation of any electrical quantity
with respect to time. In principle, these are indicating instruments but so arranged that a permanent
continuous record of the indication is made on a chart or dial. The recording is generally made by a pen
on a graph paper which is rotated on a dice or drum at a uniform speed. The amount of the quantity at
any time (instant) may be read from the traced chart. Any variation in the quantity with time is recorded
by these instruments. Any electrical quantity like current, voltage, power etc., (which may be measured
lay the indicating instruments) may be arranged to be recorded by a suitable recording mechanism.

• Integrating instruments: These instruments record the consumption of the total quantity of electricity,
energy etc., during a particular period of time. That is, these instruments totalize events over a specified
period of time. No indication of the rate or variation or the amount at a particular instant are available
from them. Some widely used integrating instruments are: Ampere-hour meter: kilowatthour (kWh)
meter, kilovolt-ampere-hour

(kVARh) meter.

(c) Classification based on the Kind of Current that can be Measurand.

Under this heading, we have:

• Direct current (dc) instruments

• Alternating current (ac) instruments

• Both direct current and alternating current instruments (dc/ac instruments).

(d) Classification based on the method used.

Under this category, we have:

• Direct measuring instruments: These instruments converts the energy of the measured quantity
directly into energy that actuates the instrument and the value of the unknown quantity is measured or
displayed or recorded directly. These instruments are most widely used in engineering practice because
they are simple and inexpensive. Also, time involved in the measurement is shortest. Examples are
Ammeter, Voltmeter, Watt meter etc.

• Comparison instruments: These instruments measure the unknown quantity by comparison with a
standard. Examples are dc and ac bridges and potentiometers. They are used when a higher accuracy of
measurements is desired.

Errors in Measurement System

An error may be defined as the difference between the measured value and the actual value. For
example, if the two operators use the same device or instrument for finding the errors in measurement,
it is not necessary that they may get similar results. There may be a difference between both
measurements. The difference that occurs between both the measurements is referred to as an ERROR.

Sequentially, to understand the concept of errors in measurement, you should know the two terms that
define the error. They are true value and the measured value. The true value is impossible to find out
the truth of quantity by experimental means. It may be defined as the average value of an infinite
number of measured values. Measured value can be defined as the estimated value of true value that
can be found by taking several measured values during an experiment.

Types of Errors in Measurement System

Generally errors are classified into three types: systematic errors, random errors and
blunders.

Systematic Errors

 Instrumental Errors
 Environmental Errors
 Observational Errors
 Theoretical Errors

Random Errors

1) Gross Errors

Gross errors are caused by mistake in using instruments or meters, calculating

measurement and recording data results. The best example of these errors is a person
or operator reading pressure gage 1.01N/m2 as 1.10N/m2. It may be due to the
person’s bad habit of not properly remembering data at the time of taking down
reading, writing and calculating, and then presenting the wrong data at a later time.
This may be the reason for gross errors in the reported data, and such errors may end
up in calculation of the final results, thus deviating results.

2) Blunders

Blunders are final source of errors and these errors are caused by faulty recording or
due to a wrong value while recording a measurement, or misreading a scale or
forgetting a digit while reading a scale. These blunders should stick out like sore
thumbs if one person checks the work of another person. It should not be comprised in
the analysis of data.

3) Measurement Error
The measurement error is the result of the variation of a measurement of the true
value. Usually, Measurement error consists of a random error and systematic error.
The best example of the measurement error is, if electronic scales are loaded with 1kg
standard weight and the reading is 10002 grams, then

The measurement error is = (1002 grams-1000 grams) = 2 grams

Measurement Errors are classified into two types: systematic error and random errors

Systematic Errors

The Systematic errors that occur due to fault in the measuring device are known as
systematic errors. Usually they are called as Zero Error – a positive or negative error.
These errors can be detached by correcting the measurement device. These errors may
be classified into different categories.

Systematic Errors

In order to understand the concept of systematic errors, let us classify the errors as:

 Instrumental Errors
 Environmental Errors
 Observational Errors
 Theoritical

Instrumental Errors

Instrumental errors occur due to wrong construction of the measuring instruments.

These errors may occur due to hysteresis or friction. These types of errors include
loading effect and misuse of the instruments. In order to reduce the gross errors in
measurement, different correction factors must be applied and in the extreme
condition instrument must be recalibrated carefully.

Environmental Errors

The environmental errors occur due to some external conditions of the instrument.
External conditions mainly include pressure, temperature, humidity or due to
magnetic fields. In order to reduce the environmental errors

 Try to maintain the humidity and temperature constant in the laboratory by

making some arrangements.
  Ensure that there shall not be any external electrostatic or magnetic field around
the instrument.

Observational Errors

As the name suggests, these types of errors occurs due to wrong observations or
reading in the instruments particularly in case of energy meter reading. The wrong
observations may be due to PARALLAX. In order to reduce the PARALLAX error
highly accurate meters are needed: meters provided with mirror scales.

Theoretical Errors

Theoretical errors are caused by simplification of the model system. For example, a
theory states that the temperature of the system surrounding will not change the
readings taken when it actually does, then this factor will begin a source of error in
measurement.

Random Errors

Random errors are caused by the sudden change in experimental conditions and noise
and tiredness in the working persons. These errors are either positive or negative. An
example of the random errors is during changes in humidity, unexpected change in
temperature and fluctuation in voltage. These errors may be reduced by taking the
average of a large number of readings.

What are Errors in Measurement?

An error or fault can be described as the disparity between the calculated worth and the exact
worth. For instance, if the two machinists use a similar instrument for discovering the errors in
measurement, it is not required that they may acquire the related outcomes. But, there will be a
slight variation between both the measurements which is known as an error. In sequence, to
know the idea of errors in measurement, one has to recognize the two conditions that describe
the error namely measured value as well as true value. The “true value” is unfeasible to find out
the accuracy of measurement by experimental means that can be defined as the standard value of
a countless number of calculated values. This value can be described as the expected value of
true value which can be established by taking numerous calculated values throughout
experimentation.

Types of Errors in Measurement

The errors in measurement may happen from the various sources which are generally categorized
into the following types. These are clarified beneath in details.

1. Systematic Errors
2. Gross Errors
3. Random Errors
1. Systematic Errors
These types of systematic errors are generally categorized into three types which are explained
below in detail.
 Observational Errors
 Environmental Errors
 Instrumental Errors

Observational Errors
The observational errors may occur due to the fault study of the instrument reading, and the
sources of these errors are many. For instance, the indicator of a voltmeter retunes a little over
the surface of the scale. As a result, a fault happens except the line of the image of the witness is
accurately above the indicator. To reduce the parallax error extremely precise meters are offered
with reflected scales.

Environmental Errors
Environmental errors will happen due to the outside situation of the measuring instruments.
These types of errors mostly happen due to the temperature result, force, moisture, dirt, vibration
otherwise because of the electrostatic field or magnetic. The remedial measures used to remove
these unwanted effects include the following.

 The preparation should be finished to remain the situations as stable as achievable.

 By the instrument which is at no cost from these results.
 With these methods which remove the result of these troubles.
 By applying the computed modifications.
Instrumental Errors
Instrumental errors will happen due to some of the following reasons

An inherent limitation of Devices

These errors are integral in devices due to their features namely mechanical arrangement. These
may happen due to the instrument operation as well as the operation or computation of the
instrument. These types of errors will make the mistake to study very low otherwise very high.

For instance – If the apparatus uses the delicate spring then it offers the high-value of
determining measure. These will happen in the apparatus due to the loss of hysteresis or friction.

Abuse of Apparatus
The error in the instrument happens due to the machinist’s fault. A superior device used in an
unintelligent method may provide a vast result. For instance – the abuse of the apparatus may
cause the breakdown to change the zero of tools, poor early modification, with lead to very high
resistance. Improper observes of these may not reason for lasting harm to the device, except all
the similar, they cause faults.

Effect of Loading
The most frequent type of this error will occur due to the measurement work in the device. For
instance, as the voltmeter is associated to the high-resistance circuit which will give a false
reading, as well as after it is allied to the low-resistance circuit, this circuit will give the reliable
reading, and then the voltmeter will have the effect of loading on the circuit.
The fault which is caused by this effect will be beaten with the help of meters cleverly. For
illustration, once calculating a low-resistance with the method of ammeter-voltmeter, a voltmeter
will have an extremely high resistance value should be used.

2. Gross Errors
Gross errors can be defined as physical errors in analysis apparatus or calculating and recording
measurement outcomes. In general, these type of errors will happen throughout the experiments,
wherever the researcher might study or record a worth different from the real one, possibly due
to a reduced view. With human concern, types of errors will predictable, although they can be
estimated and corrected.

These types of errors can be prohibited by the following couple of actions:

 Careful reading as well as a recording of information.

 Taking numerous readings of the instrument by different operators. Secure contracts
between different understandings guarantee the elimination of every gross error.
3. Random Errors
This type of error is constantly there in a measurement, which is occurred by essentially random
oscillations in the apparatus measurement analysis or in the experimenter’s understanding of the
apparatus reading. These types of errors show up as dissimilar outcomes for apparently the
similar frequent measurement, which can be expected by contrasting numerous measurements,
with condensed by averaging numerous measurements.

The Measurement Errors Calculation

The calculation of errors in measurement system doesn’t mean that the dimension is not
correct. So the device measurement is not accurate due to the apparatus. These errors are
categorized into three type’s namely absolute error, relative error, and percentage error.
The absolute error can be defined as the variation between the values of actual and measured.

Absolute error = |VA-VE|

Percentage error (%) = (|VA-VE|/VE) x 100
Relative Error = Absolute error/actual value
Here, the measured value is denoted with VA, whereas the exact value is denoted with VE
Measurement Errors Example
A length was calculated to be 5.8 feet, but the absolute length was 5.72 feet. Calculate the errors
for Absolute as well as percentage.

Here, VA = 5.8 feet and VE =5.62 feet

Absolute error = |VA-VE| =| 5.8-5.72| = 0.08ft

Percentage error (%) = (|VA-VE|/VE) x 100 = |0.08/5.62| x 100 = 1.423 %
Relative Error = |VA-VE|/ VE = 0.08/5.8 = 0.013