Different Types Of Arduino Boards (LITERATURE)

The list of Arduino boards includes the following such as

 Arduino Uno (R3)

 LilyPad Arduino
 Red Board
 Arduino Mega (R3)
 Arduino Leonardo

Arduino Uno (R3)

The Uno is a huge option for your initial Arduino. It consists of 14-digital I/O pins, where
6-pins can be used as PWM(pulse width modulation outputs), 6-analog inputs, a reset
button, a power jack, a USB connection and more. It includes everything required to
hold up the microcontroller; simply attach it to a PC with the help of a USB cable and
give the supply to get started with a AC-to-DC adapter or battery.

LilyPad Arduino Board

The Lily Pad Arduino board is a wearable e-textile technology expanded by Leah “
Buechley”and considerately designed by “Leah and SparkFun”. Each board was
imaginatively designed with huge connecting pads & a smooth back to let them to be
sewn into clothing using conductive thread. This Arduino also comprises of I/O, power,
and also sensor boards which are built especially for e-textiles. These are even
washable!
RedBoard Arduino Board
X

The RedBoard aAduino board can be programmed using a Mini-B USB cable using the
Arduino IDE. It will work on Windows 8 without having to modify your security settings.It
is more constant due to the USB or FTDI chip we used and also it is entirely flat on the
back. Creating it is very simple to utilize in the project design. Just plug the board, select
the menu option to choose an Arduino UNO and you are ready to upload the program.
You can control the RedBoard over USB cable using the barrel jack.

Arduino Mega (R3) Board

The Arduino Mega is similar to the UNO’s big brother. It includes lots of digital I/O pins
(from that, 14-pins can be used as PWM o/ps), 6-analog inputs, a reset button, a power
jack, a USB connection and a reset button. It includes everything required to hold up the
microcontroller; simply attach it to a PC with the help of a USB cable and give the
supply to get started with a AC-to-DC adapter or battery.The huge number of pins make
this Arduino board very helpful for designing the projects that need a bunch of digital
i/ps or o/ps like lots buttons.
Arduino Leonardo Board

The first development board of an Arduino is the Leonardo board. This board uses one
microcontroller along with the USB. That means, it can be very simple and cheap also.
Because this board handles USB directly, program libraries are obtainable which let the
Arduino board to follow a keyboard of the computer, mouse, etc.

JOYSTICK LITERATURE

Conventional Joystick
A conventional joystick generally consists of a gimbal knob an on/off switch, a
speed control and a battery gauge. Depending on the level of electronics on the
wheelchair there may also be program indicators, power indicator lights etc. To
use a conventional joystick the user pushes the gimbal in the direction they want
to go and the further they push in that direction the faster the wheelchair will
move similar to a gas pedal in a car. Pictured is an Invacare PS joystick.

Compact Joystick
When controlled by the chin, the gimbal is mounted on a swingaway mount of
some sort and positioned slightly below and forward of the chin. Chin controls
work much the same as conventional joysticks in that the user simply pushes the
gimbal the direction they want to go and control their speed by the distance they
push the gimbal. The knob on the gimbal can be replaced with a small cup or
other shaped piece depending on the needs of the user.

Head Control

When set up to be actuated by the head, the gimbal is mounted behind the head
and attached to a headrest. The user pushes the left side of the headrest to go
left, the right side to go right and pushes back to go forward. In order to back up
the user must activate a switch and then push the headrest straight back. The
user must activate the switch again to move forward. Normally this is not a
serious drawback, but if the user is in a situation where several back and forward
movements are needed to get through a doorway or enter an elevator etc., it can
be quite annoying.

Finger Control

Finger control drive systems consist of a small square box about 3" x 3" x 1 1/2"
with a 2" hole in the top of it. The finger control box can be mounted just about
anywhere the user can comfortably reach. To drive the chair with a finger control
box, the user places one finger through the hole on the top of the box and moves
the finger in the direction they want the power wheelchair to move. This system is
basically the same principle as a joystick in that it's a proportional drive but
instead of moving a gimbal, the user moves a finger. Pictured as an ASL finger
control box.

Touchpad Drive Control

Touch pad drives also drive the power wheelchairs with a finger and can be
mounted in several places on the wheelchair depending on the ability of the user
to access it. Because touch pads are also proportional, the user can determine
and control the speed of the wheelchair while moving simply by a small
movement of the finger. The pictured touch pad is a Switch-it.

Non-Proportional Drive Controls

Proximity Switch Drive Controls

Proximity switches do not require pressure to be activated. The user only needs
to move some part of their body near the switch to activate it. Proximity switches
can be purchased loose and mounted virtually anywhere on the wheelchair the
user can reach. Normally these switches are mounted on the under side of a tray
and the user simply moves their hand on the tray from switch to switch to operate
the wheelchair.

Head Control
Head controls can also be non-proportional by adding proximity switches to the
headrest which the user activates to go left, right and forward. As with the
proportional system, the user must activate another switch to change directions
from forward to reverse. The user does not have to hold constant pressure on the
switches to drive the chair. The user can't actually use the headrest, as a
headrest, unless power to the chair is turned off. The disadvantage of a non-
proportional drive headrest systems is that there is no way for the user to adjust
their speed while driving. Pictured is the ASL Digital head array.

Wafer Boards

Wafer boards are similar in operation to the non-proximity head control but are
designed to be used on the user's lap or a wheelchair tray. Instead of the
switches being hidden in a headrest and actuated by the user's head, the
switches are mounted visibly on a board and activated by the user's hand. This
digital system might be an option for a user who has some control of a hand but
can't maintain the constant control needed to operate a joystick.

Scanner Drive Control

Wheelchair scanners use a display with multiple lights mounted on it to control

the wheelchair. When the wheelchair is not moving the lights on the scanner
blink on and off in a predictable rotation and the user activates the switch when
the light desired is lit. On the scanner pictured there are four directional lights and
the user activates the switch when the forward light is lit to go forward, the rear
light to go backward and the side lights to turn. Once a light is chosen and
activated by the user the chair will perform as commanded until the switch is hit
again to cancel the movement of the power wheelchair. Pictured is the ASL
Single Switch Scanner.

Sip'n'Puff Drive Control

Sip and puff drives are the solution for those users who aren't able to use any
part of their body to operate a control device on their power wheelchair. Sip and
puff systems are non-proportional drives and require quite a bit of practice by the
user to get good at driving. The user will either puff air into a tube or sip on the
tube. Not only do the wheelchair electronics distinguish between a sip and a puff,
it can also recognize the strength of the sip and puff. A hard sip or puff will mean
one thing to the wheelchair and a soft sip or puff will mean something else. The
trick for the user is to get used to how hard to sip or puff and be consistent with
those actions. Pictured is the ASL Sip N Puff/Head Array package.

PROXIMITY LITERATURE
Proximity Sensors Compared: Inductive, Capacitive, Photoelectric, and Ultrasonic

Proximity sensors detect the presence or absence of objects using electromagnetic

fields, light, and sound. There are many types, each suited to specific applications and
environments.

Thomas A. Kinney • Application Engineer

Proximity sensors detect the presence or absence of objects using electromagnetic fields,
light, and sound. There are many types, each suited to specific applications and
environments.

Inductive sensors

These non-contact proximity sensors detect ferrous targets, ideally mild steel thicker
than one millimeter. They consist of four major components: a ferrite core with coils,
an oscillator, a Schmitt trigger, and an output amplifier. The oscillator creates a
symmetrical, oscillating magnetic field that radiates from the ferrite core and coil array
at the sensing face. When a ferrous target enters this magnetic field, small independent
electrical currents called eddy currents are induced on the metal’s surface. This
changes the reluctance (natural frequency) of the magnetic circuit, which in turn
reduces the oscillation amplitude. As more metal enters the sensing field the oscillation
amplitude shrinks, and eventually collapses. (This is the “Eddy Current Killed
Oscillator” or ECKO principle.) The Schmitt trigger responds to these amplitude
changes, and adjusts sensor output. When the target finally moves from the sensor’s
range, the circuit begins to oscillate again, and the Schmitt trigger returns the sensor to
its previous output.

If the sensor has a normally open configuration, its output is an on signal when the
target enters the sensing zone. With normally closed, its output is an off signal with the
target present. Output is then read by an external control unit (e.g. PLC, motion
controller, smart drive) that converts the sensor on and off states into useable
information. Inductive sensors are typically rated by frequency, or on/off cycles per
second. Their speeds range from 10 to 20 Hz in ac, or 500 Hz to 5 kHz in dc. Because of
magnetic field limitations, inductive sensors have a relatively narrow sensing range —
from fractions of millimeters to 60 mm on average — though longer-range specialty
products are available.
To accommodate close ranges in the tight confines of industrial machinery, geometric
and mounting styles available include shielded (flush), unshielded (non-flush), tubular,
and rectangular “flat-pack”. Tubular sensors, by far the most popular, are available with
diameters from 3 to 40 mm.

But what inductive sensors lack in range, they make up in environment adaptability and
metal-sensing versatility. With no moving parts to wear, proper setup guarantees long
life. Special designs with IP ratings of 67 and higher are capable of withstanding the
buildup of contaminants such as cutting fluids, grease, and non-metallic dust, both in
the air and on the sensor itself. It should be noted that metallic contaminants (e.g.
filings from cutting applications) sometimes affect the sensor’s performance. Inductive
sensor housing is typically nickel-plated brass, stainless steel, or PBT plastic.

Capacitive sensors

Capacitive proximity sensors can detect both metallic and non-metallic targets in
powder, granulate, liquid, and solid form. This, along with their ability to sense through
nonferrous materials, makes them ideal for sight glass monitoring, tank liquid level
detection, and hopper powder level recognition.

In capacitive sensors, the two conduction plates (at different potentials) are housed in
the sensing head and positioned to operate like an open capacitor. Air acts as an
insulator; at rest there is little capacitance between the two plates. Like inductive
sensors, these plates are linked to an oscillator, a Schmitt trigger, and an output
amplifier. As a target enters the sensing zone the capacitance of the two plates increases,
causing oscillator amplitude change, in turn changing the Schmitt trigger state, and
creating an output signal. Note the difference between the inductive and capacitive
sensors: inductive sensors oscillate until the target is present and capacitive sensors
oscillate when the target is present.

Because capacitive sensing involves charging plates, it is somewhat slower than

inductive sensing ... ranging from 10 to 50 Hz, with a sensing scope from 3 to 60 mm.
Many housing styles are available; common diameters range from 12 to 60 mm in
shielded and unshielded mounting versions. Housing (usually metal or PBT plastic) is
rugged to allow mounting very close to the monitored process. If the sensor has
normally-open and normally-closed options, it is said to have a complimentary output.
Due to their ability to detect most types of materials, capacitive sensors must be kept
away from non-target materials to avoid false triggering. For this reason, if the intended
target contains a ferrous material, an inductive sensor is a more reliable option.

Photoelectric sensors

Photoelectric sensors are so versatile that they solve the bulk of problems put to
industrial sensing. Because photoelectric technology has so rapidly advanced, they now
commonly detect targets less than 1 mm in diameter, or from 60 m away. Classified by
the method in which light is emitted and delivered to the receiver, many photoelectric
configurations are available. However, all photoelectric sensors consist of a few of basic
components: each has an emitter light source (Light Emitting Diode, laser diode), a
photodiode or phototransistor receiver to detect emitted light, and supporting
electronics designed to amplify the receiver signal. The emitter, sometimes called the
sender, transmits a beam of either visible or infrared light to the detecting receiver.
All photoelectric sensors operate under similar principles. Identifying their output is
thus made easy; darkon and light-on classifications refer to light reception and sensor
output activity. If output is produced when no light is received, the sensor is dark-on.
Output from light received, and it’s light-on. Either way, deciding on light-on or dark-on
prior to purchasing is required unless the sensor is user adjustable. (In that case, output
style can be specified during installation by flipping a switch or wiring the sensor
accordingly.)

Through-beam

The most reliable photoelectric sensing is with through-beam sensors. Separated from
the receiver by a separate housing, the emitter provides a constant beam of light;
detection occurs when an object passing between the two breaks the beam. Despite its
reliability, through-beam is the least popular photoelectric setup. The purchase,
installation, and alignment

of the emitter and receiver in two opposing locations, which may be quite a distance
apart, are costly and laborious. With newly developed designs, through-beam
photoelectric se
nsors typically offer the longest sensing distance of photoelectric sensors — 25 m and
over is now commonplace. New laser diode emitter models can transmit a well-
collimated beam 60 m for increased accuracy and detection. At these distances, some
through-beam laser sensors are capable of detecting an object the size of a fly; at close
range, that becomes 0.01 mm. But while these laser sensors increase precision, response
speed is the same as with non-laser sensors — typically around 500 Hz.

One ability unique to throughbeam photoelectric sensors is effective sensing in the

presence of thick airborne contaminants. If pollutants build up directly on the emitter or
receiver, there is a higher probability of false triggering. However, some manufacturers
now incorporate alarm outputs into the sensor’s circuitry that monitor the amount of
light hitting the receiver. If detected light decreases to a specified level without a target
in place, the sensor sends a warning by means of a builtin LED or output wire.

Through-beam photoelectric sensors have commercial and industrial applications. At

home, for example, they detect obstructions in the path of garage doors; the sensors
have saved many a bicycle and car from being smashed. Objects on industrial conveyors,
on the other hand, can be detected anywhere between the emitter and receiver, as long
as there are gaps between the monitored objects, and sensor light does not “burn
through” them. (Burnthrough might happen with thin or lightly colored objects that
allow emitted light to pass through to the receiver.)
Retro-reflective

Retro-reflective sensors have the next longest photoelectric sensing distance, with some
units capable of monitoring ranges up to 10 m. Operating similar to through-beam
sensors without reaching the same sensing distances, output occurs when a constant
beam is broken. But instead of separate housings for emitter and receiver, both are
located in the same housing, facing the same direction. The emitter produces a laser,
infrared, or visible light beam and projects it towards a specially designed reflector,
which then deflects the beam back to the receiver. Detection occurs when the light path
is broken or otherwise disturbed.
One reason for using a retro-reflective sensor over a through-beam sensor is for the
convenience of one wiring location; the opposing side only requires reflector mounting.
This results in big cost savings in both parts and time. However, very shiny or reflective
objects like mirrors, cans, and plastic-wrapped juice boxes create a challenge for retro-
reflective photoelectric sensors. These targets sometimes reflect enough light to trick the
receiver into thinking the beam was not interrupted, causing erroneous outputs.

Some manufacturers have addressed this problem with polarization filtering, which
allows detection of light only from specially designed reflectors ... and not erroneous
target reflections.

Diffuse

As in retro-reflective sensors, diffuse sensor emitters and receivers are located in the
same housing. But the target acts as the reflector, so that detection is of light reflected
off the dist

urbance object. The emitter sends out a beam of light (most often a pulsed infrared,
visible red, or laser) that diffuses in all directions, filling a detection area. The target
then enters the area and deflects part of the beam back to the receiver. Detection occurs
and output is turned on or off (depending upon whether the sensor is light-on or dark-
on) when sufficient light falls on the receiver.

Diffuse sensors can be found on public washroom sinks, where they control automatic
faucets. Hands placed under the spray head act as reflector, triggering (in this case) the
opening of a water valve. Because the target is the reflector, diffuse photoelectric sensors
are often at the mercy of target material and surface properties; a non-reflective target
such as matte-black paper will have a significantly decreased sensing range as compared
to a bright white target. But what seems a drawback ‘on the surface’ can actually be
useful.
Because diffuse sensors are somewhat color dependent, certain versions are suitable for
distinguishing dark and light targets in applications that require sorting or quality
control by contrast. With only the sensor itself to mount, diffuse sensor installation is
usually simpler than with through-beam and retro-reflective types. Sensing distance
deviation and false triggers caused by reflective backgrounds led to the development of
diffuse sensors that focus; they “see” targets and ignore background.

There are two ways in which this is achieved; the first and most common is through
fixed-field technology. The emitter sends out a beam of light, just like a standard diffuse
photoelectric sensor, but for two receivers. One is focused on the desired sensing sweet
spot, and the other on the long-range background. A comparator then determines
whether the long-range receiver is detecting light of higher intensity than what is being
picking up the focused receiver. If so, the output stays off. Only when focused receiver
light intensity is higher will an output be produced.

The second focusing method takes it a step further, employing an array of receivers with
an adjustable sensing distance. The device uses a potentiometer to electrically adjust the
sensing range. Such sensor

s operate best at their preset sweet spot. Allowing for small part recognition, they also
provide higher tolerances in target area cutoff specifications and improved colorsensing
capabilities. However, target surface qualities, such as glossiness, can produce varied
results. In addition, highly reflective objects outside the sensing area tend to send
enough light back to the receivers for an output, especially when the receivers are
electrically adjusted.
To combat these limitations, some sensor manufacturers developed a technology known
as true background suppression by triangulation.

A true background suppression sensor emits a beam of light exactly like a standard,
fixed-field diffuse sensor. But instead of detecting light intensity, background
suppression units rely completely on the angle at which the beam returns to the sensor.

To accomplish this, background suppression sensors use two (or more) fixed receivers
accompanied by a focusing lens. The angle of received light is mechanically adjusted,
allowing for a steep cutoff between target and background ... sometimes as small as 0.1
mm. This is a more stable method when reflective backgrounds are present, or when
target color variations are an issue; reflectivity and color affect the intensity of reflected
light, but not the angles of refraction used by triangulation- based background
suppression photoelectric sensors.

Ultrasonic sensors

Ultrasonic proximity sensors are used in many automated production processes. They
employ sound waves to detect objects, so color and transparency do not affect them
(though extreme textures might). This makes them ideal for a variety of applications,
including the longrange detection of clear glass and plastic, distance measurement,
continuous fluid and granulate level control, and paper, sheet metal, and wood stacking.

The most common configurations are the same as in photoelectric sensing: through
beam, retro-reflective, and diffuse versions. Ultrasonic diffuse proximity sensors employ
a sonic transducer, which emits a series of sonic pulses, then listens for their return
from the reflecting target. Once the reflected signal is received, the sensor signals an
output to a control device. Sensing ranges extend to 2.5 m. Sensitivity, defined as the
time window for listen cycles versus send or chirp cycles, may be adjusted via a teach-in
button or potentiometer. While standard diffuse ultrasonic sensors give a simple
present/absent output, some produce analog signals, indicating distance with a 4 to 20
mA or 0 to 10 Vdc variable output. This output can easily be converted into useable
distance information.

Ultrasonic retro-reflective sensors also detect objects within a specified sensing

distance, but by measuring propagation time. The sensor emits a series of sonic pulses
that bounce off fixed, opposing reflectors (any flat hard surface — a piece of machinery,
a board). The sound waves must return to the sensor within a user-adjusted time
interval; if they don’t, it is assumed an object is obstructing the sensing path and the
sensor signals an output accordingly. Because the sensor listens for changes in
propagation time as opposed to mere returned signals, it is ideal for the detection of
sound-absorbent and deflecting materials such as cotton, foam, cloth, and foam rubber.

Similar to through-beam photoelectric sensors, ultrasonic throughbeam sensors have

the emitter and receiver in separate housings. When an object disrupts the sonic beam,
the receiver triggers an output. These sensors are ideal for applications that require the
detection of a continuous object, such as a web of clear plastic. If the clear plastic breaks,
the output of the sensor will trigger the attached PLC or load.

LDR LITERATURE

Light Dependent Resistor LDR: Photoresistor

Light dependent resistors, LDRs, or photoresistors are often used to
detect light and change the operation of a circuit dependent upon the
light levels.
Light dependent resistors, LDRs or photoresistors are often used in circuits where it is necessary to
detect the presence or the level of light.
They can be described by a variety of names from light dependent resistor, LDR, photoresistor, or
even photo cell, photocell or photoconductor.

Although other devices such as photodiodes or photo-transistor can also be used, LDRs or
photoresistors are a particularly convenient electronics component to use. They provide large
change in resistance for changes in light level.

In view of their low cost, ease of manufacture, and ease of use LDRs have been used in a variety of
different applications. At one time LDRs were used in photographic light meters, and even now they
are still used in a variety of applications where it is necessary to detect light levels.

What is light dependent resistor, LDR or

photoresistor
A photoresistor or light dependent resistor is a component that is sensitive to light. When light falls
upon it then the resistance changes. Values of the resistance of the LDR may change over many
orders of magnitude the value of the resistance falling as the level of light increases.

It is not uncommon for the values of resistance of an LDR or photoresistor to be several megohms in
darkness and then to fall to a few hundred ohms in bright light. With such a wide variation in
resistance, LDRs are easy to use and there are many LDR circuits available. The sensitivity of light
dependent resistors or photoresistors also varies with the wavelength of the incident light.

LDRs are made from semiconductor materials to enable them to have their light sensitive properties.
Many materials can be used, but one popular material for these photoresistors is cadmium sulphide,
CdS, although the use of these cells is now restricted in Europe because of environmental issues
with the use of cadmium. Similarly cadmium CdSe is also restricted. Other materials that can be
used include lead sulphide, PbS and indium antimonide, InSb.

Although a semiconductor material is used for these photoresistors, they are purely passive devices
because they do not possess a PN junction, and this separates them from other photodetectors like
photodiodes and phototransistors.

LDR / photoresistor symbol

The LDR symbol used in circuits is based around the resistor circuit symbol, but shows the light, in
the form of arrows shining on it. In this way it follows the same convention used for photodiode and
phototransistor circuit symbols where arrows are used to show the light falling on these components.
 The light dependent resistor / photoresistor circuit symbols are shown for both the newer style
resistor symbol, i.e. a rectangular box and the older zig-zag line resistor circuit symbols.

How an LDR works

It is relatively easy to understand the basics of how an LDR works without delving into complicated
explanations. It is first necessary to understand that an electrical current consists of the movement of
electrons within a material.

Good conductors have a large number of free electrons that can drift in a given direction under the
action of a potential difference. Insulators with a high resistance have very few free electrons, and
therefore it is hard to make the them move and hence a current to flow.

An LDR or photoresistor is made any semiconductor material with a high resistance. It has a high
resistance because there are very few electrons that are free and able to move - the vast majority of
the electrons are locked into the crystal lattice and unable to move. Therefore in this state there is a
high LDR resistance.

As light falls on the semiconductor, the light photons are absorbed by the semiconductor lattice and
some of their energy is transferred to the electrons. This gives some of them sufficient energy to
break free from the crystal lattice so that they can then conduct electricity. This results in a lowering
of the resistance of the semiconductor and hence the overall LDR resistance.

The process is progressive, and as more light shines on the LDR semiconductor, so more electrons
are released to conduct electricity and the resistance falls further.

Photoresistor / LDR structure

Structurally the photoresistor is a light sensitive resistor that has a horizontal body that is exposed to
light.

The active semiconductor region is normally deposited onto a semi-insulating substrate and the
active region is normally lightly doped.

In many discrete photoresistor devices, an interdigital pattern is used to increase the area of the
photoresistor that is exposed to light. The pattern is cut in the metallisation on the surface of the
active area and this lets the light through. The two metallise areas act as the two contacts for the
resistor. This area has to be made relatively large because the resistance of the contact to the active
area needs to be minimised.

This type of structure is widely used for many small photoresists or light dependent resistors that are
seen. The interdigital pattern is quite recognisable.

The materials used for photoresists are semiconductors and include materials such as CdSe, CdS,
CdTe, InSb, InP, PbS, PbSe, Ge, Is, GaAs. Each material gives different properties in terms of the
wavelength of sensitivity, etc.
In view of the environmental concerns of using Cadmium, this material is not used for product in
Europe.

Types of photoresistor
Light dependent resistors, LDRs or photoresistors fall into one of two types or categories:

 Intrinsic photoresistors: Intrinsic photoresistors use un-doped semiconductor materials

including silicon or germanium. Photons fall on the LDR excite electrons moving them from the
valence band to the conduction band. As a result, these electrons are free to conduct electricity.
The more light that falls on the device, the more electrons are liberated and the greater the level
of conductivity, and this results in a lower level of resistance.
 Extrinsic photoresistors: Extrinsic photoresistors are manufactured from semiconductor of
materials doped with impurities. These impurities or dopants create a new energy band above the
existing valence band. As a result, electrons need less energy to transfer to the conduction band
because of the smaller energy gap.
Regardless of the type of light dependent resistor or photoresistor, both types exhibit an increase in
conductivity or fall in resistance with increasing levels of incident light.

LDR frequency dependence

The sensitivity of photoresists is shown to vary with the wavelength of the light that is impacting the
sensitive area of the device. The effect is very marked and it is found that if the wavelength is
outside a given range then there is no noticeable effect.

Devies made from different materials respond differently to light of different wavelengths, and lots
can be developed for the sensitivity and the light wavelength.

It is also found that extrinsic photoresists tend to be more sensitive to longer wavelength light and
can be used for infrared. However when working with infrared, care must be taken to avoid heat
build-up caused but he elating effect of the radiation.

Photoresistor / light dependent resistor

latency
One important aspect associated with photoresists or light dependent resistors is that of the latency,
or the time taken for the component to respond to any changes.

It takes a noticeable amount of time from any changes in light level before the LDR / photoresists
attains its final value for the new level of light and for this reason the LDR / photo resistor is not a
good choice where there are reasonably rapid changing values of light. However when the light
changes take place over a period of time they are more than adequate.

The rate at which the resistance changes is called the resistance recovery rate. The LDR /
photoresists normally responds within a few tens of milliseconds when light is applied after total
darkness, but when light is removed it can take up to a second or so for the resistance to reach its
final level.
It is for this reason that one of the specifications normally quoted in the photoresistor datasheets is
the dark resistance after a given time, typically in seconds. Often two values are quoted, one for one
second and another for five seconds. These given an indication of the latency of the resistor.

Photoresistor applications
Photoresistors are found in many different applications. They have a very simple structure and they
are low cost and rugged devices.They are widely used in many different items of electronic
equipment including photographic light meters, fire or smoke alarms as well as burglar alarms, and
they also find uses as lighting controls for street lamps.

Extrinsic photoresists are provide sensitivity for longer wavelengths and as a result they are popular
as info-red photodetectors. Photoresistors can also be used to detect nuclear radiation.

Light dependent resistor specifications

There are several specifications that are important for light dependent resistors, LDRs /
photoresistors.

These photoresistor specifications include:

KEY LDR / PHOTORESISTOR SPECIFICATIONS

PARAMETER DETAILS

Max power This is the maximum power the device is able to dissipate within a given temperature range. Derating may be
dissipation applicable above a certain temperature.

Maximum Particularly as the device is semiconductor based, the maximum operating voltage must be observed. This is typically
operating voltage specified at 0 lux, i.e. darkness.

Peak wavelength This photoresistor specification details the wavelength of maximum sensitivity. Curves may be provided for the overa
response in some instances. The wavelength is specified in nm

Resistance when The resistance under illumination is a key specification is a key parameter for any photoresistor. Often a minimum an
illuminated maximum resistance is given under certain light conditions, often 10 lux. A minimum and maximum vale may be given
because of the spreads that are likely to be encountered. A 'fully on' condition may also be given under extreme
lighting, e.g. 100lux.

Dark resistance Dark resistance values will be given for the photoresistor. These may be specified after a given time because it takes
a while for the resistance to fall as the charge carrier recombine - photoresistors are noted for their slow response
times.

A typical light dependent resistor, LDR / photoresistor specification may be:

 EXAMPLE PHOTORESISTOR SPECIFICATIONS

PARAMETER EXAMPLE FIGURES

Max power dissipation 200mW

Max voltage @ 0 lux 200V

Peak wavelength 600nm

Min. resistance @ 10lux 1.8kΩ

Max. resistance @ 10lux 4.5kΩ

Typ. resistance @ 100lux 0.7kΩ

Dark resistance after 1 sec 0.03MΩ

Dark resistance after 5 sec 0.25MΩ

LDRs are very useful components that can be used for a variety of light sensing applications. As the
LDR resistance varies over such a wide range, they are particularly useful, and there are many LDR
circuits available beyond any shown here. In order to utilise these components, it is necessary to
know something of how an LDR works, which has been explained above.

BATTERIES LITERATURE
NICKEL CADMIUM BATTERIES
The active components of a rechargeable NiCd battery in the charged state consist of nickel hydroxide (NiOOH) in
the positive electrode and cadmium (Cd) in the negative electrode. For the electrolyte, potassium hydroxide (KOH) is
normally used. Due to their low internal resistance and the very good current conducting properties, NiCd batteries
can supply extremely high currents and can be recharged rapidly. These cells are capable of sustaining temperatures
down to -20°C. The selection of the separator (nylon or polypropylene) and the electrolyte (KOH, LiOH, NaOH)
influence the voltage conditions in the case of a high current discharge, the service life and the overcharging
capability. In the case of misuse, a very high-pressure may arise quickly. For this reason, cells require a safety valve.
NiCd cells generally offer a long service life thereby ensuring a high degree of economy.

NICKEL METAL HYDRIDE BATTERIES

The active components of a rechargeable NiMH battery in the charged state consist of nickel hydroxide (NiOOH) in
the positive electrode and a hydrogen storing metal alloy (MH) in the negative electrode as well as a potassium
hydroxide (KOH) electrolyte. Compared to rechargeable NiCd batteries, NiMH batteries have a higher energy density
per volume and weight.

LITHIUM ION BATTERIES

The term lithium ion battery refers to a rechargeable battery where the negative electrode (anode) and positive
electrode (cathode) materials serve as a host for the lithium ion (Li+). Lithium ions move from the anode to the
cathode during discharge and are intercalated into (inserted into voids in the crystallographic structure of) the
cathode. The ions reverse direction during charging. Since lithium ions are intercalated into host materials during
charge or discharge, there is no free lithium metal within a lithium-ion cell. In a lithium ion cell, alternating layers of
anode and cathode are separated by a porous film (separator). An electrolyte composed of an organic solvent and
dissolved lithium salt provides the media for lithium ion transport. For most commercial lithium ion cells, the voltage
range is approximately 3.0 V (discharged, or 0 % state-of-charge, SOC) to 4.2 V (fully charged, or 100% SOC).

SMALL SEALED LEAD ACID BATTERIES

Rechargeable small sealed lead acid (SSLA) batteries, which are valve-regulated lead acid batteries, (VRLA
batteries) do not require regular addition of water to the cells, and vent less gas than flooded (wet) lead-acid
batteries.SSLA batteries are sometimes referred to as “maintenance free” batteries. The reduced venting is an
advantage since they can be used in confined or poorly ventilated spaces.

There are two types of VRLA batteries,

 Absorbed glass mat (AGM) battery

 Gel battery (“gel cell”)
An absorbed glass mat battery has the electrolyte absorbed in a fiber-glass mat separator. A gel cell has the
electrolyte mixed with silica dust to form an immobilized gel.

SSLA batteries include a safety pressure relief valve. As opposed to flooded batteries, a SSLA battery is designed
not to spill its electrolyte if it is inverted.

 battery

TYPES OF MOTOR

AC Motors

AC motors are highly flexible in many features including speed control (VSD - Variable Speed
Drives) and have a much larger installed base compared to DC motors, some of the key advantages
are:

 Low power demand on start

 Controlled acceleration
 Adjustable operational speed
  Controlled starting current
 Adjustable torque limit
 Reduced power line disturbances
The current trend for VSD is to add more features and programmable logic control (PLC)
functionality, which are advantages for the experienced used, but require greater technical expertise
during maintenance.

Synchronous

In this type of motor, the rotation of the rotor is synchronized with the frequency of the supply current
and the speed remains constant under varying loads, so is ideal for driving equipment at a constant
speed and are used in high precision positioning devices like robots, instrumentation, machines and
process control

Induction (Asynchronous)
This type of motor uses electromagnetic induction from the magnetic field of the stator winding to
produce an electric current in the rotor and hence Torque. These are the most common type of AC
motor and important in industry due to their load capacity with Single-Phase induction motors being
used mainly for smaller loads, like used in house hold appliances whereas Three-Phase induction
motors are used more in industrial applications including like compressors, pumps, conveyor
systems and lifting gear.

DC Motors

DC motors were the first type of motor widely used and the systems (motors and drive) initial costs
tend to be typically less than AC systems for low power units, but with higher power the overall
maintenance costs increase and would need to be taken into consideration. The DC Motors speed
can be controlled by varying the supply voltage and are available in a wide range of voltages,
however the most popular type are 12 & 24V, with some of the advantages being:

 Easy installation
 Speed control over a wide range
 Quick Starting, Stopping, Reversing and Acceleration
 High Starting Torque
 Linear speed-torque curve
DC motors are widely used and can be used from small tools and appliances, through to electric
vehicles, lifts & hoists
Brushed

These are the more traditional type of motor and are typically used in cost-sensitive applications,
where the control system is relatively simple, such as in consumer applications and more basic
industrial equipment, these type of motors can be broken down as:

 Series Wound – This is where the field winding is connected in series with rotor winding and
speed control is by varying the supply voltage, however this type offers poor speed control
and as the torque to the motor increase, then the speed falls. Applications include
automotive, hoists, lifts and cranes as it has a high starting torque.
 Shunt Wound – This type has one voltage supply and the field winding is connected in
parallel with the rotor winding and can deliver increased torque, without a reduction in speed
by increasing the motor current. It has medium level of starting torque with constant speed,
so suitable for applications include lathes, vacuum cleaners, conveyors & grinders.
 Compound Wound – This is a cumulative of Series and Shunt, where the polarity of the
shunt winding is such that it adds to the series fields. This type has a high starting torque and
run smoothly if the load varies slightly and is used for driving compressors, variable-head
centrifugal pumps, rotary presses, circular saws, shearing machines, elevators and
continuous conveyors
 Permanent Magnet – As the name suggests rather than electromagnet a permanent
magnet is used and are used in applications where precise control and low torque, such as
in robotics, servo systems.

Brushless

Brushless motors alleviate some of the issues associated with the more common brushed motors
(short life span for high use applications) and are mechanically much simpler in design (not having
brushes). The motor controller uses Hall Effect sensors to detect the rotors position and using this
the controller can accurately control the motor via current in the rotor coils) to regulate the speed.
The advantages of this technology is the long life, little maintenance and high efficiency (85-90%),
whereas the disadvantages are higher initial costs and more complicated controllers. These types of
motors are generally used in speed and positional control with applications such as fans, pumps and
compressors, where reliability and ruggedness are required.

An example of brushless design are in Stepper Motors, which are primarily used in open-loop
position control, with uses from printers through to industrial applications such as high speed pick
and place equipment.
Brushless motors are also availble with a feedback device which allows the control of the Speed,
Torque and Position of the motor and the intelligent electronics control all three so if more torque is
required to accelerate quicker to a certain speed then more current is delivered, these are know
as Brushless Servo Motors.