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Oil and Gas Pipeline Fundamentals

Oil and Gas Pipeline Fundamentals

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Allyth Alqhtani
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4K views375 pages

Oil and Gas Pipeline Fundamentals

Oil and Gas Pipeline Fundamentals

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Allyth Alqhtani
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© © All Rights Reserved
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OIL AND GAS PIPELINE FUNDAMENTALS JOHN L. KENNEDY SECOND EDITION Pennwell Books PenwWeuL PUBLISHING ComPary TULSA OKLAHOUR, as ee Pee Copyright © 1993 by PennWell Publishing Company 1421 South Sheridan/P.O. Box 1260 ‘Tulsa, Oklahoma 74101 Library of Congress cataloging in publication data Kennedy, John L. (Oil and gas pipeline fundamentals / by John L. Kennedy, — 2nd ed. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-87814-390-4 1. Petroleum pipelines. 2. Natural gas pipelines. I. Title. TTN879.5.K35 1993 665.5'44—de20 92-41879 CIP All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transcribed in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying and recording, without the prior ‘written permission of the publisher. Printed in the United States of America CONTENTS ___Pareace cit ™ — Acevownroons Hien rerum Inpusmay OvERviEW 1 Visto pines, Reyne, 11 Sunpiesand mars, 8 Tanker transport, 19 The pts ihe, 9 2 TrmsorPomms 27 ipoenes 2 Prodvts ppelns 37 Ges plies, 83 citer ilies, 40 3._Pire MANUFACTURE an CoxrINe a9 pe mandate, 50 Pip cata, 60 4 Funpannvraus oF Prune Desion Pisin ces, 71 Twos pipeline dein £0 inp Arce pele des, 2 cas pels, 81 Every een, 63 5 Pumrs ax Comrnsssons é oo Staton design and eperion, 100 Compressor appleaton rd desig, 17 ‘Pump application and design, 105, 6 Pane Movs 137 ‘hong te ype fare, 128 Gas ries, 157 Bice motes, 124 ecprocting ens, 42 7 Consmmucrion Paacrcns Axo EQUiPKaN 147 Land pipeline contusion, 149 rete plelne canst, 185 Ootishare pipeline construction, 164 ‘Waiwne Tecunaurs np EQUIPMENT ‘Welding processes, 182 Onshoroishore, 202 Welsing procedures and Regulations, 208, equipment, 195 Other joining methods, 210 Ormearion AND ConTROL Superior conta, 215 Pog, 229 10___Mermine AND Sronace __239 Once meters, 244 Mase measure, 254 Postive displacement and tubine BTU measurement, 256 sters, 247 Storage, 258 11_MamrenaNce aND Rrra 267 ples, 268, (ter eupment 265 Rotating and repeating machine, 277 12_Ixsrecrio aNp RenamurraTion Inspection, 220, ohailtation, 257 13 Prreune Recutarton 307 Easy US. elton, 208 Continued epiaton, 017 “The new epltor ciate, 311 14_ Savery AND ExvmonnanAL PROTECTION 321 Ppt sate, 23 “Tanker sey, 398 ‘Nand water quality, 329 Sample projec, 337 15___Tomonnow's Tecaowocy 343 Flow improves, 948 onitaring ard conto, 354 Laying methods, 948 Welding, 355 Measurement 351 Theft, 957 Inox PREFACE A book aiming to describe all phases of oil and gis pipeline design, construction, and operation can only highlight the skills, equipment, and ‘technology required. Pipeline systems in scores of countries around the ‘world differ in purpose, size, complexity, operating environment, regulato- zy requirements, economic conditions, and desiga philosophy. Some aspects of pipeline design and operation are based on physical laws. The relationship between pipeline operating pressure and fluid capacity, for instance, is not affected by political boundaries. Describing such relationships is relatively straightforward. But how each company chooses to control its pipeline, or regula- tions governing operation and construction often can be introduced only by discussing representative situations in a book of this type. For this rea- son, considerable use is made of examples, rather than attempting to include all possible variations. These examples do not represent the approach of all pipeline builders and operators, but an attempt has been ‘made to choose those that represent accepted technology and equipment. ‘This book is not a pipeline design manual. Rather, itis written to provide those in other phases of the petroleum industry with a basic knowledge of oil and gas pipeline operations and to familiarize those not involved in day-to-day petroleum operations with the oil and gas pipeline industry, Despite the introductory purpose of this book, it does contain a ‘handful of equations. These do not by any means provide complete design information, but they are included where appropriate to indicate the many variables in key phases of pipeline design. Each chapter—indeed, many parts of each chapter—is the focus of large amounts of literature and huge investments in research and develop- ‘ment. Obviously, much detail had to be omitted. But the purpose of this ook is to acquaint the nonexpert with oil, gas, and petroleum products pipelines and how they tic the world’s reserves of oil and gas to the con- sumer. ‘A number of references included at the end of each chapter give additional detail on many subjects discussed only briefly here. They can further satisty an appetite for information about the safe, efficient service provided by the world’s vast pipeline network. Arseue oz Sar ee ei OE OE BEE CR ITER WE Care ACKNOWLEDGMENTS For their helpful suggestions during the writing of the first edition of this book, I thank Gene T. Kinney, former editor-in-chief and pipeline edi- tor of Oil « Gas Journal, and the late Earl Seaton, former Oil @ Gas Journal pipeline editor. Their knowledge of the pipeline industry was @ valuable resource. p) CHAPTER 1 network of sophisticated pipeline systems trans- ports oil, natural gas, and petroleum products from producing fields and refineries around the world to con- sumers in every nation. This net- ‘work gathers oil and gas from hun- dreds of thousands of individual wells, including those in some of the world’s most remote and hostile areas. It distributes a range of prod- ucts to individuals, residences, businesses, and plants. Pipelines bring oil from Alaska and oil and natural gas from Siberia to con- sumers. Pipelines bring oil and gas produced from offshore wells to shore, often through water several hundred feet deep (Ou. xp Gas Prsunve FUNDAMENTALS 2 Pipeline Truck ee er ar er Wei eet os aT 671,000 Barrel Miles Fig, 1-1, Potroloum transprtation costs This vast gathering and distribution system comprises hundreds of thousands of miles of pipeline—almost half a million miles in the United States alone—varying in size from 2 in, to 60 in. in diameter. Though pumping stations and other facilities are scattered along pipeline routes, ‘most of the world’s oil and gas pipeline system is not visible Oil and gas pipeline systems are remarkable for their efficiency and low transportation cost [Fig. 1-1], Just as remarkable is the technology that makes it possible to install large pipelines in the Arctic permafrost or in deep water without damage to the environment and with a high degree of safety. Pipelines are energy efficient. A thorough investigation in the 1980s concluded that crude trunk lines consume about 0.4% of the energy con- tent of the crude transported per 1,000 km (621 mil.’ Produets pipelines use about 0.5% of the energy content of the products moved per 1,000 km. ‘These rates compare with estimates of 0.8% for coal trains, 1.0% for oil movement by rail, 2.5% for natural gas pipelines, and 3.2% for oil trucks. Estimated energy consumption for water transport is estimated to be 0.8% {or oil and 1.1% for coal. Prexave Inpustay OVERVIEW Barz Ins Ovenvrnye 3 ‘The study indicates that erude oil trunk lines consume about 250 BTU/ton-mile, crude oil gathering lines use about 490 BTU/ton-mile; and oil products pipelines consume about 300 BTU/ton-mle, The amount of ‘energy used depends on the pipeline diameter and flow rate, among other factors. Energy consumption for crude oil pipelines ranges from sbout 550 BTUjton-mile for a 6-n. pipeline to about 180 BTU/ton-mile for a 40-in diameter pipeline. Energy consumption in products pipelines is similar. Energy efficiency improved steadily during the 1980s, and there is little doubt that current energy use by pipelines is significantly lower than at the time of this report. ‘The link between pipeline size and economy is apparent. ‘The rela- tionship between size and capacity is also dramatic. A 36-in. diameter ine can carry up to 17 times more oil or gas than a 12-in. diameter pipeline, but construction and operating costs do not increase at nearly the same ratio. Oil and gas are not the only materials transported by pipeline. Coal and other solids, as well as a wide range of fluids, are pipelined. HISTORY OF PIPELINES ipelines first carried water to villages and dwellings centuries ago. The history of oil and gas pipelines as they are used today begins after what is considered the first commercial oil well ‘was drilled in Pennsylvania in 1859. The first cross-country oil pipeline was laid in Pennsylvania in 1879, a 109-mi long, 6-in. ‘diameter line from Bradford to Allentown. In 1886, an 87-1, 8in. diameter natural gas line from Kane, Pennsylvania, to Bulfalo, New York, was built. In the early 1900s, pipeline construction began to expand. In 1906, 4 472-mi, 8-in. pipeline from a new field in Indian Territory (Oklahoma) to Port Arthur, Texas, challenged the technology of the time. Early pipelines were built using threaded pipe that workers screwed together with large tongs. It wasn't until about 1920 that welding the separate lengths of pipe together became an accepted construction practice. Oxyacetylene welding was introduced in 1920 but was replaced by the Jate 1920s with electric welding? Since that time, virtually all oil and g28 pipelines of significant diameter and length have been welded. Welding technology has kept pace with the demands of new pipe steels, increased pipe diameters and pipeline lengths, and the challenges of off- shore and Arctic environments. mm KEY US. PROJECTS. Some significant early U.S. pipeline projects included a pipeline 250 mi long built from the Texas Panhandle to ‘Wichita, Kansas, in 1927 and later extended to Kansas City, Missouri. In 1928, a joint-venture company built a crude oil pipeline from Oklahoma 10 Chicago. Cross-country pipelines to carry petroleum products got their start in 1930 when a group of midcontinent U.S. refiners built a pipeline network to deliver refined products to Chicago, Minneapolis, Minnesota, and other cities. Long-distance oil and gas pipeline transportation in the United States got a boost during World War If when coastal tanker traffic was dis- rupted. A way to move oil and products from fields in the southwestem United States to the East Coast was needed. Two pipelines were built: one was a 1,250-mi, 24-in. diameter crude oil line; the other a 1,470-mi, 20-in, diameter petroleum products line, ‘At about the same time these government-owned lines were built, ‘Tennessce Gas Co. built a 24-in. diameter, 1,265-mi natural gas line from the Southwest to the East Coast, In 1947, Texas Eastern bought the gov- ernment lines and converted them to natural ges pipelines, connecting the ing electric motors to centrifugal compressors for the first time in a long-distance pipeline. Also that year, the first line from the southwest United States to California was built. ‘In the 1960s, larger-diameter pipelines proved their economic advan- tage. A products line consisting of 32-in, 34-in., and 36-in. pipe was built from Houston to New York to break the bottleneck created by striking ‘maritime unions, and a 40-in. crude pipeline was built from Louisiana to Illinois. Operating costs on Colonial’s Houston-New York products line were 11¢/1,000 barrel miles, compared with 37.3¢/1,000 barrel miles for the next largest pipeline? Discovery of oil on Alaska’s North Slope in the late 1960s required a pipeline to be built and operated under conditions never before encountered, tm WORLDWIDE ACTIVITY. Pipeline networks were developing in other regions in the 1950s. From the early part of the 20th century, ofl development in Russia played a major role in world markets. In the mid- Prrnunse Ixousrey OVERVIEW arin ern Oven 3 dle of the century, as huge discoveries in Siberia were developed, pipelines fn the Soviet Union were built over great distances and through hostile cavironments, In the 1960s, the Soviet Union began to build a gas pipeline system that by the early 1990s consisted of 126,000 miles of trunklines swith diameters ranging from 40 in. to 55 in* The system had 376 com: Jressor stations, served more than 500 fields, and included 46 subsuriace storage facilities and six gas processing plants. Tn the early 1950s, major pipelines were built in Canada, and the ‘Trans Arabian Pipeline was built from the Persian Gulf to the ‘Mediterranean Sea. "The world’s pipeline network expanded rapidly when it became apparent that pipelines were an efficient, economic way to move oll, Es nd products to consumers. Contributing to the need for expansion were large new discoveries of oil and gas, many of them in remote areas thet ‘had little local demand. Pipelines were needed to move those supplies to markets. In the North Sea, for example, a vast offshore complex of oil and ts fields developed during the 1960s, 1970s, and 1980s. The ares was @ proving ground for much of today’s offshore pipeline construction tech- nology. ‘Discoveries of oil and gas continue to be made in remote areas and in hostile environments. On land and on the world’s continental shelves, the preferred method for moving those supplies to market will be « pipeline, Tankers are necessary for long-distance ocean transportation, but they are only a link in the gathering and distribution chain. Pipelines ‘must gather oil and gas to the tanker-loading port and distribute the cargo after the tanker has reached its destination. ‘Even more challenges face the industry in the 1990s and beyond. Construction and operating costs must be Kept in line while bringing oil ‘and gas supplies to new markets. That challenge will put a premium on new technology. Political and regulatory environments were also being revolutionized as the 1990s began, particularly in the United States and Europe. The transition from utility based regulation to competitive mar- keting of services caused problems for U.S. gas pipelines in the late 1980s. But when the transition is complete, a free market approach should improve gas eupply and keep natural gas affordable for a growing number of consumers. As Europe makes the move to a single market in 1993, pipeline regulation will be changed there, too. ‘The steadily rising cost of fuel, materials, and labor will pressure SLANT ‘puilders and operators of future pipelines to improve efficiency. Rising costs, magnified by increased activity in hostile environments, may make cost cutting the biggest challenge in the pipeline industry's future. SUPPLIES AND MARKETS ‘or a perspective on worldwide oil and gas pipeline transporta- tion, itis necessary to know where significant oil and ges sup- plies are located. ‘Table 1-1 shows the major oil and gas producing coun- tries. It is apparent that in many cases, both tanker and pipeline transportation are required to get these supplies to market. The Middle East, the largest producing area, ships much of its crude oil by tanker to Europe and the United States. But a huge network of pipelines i necessary to move crude from producing wells to the tanker port for ship ment. Other pipelines are needed in the consuming countries to move ‘crude to refineries for processing. ‘One of the largest natural gas supplies is in Russia's western Siberia area A large-diameter pipeline system moves gas from that area, includ- ing a pipeline almost 2,900 mi long to export gas to Western Europe. In the central North Sea, the Central Area Transmission (CATS) System will provide transportation for gas from undeveloped fields. The 255-mi, 36-in. ‘Giameter pipeline will have a capacity of 1.4 bef of natural gas per day. Statoi’s giant Zeepipe project in the North Sea will deliver natural gas from the Sleipner and Troll fields to Europe. Work began in 1991 on the first phase of the system, a 500-mi, 40-in. ine from Sleipner to Zeebrugge in Belgium and related pipelines. ‘There are key oil and product transportation networks in Europe. In northern Europe, the pipeline network centers on Rotterdam in the Netherlands and Wilhelmshaven in Germany. The Rotterdam-Rhine pipeline and the Northwest Oil Pipeline can bring up to 700,000 b/d of ‘erude to the Ruhr area, the largest industrial region of Germany." ‘The economic area around Paris is supplied from the port of Le Havre, its refineries, and a separate set of product pipelines. In southern ‘ine 2 “s «9 9 @ oa a is ss os a Ener is ye 3 = s fuze 200 2 2 me a So, om 0s oh 2a ect te 7 1s ‘a a 18 ws sb a hen = a “ak ‘TA La aMeRCA 5st es wee ae Te wes te ‘oa % 2 2 3 Aa met 3 & 8 & o foe a a 3 ® ™ Gener 8 ® 5 % 3 a by 5 s = ear 0 oH so wa 180 ‘er = ° ‘S Ey a Vee atm 2B 20 288 ata ows ag %S mm | ‘TAL Westen EUROPE Tai 318 a 7H oe 2490 ss nse “= om Se om me me a0 ee IB Pa es so an) = i ‘s ‘oe ‘So 20 Bo 138 oS a0 ize tie fom of ‘ iz ioe ts i s 3s 2 re = 2 So a oo 30 e os 0 Ss ses 4 sit ss a Se am cd ae hm 198 rd 1 to 1a ‘ ‘= ‘so oa 13 s ry 3 S eo oe Ba us r 193 vee ts ts ae es ta a a a = st sate cae 16 ww ws 6 us 20 238 20 ho 2a ‘00 ee e os ‘Ss 1a 1a ot “soe as a = 8 a = = as is ‘0 2 it a ane 350 a as a az ose an one uw fas oe ate a at ge a, le ad yh Back Rte Ons et 2, Feil os, TA, Ou axp Gas Prsuve Fuamevrais builders and operators of fature pipelines to improve efficiency. Rising costs, magnified by increased activity in hostile environments, may make cost cutting the biggest challenge in the pipeline industry's future. SUPPLIES AND MARKETS or a perspective on worldwide oil and gas pipeline transporta- tion, itis necessary to know where significant oil and gas sup- plies are located, Table 1-1 shows the major oil and gas producing coun- tries. It is apparent that in many cases, both tanker and pipeline transportation are required to get these supplies to market. The ‘Middle East, the largest producing area, ships much of its crude oil by tanker to Europe and the United States. But a huge network of pipelines is necessary to move crude from producing wells to the tanker port for ship- ment. Other pipelines are needed in the consuming countries to move crude to refineries for processing. One of the largest natural gas supplies is in Russia's western Siberia area. A large-diameter pipeline system moves gas from that area, includ- ing a pipeline almost 2,900 mi long to export gas to Western Europe. In the central North Sea, the Central Area Transmission (CATS) System will provide transportation for gas from undeveloped fields. The 255-mi, 36-n. diameter pipeline will have a capacity of 1.4 bef of natural gas per day. Statoil’s giant Zeepipe project in the North Sea will deliver natural gas from the Sleipner and Troll fields to Europe. Work began in 1991 on the first phase of the system, a 500-mi, 40-in. line from Sleipner to Zeebrugge {in Belgium and related pipelines. ‘There are key oil and product transportation networks in Europe. In northern Europe, the pipeline network centers on Rotterdam in the Netherlands and Wilhelmshaven in Germany. The Rotterdam-Rhine pipeline and the Northwest Oil Pipeline can bring up to 700,000 b/d of crude to the Rubr area, the largest industrial region of Germany." ‘The economic area around Paris is supplied from the port of Le Havre, its refineries, and a separate set of products pipelines. In southern tra ai oo on 2 8 8 * # 8 & See sees 2 8 8 3 2 2 8 8 a 2 of 8 8 See tse fee asia Sitti ecitistl gs fF : & 2 2 8 2 2 3 ee ee 43 3 eR ee “3 “eSB a s £ 2 a o£ « 8 & £ Boies tees a & 2 2 & 3 soo - 2 es 2 s £ 2 8 faces 2 ¢ 8 & & 2 £ 2 2 @ 2 8 a 4 2 2 aw oe = we soa # 2 8 8 2 8 a 8 & § ieltetetgge tee ltt 2 2 8 2 a

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