Chapter 5

Takeoffs and Departure Climbs

Introduction
A review of aircraft accident data shows that about twenty
percent of all general aviation (GA) accidents occur during
takeoff and departure climbs. Further breakdown of the data
indicates that more than half of those accidents were the
result of some sort of failure of the pilot, and twenty percent
of the mishaps are the result of loss in control of the airplane.
When compared to the entire profile of a normal flight, this
phase of a flight is relatively short, but the pilot workload is
greatest. This chapter discusses takeoffs and departure climbs
in airplanes under normal conditions and under conditions
that require maximum performance.

5-1
Though it may seem relatively simple, the takeoff often explanation: 1. takeoff roll, 2. lift-off, and 3. initial climb
presents the most hazards of any part of a flight. The after becoming airborne. [Figure 5-1]
importance of thorough knowledge of procedures and • Takeoff roll (ground roll) is the portion of the takeoff
techniques coupled with proficiency in performance cannot procedure during which the airplane is accelerated
be overemphasized. from a standstill to an airspeed that provides sufficient
lift for it to become airborne.
The discussion in this chapter is centered on airplanes
with tricycle landing gear (nose-wheel). Procedures for • Lift-off is when the wings are lifting the weight of the
conventional gear airplanes (tail-wheel) are discussed in airplane off the surface. In most airplanes, this is the
Chapter 14. The manufacturer’s recommended procedures result of the pilot rotating the nose up to increase the
pertaining to airplane configuration, airspeeds, and other angle of attack (AOA).
information relevant to takeoffs and departure climbs in a • The initial climb begins when the airplane leaves the
specific make and model airplane are contained in the Federal surface and a climb pitch attitude has been established.
Aviation Administration (FAA) approved Airplane Flight Normally, it is considered complete when the airplane
Manual and/or Pilot’s Operating Handbook (AFM/POH) has reached a safe maneuvering altitude or an en route
for that airplane. If any of the information in this chapter climb has been established.
differs from the airplane manufacturer’s recommendations
as contained in the AFM/POH, the airplane manufacturer’s Prior to Takeoff
recommendations take precedence. Before going to the airplane, the pilot should check the
POH/AFM performance charts to determine the predicted
Terms and Definitions
performance and decide if the airplane is capable of a
Although the takeoff and climb is one continuous maneuver, safe takeoff and climb for the conditions and location.
it will be divided into three separate steps for purposes of [Figure 5-2] High density altitudes reduce engine and

Safe maneuvering altitude

climb power
D
WIN

En route climb
Best climb speed
Vy, Vx or POH/AFM cruise climb speed

Takeoff pitch altitude

Climb (3)

Takeoff power

Lift-off (2)

Takeoff roll (1)

Figure 5-1. Takeoff and climb.

5-2
 Take-off Distance vs. Density Altitude Rate of Climb vs. Density Altitude

EXTRAPOLATION OF CHART
16000
ABOVE 7000 FEET IS INVALID

7000 14000
Density altitude (feet)

Density altitude (feet)

6000 12000

le
tac
5000 10000

bs
to
d run

ee
4000 8000

0f
Groun

5
er
Ov
3000 6000

2000 4000

2000 lb gross weight

1000 2000
2200 lb gross weight

0 0

90
10
50

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
0
0
00
0

00

00

00

00

00

00

00

0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Take-off distance (feet) Rate of climb (feet per minute)

Figure 5-2. Performance chart examples.

propeller performance, increase takeoff rolls and decrease Normal Takeoff

climb performance. A more detailed discussion of density
A normal takeoff is one in which the airplane is headed into
altitude and how it affects airplane performance can be
the wind; there are times that a takeoff with a tail wind is
found in the Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge
necessary. However, the pilot must consult the POH/AFM
(FAA-H-8083-25, as revised).
to ensure the aircraft is approved for a takeoff with a tail
wind and that there is sufficient performance and runway
All run up and pre-takeoff checklist items should be
length for the takeoff. Also, the takeoff surfaces are firm
completed before taxiing onto the runway or takeoff area.
and of sufficient length to permit the airplane to gradually
As a minimum before every takeoff, all engine instruments
accelerate to normal lift-off and climb-out speed, and there
should be checked for proper and usual indications, and
are no obstructions along the takeoff path.
all controls should be checked for full, free, and correct
movement. In addition, the pilot must make certain that the
There are two reasons for making a takeoff as nearly into
approach and takeoff paths are clear of other aircraft. At
the wind as possible. First, since the airplane depends on
nontowered airports, pilots should announce their intentions
airspeed, a headwind provides some of that airspeed even
on the common traffic advisory frequency (CTAF) assigned
before the airplane begins to accelerate into the wind. Second,
to that airport. When operating from a towered airport,
a headwind decreases the ground speed necessary to achieve
pilots must contact the tower operator and receive a takeoff
flying speed. Slower ground speeds yield shorter ground roll
clearance before taxiing onto the active runway.
distances and allow use of shorter runways while reducing
wear and stress on the landing gear.
It is not recommended to take off immediately behind another
aircraft, particularly large, heavily loaded transport airplanes,
Takeoff Roll
because of the wake turbulence that is generated. If an
For takeoff, use the rudder pedals in most general aviation
immediate takeoff is necessary, plan to minimize the chances
airplanes to steer the airplane’s nose wheel onto the runway
of flying through an aircraft’s wake turbulence by avoiding
centerline to align the airplane and nose wheel with the
the other aircraft’s flightpath or rotate prior to the point at
runway. After releasing the brakes, advance the throttle
which the preceding aircraft rotated. While taxiing onto the
smoothly and continuously to takeoff power. An abrupt
runway, select ground reference points that are aligned with
application of power may cause the airplane to yaw sharply
the runway direction to aid in maintaining directional control
to the left because of the torque effects of the engine and
and alignment with the runway center line during the climb
propeller. This is most apparent in high horsepower engines.
out. These may be runway centerline markings, runway
As the airplane starts to roll forward, assure both feet are on
lighting, distant trees, towers, buildings, or mountain peaks.

5-3
the rudder pedals so that the toes or balls of the feet are on The situation may be aggravated by the sluggish reaction of
the rudder portions, not on the brake. At all times, monitor the airplane to these movements. The flight instructor must
the engine instruments for indications of a malfunction during help the student learn proper response to control actions and
the takeoff roll. airplane reactions. The instructor should always stress using
the proper outside reference to judge airplane motion. For
In nose-wheel type airplanes, pressures on the elevator takeoff, the student should always be looking far down the
control are not necessary beyond those needed to steady it. runway at two points aligned with the runway. The flight
Applying unnecessary pressure only aggravates the takeoff instructor should have the student pilot follow through lightly
and prevents the pilot from recognizing when elevator control on the controls, feel for resistance, and point out the outside
pressure is actually needed to establish the takeoff attitude. references that provide the clues for how much control
movement is needed and how the pressure and response
As the airplane gains speed, the elevator control tends to changes as airspeed increases. With practice, the student
assume a neutral position if the airplane is correctly trimmed. pilot should become familiar with the airplane’s response to
At the same time, the rudder pedals are used to keep the nose acceleration to lift off speed, corrective control movements
of the airplane pointed down the runway and parallel to the needed, and the outside references necessary to accomplish
centerline. The effects of engine torque and P-factor at the the takeoff maneuver.
initial speeds tend to pull the nose to the left (Torque and
P-Factor will be discussed in greater detail in later chapter). Lift-Off
The pilot must use whatever rudder pressure is needed to Since a good takeoff depends on the proper takeoff attitude,
correct for these effects or winds. Use aileron controls into it is important to know how this attitude appears and how it
any crosswind to keep the airplane centered on the runway is attained. The ideal takeoff attitude requires only minimum
centerline. The pilot should avoid using the brakes for pitch adjustments shortly after the airplane lifts off to attain
steering purposes as this will slow acceleration, lengthen the speed for the best rate of climb (VY). [Figure 5-3] The
the takeoff distance, and possibly result in severe swerving. pitch attitude necessary for the airplane to accelerate to
VY speed should be demonstrated by the instructor and
As the speed of the takeoff roll increases, more and more memorized by the student. Flight instructors should be aware
pressure will be felt on the flight controls, particularly the that initially, the student pilot may have a tendency to hold
elevators and rudder. If the tail surfaces are affected by the excessive back-elevator pressure just after lift-off, resulting
propeller slipstream, they become effective first. As the speed in an abrupt pitch-up.
continues to increase, all of the flight controls will gradually
become effective enough to maneuver the airplane about its
A Initial roll
three axes. At this point, the airplane is being flown more
than it is being taxied. As this occurs, progressively smaller
rudder deflections are needed to maintain direction.

The feel of resistance to the movement of the controls and

the airplane’s reaction to such movements are the only
real indicators of the degree of control attained. This feel
of resistance is not a measure of the airplane’s speed, but
rather of its controllability. To determine the degree of
controllability, the pilot must be conscious of the reaction
B Takeoff attitude
of the airplane to the control pressures and immediately
adjust the pressures as needed to control the airplane. The
pilot must wait for the reaction of the airplane to the applied
control pressures and attempt to sense the control resistance
to pressure rather than attempt to control the airplane by
movement of the controls.

A student pilot does not normally have a full appreciation

of the variations of control pressures with the speed of the
airplane. The student may tend to move the controls through
Figure 5-3. Initial roll and takeoff attitude.
wide ranges seeking the pressures that are familiar and
expected and, as a consequence, overcontrol the airplane.

5-4
Each type of airplane has a best pitch attitude for normal lift- indicator and neglect bank control of the airplane. Torque
off; however, varying conditions may make a difference in the from the engine tends to impart a rolling force that is most
required takeoff technique. A rough field, a smooth field, a evident as the landing gear is leaving the surface.
hard surface runway, or a short or soft, muddy field all call for
a slightly different technique, as will smooth air in contrast to During takeoffs in a strong, gusty wind, it is advisable that
a strong, gusty wind. The different techniques for those other- an extra margin of speed be obtained before the airplane is
than-normal conditions are discussed later in this chapter. allowed to leave the ground. A takeoff at the normal takeoff
speed may result in a lack of positive control, or a stall, when
When all the flight controls become effective during the the airplane encounters a sudden lull in strong, gusty wind, or
takeoff roll in a nose-wheel type airplane, the pilot should other turbulent air currents. In this case, the pilot should allow
gradually apply back-elevator pressure to raise the nose- the airplane to stay on the ground longer to attain more speed;
wheel slightly off the runway, thus establishing the takeoff then make a smooth, positive rotation to leave the ground.
or lift-off attitude. This is the “rotation” for lift off and climb.
As the airplane lifts off the surface, the pitch attitude to hold Initial Climb
the climb airspeed should be held with elevator control and Upon lift-off, the airplane should be flying at approximately
trimmed to maintain that pitch attitude without excessive the pitch attitude that allows it to accelerate to VY. This is
control pressures. The wings should be leveled after lift-off the speed at which the airplane gains the most altitude in the
and the rudder used to ensure coordinated flight. shortest period of time.

After rotation, the slightly nose-high pitch attitude should If the airplane has been properly trimmed, some back-elevator
be held until the airplane lifts off. Rudder control should be pressure may be required to hold this attitude until the proper
used to maintain the track of the airplane along the runway climb speed is established. Relaxation of any back-elevator
centerline until any required crab angle in level flight is pressure before this time may result in the airplane settling,
established. Forcing it into the air by applying excessive even to the extent that it contacts the runway.
back-elevator pressure would only result in an excessively
high-pitch attitude and may delay the takeoff. As discussed The airplane’s speed will increase rapidly after it becomes
earlier, excessive and rapid changes in pitch attitude result in airborne. Once a positive rate of climb is established, the
proportionate changes in the effects of torque, thus making pilot should retract the flaps and landing gear (if equipped).
the airplane more difficult to control. It is recommended that takeoff power be maintained until
reaching an altitude of at least 500 feet above the surrounding
Although the airplane can be forced into the air, this is terrain or obstacles. The combination of VY and takeoff power
considered an unsafe practice and should be avoided under assures the maximum altitude gained in a minimum amount
normal circumstances. If the airplane is forced to leave the of time. This gives the pilot more altitude from which the
ground by using too much back-elevator pressure before airplane can be safely maneuvered in case of an engine failure
adequate flying speed is attained, the wing’s AOA may or other emergency. A pilot should also consider flying at
become excessive, causing the airplane to settle back to the Vy versus a lower pitch for a cruise climb requires much
runway or even to stall. On the other hand, if sufficient back- quicker pilot response in the event of a powerplant failure
elevator pressure is not held to maintain the correct takeoff to preclude a stall.
attitude after becoming airborne, or the nose is allowed to
lower excessively, the airplane may also settle back to the Since the power on the initial climb is set at the takeoff power
runway. This would occur because the AOA is decreased setting, the airspeed must be controlled by making slight pitch
and lift diminished to the degree where it will not support adjustments using the elevators. However, the pilot should
the airplane. It is important, then, to hold the correct attitude not fixate on the airspeed indicator when making these pitch
constant after rotation or lift-off. changes, but should continue to scan outside to adjust the
airplane’s attitude in relation to the horizon. In accordance
As the airplane leaves the ground, the pilot must keep the with the principles of attitude flying, the pilot should first
wings in a level attitude and hold the proper pitch attitude. make the necessary pitch change with reference to the natural
Outside visual scans must be intensified at this critical point horizon and hold the new attitude momentarily, and then
to attain/maintain proper airplane pitch and bank attitude. glance at the airspeed indicator to verify if the new attitude
Due to the minimum airspeed, the flight controls are not as is correct. Due to inertia, the airplane will not accelerate or
responsive, requiring more control movement to achieve decelerate immediately as the pitch is changed. It takes a little
an expected response. A novice pilot often has a tendency time for the airspeed to change. If the pitch attitude has been
to fixate on the airplane’s pitch attitude and/or the airspeed over or under corrected, the airspeed indicator will show a

5-5
speed that is higher or lower than that desired. When this • Failure to check engine instruments for signs of
occurs, the cross-checking and appropriate pitch-changing malfunction after applying takeoff power.
process must be repeated until the desired climbing attitude • Failure to anticipate the airplane’s left turning
is established. Pilots must remember the climb pitch will be tendency on initial acceleration.
lower when the airplane is heavily loaded, or power is limited
by density altitude. • Overcorrecting for left turning tendency.
• Relying solely on the airspeed indicator rather than
When the correct pitch attitude has been attained, the pilot developing an understanding of visual references and
should hold it constant while cross-checking it against the tracking clues of airplane airspeed and controllability
horizon and other outside visual references. The airspeed during acceleration and lift-off.
indicator should be used only as a check to determine if the
• Failure to attain proper lift-off attitude.
attitude is correct.
• Inadequate compensation for torque/P-factor during
After the recommended climb airspeed has been established initial climb resulting in a sideslip.
and a safe maneuvering altitude has been reached, the pilot • Overcontrol of elevators during initial climb-out and
should adjust the power to the recommended climb setting lack of elevator trimming.
and trim the airplane to relieve the control pressures. This
• Limiting scan to areas directly ahead of the airplane
makes it easier to hold a constant attitude and airspeed.
(pitch attitude and direction), causing a wing (usually
the left) to drop immediately after lift-off.
During initial climb, it is important that the takeoff path
remain aligned with the runway to avoid drifting into • Failure to attain/maintain best rate-of-climb airspeed
obstructions or into the path of another aircraft that may be (VY) or desired climb airspeed.
taking off from a parallel runway. A flight instructor should • Failure to employ the principles of attitude flying
help the student identify two points inline ahead of the runway during climb-out, resulting in “chasing” the airspeed
to use as a tracking reference. As long as those two points are indicator.
inline, the airplane is remaining on the desired track. Proper
scanning techniques are essential to a safe takeoff and climb, Crosswind Takeoff
not only for maintaining attitude and direction, but also for
While it is usually preferable to take off directly into the
avoiding collisions near the airport.
wind whenever possible or practical, there are many instances
when circumstances or judgment indicate otherwise.
When the student pilot nears the solo stage of flight training,
Therefore, the pilot must be familiar with the principles and
it should be explained that the airplane’s takeoff performance
techniques involved in crosswind takeoffs, as well as those
will be much different when the instructor is not in the
for normal takeoffs. A crosswind affects the airplane during
airplane. Due to decreased load, the airplane will become
takeoff much as it does during taxiing. With this in mind, the
airborne earlier and climb more rapidly. The pitch attitude
pilot should be aware that the technique used for crosswind
that the student has learned to associate with initial climb may
correction during takeoffs closely parallels the crosswind
also differ due to decreased weight, and the flight controls
correction techniques used for taxiing.
may seem more sensitive. If the situation is unexpected,
it may result in increased tension that may remain until
Takeoff Roll
after the landing. Frequently, the existence of this tension
The technique used during the initial takeoff roll in a
and the uncertainty that develops due to the perception of
crosswind is generally the same as the technique used in a
an “abnormal” takeoff results in poor performance on the
normal takeoff roll, except that the pilot must apply aileron
subsequent landing.
pressure into the crosswind. This raises the aileron on the
upwind wing, imposing a downward force on the wing
Common errors in the performance of normal takeoffs and
to counteract the lifting force of the crosswind; and thus
departure climbs are:
preventing the wing from rising. The pilot must remember
• Failure to review AFM/POH and performance charts that since the ailerons and rudder are deflected, drag will
prior to takeoff. increase; therefore, less initial takeoff performance should
• Failure to adequately clear the area prior to taxiing be expected until the airplane is wings-level in coordinated
into position on the active runway. flight in the climb.
• Abrupt use of the throttle.

5-6
 Apply full aileron into wind
Rudder as needed for direction

Hold aileron into wind

Roll on upwind wheel

D
18

IN
Rudder as needed

W
Start roll
Hold aileron into wind
Bank into wind
Rudder as needed to keeping heading
roll
Takeoff down runway

Transition from take-off slip to crab,

and begin coordinated flight
f
Lift-of

Wings level with a

sition
Tran wind correction angle
Rudder for coordinated
flight
b
l clim
Initia

Figure 5-4. Crosswind roll and takeoff climb.

While taxiing into takeoff position, it is essential that the effect will not completely vanish; therefore, the pilot must
pilot check the windsock and other wind direction indicators maintain some aileron pressure throughout the takeoff roll
for the presence of a crosswind. If a crosswind is present, to keep the crosswind from raising the upwind wing. If the
the pilot should apply full aileron pressure into the wind upwind wing rises, the amount of wing surface exposed to
while beginning the takeoff roll. The pilot should maintain the crosswind will increase, which may cause the airplane
this control position, as the airplane accelerates, until the to "skip." [Figure 5-5]
ailerons become effective in maneuvering the airplane about
its longitudinal axis. As the ailerons become effective, the No Correction
pilot will feel an increase in pressure on the aileron control.

While holding aileron pressure into the wind, the pilot

should use the rudder to maintain a straight takeoff path.
[Figure 5-4] Since the airplane tends to weathervane into Wind
the wind while on the ground, the pilot will typically apply
downwind rudder pressure. When the pilot increases power
for takeoff, the resulting P-factor causes the airplane to yaw
to the left. While this yaw may be sufficient to counteract
the airplane’s tendency to weathervane into the wind in a Proper Correction
crosswind to the right, it may aggravate this tendency in a
crosswind to the left. In any case, the pilot should apply
rudder pressure in the appropriate direction to keep the
airplane rolling straight down the runway. Wind

As the forward speed of the airplane increases, the pilot

should only apply enough aileron pressure to keep the
airplane laterally aligned with the runway centerline. The
rudders keep the airplane pointed parallel with the runway
centerline, while the ailerons keep the airplane laterally
Figure 5-5. Crosswind effect.
aligned with the centerline. The crosswind component

5-7
This “skipping” is usually indicated by a series of very small simultaneous rudder input to maintain runway alignment.
bounces caused by the airplane attempting to fly and then This will initially result in the aircraft to sideslip. However,
settling back onto the runway. During these bounces, the as the aircraft establishes its climb, the nose should be turned
crosswind also tends to move the airplane sideways, and into the wind to offset the crosswind, wings brought to level,
these bounces develop into side-skipping. This side-skipping and rudder input adjusted to maintain runway alignment
imposes severe side stresses on the landing gear and may (crabbing). [Figure 5-6] Firm and positive use of the rudder
result in structural failure. may be required to keep the airplane pointed down the
runway or parallel to the centerline. Unlike landing, the
During a crosswind takeoff roll, it is important that the pilot runway alignment (staying over the runway and its extended
hold sufficient aileron pressure into the wind not only to keep centerline) is paramount to keeping the aircraft parallel to the
the upwind wing from rising but to hold that wing down so centerline. The pilot must then apply rudder pressure firmly
that the airplane sideslips into the wind enough to counteract and aggressively to keep the airplane headed straight down the
drift immediately after lift-off. runway. However, because the force of a crosswind may vary
markedly within a few hundred feet of the ground, the pilot
Lift-Off should check the ground track frequently and adjust the wind
As the nose-wheel raises off of the runway, the pilot should correction angle, as necessary. The remainder of the climb
hold aileron pressure into the wind. This may cause the technique is the same used for normal takeoffs and climbs.
downwind wing to rise and the downwind main wheel to lift
off the runway first, with the remainder of the takeoff roll The most common errors made while performing crosswind
being made on that one main wheel. This is acceptable and takeoffs include the following:
is preferable to side-skipping. • Failure to review AFM/POH performance and charts
prior to takeoff.
If a significant crosswind exists, the pilot should hold the main
wheels on the ground slightly longer than in a normal takeoff • Failure to adequately clear the area prior to taxiing
so that a smooth but very definite lift-off can be made. This onto the active runway.
allows the airplane to leave the ground under more positive
control and helps it remain airborne while the pilot establishes
the proper amount of wind correction. More importantly,
this procedure avoids imposing excessive side-loads on the
landing gear and prevents possible damage that would result
from the airplane settling back to the runway while drifting.

As both main wheels leave the runway, the airplane begins to

drift sideways with the wind as ground friction is no longer
a factor in preventing lateral movement. To minimize this
lateral movement and to keep the upwind wing from rising,
the pilot must establish and maintain the proper amount of Wind
crosswind correction prior to lift-off by applying aileron
pressure into the wind. The pilot must also apply rudder
pressure, as needed, to prevent weathervaning. 18
Initial Climb
If a proper crosswind correction is applied, the aircraft will
maintain alignment with the runway while accelerating to
takeoff speed and then maintain that alignment once airborne.
As takeoff acceleration occurs, the efficiency of the up-aileron
will increase with aircraft speed causing the upwind wing to
produce greater downward force and, as a result, counteract
the effect of the crosswind. The yoke, having been initially
turned into the wind, can be relaxed to the extent necessary
to keep the aircraft aligned with the runway. As the aircraft
becomes flyable and airborne, the wing that is upwind will
have a tendency to be lower relative the other wing requiring
Figure 5-6. Crosswind climb flightpath.

5-8
 • Using less than full aileron pressure into the wind The ground effect causes local increases in static pressure,
initially on the takeoff roll. which cause the airspeed indicator and altimeter to indicate
• Mechanical use of aileron control rather than judging slightly lower values than they should and usually cause
lateral position of airplane on runway from visual the vertical speed indicator to indicate a descent. As the
clues and applying sufficient aileron to keep airplane airplane lifts off and climbs out of the ground effect area,
centered laterally on runway. the following occurs:

• Side-skipping due to improper aileron application. • The airplane requires an increase in AOA to maintain
lift coefficient.
• Inadequate rudder control to maintain airplane parallel
to centerline and pointed straight ahead in alignment • The airplane experiences an increase in induced drag
with visual references. and thrust required.

• Excessive aileron input in the latter stage of the takeoff • The airplane experiences a pitch-up tendency and
roll resulting in a steep bank into the wind at lift-off. requires less elevator travel because of an increase in
downwash at the horizontal tail.
• Inadequate drift correction after lift-off.
• The airplane experiences a reduction in static source
pressure and a corresponding increase in indicated
Ground Effect on Takeoff
airspeed.
Ground effect is a condition of improved performance
encountered when the airplane is operating very close to the Due to the reduced drag in ground effect, the airplane may
ground. Ground effect can be detected and normally occurs seem to be able to take off below the recommended airspeed.
up to an altitude equal to one wingspan above the surface. However, as the airplane climbs out of ground effect below
[Figure 5-7] Ground effect is most significant when the the recommended climb speed, initial climb performance
airplane maintains a constant attitude at low airspeed at low will be much less than at Vy or even Vx. Under conditions
altitude (for example, during takeoff when the airplane lifts of high-density altitude, high temperature, and/or maximum
off and accelerates to climb speed, and during the landing gross weight, the airplane may be able to lift off but will
flare before touchdown). be unable to climb out of ground effect. Consequently, the
airplane may not be able to clear obstructions. Lift off before
When the wing is under the influence of ground effect, there attaining recommended flight airspeed incurs more drag,
is a reduction in upwash, downwash, and wingtip vortices. which requires more power to overcome. Since the initial
As a result of the reduced wingtip vortices, induced drag is takeoff and climb is based on maximum power, reducing
reduced. When the wing is at a height equal to 1⁄4 the span, drag is the only option. To reduce drag, pitch must be reduced
the reduction in induced drag is about 25 percent. When which means losing altitude. Pilots must remember that many
the wing is at a height equal to 1⁄10 the span, the reduction airplanes cannot safely takeoff at maximum gross weight at
in induced drag is about 50 percent. At high speeds where certain altitudes and temperatures, due to lack of performance.
parasite drag dominates, induced drag is a small part of the Therefore, under marginal conditions, it is important that the
total drag. Consequently, ground effect is a greater concern airplane takes off at the speed recommended for adequate
during takeoff and landing. initial climb performance.

At takeoff, the takeoff roll, lift-off, and the beginning of the Ground effect is important to normal flight operations. If the
initial climb are accomplished within the ground effect area. runway is long enough or if no obstacles exist, ground effect

Takeoff in Ground Effect Area

Ground effect is negligible when
height is equal to wingspan

Ground effect decreases

Accelerate in ground quickly with height
Ground effect decreases Airplane may fly at lower effect to VX or VY
induced drag indicated airspeed
Ground effect area

Figure 5-7. Takeoff in-ground effect area.

5-9
can be used to the pilot’s advantage by using the reduced Takeoff Roll
drag to improve initial acceleration. Taking off from a short field requires the takeoff to be started
from the very beginning of the takeoff area. At this point, the
When taking off from an unsatisfactory surface, the pilot airplane is aligned with the intended takeoff path. If the airplane
should apply as much weight to the wings as possible during manufacturer recommends the use of flaps, they are extended
the ground run and lift off, using ground effect as an aid, the proper amount before beginning the takeoff roll. This
prior to attaining true flying speed. The pilot should reduce allows the pilot to devote full attention to the proper technique
AOA to attain normal airspeed before attempting to fly out and the airplane’s performance throughout the takeoff.
of the ground effect areas.
The pilot should apply takeoff power smoothly and
Short-Field Takeoff and Maximum continuously, without hesitation, to accelerate the airplane
Performance Climb as rapidly as possible. Some pilots prefer to hold the brakes
When performing takeoffs and climbs from fields where the until the maximum obtainable engine revolutions per minute
takeoff area is short or the available takeoff area is restricted (rpm) are achieved before allowing the airplane to begin its
by obstructions, the pilot should operate the airplane at the takeoff run. However, it has not been established that this
maximum limit of its takeoff performance capabilities. To procedure results in a shorter takeoff run in all light, single-
depart from such an area safely, the pilot must exercise engine airplanes. The airplane is allowed to roll with its
positive and precise control of airplane attitude and airspeed full weight on the main wheels and accelerate to the lift-off
so that takeoff and climb performance result in the shortest speed. As the takeoff roll progresses, the pilot must adjust
ground roll and the steepest angle of climb. [Figure 5-8] The the airplane’s pitch attitude and AOA to attain minimum drag
pilot should consult and follow the performance section of the and maximum acceleration. In nose-wheel type airplanes, this
AFM/POH to obtain the power setting, flap setting, airspeed, involves little use of the elevator control since the airplane
and procedures prescribed by the airplane’s manufacturer. is already in a low drag attitude.

The pilot must have adequate knowledge in the use and Lift-Off
effectiveness of the best angle-of-climb speed (VX) and As VX approaches, the pilot should apply back-elevator
the best rate-of-climb speed (VY) for the specific make and pressure until reaching the appropriate VX attitude to ensure
model of airplane being flown in order to safely accomplish a smooth and firm lift-off, or rotation. Since the airplane
a takeoff at maximum performance. accelerates more rapidly after lift-off, the pilot must apply
additional back-elevator pressure to hold a constant airspeed.
VX is the speed at which the airplane achieves the greatest gain After becoming airborne, the pilot will maintain a wings-
in altitude for a given distance over the ground. It is usually level climb at VX until all obstacles have been cleared or; if
slightly less than VY, which is the greatest gain in altitude no obstacles are present, until reaching an altitude of at least
per unit of time. The specific speeds to be used for a given 50 feet above the takeoff surface. Thereafter, the pilot may
airplane are stated in the FAA-approved AFM/POH. The lower the pitch attitude slightly and continue the climb at VY
pilot should be aware that, in some airplanes, a deviation of until reaching a safe maneuvering altitude. The pilot must
5 knots from the recommended speed may result in a always remember that an attempt to pull the airplane off the
significant reduction in climb performance; therefore, the ground prematurely, or to climb too steeply, may cause the
pilot must maintain precise control of the airspeed to ensure airplane to settle back to the runway or make contact with
the maneuver is executed safely and successfully. obstacles. Even if the airplane remains airborne, until the
pilot reaches VX, the initial climb will remain flat, which

Climb at VY

Retract gear
Climb at VX and flaps

Rotate at
approximately VX

Figure 5-8. Short-field takeoff.

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diminishes the pilot's ability to successfully perform the • Holding the airplane on the ground unnecessarily with
climb and/or clear obstacles. [Figure 5-9] excessive forward-elevator pressure.
• Inadequate rotation resulting in excessive speed after
The objective is to rotate to the appropriate pitch attitude at lift-off.
(or near) VX. The pilot should be aware that some airplanes
have a natural tendency to lift off well before reaching VX. • Inability to attain/maintain VX.
In these airplanes, it may be necessary to allow the airplane • Fixation on the airspeed indicator during initial climb.
to lift-off in ground effect and then reduce pitch attitude to
• Premature retraction of landing gear and/or wing flaps.
level until the airplane accelerates to VX with the wheels
just clear of the runway surface. This method is preferable Soft/Rough-Field Takeoff and Climb
to forcing the airplane to remain on the ground with forward-
elevator pressure until VX is attained. Holding the airplane Takeoffs and climbs from soft fields require the use of
on the ground unnecessarily puts excessive pressure on the operational techniques for getting the airplane airborne as
nose-wheel and may result in “wheel barrowing.” It also quickly as possible to eliminate the drag caused by tall grass,
hinders both acceleration and overall airplane performance. soft sand, mud, and snow and may require climbing over an
obstacle. The technique makes judicious use of ground effect
Initial Climb to reduce landing gear drag and requires an understanding
On short-field takeoffs, the landing gear and flaps should of the airplane’s slow speed characteristics and responses.
remain in takeoff position until the airplane is clear of These same techniques are also useful on a rough field where
obstacles (or as recommended by the manufacturer) and VY the pilot should get the airplane off the ground as soon as
has been established. Until all obstacles have been cleared, possible to avoid damaging the landing gear.
the pilot must maintain focus outside the airplane instead of
reaching for landing gear or flap controls or looking inside the Taking off from a soft surface or through soft surfaces or long,
airplane for any reason. When the airplane is stabilized at VY, wet grass reduces the airplane’s ability to accelerate during
the landing gear (if retractable) and flaps should be retracted. the takeoff roll and may prevent the airplane from reaching
It is usually advisable to raise the flaps in increments to avoid adequate takeoff speed if the pilot applies normal takeoff
sudden loss of lift and settling of the airplane. Next, reduce techniques. The pilot must be aware that the correct takeoff
the power to the normal climb setting or as recommended procedure for soft fields is quite different from the takeoff
by the airplane manufacturer. procedures used for short fields with firm, smooth surfaces.
To minimize the hazards associated with takeoffs from soft
Common errors in the performance of short-field takeoffs or rough fields, the pilot should transfer the support of the
and maximum performance climbs are: airplane’s weight as rapidly as possible from the wheels to
the wings as the takeoff roll proceeds by establishing and
• Failure to review AFM/POH and performance charts maintaining a relatively high AOA or nose-high pitch attitude
prior to takeoff. as early as possible. The pilot should lower the wing flaps prior
• Failure to adequately clear the area. to starting the takeoff (if recommended by the manufacturer)
• Failure to utilize all available runway/takeoff area. to provide additional lift and to transfer the airplane’s weight
from the wheels to the wings as early as possible. The pilot
• Failure to have the airplane properly trimmed prior to should maintain a continuous motion with sufficient power
takeoff. while lining up for the takeoff roll as stopping on a soft
• Premature lift-off resulting in high drag. surface, such as mud or snow, might bog the airplane down.

Effect of Premature Lift-off

Flight below VX results
Premature rotation Airplane may lift off in shallow climb
increases drag, at low airspeed
decreases acceleration, Airplane may settle
and increases takeoff distance back to the ground

Figure 5-9. Effect of premature lift-off.

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Takeoff Roll retracted immediately so that any wet snow or slush to be
As the airplane is aligned with the takeoff path, the pilot air-dried. In the event an obstacle must be cleared after a
should apply takeoff power smoothly and as rapidly as the soft-field takeoff, the pilot should perform the climb-out at
powerplant can accept without faltering. As the airplane VX until the obstacle has been cleared. The pilot should then
accelerates, the pilot should apply enough back-elevator adjust the pitch attitude to VY and retract the gear and flaps.
pressure to establish a positive AOA and to reduce the weight The power can then be reduced to the normal climb setting.
supported by the nose-wheel. The pilot may then reduce power to normal climb setting.

When the airplane is held at a nose-high attitude throughout Common errors in the performance of soft/rough field takeoff
the takeoff run, the wings increasingly relieve the wheels of and climbs are:
the airplane’s weight as speed increases and lift develops, • Failure to review AFM/POH and performance charts
thereby minimizing the drag caused by surface irregularities prior to takeoff.
or adhesion. If this attitude is accurately maintained, the
airplane virtually flies itself off the ground, becoming • Failure to adequately clear the area.
airborne but at an airspeed slower than a safe climb speed • Insufficient back-elevator pressure during initial
because of ground effect. [Figure 5-10] takeoff roll resulting in inadequate AOA.
• Failure to cross-check engine instruments for
Lift-Off indications of proper operation after applying power.
After the airplane becomes airborne, the pilot should gently
lower the nose with the wheels clear of the surface to allow • Poor directional control.
the airplane to accelerate to VY, or VX if obstacles must be • Climbing too high after lift-off and not leveling off
cleared. Immediately after the airplane becomes airborne low enough to maintain ground effect altitude.
and while it accelerates, the pilot should be aware that, while • Abrupt and/or excessive elevator control while
transitioning out of the ground effect area, the airplane will attempting to level off and accelerate after liftoff.
have a tendency to settle back onto the surface. An attempt
to climb prematurely or too steeply may cause the airplane • Allowing the airplane to “mush” or settle resulting in
to settle back to the surface as a result of the loss of ground an inadvertent touchdown after lift-off.
effect. During the transition out of the ground effect area, the • Attempting to climb out of ground effect area before
pilot should not attempt to climb out of ground effect before attaining sufficient climb speed.
reaching the sufficient climb airspeed, as this may result in the
• Failure to anticipate an increase in pitch attitude as
airplane being unable to climb further, even with full power
the airplane climbs out of ground effect.
applied. Therefore, it is essential that the airplane remain
in ground effect until at least VX is reached. This requires
Rejected Takeoff/Engine Failure
a good understanding of the control pressures, aircraft
responses, visual clues, and acceleration characteristics of Emergency or abnormal situations can occur during a takeoff
that particular airplane. that require a pilot to reject the takeoff while still on the
runway. Circumstances such as a malfunctioning powerplant,
Initial Climb inadequate acceleration, runway incursion, or air traffic
After a positive rate of climb is established, and the airplane conflict may be reasons for a rejected takeoff.
has accelerated to VY, the pilot should retract the landing gear
and flaps, if equipped. If departing from an airstrip with wet Prior to takeoff, the pilot should identify a point along the
snow or slush on the takeoff surface, the gear should not be runway at which the airplane should be airborne. If that

Soft-field Takeoff

Accelerate in ground
Raise nosewheel Level off in ground effect effect to VX or VY
Accelerate as soon as possible Lift off

Figure 5-10. Soft-field takeoff.

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point is reached and the airplane is not airborne, immediate At airports that use noise abatement procedures, reminder
action should be taken to discontinue the takeoff. Properly signs may be installed at the taxiway hold positions for
planned and executed, the airplane can be stopped on the applicable runways to remind pilots to use and comply with
remaining runway without using extraordinary measures, noise abatement procedures on departure. Pilots who are not
such as excessive braking that may result in loss of directional familiar with these procedures should ask the tower or air
control, airplane damage, and/or personal injury. traffic facility for the recommended procedures. In any case,
pilots should be considerate of the surrounding community
In the event a takeoff is rejected, the power is reduced to idle while operating their airplane to and from such an airport.
and maximum braking applied while maintaining directional This includes operating as quietly, and safely as possible.
control. If it is necessary to shut down the engine due to
a fire, the mixture control should be brought to the idle Chapter Summary
cutoff position and the magnetos turned off. In all cases, the The takeoff and initial climb are relatively short phases
manufacturer’s emergency procedure should be followed. required for every flight and are often taken for granted,
yet 1 out of 5 accidents occur during this phase and half the
Urgency characterizes all power loss or engine failure mishaps are the result of pilot error. Becoming proficient in
occurrences after lift-off. In most instances, the pilot has only and applying the techniques and principles discussed in this
a few seconds after an engine failure to decide what course chapter help pilots reduce their susceptibility to becoming
of action to take and to execute it. a mishap statistic. The POH/AFM ground roll distances for
take-off and landing added together provide a good estimate
In the event of an engine failure on initial climb-out, the of the total runway needed to accelerate and then stop.
pilot’s first responsibility is to maintain aircraft control. At a
climb pitch attitude without power, the airplane is at or near a
stalling AOA. At the same time, the pilot may still be holding
right rudder. The pilot must immediately lower the nose to
prevent a stall while moving the rudder to ensure coordinated
flight. Attempting to turn back to the takeoff runway should
not be attempted. The pilot should establish a controlled glide
toward a plausible landing area, preferably straight ahead.

Noise Abatement
Aircraft noise problems are a major concern at many
airports throughout the country. Many local communities
have pressured airports into developing specific operational
procedures that help limit aircraft noise while operating
over nearby areas. As a result, noise abatement procedures
have been developed for many of these airports that include
standardized profiles and procedures to achieve these lower
noise goals.

Airports that have noise abatement procedures provide

information to pilots, operators, air carriers, air traffic
facilities, and other special groups that are applicable to
their airport. These procedures are available to the aviation
community by various means. Most of this information comes
from the Chart Supplements, local and regional publications,
printed handouts, operator bulletin boards, safety briefings,
and local air traffic facilities.

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