Commn ki definition

Communication is the exchange of thoughts, messages, or information, as by speech, visuals, signals,

writing, or behavior. Derived from the Latin word "communis", meaning to share. Communication
requires a sender, a message, and a recipient, although the receiver need not be present or aware of the
sender's intent to communicate at the time of communication; thus communication can occur across
vast distances in time and space. Communication requires that the communicating parties share an
area of communicative commonality. The communication process is complete once the receiver has
understood the message of the sender.Feedback is critical to effective communication between
participants.

Human communication

Human spoken and pictoral languages can be described as a system of symbols (sometimes known
as lexemes) and the grammars(rules) by which the symbols are manipulated. The word "language"
also refers to common properties of languages. Language learningnormally occurs most intensively
during human childhood. Most of the thousands of human languages use patterns
of sound or gesturefor symbols which enable communication with others around them. Languages
seem to share certain properties although many of these include exceptions. There is no defined
line between a language and a dialect. Constructed languages such as Esperanto, programming
languages, and various mathematical formalisms are not necessarily restricted to the properties shared
by human languages. Communication is the flow or exchange of information within people or group
of people.
A variety of verbal and non-verbal means of communicating exists such as body language, eye
contact, sign language, paralanguage,haptic communication, chronemics, and media such as pictures,
graphics, sound, and writing.
Manipulative Communications was studied and reported by Bryenton in 2011. These are intentional
and unintentional ways of manipulating words, gestures, etc. to "get what we want", by demeaning,
discounting, attacking or ignoring instead of respectful interaction. Sarcasm, criticism, rudeness and
swearing are examples.
Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities also defines the communication to include the
display of text, Braille, tactilecommunication, large print, accessible multimedia, as well as written
and plain language, human-reader, augmentative and alternative modes, means and formats of
communication, including accessible information and communication technology.[1]
Nonverbal communication describes the process of conveying meaning in the form of non-word
messages. Research shows that the majority of our communication is non verbal, also known as body
language. Some of non verbal communication includes chronemics,haptics, gesture, body
language or posture; facial expression and eye contact, object communication such
as clothing, hairstyles,architecture, symbols infographics, and tone of voice as well as through an
aggregate of the above.
Speech also contains nonverbal elements known as paralanguage. These include voice lesson quality,
emotion and speaking style as well as prosodic features such as rhythm, intonation and stress.
Likewise, written texts include nonverbal elements such as handwriting style, spatial arrangement of
words and the use of emoticons to convey emotional expressions in pictorial form.[citation needed]
[ ]Oral communication
Oral communication, while primarily referring to spoken verbal communication, can also employ
visual aids and non-verbal elements to support the conveyance of meaning. Oral communication
includes speeches, presentations, discussions, and aspects of interpersonal communication. As a type
of face-to-face communication, body language and choice tonality play a significant role, and may
have a greater impact upon the listener than informational content. This type of communication also
garners immediate feedback.
[ ]Written communication and its historical development
Over time the forms of and ideas about communication have evolved through progression of
technology. Advances include communications psychology and media psychology; an emerging field
of study. Researchers divide the progression of written communication into three revolutionary stages
called "Information Communication Revolutions".[citation needed]
During the first stage, written communication first emerged through the use of pictographs. The
pictograms were made in stone, hence written communication was not yet mobile.
During the second stage, writing began to appear on paper, papyrus, clay, wax, etc. Common
alphabets were introduced and allowed for the uniformity of language across large distances. A leap
in technology occurred when the Gutenberg printing-press was invented in the 15th century.
The third stage is characterised by the transfer of information through controlled waves and electronic
signals.
Communication is thus a process by which meaning is assigned and conveyed in an attempt to create
shared understanding. This process, which requires a vast repertoire of skills
in interpersonal processing, listening, observing, speaking, questioning, analyzing, gestures, and
evaluating enables collaboration and cooperation.[2]
Misunderstandings can be anticipated and solved through formulations, questions and answers,
paraphrasing, examples, and stories of strategic talk. Written communication can be clear by planning
follow-up talk on critical written communication as part of the normal way of doing business. Minutes
spent talking now will save time later having to clear up misunderstandings later on. Then, take what
was heard and reiterate in your own words, and ask them if that’s what they meant.[3]
[ ]Effective Communication
All communications, intentional or unintentional, have some effect. This effect may not be always in
communicator's favor or as desired by him or her. Communication that produces the desired effect or
result is effective communication. It results in what the communicator wants. Effective
communication generates the desired effect, maintains effect & increases effect. Effective
communication serves its purpose for which it was planned or designed. The purpose could be to
generate action, inform, create understanding or communicate a certain idea/point etc. Effective
communication also ensures that message distortion does not take place during the communication
process.
[ ]Barriers to effective human communication
Communication is the key factor in the success of any organization. When it comes to effective
communication, there are certain barriers that every organization faces. People often feel that
communication is as easy and simple as it sounds. No doubt, but what makes it complex, difficult and
frustrating are the barriers that come in its way. Some of these barriers are mentioned below.
Barriers to successful communication include message overload (when a person receives too many
messages at the same time), andmessage complexity.[4]
Physical barriers: Physical barriers are often due to the nature of the environment. Thus, for
example, the natural barrier which exists, if staff are located in different buildings or on different sites.
Likewise, poor or outdated equipment, particularly the failure of management to introduce new
technology, may also cause problems. Staff shortages are another factor which frequently causes
communication difficulties for an organization. Whilst distractions like background noise, poor
lighting or an environment which is too hot or cold can all affect people's morale and concentration,
which in turn interfere with effective communication.
System design: System design faults refer to problems with the structures or systems in place in an
organization. Examples might include an organizational structure which is unclear and therefore
makes it confusing to know who to communicate with. Other examples could be inefficient or
inappropriate information systems, a lack of supervision or training, and a lack of clarity in roles and
responsibilities which can lead to staff being uncertain about what is expected of them.
Attitudinal barriers: Attitudinal barriers come about as a result of problems with staff in an
organization. These may be brought about, for example, by such factors as poor management, lack of
consultation with employees, personality conflicts which can result in people delaying or refusing to
communicate, the personal attitudes of individual employees which may be due to lack of motivation
or dissatisfaction at work, brought about by insufficient training to enable them to carry out particular
tasks, or just resistance to change due to entrenched attitudes and ideas.
Ambiguity of Words/Phrases: Words sounding the same but having different meaning can convey a
different meaning altogether. Hence the communicator must ensure that the receiver receives the same
meaning. It would be better if such words can be avoided by using alternatives.
Individual linguistic ability is also important. The use of difficult or inappropriate words in
communication can prevent people from understanding the message. Poorly explained or
misunderstood messages can also result in confusion. Interestingly, however, research in
communication has shown that confusion can lend legitimacy to research when persuasion fails.[5][6][7]
Physiological barriers: may result from individuals' personal discomfort, caused—for example—by
ill health, poor eyesight or hearing difficulties.
Presentation of information: is also important to aid understanding. Simply put, the communicator
must consider the audience before making the presentation itself and in cases where it is not possible
the presenter can at least try to simplify his/her vocabulary so that majority can understand

COMMUNICATON MODEL

Shannon and Weaver

The original model was designed to mirror the functioning of radio and telephone technologies. Their
initial model consisted of three primary parts: sender, channel, and receiver. The sender was the part
of a telephone a person spoke into, thechannel was the telephone itself, and the receiver was the part
of the phone where one could hear the other person. Shannon and Weaver also recognized that often
there is static that interferes with one listening to a telephone conversation, which they deemed noise.
The noise could also mean the absence of signal.[1]
In a simple model, often referred to as the transmission model or standard view of
communication, information or content (e.g. a message in natural language) is sent in some form
(as spoken language) from an emisor/ sender/ encoder to a destination/ receiver/ decoder. This
common conception of communication views communication as a means of sending and receiving
information. The strengths of this model are simplicity, generality, and quantifiability. Social
scientists Claude Shannon and Warren Weaver structured this model based on the following elements:

1. An information source, which produces a message.

2. A transmitter, which encodes the message into signals
3. A channel, to which signals are adapted for transmission
4. A receiver, which 'decodes' (reconstructs) the message from the signal.
5. A destination, where the message arrives.
Shannon and Weaver argued that there were three levels of problems for communication within this
theory.

The technical problem: how accurately can the message be transmitted?

The semantic problem: how precisely is the meaning 'conveyed'?
The effectiveness problem: how effectively does the received meaning affect behavior?
Daniel Chandler critiques the transmission model by stating:[3]

It assumes communicators are isolated individuals.

No allowance for differing purposes.
No allowance for differing interpretations.
No allowance for unequal power relations.
No allowance for situational contexts.
[ ]David Berlo

In 1960, David Berlo expanded on Shannon and Weaver’s (1949) linear model of communication and
created the SMCR Model of Communication.[4] The Sender-Message-Channel-Receiver Model of
communication separated the model into clear parts and has been expanded upon by other scholars.
[ ]Schramm

Communication is usually described along a few major dimensions: Message (what type of things are
communicated), source / emisor / sender / encoder (by whom), form (in which form), channel
(through which medium), destination / receiver / target / decoder (to whom), and Receiver. Wilbur
Schramm (1954) also indicated that we should also examine the impact that a message has (both
desired and undesired) on the target of the message.[5] Between parties, communication includes acts
that confer knowledge and experiences, give advice and commands, and ask questions. These acts
may take many forms, in one of the various manners of communication. The form depends on the
abilities of the group communicating. Together, communication content and form make messages that
are sent towards a destination. The target can be oneself, another person or being, another entity (such
as a corporation or group of beings).
Communication can be seen as processes of information transmission governed by three levels
of semiotic rules:

Syntactic (formal properties of signs and symbols),

Pragmatic (concerned with the relations between signs/expressions and their users) and

Semantic (study of relationships between signs and symbols and what they represent).
Therefore, communication is social interaction where at least two interacting agents share a common
set of signs and a common set ofsemiotic rules. This commonly held rule in some sense
ignores autocommunication, including intrapersonal communication via diariesor self-talk, both
secondary phenomena that followed the primary acquisition of communicative competences within
social interactions.
[ ]Barnlund

In light of these weaknesses, Barnlund (2008) proposed a transactional model of

communication.[6] The basic premise of the transactional model of communication is that individuals
are simultaneously engaging in the sending and receiving of messages.
In a slightly more complex form a sender and a receiver are linked reciprocally. This second attitude
of communication, referred to as the constitutive model or constructionist view, focuses on how an
individual communicates as the determining factor of the way the message will be interpreted.
Communication is viewed as a conduit; a passage in which information travels from one individual to
another and this information becomes separate from the communication itself. A particular instance of
communication is called aspeech act. The sender's personal filters and the receiver's personal filters
may vary depending upon different regional traditions, cultures, or gender; which may alter the
intended meaning of message contents. In the presence of "communication noise" on the transmission
channel (air, in this case), reception and decoding of content may be faulty, and thus the speech act
may not achieve the desired effect. One problem with this encode-transmit-receive-decode model is
that the processes of encoding and decoding imply that the sender and receiver each possess
something that functions as a codebook, and that these two code books are, at the very least, similar if
not identical. Although something like code books is implied by the model, they are nowhere
represented in the model, which creates many conceptual difficulties.
Theories of coregulation describe communication as a creative and dynamic continuous process,
rather than a discrete exchange of information. Canadian media scholar Harold Innis had the theory
that people use different types of media to communicate and which one they choose to use will offer
different possibilities for the shape and durability of society (Wark, McKenzie 1997). His famous
example of this is using ancient Egypt and looking at the ways they built themselves out of media
with very different properties stone and papyrus. Papyrus is what he called 'Space Binding'. it made
possible the transmission of written orders across space, empires and enables the waging of distant
military campaigns and colonial administration. The other is stone and 'Time Binding', through the
construction of temples and the pyramids can sustain their authority generation to generation, through
this media they can change and shape communication in their society (Wark, McKenzie 1997).
Mass communication

Mass communication is the term used to describe the academic study of the various means by which
individuals and entities relay information through mass media to large segments of the population at
the same time. It is usually understood to relate
to newspaperand magazine publishing, radio, television and film, as these are used both for
disseminating news and for advertising.

[ ]Field of study

Mass communication research includes most of communication media institutions and processes such
as diffusion of information, and media effects such as persuasion or manipulation of public opinion.
In the United States, for instance, several university departments were remodeled into schools or
colleges of mass communication or "journalism and mass communication".

In addition to studying practical skills of journalism, public relations or advertising, they offer
programs on "mass communication" or "mass communication research." The latter is often the title
given to doctoral studies in such schools, whether the focus of the student's research is journalism
practice, history, law or media effects. Departmental structures within such colleges may separate
research and instruction in professional or technical aspects of mass communication.

With the increased role of the Internet in delivering news and information, mass communication
studies and media organizations tend to focus on the convergence
of publishing, broadcasting and digital communication. The academic mass communication discipline
historically differs from media studies and communication studies programs with roots in departments
of theatre, film or speech, and with more interest in "qualitative", interpretive theory, critical or
cultural approaches to communication study. In contrast, many mass communication programs
historically lean toward empirical analysis and quantitative research — from statistical content
analysis of media messages to survey research, public opinion polling, and experimental research.

Although national standards for the study of interactive media have been present in the United
Kingdom since the mid-nineties, course work in these areas tends to vary significantly from university
to university. Graduates of Mass Communication programs work in a variety of fields in
traditional news media and publishing, advertising, public relations and research institutes. Such
programs are accr ed by the Accr ing Council on Education in Journalism and Mass
Communication.[1]

The Association for Education in Journalism and Mass Communication[2] is the major membership
organization for academics in the field, offering regional and national conferences and refereed
publications. The International Communication Association[3] and National Communication
Association (formerly the Speech Communication Association) include divisions and publications
that overlap with those of AEJMC, but AEJMC historically has stronger ties to the mass
communication professions in the United States.

GRAPHIC COMMuniction

Graphic communication as the name suggests is communication through graphics and graphical
aids. It is the process of creating, producing, and distributing material
incorporating words and images to convey data, concepts, and emotions.[1]
Graphic communication topics

[ ]Graphics
Graphics are visual presentations on some surface, such as a wall, canvas, computer screen, paper, or
stone to brand, inform, illustrate, or entertain. Examples are photographs, drawings, Line
Art, graphs, diagrams, typography, numbers, symbols, geometricdesigns, maps, engineering drawings,
or other images. Graphics often combine text, illustration, and color. Graphic design may consist of
the deliberate selection, creation, or arrangement of typography alone, as in a brochure, flier, poster,
web site, or book without any other element. Clarity or effective communication may be the objective,
association with other cultural elements may be sought, or merely, the creation of a distinctive style.
Graphics can be functional or artistic. The latter can be a recorded version, such as a photograph, or
an interpretation by a scientist to highlight essential features, or an artist, in which case the distinction
with imaginary graphics may become blurred.
[ ]Communication
Communication is the process whereby information is imparted by a sender to a receiver via
a medium. It requires that all parties have an area of communicative commonality. There
are auditory means, such as speaking, singing and sometimes tone of voice, andnonverbal, physical
means, such as body language, sign language, paralanguage, touch, eye contact, by using writing.
Communication is defined as a process by which we assign and convey meaning in an attempt to
create shared understanding. This process requires a vast repertoire of skills
in intrapersonal and interpersonal processing, listening, observing, speaking, questioning, analyzing,
and evaluating. if you use these processes it is developmental and transfers to all areas of life: home,
school, community, work, and beyond. It is through communication
that collaboration and cooperation occur.[3]
[ ]Visual communication
Visual communication as the name suggests is communication through visual aid. It is the conveyance
of ideas and information in forms that can be read or looked upon. Primarily associated with two
dimensional images, it includes: signs, typography, drawing,graphic design, illustration, colour and
electronic resources. It solely relies on vision. It is form of communication with visual effect. It
explores the idea that a visual message with text has a greater power to inform, educate or persuade a
person. It is communication by presenting information through Visual form. The evaluation of a good
visual design is based on measuring comprehension by the audience, not on aesthetic or artistic
preference. There are no universally agreed-upon principles of beauty and ugliness. There exists a
variety of ways to present information visually, like gestures, body languages, video and TV. Here,
focus is on the presentation of text, pictures, diagrams, photos, et cetera, integrated on a computer
display. The term visual presentation is used to refer to the actual presentation of information. Recent
research in the field has focused on web design and graphically oriented usability. Graphic
designers use methods of visual communication in their professional practice.
[ ]Communication design
Communication design is a mixed discipline between design and information-development which is
concerned with how mediaintermission such as printed, crafted, electronic
media or presentations communicate with people. A communication design approach is not only
concerned with developing the message aside from the aesthetics in media, but also with creating new
media channels to ensure the message reaches the target audience. Communication design seeks to
attract, inspire, create desires and motivate the people to respond to messages, with a view to making
a favorable impact to the bottom line of the commissioning body, which can be either to build a
brand, move sales, or for humanitarian purposes. Its process involves strategic business thinking,
utilizing market research, creativity, and problem-solving.
[ ]Graphic design
The term graphic design can refer to a number of artistic and professional disciplines which focus on
visual communication and presentation. Various methods are used to create and combine symbols,
images and/or words to create a visual representation of ideas and messages. A graphic designer may
use typography, visual arts and page layout techniques to produce the final result. Graphic design
often refers to both the process (designing) by which the communication is created and the products
(designs) which are generated.
Common uses of graphic design include magazines, advertisements, product packaging and web
design. For example, a product package might include a logo or other artwork, organized text and
pure design elements such as shapes and color which unify the piece. Composition is one of the most
important features of graphic design especially when using pre-existing materials or diverse elements.
[ ]Graphical representation
The term representation, according to O'Shaughnessy and Stadler (2005), can carry a range of
meanings and interpretations. In literary theory representation is commonly defined in three ways.

1. To look like or resemble

2. To stand in for something or someone
3. To present a second time to re-present[4]
Representation, according to Mitchell (1995), began with early literary theory in the ideas
of Plato and Aristotle, and has evolved into a significant component of
language, Saussurian and communication studies. Aristotle discusses representation in three ways:[5]

1. The object: The symbol being represented.

2. Manner: The way the symbol is represented.
3. Means: The material that is used to represent it.
The means of literary representation is language. The means of graphical representation are graphics.
Graphical representation of data is one of the most commonly used modes of presentation
Principles of graphic communication

1.
Good design must communicate, not just dazzle. It must inform, not just impress
2.
The services of a skilled graphic designer are worth the expense
3.
Visual Consistency
4.
Simplicity
5.
Clarity

Graphic design

Graphic design is a creative process—most often involving a client and a designer and usually
completed in conjunction with producers of form (i.e., printers, signmakers, etc.)—undertaken in
order to convey a specific message (or messages) to a targeted audience. The term "graphic design"
can also refer to a number of artistic and professional disciplines that focus on visual communication
and presentation. The field as a whole is also often referred to as Visual
Communication or Communication Design. Various methods are used to create and combine words,
symbols, and images to create a visual representation of ideas and messages. A graphic designer may
use a combination of typography, visual arts and page layout techniques to produce the final result.
Graphic design often refers to both the process (designing) by which the communication is created
and the products (designs) which are generated.

Common uses of graphic design include identity (logos and branding), publications (magazines,
newspapers, and books), advertisements and product packaging. For example, a product package
might include a logo or other artwork, organized text and pure design elements such as shapes and
color which unify the piece. Composition is one of the most important features of graphic design,
especially when using pre-existing materials or diverse elements.
History

While Graphic Design as a discipline has a relatively recent history, with the term "graphic design"
first coined by William Addison Dwiggins in 1922,[2] graphic design-like activities span the history of
humankind: from the caves of Lascaux, to Rome's Trajan's Column to theilluminated manuscripts of
the Middle Ages, to the dazzling neons of Ginza. In both this lengthy history and in the relatively
recent explosion of visual communication in the 20th and 21st centuries, there is sometimes a blurring
distinction and over-lapping of advertising art, graphic design and fine art. After all, they share many
of the same elements, theories, principles, practices and languages, and sometimes the same
benefactor or client. Inadvertising art the ultimate objective is the sale of goods and services. In
graphic design, "the essence is to give order to information, form to ideas, expression and feeling to
artifacts that document human experience."[3]
[ ]The advent of printing
Main article: History of printing

During the Tang Dynasty (618–907) between the 4th and 7th century AD, wood blocks were cut to
print on textiles and later to reproduce Buddhist texts. A Buddhist scripture printed in 868 is the
earliest known printed book. Beginning in the 11th century, longer scrolls and books were produced
using movable type printing making books widely available during the Song dynasty (960–
1279).[4] Sometime around 1450, Johann Gutenberg's printing press made books widely available in
Europe. The book design of Aldus Manutius developed the book structure which would become the
foundation of western publication design. This era of graphic design is called Humanist or Old
Style.[5]
[ ]Emergence of the design industry
In late 19th century Europe, especially in the United Kingdom, the movement began to separate
graphic design from fine art.
In 1849, Henry Cole became one of the major forces in design education in Great Britain, informing
the government of the importance of design in his Journal of Design and Manufactures. He organized
the Great Exhibition as a celebration of modern industrial technology and Victorian design.
From 1891 to 1896, William Morris' Kelmscott Press published books that are some of the most
significant of the graphic design products of the Arts and Crafts movement, and made a very lucrative
business of creating books of great stylistic refinement and selling them to the wealthy for a premium.
Morris proved that a market existed for works of graphic design in their own right and helped pioneer
the separation of design from production and from fine art. The work of the Kelmscott Press is
characterized by its obsession with historical styles. This historicism was, however, important as it
amounted to the first significant reaction to the stale state of nineteenth-century graphic design.
Morris' work, along with the rest of the Private Press movement, directly influenced Art Nouveau and
is indirectly responsible for developments in early twentieth century graphic design in general. [5]
[ ]Twentieth century design

The name "Graphic Design" first appeared in print in the 1922 essay "New Kind of Printing Calls for
New Design" by William Addison Dwiggins, an American book designer in the early 20th century.[6]
Raffe's Graphic Design, published in 1927, is considered to be the first book to use "Graphic Design"
in its title.[7]
The signage in the London Underground is a classic design example[8] of the modern era and used a
typeface designed by Edward Johnston in 1916.
In the 1920s, Soviet constructivism applied 'intellectual production' in different spheres of production.
The movement saw individualistic art as useless in revolutionary Russia and thus moved towards
creating objects for utilitarian purposes. They designed buildings, theater sets, posters, fabrics,
clothing, furniture, logos, menus, etc.[citation needed]
Jan Tschichold codified the principles of modern typography in his 1928 book, New Typography. He
later repudiated the philosophy he espoused in this book as being fascistic, but it remained very
influential.[citation needed] Tschichold, Bauhaus typographers such as Herbert Bayer and Laszlo Moholy-
Nagy, andEl Lissitzky have greatly influenced graphic design as we know it today. They pioneered
production techniques[citation needed] and stylistic devices used throughout the twentieth century. The
following years saw graphic design in the modern style gain widespread acceptance and
application.[9] A booming post-World War II American economy established a greater need for
graphic design, mainly advertising and packaging. The emigration of the German Bauhaus school of
design to Chicago in 1937 brought a "mass-produced" minimalism to America; sparking a wild fire of
"modern" architecture and design. Notable names in mid-century modern design includeAdrian
Frutiger, designer of the typefaces Univers and Frutiger; Paul Rand, who, from the late 1930s until his
death in 1996, took the principles of the Bauhaus and applied them to popular advertising and logo
design, helping to create a uniquely American approach to European minimalism while becoming one
of the principal pioneers of the subset of graphic design known as corporate identity; andJosef Müller-
Brockmann, who designed posters in a severe yet accessible manner typical of the 1950s and 1970s
era.
The growth of the professional graphic design industry has grown in parallel with the rise
of consumerism. This has raised some concerns and criticisms, notably from within the graphic design
community with the First Things First manifesto. First launched by Ken Garland in 1964, it was re-
published as the First Things First 2000 manifesto in 1999 in the magazine Emigre 51[10] stating "We
propose a reversal of priorities in favor of more useful, lasting and democratic forms of
communication - a mindshift away from product marketing and toward the exploration and production
of a new kind of meaning. The scope of debate is shrinking; it must expand. Consumerism is running
uncontested; it must be challenged by other perspectives expressed, in part, through the visual
languages and resources of design."[11] Both ions attracted signatures from respected design
practitioners and thinkers, for example; Rudy VanderLans, Erik Spiekermann, Ellen Lupton and Rick
Poynor. The 2000 manifesto was also notably published in Adbusters, known for its strong critiques
of visual culture.
[ ]Applications

From road signs to technical schematics, from interoffice memorandums to reference manuals,
graphic design enhances transfer of knowledge and visual messages. Readability and legibilityis
enhanced by improving the visual presentation and layout of text.
Design can also aid in selling a product or idea through effective visual communication. It is applied
to products and elements of company identity like logos, colors, packaging, and text. Together these
are defined as branding (see also advertising). Branding has increasingly become important in the
range of services offered by many graphic designers, alongsidecorporate identity. Whilst the terms are
often used interchangeably, branding is more strictly related to the identifying mark or trade name for
a product or service, whereas corporate identity can have a broader meaning relating to the structure
and ethos of a company, as well as to the company's external image. Graphic designers will often
form part of a team working on corporate identity and branding projects. Other members of that team
can include marketing professionals, communications consultants and commercial writers.
Textbooks are designed to present subjects such as geography, science, and math. These publications
have layouts which illustrate theories and diagrams. A common example of graphics in use to educate
is diagrams of human anatomy. Graphic design is also applied to layout and formatting of educational
material to make the information more accessible and more readily understandable.
Graphic design is applied in the entertainment industry in decoration, scenery, and visual story telling.
Other examples of design for entertainment purposes include novels, comic books, DVD
covers, opening cr s and closing cr s in filmmaking, and programs and props on stage. This could
also include artwork used for t-shirts and other items screenprinted for sale.
From scientific journals to news reporting, the presentation of opinion and facts is often improved
with graphics and thoughtful compositions of visual information - known as information design.
Newspapers, magazines, blogs, television and film documentaries may use graphic design to inform
and entertain. With the advent of the web, information designers with experience in interactive tools
such as Adobe Flash are increasingly being used to illustrate the background to news stories.
[ ]Skills

A graphic design project may involve the stylization and presentation of existing text and either
preexisting imagery or images developed by the graphic designer. For example, a newspaper story
begins with the journalists and photojournalists and then becomes the graphic designer's job to
organize the page into a reasonable layout and determine if any other graphic elements should be
required. In a magazine article or advertisement, often the graphic designer or art director will
commission photographers or illustrators to create original pieces just to be incorporated into the
design layout. Or the designer may utilize stock imagery or photography. Contemporary design
practice has been extended to the modern computer, for example in the use of WYSIWYG user
interfaces, often referred to asinteractive design, or multimedia design.
[ ]Visual arts
Main article: Visual arts

Before any graphic elements may be applied to a design, the graphic elements must be originated by
means of visual art skills. These graphics are often (but not always) developed by a graphic designer.
Visual arts include works which are primarily visual in nature using anything from traditional media,
to photography or computer generated art. Graphic design principles may be applied to each graphic
art element individually as well as to the final composition.
[ ]Typography
Main article: Typography

Typography is the art, craft and techniques of type design, modifying type glyphs, and arranging type.
Type glyphs (characters) are created and modified using a variety of illustration techniques. The
arrangement of type is the selection of typefaces, point size, tracking (the space between all characters
used), kerning (the space between two specific characters), and leading (line spacing).
Typography is performed by typesetters, compositors, typographers, graphic artists, art directors, and
clerical workers. Until the Digital Age, typography was a specialized occupation. Digitization opened
up typography to new generations of visual designers and lay users.
[ ]Page layout
Main article: Page layout

The page layout aspect of graphic design deals with the arrangement of elements (content) on a page,
such as image placement, and text layout and style. Beginning from early illuminated pages in hand-
copied books of the Middle Ages and proceeding down to intricate modern magazine and catalogue
layouts, structured page design has long been a consideration in printed material. With print media,
elements usually consist of type (text), images (pictures), and occasionally place-holder graphics for
elements that are not printed with ink such as die/laser cutting, foil stamping or blind embossing.
[ ]Interface design
Main article: User interface design

Since the advent of the World Wide Web and computer software development, many graphic
designers have become involved in interface design. This has included web design and software
design, when end user interactivity is a design consideration of the layout or interface. Combining
visual communication skills with the interactive communication skills of user interaction and online
branding, graphic designers often work with software developers and web developers to create both
the look and feel of a web site or software application and enhance the interactive experience of the
user or web site visitor. An important aspect of interface design is icon design.
[ ]User experience design
Main article: User experience design

Considers how a user interacts with and responds to an interface, service or product and adjusts it
accordingly.
[ ]Printmaking
Main article: Printmaking

Printmaking is the process of making artworks by printing on paper and other materials or surfaces.
Except in the case of monotyping, the process is capable of producing multiples of the same piece,
which is called a print. Each piece is not a copy but an original since it is not a reproduction of
another work of art and is technically known as an impression. Painting or drawing, on the other hand,
create a unique original piece of artwork. Prints are created from a single original surface, known
technically as a matrix. Common types of matrices include: plates of metal, usually copper or zinc for
engraving or etching; stone, used for lithography; blocks of wood for woodcuts, linoleum for linocuts
and fabric plates for screen-printing. But there are many other kinds, discussed below. Works printed
from a single plate create an ion, in modern times usually each signed and numbered to form a
limited ion. Prints may also be published in book form, as artist's books. A single print could be the
product of one or multiple techniques.
[ ]Tools

The mind may be the most important graphic design tool. Aside from technology, graphic design
requires judgment and creativity. Critical, observational, quantitative and analytic thinking are
required for design layouts and rendering. If the executor is merely following a solution (e.g. sketch,
script or instructions) provided by another designer (such as an art director), then the executor is not
usually considered the designer.
The method of presentation (e.g. arrangement, style, medium) may be equally important to the design.
The layout is produced using external traditional or digital image ing tools. The appropriate
development and presentation tools can substantially change how an audience perceives a project.
In the mid 1980s, the arrival of desktop publishing and graphic art software applicationsintroduced a
generation of designers to computer image manipulation and creation that had previously been
manually executed. Computer graphic design enabled designers to instantly see the effects of layout
or typographic changes, and to simulate the effects of traditional media without requiring a lot of
space. However, traditional tools such as pencils ormarkers are useful even when computers are used
for finalization; a designer or art director may hand sketch numerous concepts as part of the creative
process. Some of these sketches may even be shown to a client for early stage approval, before the
designer develops the idea further using a computer and graphic design software tools.
Computers are considered an indispensable tool in the graphic design industry. Computers
and software applications are generally seen by creative professionals as more effective
production tools than traditional methods. However, some designers continue to use manual and
traditional tools for production, such as Milton Glaser.
New ideas can come by way of experimenting with tools and methods. Some designers explore ideas
using pencil and paper.[12]Others use many different mark-making tools and resources from computers
to sculpture as a means of inspiring creativity. One of the key features of graphic design is that it
makes a tool out of appropriate image selection in order to possibly convey meaning.[13]
[ ]Computers and the creative process
There is some debate whether computers enhance the creative process of graphic design.[14] Rapid
production from the computer allows many designers to explore multiple ideas quickly with more
detail than what could be achieved by traditional hand-rendering orpaste-up on paper, moving the
designer through the creative process more quickly.[15] However, being faced with limitless choices
does not help isolate the best design solution and can lead to endless iterations with no clear design
outcome.
A graphic designer may use sketches to explore multiple or complex ideas quickly[16] without the
distractions and complications of software.[citation needed] Hand-rendered comps are often used to get
approval for an idea execution before a designer invests time to produce finished visuals on a
computer or in paste-up. The same thumbnail sketches or rough drafts on paper may be used to
rapidly refine and produce the idea on the computer in a hybrid process. This hybrid process is
especially useful in logo design[17] where a software learning curve may detract from a creative
thought process. The traditional-design/computer-production hybrid process may be used for freeing
one's creativity in page layout or image development as well.[citation needed] In the early days of computer
publishing, many "traditional" graphic designers relied on computer-savvy production artists to
produce their ideas from sketches, without needing to learn the computer skills themselves. However,
this practice has been increasingly less common since the advent of desktop publishing over 30 years
ago. The use of computers and graphics software is now taught in most graphic design courses. As
well, many graphic designers take advantage of a multitude of online tools and resources including
color pickers, fonts, clipart, tutorials and more.[18]
Nearly all of the popular and "industry standard" software programs used for graphic design since the
early 1990s are products of Adobe Systems Incorporated. They are Adobe Photoshop (a raster-based
program for photo ing), Adobe Illustrator (a vector-based program for drawing), Adobe InDesign (a
page layout program), and Adobe Dreamweaver (for Web page design). Another major page layout
tool is QuarkXpress (a product of Quark, Inc., a separate company from Adobe).
Both QuarkXpress and Adobe InDesign are often used in the final stage of the electronic design
process. Raster images may have been ed in Adobe Photoshop, logos and illustrations in Adobe
Illustrator, and the final product assembled in one of the major page layout programs. Most graphic
designers entering the field since about 1990 are expected to be proficient in at least one or two of
these programs.
Evolution Of Radio Part 1
.

Three crystal radio sets from the early days of radio. Crystal sets were the simplest and least
expensive radio receivers.

1921 Colin B Kennady Model 110 Detector unit and Amplifier unit. Radio sets were sold in
sections by early manufactures. You bought the detector section wich may have been regenitive
with 2 tubes in the unit like the 110 here. Then you bought the amplifier section to increase the
audio output. This gave you the choice of using headphones or a horn style speaker. This
was popular from 1920-1922.

1922 DeForest DT6 Radiophone crystal set. Note Galena crystal and cats wisker on front panel.
Crystal sets were the least expensive receiver to buy in the early 1920s. Simple to build,and
worked well for headphone use only.

1923 Atwater Kent 6c breadboard style set. Atwater Kent breadboard sets are valuable collecter
items.

1924 Crosley Model 52SD. Two tube regenitive set. Powel Crosley was known as the Henry
Ford of radio. He beleived a good quality product at a price everyone could afford. He also
owned radio station WLW which in the 1930s for a brief time at 500kw was the most powerfull
radio transmiter in the U.S.

1924 Radiola X (10) 1920s highboy style cabinet. Built in speaker, battery compartment, and
rotatable inside loop antenna were the features of this radio. Console radios in the mid 1920s
were very expensive.

1924 Zenith VII Super. Zenith from the start built high quality radios. Thier early slogan in the
ads of the 1920s was The Royalty of Radio. The table model shown here along with the console
model had room fro the batteries or battery elimanaters so you could run the radio on ac power.
1925 Dayfan OEM three dail reflex circuit set. Dayfan was later bought by General Motors and
became part of Delco.

Radio technology advanced rapidly in the 20th century. What started out with mushy sounding
code signals advanced quickly with in two generations to hi fidelity music. You can read or see
from the pictures on this page the evolution of radio.

1900 the first year of the 20th century Marconi and Lee DeForest attempt to cover The New
York yacht races by wireless. This fails due to each others equipment jams the signal from their
equipment. Sir Oliver Lodge in England solves the problem by inventing the tuning condenser.
In Canada Reginald Fessenden transmits his voice over the air in his lab. Fessenden also comes
up with hetrodyne signal system.

1901 Marconi sends the letter S in code (...) from England across the Atlantic Ocean and recieves
the signal In Newfoundland Canada.

1904 J Abrose Fleming invents the diode vacume tube.

1906 Three major things happen in radio that have the most impact in its future. First DeForest
invents the audion vacume tube triode. This makes all aspects of radio possible. Second
Fessenden on Christmass Eve from a shore station sends out a voice signal along with music that
is heard by shipboard wireless operators. This is radios future format. Third Pickering discovers
that certain minerals can detect radio waves. Galena,perikon, and others will work. This allows a
inexpensive receiver that anyone can buy or build can now listen to the airwaves.

1909 Schenectady N.Y Dr. Alaxanderson comes up with a high frequency alternator. Theese
become the most powerfull way of transmiting cw signals over the air. One is still in use today
by Radio Sweeden.

1912 The first radio regulation law is passed. The radio act of 1912. Amateur radio operators are
given the area 200 meters and down. The sinking of the Titanic bring wireless to the forefront. It
becomes maditory that wireless is to be installed in all ocean going ships. Wireless ship stations
must be maned 24hrs a day. Charles Jarod starts limited regular broadcasts of voice and music in
California.
Deforest discovers feedback. Edwin Howard Armstrong goes to work on how DeForests audion
works. He discovers that if you feed the signal from the grid of the tube back into the plate of the
same tube it increases the tubes amplifacation.He calls this circuit regeneration. He also
discovers that after a certain point the tube will start to put out its own signal. Now the vacume
tube can be used in all areas of radio. The ARRL is formed.

1914 Deforest sell the rights to the audion tube to AT&T for $50,000. The phone company puts
the tube to use in repeater circuits which makes long distance calls practicle.

1915 Bell telephone publicly demonstrates a working radio telephone tube powered sytem. Frank
Conrad founds the radio section and school for Westinghouse. He builds his first tube radio to
check the acurracy of a new watch by picking up the time signals from the Commerce
Department in Washington D.C. His watch is right on time so he wins a $5.00 bet.

1917 The U.S enters WWI. This is a savoir for radio. Radio development is stalled due to patent
rights cases in the courts. The Navy department takes cotrol of radio. Amateurs are told to take
down their antennas and stop transmiting. High power private land stations are taken over by the
Navy.
The Navy freezes the court cases untill the wars end. The Navy contracts out all work to large
companies whos teams of scientists and engineers make improvements in tubes and wireless and
radio equipment.

1918 Over there in France Armstrong,Harry Hauck,and Lemuire invent the superhetrodyne
circuit. This will become the most widely used circuit in radio.

1919 The Radio Corperation of America is formed. The Navy Department wants radio American
controlled and owned. The Navy Department forms a pool of the existing radio patents. General
Electric,Westinghouse, AT&T,and Western Electric were members of this patent pool. American
Marconi was bought out by a stock buy and RCA was formed as a result. Amateurs are back on
the air. Private stations are given back to their owners except for two higher power Alexanderson
alternator stations. One the Navy keeps for trans-atlantic use and the other goes to RCA. Frank
Conrad in Pittsburg PA starts limited broadcasts of voice and music from a home studio.

1920 Armstrong sells. to RCA the patent rights to the superhetrodyne circuit. Harry P. Davis
head of Westinghouse notices the ad for a local department store selling crystall sets so people
could listen to Conrads music and voice broadcasts. Davis figures Westinghouse can sell its
equipment to people so he announces Westinghouse is going to regularly broadcast music and
voice programs. He applies to the Commerce department for a specail use license. One is granted
in October 1920. The call sighn for the station is KDKA. Davis lets the local papers know that
Westinghouse was going to broadcast the election returns of the Hardig Cox election. Harding
and Cox were running for president.
Westinghouse built a studio on the factory roof and went on the air. It was a biig success. The
radio craze was started.

1922 Armstrong invents the superregenitive circuit. This is the most sensetive circuit to date.
RCA buys the rights to this circuit from Armstrong. RF stages in radio circuits are becoming
popular.

1923 Dr. Hazeltine invents a non regenitive trf circuit. Its called the nuetradyne. This circuit does
not cause interference when tuning. It has good sensitivity and selectivity. Plus the tuning is
accurate. No retuning like regens and crystall sets. Radio set sales reach 100,000 a month.

1923-1924 Radio is in trouble. The airwaves are over crowded so it is very noisy. Meetings are
called in Washington. Four take place over between 1923 and 1924. As a result of theese
meetings the maritme band is changed to its own band. The commercail band is now from 550kc-
1500kc. Power levels and license classes are changed. This helps out but only for a brief time.
RCA starts selling its AR-810 and AR-812 superhet models. RCA wont sell the rights to any
other manufacture. The only other way to get a superhet was buy a kit or build one yourself.

1927 Radio needs help again. The goverment is told by the courts that it was illegal what it had
done in the past in parts of its regulations of radio. The radio Act of 1927 takes care of theese
problems. The FRC is created to control and regulate commercail radio. The commerce
Department is given the control of the rest of radio. Radio engineers develope Crystal controlled
oscillators. This gives better controll of frequencies. Radio engineers come with directional
atennas so signals can go in specific directions. With the new regulations in place and the
improvements by the engineers radio could really be enjoyed by all again.

RCA releases ac powered tubes. The 227 226 and 280 rectifier tubes make light socket self
contained radio sets possible. One dail tuning becomes standard. RCA also releases screengrid
tubes. 224 222 are the tubes numbers.

1929 Philco releases its Model 95. This is the first radio with automatic volume control circuitry.
 Other manufactures start using screen grid tubes in thier second generation TRF sets.

That ends radio developement up to this point. I will go on to the 1930s,40s,50s,and 60s on
evolution of radio partII.

The first FM broadcasting in India was in the year 1977 at Madras. In the mid-nineties,
when India first experimented with private FM broadcasts, the small tourist destination of Goa was
the fifth place in this country of one billion where private players got FM slots. The other four centres
were the big metro cities: Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata and Chennai. These were followed by stations
in Bangalore,Hyderabad, Jaipur and Lucknow.
Times FM (now Radio Mirchi) began operations in 1993 in Ahmedabad. Until 1993, All India Radio
or AIR, a government undertaking, was the only radio broadcaster in India. The government then took
the initiative to privatize the radio broadcasting sector. It sold airtime blocks on its FM channels in
Indore, Hyderabad, Mumbai, Delhi, Kolkata, Vizag and Goa to private operators, who developed their
own program content. The Times Group operated its brand, Times FM, till June 1998. After that, the
government decided not to renew contracts given to private operators. In 2000, the government
announced the auction of 108 FM frequencies across India.[1]
Radio City Bangalore is India's first private FM radio station and was started on July 3, 2001. It
launched with presenters such as Rohit Barker, Darius Sunawala, Jonzie Kurian and Suresh Venkat.[2]
Indian policy currently states that these broadcasters are assessed a One-Time Entry Fee (OTEF), for
the entire license period of 10 years. Under the Indian accounting system, this amount is amortised
over the 10 year period at 10% per annum. Annual license fee for private players is either 4% of
revenue share or 10% of Reserve Price, whichever is higher.
Earlier, India's attempts to privatise its FM channels ran into rough weather when private players bid
heavily and most could not meet their commitments to pay the government the amounts they owed.
Content

News is not permitted on private FM, although the Federal Minister for Information-Broadcasting (I.
and B. Ministry, Govt. of India) says this may be reconsidered in two to three years. Nationally, many
of the current FM players, including the Times of India, Hindustan Times, Mid-Day, and BBC are
essentially newspaper chains or media, and they are already making a strong pitch for news on FM.
[edit]FM stations in New Delhi

 AIR FM Rainbow / FM-1 (107.1 MHz)

 AIR FM Gold /FM-2 (Early Morning till Midnight) (106.4 MHz)
 AIR Rajdhani/Gyanvani Channel (Non-Regular broadcast) (105.6 MHz)
 Oye FM (104.8 MHz)
 Fever 104 (104 MHz)
 Radio Mirchi FM (98.3 MHz)
 Hit FM (95 MHz)
 Radio One FM (94.3 MHz)
 Red FM (93.5 MHz)
 Big FM (92.7 MHz)
 Radio City (91.1 MHz)
 Radio Jamia 90.4 FM

 Delhi University Educational Radio (Available only in University area) (DU Radio FM) (90.4
MHz)

The radio interview

- DEFINITION

The interview – an exchange between a journalist or presenter and a source of information – is a

difficult art. It requires good preparation, a knowledge of technique, heightened people skills, in
other words paying attention to others. It should be thought of in terms of goal-focused strategy.

- OBJECTIVES There are five different types of interview:

‘Explanation’ interview. Get information from your interviewee about his or her expert subject, or
about something he or she is well-positioned to talk about.
‘Portrait’ interview. Bring out the personality of the interviewee on the air.
‘Witness’ interview. Have a witness to an event.
’Declaration’ interview. Ask the reaction of someone involved in the news, or of a politician for their
immediate reaction to a story or meeting in which they have taken part.
’Vox Pop’ interview. Survey a slice of the population to give a reflection of public opinion about a
news story.

- HOW TO PREPARE AN INTERVIEW?

1st Research
Research is crucial. The pertinence of your questions and your capacity to resist being manipulated
depends on how good your research has been.

2nd Making contact beforehand

Making contact with the person before the interview should give your interviewee a better
understanding of what is expected of him or her, and in what context the interview will be used. It
also means you can assess whether or not someone will make a good interviewee.

3rd Preparing the questions

How you prepare your questions will depend on two criteria:

a) Who am I interviewing?
A politician, a colleague, the man in the street, an expert, a celebrity. You will tailor your questions
in quite a different way for each.

b) What is it for?
A news bulletin, a current affairs programme, a general interest broadcast. The format and the
atmosphere should be adapted for the different types of programme.

4th Preparing your equipment

· Make sure your recorder is working properly (microphone, cable, tape, cassette, mini-disc, plug,
batteries, etc) by doing a quick recording and listening back to it.
· If the interview is to take place outdoors, take along a microphone wind-shield.

- THREE INTERVIEW TECHNIQUES

The non-directive interview: Begin with "Tell me about...", never use a question. This approach
leaves the interviewee free to say whatever he or she likes without limiting him or her to the
parameters of your own knowledge of the subject. You can then go back over the most important
points raised, "sum up" each along the lines of "you were saying...". This method of interviewing is
best for bringing out lots information, but it is the most difficult to master.

The directed interview: Only use questions, more or less open ones. The interviewer knows about
what they are discussing, and sometimes even knows the answer he will get, but needs the
interviewee to confirm the information.

The semi-directed interview: Alternate the questions between those which guide the interview to
where you want to go and those which may invite interesting and enriching elaboration.

- MAIN TYPES OF QUESTIONS

Closed questions: Reply is either ‘yes’ or ‘no’.

Eg. "Are you in favour of free speech?"

Multiple choice questions : The reply is induced.

Eg. "Are you in favour of the death penalty, or of life imprisonment?"

Semi-open questions: Replies are short and precise.

Eg. These questions in general start with ‘How many?’ , ‘Who?’ , ‘When?’ and ‘Where?’

Open questions: Detailed replies, open to explanation and justification, etc.

Eg. "What do you think about free speech?"

- SOME TRICKS OF THE TRADE

Think through the strategy of your questions

Start with a question that is more or less innocuous as a sort of ‘warm-up’ and to put your
interviewee at ease. On the other hand you can also throw yourself right in with a difficult one, if you
want to knock your interviewee off balance or create an atmosphere of controversy.

Alternate between open and less open questions to re-focus you interviewee on the subject or let him
or her a little more freedom. If they are rambling, ask closed questions that demand precise answers.
If you want them to open up a bit, ask broader questions to let relax them.

Use the "sum up" if your interviewee is trying to dodge answering an important point, re-formulating
it as a question "So what you’re saying is…" More often than not, he or she will return to what they
were trying to avoid!
Structure your questions, with the most interesting at the start. Then, if you’re running out of time,
you will have got in the most important ones. This is the same principle as the "inverted pyramid" of
news writing.

Avoiding the well-known pitfalls:

The interviewee answers your question with a question. Just stay quiet, wait for him or her to answer
your question. If he doesn’t, ask the same question again. In rare, extreme cases, remind him the
rules of the game: You are the interviewer, it’s your job to ask the questions. He agreed to the
interview, and in doing so agreed to answer them. This should be said firmly, but not in an
aggressive manner.

The interviewer starts to answer your questions saying "Yes, indeed…but one important question I
feel I should address is…" or "that’s and interesting question and it raises another…", and proceeds
to ask himself a question he wants to answer. Be vigilant. Keep going back to the issue you want to
explore, politely but firmly, until you get a real answer.

- THE RISK OF MANIPULATION

A badly-prepared interview can leave the door open to manipulation. The journalist doing an
interview should always be vigilant and sufficiently well briefed to be able to exercise judgement
and discernment.

Microphone
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

A microphone (colloquially called a mic or mike; both pronounced /ˈmaɪk/)[1] is an acoustic-to-

electric transducer or sensor that converts sound into an electrical signal. Microphones are used in
many applications such as telephones, tape recorders, karaoke systems, hearing aids, motion
picture production, live and recorded audio engineering, FRS radios, megaphones,
in radio andtelevision broadcasting and in computers for recording voice, speech recognition, VoIP,
and for non-acoustic purposes such as ultrasonic checking or knock sensors.

Most microphones today use electromagnetic induction (dynamic microphone), capacitance change
(condenser microphone), piezoelectric generation, or light modulation to produce an electrical voltage
signal from mechanical vibration.
Both Thomas Alva Edison and Emile Berliner filed patent applications for the carbon microphone, in
March and June 1877 respectively. After a long legal battle, Edison emerged the victor, and the
Berliner patent was ruled invalid by both American and British courts.
Components

The sensitive transducer element of a microphone is called its element or capsule. A complete
microphone also includes a housing, some means of bringing the signal from the element to other
equipment, and often an electronic circuit to adapt the output of the capsule to the equipment being
driven. A wireless microphone contains a radio transmitter.
Varieties

Microphones are referred to by their transducer principle, such as condenser, dynamic, etc., and by
their directional characteristics. Sometimes other characteristics such as diaphragm size, intended use
or orientation of the principal sound input to the principal axis (end- or side-address) of the
microphone are used to describe the microphone.
Condenser microphone
The condenser microphone, invented at Bell Labs in 1916 by E. C. Wente[2] is also called
acapacitor microphone or electrostatic microphone — capacitors were historically called
condensers. Here, the diaphragm acts as one plate of a capacitor, and the vibrations produce changes
in the distance between the plates. There are two types, depending on the method of extracting
the audio signal from the transducer: DC-biased and radio frequency (RF) or high frequency (HF)
condenser microphones. With a DC-biased microphone, the plates are biased with a fixed charge (Q).
The voltage maintained across the capacitor plates changes with the vibrations in the air, according to
the capacitance equation (C = Q⁄V), where Q = charge in coulombs, C = capacitance infarads and V =
potential difference in volts. The capacitance of the plates is inversely proportional to the distance
between them for a parallel-plate capacitor. (See capacitance for details.) The assembly of fixed and
movable plates is called an "element" or "capsule".
A nearly constant charge is maintained on the capacitor. As the capacitance changes, the charge
across the capacitor does change very slightly, but at audible frequencies it is sensibly constant. The
capacitance of the capsule (around 5 to 100 pF) and the value of the bias resistor (100 MΩ to tens of
GΩ) form a filter that is high-pass for the audio signal, and low-pass for the bias voltage. Note that the
time constant of an RC circuit equals the product of the resistance and capacitance.
Within the time-frame of the capacitance change (as much as 50 ms at 20 Hz audio signal), the charge
is practically constant and the voltage across the capacitor changes instantaneously to reflect the
change in capacitance. The voltage across the capacitor varies above and below the bias voltage. The
voltage difference between the bias and the capacitor is seen across the series resistor. The voltage
across the resistor is amplified for performance or recording. In most cases, the electronics in the
microphone itself contribute no voltage gain as the voltage differential is quite significant, up to
several volts for high sound levels. Since this is a very high impedance circuit, current gain only is
usually needed with the voltage remaining constant.
RF condenser microphones use a comparatively low RF voltage, generated by a low-noise oscillator.
The signal from the oscillator may either be amplitude modulated by the capacitance changes
produced by the sound waves moving the capsule diaphragm, or the capsule may be part of a resonant
circuit that modulates the frequency of the oscillator signal. Demodulation yields a low-noise audio
frequency signal with a very low source impedance. The absence of a high bias voltage permits the
use of a diaphragm with looser tension, which may be used to achieve wider frequency response due
to higher compliance. The RF biasing process results in a lower electrical impedance capsule, a useful
by-product of which is that RF condenser microphones can be operated in damp weather conditions
that could create problems in DC-biased microphones with contaminated insulating surfaces.
TheSennheiser "MKH" series of microphones use the RF biasing technique.
Condenser microphones span the range from telephone transmitters through inexpensive karaoke
microphones to high-fidelity recording microphones. They generally produce a high-quality audio
signal and are now the popular choice in laboratory and recording studioapplications. The inherent
suitability of this technology is due to the very small mass that must be moved by the incident sound
wave, unlike other microphone types that require the sound wave to do more work. They require a
power source, provided either via microphone inputs on equipment as phantom power or from a small
battery. Power is necessary for establishing the capacitor plate voltage, and is also needed to power
the microphone electronics (impedance conversion in the case of electret and DC-polarized
microphones, demodulation or detection in the case of RF/HF microphones). Condenser microphones
are also available with two diaphragms that can be electrically connected to provide a range of polar
patterns (see below), such as cardioid, omnidirectional, and figure-eight. It is also possible to vary the
pattern continuously with some microphones, for example the Røde NT2000 or CAD M179.
Electret condenser microphone
An electret microphone is a type of capacitor microphone invented by Gerhard Sessler andJim
West at Bell laboratories in 1962. [3] The externally applied charge described above under condenser
microphones is replaced by a permanent charge in an electret material. Anelectret is
a ferroelectric material that has been permanently electrically charged orpolarized. The name comes
from electrostatic and magnet; a static charge is embedded in an electret by alignment of the static
charges in the material, much the way a magnet is made by aligning the magnetic domains in a piece
of iron.
Due to their good performance and ease of manufacture, hence low cost, the vast majority of
microphones made today are electret microphones; a semiconductor manufacturer[4]estimates annual
production at over one billion units. Nearly all cell-phone, computer, PDA and headset microphones
are electret types. They are used in many applications, from high-quality recording and lavalier use to
built-in microphones in small sound recordingdevices and telephones. Though electret microphones
were once considered low quality, the best ones can now rival traditional condenser microphones in
every respect and can even offer the long-term stability and ultra-flat response needed for a
measurement microphone. Unlike other capacitor microphones, they require no polarizing voltage,
but often contain an integrated preamplifier that does require power (often incorrectly called
polarizing power or bias). This preamplifier is frequently phantom powered in sound
reinforcement and studio applications. Monophonic microphones designed for personal
computer (PC) use, sometimes called multimedia microphones, use a 3.5 mm plug as usually used,
without power, for stereo; the ring, instead of carrying the signal for a second channel, carries power
via a resistor from (normally) a 5 V supply in the computer. Stereophonic microphones use the same
connector; there is no obvious way to determine which standard is used by equipment and
microphones.
Only the best electret microphones rival good DC-polarized units in terms of noise level and quality;
electret microphones lend themselves to inexpensive mass-production, while inherently expensive
non-electret condenser microphones are made to higher quality.
Dynamic microphone
Dynamic microphones work via electromagnetic induction. They are robust, relatively inexpensive
and resistant to moisture. This, coupled with their potentially high gain before feedback, makes them
ideal for on-stage use.
Moving-coil microphones use the same dynamic principle as in a loudspeaker, only reversed. A small
movable induction coil, positioned in the magnetic field of a permanent magnet, is attached to
the diaphragm. When sound enters through the windscreen of the microphone, the sound wave moves
the diaphragm. When the diaphragm vibrates, the coil moves in the magnetic field, producing a
varying current in the coil through electromagnetic induction. A single dynamic membrane does not
respond linearly to all audio frequencies. Some microphones for this reason utilize multiple
membranes for the different parts of the audio spectrum and then combine the resulting signals.
Combining the multiple signals correctly is difficult and designs that do this are rare and tend to be
expensive. There are on the other hand several designs that are more specifically aimed towards
isolated parts of the audio spectrum. The AKG D 112, for example, is designed for bass response
rather than treble.[5] In audio engineering several kinds of microphones are often used at the same time
to get the best result.
Ribbon microphone
Ribbon microphones use a thin, usually corrugated metal ribbon suspended in a magnetic field. The
ribbon is electrically connected to the microphone's output, and its vibration within the magnetic field
generates the electrical signal. Ribbon microphones are similar to moving coil microphones in the
sense that both produce sound by means of magnetic induction. Basic ribbon microphones detect
sound in a bi-directional (also called figure-eight, as in the diagram below) pattern because the ribbon,
which is open to sound both front and back, responds to the pressure gradient rather than the sound
pressure. Though the symmetrical front and rear pickup can be a nuisance in normal stereo recording,
the high side rejection can be used to advantage by positioning a ribbon microphone horizontally, for
example above cymbals, so that the rear lobe picks up only sound from the cymbals. Crossed figure 8,
or Blumlein pair, stereo recording is gaining in popularity, and the figure 8 response of a ribbon
microphone is ideal for that application.
Other directional patterns are produced by enclosing one side of the ribbon in an acoustic trap or
baffle, allowing sound to reach only one side. The classic RCA Type 77-DX microphone has several
externally adjustable positions of the internal baffle, allowing the selection of several response
patterns ranging from "Figure-8" to "Unidirectional". Such older ribbon microphones, some of which
still provide high quality sound reproduction, were once valued for this reason, but a good low-
frequency response could only be obtained when the ribbon was suspended very loosely, which made
them relatively fragile. Modern ribbon materials, including new nanomaterials[6] have now been
introduced that eliminate those concerns, and even improve the effective dynamic range of ribbon
microphones at low frequencies. Protective wind screens can reduce the danger of damaging a vintage
ribbon, and also reduce plosive artifacts in the recording. Properly designed wind screens produce
negligible treble attenuation. In common with other classes of dynamic microphone, ribbon
microphones don't require phantom power; in fact, this voltage can damage some older ribbon
microphones. Some new modern ribbon microphone designs incorporate a preamplifier and,
therefore, do require phantom power, and circuits of modern passive ribbon microphones, i.e., those
without the aforementioned preamplifier, are specifically designed to resist damage to the ribbon and
transformer by phantom power. Also there are new ribbon materials available that are immune to
wind blasts and phantom power.
Carbon microphone
A carbon microphone, also known as a carbon button microphone (or sometimes just a button
microphone), use a capsule or button containing carbon granules pressed between two metal plates
like the Berliner and Edison microphones. A voltage is applied across the metal plates, causing a
small current to flow through the carbon. One of the plates, the diaphragm, vibrates in sympathy with
incident sound waves, applying a varying pressure to the carbon. The changing pressure deforms the
granules, causing the contact area between each pair of adjacent granules to change, and this causes
the electrical resistance of the mass of granules to change. The changes in resistance cause a
corresponding change in the current flowing through the microphone, producing the electrical signal.
Carbon microphones were once commonly used in telephones; they have extremely low-quality sound
reproduction and a very limited frequency response range, but are very robust devices. The Boudet
microphone, which used relatively large carbon balls, was similar to the granule carbon button
microphones.[7]
Unlike other microphone types, the carbon microphone can also be used as a type of amplifier, using a
small amount of sound energy to control a larger amount of electrical energy. Carbon microphones
found use as early telephone repeaters, making long distance phone calls possible in the era before
vacuum tubes. These repeaters worked by mechanically coupling a magnetic telephone receiver to a
carbon microphone: the faint signal from the receiver was transferred to the microphone, with a
resulting stronger electrical signal to send down the line. One illustration of this amplifier effect was
the oscillation caused by feedback, resulting in an audible squeal from the old "candlestick" telephone
if its earphone was placed near the carbon microphone.
Piezoelectric microphone
A crystal microphone or piezo microphone uses the phenomenon of piezoelectricity — the ability
of some materials to produce a voltage when subjected to pressure — to convert vibrations into an
electrical signal. An example of this is potassium sodium tartrate, which is a piezoelectric crystal that
works as a transducer, both as a microphone and as a slimline loudspeaker component. Crystal
microphones were once commonly supplied with vacuum tube (valve) equipment, such as domestic
tape recorders. Their high output impedance matched the high input impedance (typically about
10 megohms) of the vacuum tube input stage well. They were difficult to match to
early transistor equipment, and were quickly supplanted by dynamic microphones for a time, and later
small electret condenser devices. The high impedance of the crystal microphone made it very
susceptible to handling noise, both from the microphone itself and from the connecting cable.
Piezoelectric transducers are often used as contact microphones to amplify sound from acoustic
musical instruments, to sense drum hits, for triggering electronic samples, and to record sound in
challenging environments, such as underwater under high pressure.Saddle-mounted
pickups on acoustic guitars are generally piezoelectric devices that contact the strings passing over the
saddle. This type of microphone is different from magnetic coil pickups commonly visible on
typical electric guitars, which use magnetic induction, rather than mechanical coupling, to pick up
vibration.
Fiber optic microphone
A fiber optic microphone converts acoustic waves into electrical signals by sensing changes in light
intensity, instead of sensing changes in capacitance or magnetic fields as with conventional
microphones.[8][9]
During operation, light from a laser source travels through an optical fiber to illuminate the surface of
a reflective diaphragm. Sound vibrations of the diaphragm modulate the intensity of light reflecting
off the diaphragm in a specific direction. The modulated light is then transmitted over a second optical
fiber to a photo detector, which transforms the intensity-modulated light into analog or digital audio
for transmission or recording. Fiber optic microphones possess high dynamic and frequency range,
similar to the best high fidelity conventional microphones.
Fiber optic microphones do not react to or influence any electrical, magnetic, electrostatic or
radioactive fields (this is called EMI/RFI immunity). The fiber optic microphone design is therefore
ideal for use in areas where conventional microphones are ineffective or dangerous, such as
inside industrial turbines or in magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) equipment environments.
Fiber optic microphones are robust, resistant to environmental changes in heat and moisture, and can
be produced for any directionality or impedance matching. The distance between the microphone's
light source and its photo detector may be up to several kilometers without need for any preamplifier
or other electrical device, making fiber optic microphones suitable for industrial and surveillance
acoustic monitoring.
Fiber optic microphones are used in very specific application areas such as for infrasound monitoring
and noise-canceling. They have proven especially useful in medical applications, such as allowing
radiologists, staff and patients within the powerful and noisy magnetic field to converse normally,
inside the MRI suites as well as in remote control rooms.[10]) Other uses include industrial equipment
monitoring and sensing, audio calibration and measurement, high-fidelity recording and law
enforcement.
Laser microphone
Laser microphones are often portrayed in movies as spy gadgets, because they can be used to pick up
sound at a distance from the microphone equipment. A laser beam is aimed at the surface of a window
or other plane surface that is affected by sound. The vibrations of this surface change the angle at
which the beam is reflected, and the motion of the laser spot from the returning beam is detected and
converted to an audio signal.
In a more robust and expensive implementation, the returned light is split and fed to an interferometer,
which detects movement of the surface by changes in the optical path length of the reflected beam.
The former implementation is a tabletop experiment; the latter requires an extremely stable laser and
precise optics.
A new type of laser microphone is a device that uses a laser beam and smoke or vapor to
detect sound vibrations in free air. On 25 August 2009, U.S. patent 7,580,533 issued for a Particulate
Flow Detection Microphone based on a laser-photocell pair with a moving stream of smoke or vapor
in the laser beam's path. Sound pressure waves cause disturbances in the smoke that in turn cause
variations in the amount of laser light reaching the photo detector. A prototype of the device was
demonstrated at the 127th Audio Engineering Society convention in New York City from 9 through
12 October 2009.
Liquid microphone
Early microphones did not produce intelligible speech, until Alexander Graham Bell made
improvements including a variable resistance microphone/transmitter. Bell's liquid transmitter
consisted of a metal cup filled with water with a small amount of sulfuric acid added. A sound wave
caused the diaphragm to move, forcing a needle to move up and down in the water. The electrical
resistance between the wire and the cup was then inversely proportional to the size of the water
meniscus around the submerged needle. Elisha Gray filed acaveat for a version using a brass rod
instead of the needle. Other minor variations and improvements were made to the liquid microphone
by Majoranna, Chambers, Vanni, Sykes, and Elisha Gray, and one version was patented by Reginald
Fessenden in 1903. These were the first working microphones, but they were not practical for
commercial application. The famous first phone conversation between Bell and Watson took place
using a liquid microphone.
MEMS microphone
The MEMS (MicroElectrical-Mechanical System) microphone is also called a microphone chip or
silicon microphone. The pressure-sensitive diaphragm is etched directly into a silicon chip by MEMS
techniques, and is usually accompanied with integrated preamplifier. Most MEMS microphones are
variants of the condenser microphone design. Often MEMS microphones have built in analog-to-
digital converter (ADC) circuits on the same CMOS chip making the chip a digital microphone and so
more readily integrated with modern digital products. Major manufacturers producing MEMS silicon
microphones are Wolfson Microelectronics (WM7xxx), Analog Devices, Akustica (AKU200x),
Infineon (SMM310 product), Knowles Electronics, Memstech (MSMx), NXP Semiconductors,
Sonion MEMS, AAC Acoustic Technologies,[11] and Omron.[12]
Speakers as microphones
A loudspeaker, a transducer that turns an electrical signal into sound waves, is the functional opposite
of a microphone. Since a conventional speaker is constructed much like a dynamic microphone (with
a diaphragm, coil and magnet), speakers can actually work "in reverse" as microphones. The result,
though, is a microphone with poor quality, limited frequency response (particularly at the high end),
and poor sensitivity. In practical use, speakers are sometimes used as microphones in applications
where high quality and sensitivity are not needed such as intercoms, walkie-talkies or Video game
voice chat peripherals, or when conventional microphones are in short supply.
However, there is at least one other practical application of this principle: Using a medium-
size woofer placed closely in front of a "kick" (bass drum) in a drum set to act as a microphone. The
use of relatively large speakers to transduce low frequency sound sources, especially in music
production, is becoming fairly common. A product example of this type of device is the Yamaha
Subkick, a 6.5-inch (170 mm) woofer shock-mounted into a 10" drum shell used in front of kick
drums. Since a relatively massive membrane is unable to transduce high frequencies, placing a
speaker in front of a kick drum is often ideal for reducing cymbal and snare bleed into the kick drum
sound. Less commonly, microphones themselves can be used as speakers, almost always as tweeters.
Microphones, however, are not designed to handle the power that speaker components are routinely
required to cope with. One instance of such an application was the STC microphone-derived 4001
super-tweeter, which was successfully used in a number of high quality loudspeaker systems from the
late 1960s to the mid-70s.
Capsule design and directivity

The inner elements of a microphone are the primary source of differences in directivity. A pressure
microphone uses a diaphragmbetween a fixed internal volume of air and the environment, and
responds uniformly to pressure from all directions, so it is said to be omnidirectional. A pressure-
gradient microphone uses a diaphragm that is at least partially open on both sides. The pressure
difference between the two sides produces its directional characteristics. Other elements such as the
external shape of the microphone and external devices such as interference tubes can also alter a
microphone's directional response. A pure pressure-gradient microphone is equally sensitive to sounds
arriving from front or back, but insensitive to sounds arriving from the side because sound arriving at
the front and back at the same time creates no gradient between the two. The characteristic directional
pattern of a pure pressure-gradient microphone is like a figure-8. Other polar patterns are derived by
creating a capsule that combines these two effects in different ways. The cardioid, for instance,
features a partially closed backside, so its response is a combination of pressure and pressure-gradient
characteristics.[13]
Microphone polar patterns

(Microphone facing top of page in diagram, parallel to page):

Omnidirectional


 Subcardioid

Cardioid

Supercardioid

Bi-directional or Figure of 8

Hypercardioid

Shotgun
A microphone's directionality or polar pattern indicates how sensitive it is to sounds arriving at
different angles about its central axis. The polar patterns illustrated above represent the locus of points
that produce the same signal level output in the microphone if a givensound pressure level (SPL) is
generated from that point. How the physical body of the microphone is oriented relative to the
diagrams depends on the microphone design. For large-membrane microphones such as in the Oktava
(pictured above), the upward direction in the polar diagram is usually perpendicular to the microphone
body, commonly known as "side fire" or "side address". For small diaphragm microphones such as
the Shure (also pictured above), it usually extends from the axis of the microphone commonly known
as "end fire" or "top/end address".
Some microphone designs combine several principles in creating the desired polar pattern. This
ranges from shielding (meaning diffraction/dissipation/absorption) by the housing itself to
electronically combining dual membranes.
Omnidirectional
An omnidirectional (or nondirectional) microphone's response is generally considered to be a perfect
sphere in three dimensions. In the real world, this is not the case. As with directional microphones, the
polar pattern for an "omnidirectional" microphone is a function of frequency. The body of the
microphone is not infinitely small and, as a consequence, it tends to get in its own way with respect to
sounds arriving from the rear, causing a slight flattening of the polar response. This flattening
increases as the diameter of the microphone (assuming it's cylindrical) reaches the wavelength of the
frequency in question. Therefore, the smallest diameter microphone gives the best omnidirectional
characteristics at high frequencies.
The wavelength of sound at 10 kHz is little over an inch (3.4 cm) so the smallest measuring
microphones are often 1/4" (6 mm) in diameter, which practically eliminates directionality even up to
the highest frequencies. Omnidirectional microphones, unlike cardioids, do not employ resonant
cavities as delays, and so can be considered the "purest" microphones in terms of low coloration; they
add very little to the original sound. Being pressure-sensitive they can also have a very flat low-
frequency response down to 20 Hz or below. Pressure-sensitive microphones also respond much less
to wind noise and plosives than directional (velocity sensitive) microphones.
An example of a nondirectional microphone is the round black eight ball.[14]
Unidirectional
A unidirectional microphone is sensitive to sounds from only one direction. The diagram
above illustrates a number of these patterns. The microphone faces upwards in each diagram. The
sound intensity for a particular frequency is plotted for angles radially from 0 to 360°. (Professional
diagrams show these scales and include multiple plots at different frequencies. The diagrams given
here provide only an overview of typical pattern shapes, and their names.)
Cardioid
The most common unidirectional microphone is a cardoid microphone, so named because the
sensitivity pattern is a cardoid. The cardoid family of microphones are commonly used as vocal or
speech microphones, since they are good at rejecting sounds from other directions. In three
dimensions, the cardioid is shaped like an apple centred around the microphone which is the "stalk" of
the apple. The cardoid response reduces pickup from the side and rear, helping to avoid feedback
from the monitors. Since pressure gradient transducermicrophones are directional, putting them very
close to the sound source (at distances of a few centimeters) results in a bass boost. This is known as
the proximity effect.[15] The SM58has been the most commonly used microphone for live vocals for
more than 40 years[16]demonstrating the importance and popularity of cardoid mikes.
A cardioid microphone is effectively a superposition of an omnidirectional and a figure-8
microphone; for sound waves coming from the back, the negative signal from the figure-8 cancels the
positive signal from the omnidirectional element, whereas for sound waves coming from the front, the
two add to each other. A hyper-cardioid microphone has a tighter area of front sensitivity and a
smaller lobe of rear sensitivity. A hypercardioid microphone is similar, but with a slightly larger
figure-8 contribution. A super-cardioid microphone is similar to a hyper-cardioid, except there is
more front pickup and less rear pickup.
Bi-directional
"Figure 8" or bi-directional microphones receive sound equally from both the front and back of the
element. Most ribbon microphones are of this pattern. In principle they do not respond to sound
pressure at all, only to the change in pressure between front and back; since sound arriving from the
side reaches front and back equally there is no difference in pressure and therefore no sensitivity to
sound from that direction. In more mathematical terms, while omnidirectional microphones
are scalar transducers responding to pressure from any direction, bi-directional microphones
are vector transducers responding to the gradient along an axis normal to the plane of the diaphragm.
This also has the effect of inverting the output polarity for sounds arriving from the back side.
Shotgun
Shotgun microphones are the most highly directional. They have small lobes of sensitivity to the left,
right, and rear but are significantly less sensitive to the side and rear than other directional
microphones. This results from placing the element at the back end of a tube with slots cut along the
side; wave cancellation eliminates much of the off-axis sound. Due to the narrowness of their
sensitivity area, shotgun microphones are commonly used on television and film sets, in stadiums, and
for field recording of wildlife.
Boundary or "PZM"
Several approaches have been developed for effectively using a microphone in less-than-ideal
acoustic spaces, which often suffer from excessive reflections from one or more of the surfaces
(boundaries) that make up the space. If the microphone is placed in, or very close to, one of these
boundaries, the reflections from that surface are not sensed by the microphone. Initially this was done
by placing an ordinary microphone adjacent to the surface, sometimes in a block of acoustically
transparent foam. Sound engineers Ed Long and Ron Wickersham developed the concept of placing
the diaphgram parallel to and facing the boundary.[17] While the patent has expired, "Pressure Zone
Microphone" and "PZM" are still active trademarks of Crown International, and the generic term
"boundary microphone" is preferred. While a boundary microphone was initially implemented using
an omnidirectional element, it is also possible to mount a directional microphone close enough to the
surface to gain some of the benefits of this technique while retaining the directional properties of the
element. Crown's trademark on this approach is "Phase Coherent Cardioid" or "PCC," but there are
other makers who employ this technique as well.
Application-specific designs

A lavalier microphone is made for hands-free operation. These small microphones are worn on the
body. Originally, they were held in place with a lanyard worn around the neck, but more often they
are fastened to clothing with a clip, pin, tape or magnet. The lavalier cord may be hidden by clothes
and either run to an RF transmitter in a pocket or clipped to a belt (for mobile use), or run directly to
the mixer (for stationary applications).
A wireless microphone transmits the audio as a radio or optical signal rather than via a cable. It
usually sends its signal using a small FM radio transmitter to a nearby receiver connected to the sound
system, but it can also use infrared waves if the transmitter and receiver are within sight of each other.
A contact microphone picks up vibrations directly from a solid surface or object, as opposed to sound
vibrations carried through air. One use for this is to detect sounds of a very low level, such as those
from small objects or insects. The microphone commonly consists of a magnetic (moving coil)
transducer, contact plate and contact pin. The contact plate is placed directly on the vibrating part of a
musical instrument or other surface, and the contact pin transfers vibrations to the coil. Contact
microphones have been used to pick up the sound of a snail's heartbeat and the footsteps of ants. A
portable version of this microphone has recently been developed. A throat microphone is a variant of
the contact microphone that picks up speech directly from a person's throat, which it is strapped to.
This lets the device be used in areas with ambient sounds that would otherwise make the speaker
inaudible.
A parabolic microphone uses a parabolic reflector to collect and focus sound waves onto a
microphone receiver, in much the same way that a parabolic antenna (e.g. satellite dish) does with
radio waves. Typical uses of this microphone, which has unusually focused front sensitivity and can
pick up sounds from many meters away, include nature recording, outdoor sporting
events, eavesdropping, law enforcement, and even espionage. Parabolic microphones are not typically
used for standard recording applications, because they tend to have poor low-frequency response as a
side effect of their design.
A stereo microphone integrates two microphones in one unit to produce a stereophonic signal. A
stereo microphone is often used forbroadcast applications or field recording where it would be
impractical to configure two separate condenser microphones in a classic X-Y configuration
(see microphone practice) for stereophonic recording. Some such microphones have an adjustable
angle of coverage between the two channels.
A noise-canceling microphone is a highly directional design intended for noisy environments. One
such use is in aircraft cockpits where they are normally installed as boom microphones on headsets.
Another use is in live event support on loud concert stages for vocalists involved with live
performances. Many noise-canceling microphones combine signals received from two diaphragms
that are in opposite electrical polarity or are processed electronically. In dual diaphragm designs, the
main diaphragm is mounted closest to the intended source and the second is positioned farther away
from the source so that it can pick up environmental sounds to be subtracted from the main
diaphragm's signal. After the two signals have been combined, sounds other than the intended source
are greatly reduced, substantially increasing intelligibility. Other noise-canceling designs use one
diaphragm that is affected by ports open to the sides and rear of the microphone, with the sum being a
16 dB rejection of sounds that are farther away. One noise-canceling headset design using a single
diaphragm has been used prominently by vocal artists such as Garth Brooks and Janet Jackson.[18] A
few noise-canceling microphones are throat microphones.
Connectors

The most common connectors used by microphones are:

 Male XLR connector on professional microphones

 ¼ inch (sometimes referred to as 6.3 mm) jack plug also known as 1/4 inch TRS connector on
less expensive consumer microphones. Many consumer microphones use an unbalanced
1/4 inch phone jack. Harmonica microphones commonly use a high impedance 1/4 inch TS
connection to be run through guitar amplifiers.
 3.5 mm (sometimes referred to as 1/8 inch mini) stereo (wired as mono) mini phone plug on very
inexpensive and computer microphones
Some microphones use other connectors, such as a 5-pin XLR, or mini XLR for connection to
portable equipment. Some lavalier (or 'lapel', from the days of attaching the microphone to the news
reporters suit lapel) microphones use a proprietary connector for connection to a wireless transmitter,
such as a radio pack. Since 2005, professional-quality microphones with USBconnections have begun
to appear, designed for direct recording into computer-based software.
Impedance-matching
Microphones have an electrical characteristic called impedance, measured in ohms (Ω), that depends
on the design. Typically, the rated impedance is stated.[19] Low impedance is considered under 600 Ω.
Medium impedance is considered between 600 Ω and 10 kΩ. High impedance is above 10 kΩ. Owing
to their built-in amplifier, condenser microphones typically have an output impedance between 50 and
200 Ω.[20]
The output of a given microphone delivers the same power whether it is low or high impedance. If a
microphone is made in high and low impedance versions, the high impedance version has a higher
output voltage for a given sound pressure input, and is suitable for use with vacuum-tube guitar
amplifiers, for instance, which have a high input impedance and require a relatively high signal input
voltage to overcome the tubes' inherent noise. Most professional microphones are low impedance,
about 200 Ω or lower. Professional vacuum-tube sound equipment incorporates a transformer that
steps up the impedance of the microphone circuit to the high impedance and voltage needed to drive
the input tube; the impedance conversion inherently creates voltage gain as well. External matching
transformers are also available that can be used in-line between a low impedance microphone and a
high impedance input.
Low-impedance microphones are preferred over high impedance for two reasons: one is that using a
high-impedance microphone with a long cable results in high frequency signal loss due to cable
capacitance, which forms a low-pass filter with the microphone output impedance. The other is that
long high-impedance cables tend to pick up more hum (and possibly radio-frequency
interference (RFI) as well). Nothing is damaged if the impedance between microphone and other
equipment is mismatched; the worst that happens is a reduction in signal or change in frequency
response.
Most microphones are designed not to have their impedance matched by the load they are connected
to.[21] Doing so can alter their frequency response and cause distortion, especially at high sound
pressure levels. Certain ribbon and dynamic microphones are exceptions, due to the designers'
assumption of a certain load impedance being part of the internal electro-acoustical damping circuit of
the microphone.[22][dubious – discuss]
Digital microphone interface
The AES 42 standard, published by the Audio Engineering Society, defines a digital interface for
microphones. Microphones conforming to this standard directly output a digital audio stream through
an XLR or XLD male connector, rather than producing an analog output. Digital microphones may be
used either with new equipment with appropriate input connections that conform to the AES 42
standard, or else via a suitable interface box. Studio-quality microphones that operate in accordance
with the AES 42 standard are now available from a number of microphone manufacturers.
Measurements and specifications

Because of differences in their construction, microphones have their own characteristic responses to
sound. This difference in response produces non-uniform phase andfrequency responses. In addition,
microphones are not uniformly sensitive to sound pressure, and can accept differing levels without
distorting. Although for scientific applications microphones with a more uniform response are
desirable, this is often not the case for music recording, as the non-uniform response of a microphone
can produce a desirable coloration of the sound. There is an international standard for microphone
specifications,[19] but few manufacturers adhere to it. As a result, comparison of published data from
different manufacturers is difficult because different measurement techniques are used. The
Microphone Data Website has collated the technical specifications complete with pictures, response
curves and technical data from the microphone manufacturers for every currently listed microphone,
and even a few obsolete models, and shows the data for them all in one common format for ease of
comparison.[1]. Caution should be used in drawing any solid conclusions from this or any other
published data, however, unless it is known that the manufacturer has supplied specifications in
accordance with IEC 60268-4.
A frequency response diagram plots the microphone sensitivity in decibels over a range of frequencies
(typically 20 Hz to 20 kHz), generally for perfectly on-axis sound (sound arriving at 0° to the
capsule). Frequency response may be less informatively stated textually like so: "30 Hz–
16 kHz ±3 dB". This is interpreted as meaning a nearly flat, linear, plot between the stated
frequencies, with variations in amplitude of no more than plus or minus 3 dB. However, one cannot
determine from this information how smooth the variations are, nor in what parts of the spectrum they
occur. Note that commonly made statements such as "20 Hz–20 kHz" are meaningless without a
decibel measure of tolerance. Directional microphones' frequency response varies greatly with
distance from the sound source, and with the geometry of the sound source. IEC 60268-4 specifies
that frequency response should be measured in plane progressive wave conditions (very far away
from the source) but this is seldom practical. Close talking microphones may be measured with
different sound sources and distances, but there is no standard and therefore no way to compare data
from different models unless the measurement technique is described.
The self-noise or equivalent noise level is the sound level that creates the same output voltage as the
microphone does in the absence of sound. This represents the lowest point of the microphone's
dynamic range, and is particularly important should you wish to record sounds that are quiet. The
measure is often stated in dB(A), which is the equivalent loudness of the noise on a decibel scale
frequency-weighted for how the ear hears, for example: "15 dBA SPL" (SPL means sound
pressure level relative to 20 micropascals). The lower the number the better. Some microphone
manufacturers state the noise level using ITU-R 468 noise weighting, which more accurately
represents the way we hear noise, but gives a figure some 11–14 dB higher. A quiet microphone
typically measures 20 dBA SPL or 32 dB SPL 468-weighted. Very quiet microphones have existed
for years for special applications, such the Brüel & Kjaer 4179, with a noise level around 0 dB SPL.
Recently some microphones with low noise specifications have been introduced in the
studio/entertainment market, such as models from Neumann and Røde that advertise noise levels
between 5–7 dBA. Typically this is achieved by altering the frequency response of the capsule and
electronics to result in lower noise within the A-weighting curve while broadband noise may be
increased.
The maximum SPL the microphone can accept is measured for particular values of total harmonic
distortion (THD), typically 0.5%. This amount of distortion is generally inaudible[citation needed], so one
can safely use the microphone at this SPL without harming the recording. Example: "142 dB
SPL peak (at 0.5% THD)". The higher the value, the better, although microphones with a very high
maximum SPL also have a higher self-noise.
The clipping level is an important indicator of maximum usable level, as the 1% THD figure usually
quoted under max SPL is really a very mild level of distortion, quite inaudible especially on brief high
peaks. Clipping is much more audible. For some microphones the clipping level may be much higher
than the max SPL.
The dynamic range of a microphone is the difference in SPL between the noise floor and the
maximum SPL. If stated on its own, for example "120 dB", it conveys significantly less information
than having the self-noise and maximum SPL figures individually.
Sensitivity indicates how well the microphone converts acoustic pressure to output voltage. A high
sensitivity microphone creates more voltage and so needs less amplification at the mixer or recording
device. This is a practical concern but is not directly an indication of the microphone's quality, and in
fact the term sensitivity is something of a misnomer, "transduction gain" being perhaps more
meaningful, (or just "output level") because true sensitivity is generally set by the noise floor, and too
much "sensitivity" in terms of output level compromises the clipping level. There are two common
measures. The (preferred) international standard is made in millivolts per pascal at 1 kHz. A higher
value indicates greater sensitivity. The older American method is referred to a 1 V/Pa standard and
measured in plain decibels, resulting in a negative value. Again, a higher value indicates greater
sensitivity, so −60 dB is more sensitive than −70 dB.
Measurement microphones

Some microphones are intended for testing speakers, measuring noise levels and otherwise
quantifying an acoustic experience. These are calibrated transducers and are usually supplied with a
calibration certificate that states absolute sensitivity against frequency. The quality of measurement
microphones is often referred to using the designations "Class 1," "Type 2" etc., which are references
not to microphone specifications but to sound level meters.[23] A more comprehensive standard[24] for
the description of measurement microphone performance was recently adopted.
Measurement microphones are generally scalar sensors of pressure; they exhibit an omnidirectional
response, limited only by the scattering profile of their physical dimensions. Sound intensity or sound
power measurements require pressure-gradient measurements, which are typically made using arrays
of at least two microphones, or with hot-wire anemometers.
Microphone calibration
To take a scientific measurement with a microphone, its precise sensitivity must be known
(in volts per pascal). Since this may change over the lifetime of the device, it is necessary to
regularly calibrate measurement microphones. This service is offered by some microphone
manufacturers and by independent certified testing labs. All microphone calibration is ultimately
traceable to primary standards at a national measurement institute such as NPL in the UK, PTB in
Germany and NIST in the United States, which most commonly calibrate using the reciprocity
primary standard. Measurement microphones calibrated using this method can then be used to
calibrate other microphones using comparison calibration techniques.
Depending on the application, measurement microphones must be tested periodically (every year or
several months, typically) and after any potentially damaging event, such as being dropped (most such
microphones come in foam-padded cases to reduce this risk) or exposed to sounds beyond the
acceptable level.
Microphone array and array microphones

A microphone array is any number of microphones operating in tandem. There are many applications:

 Systems for extracting voice input from ambient noise (notably telephones, speech
recognition systems, hearing aids)
 Surround sound and related technologies
 Locating objects by sound: acoustic source localization, e.g., military use to locate the source(s)
of artillery fire. Aircraft location and tracking.
 High fidelity original recordings
 3D spatial beamforming for localized acoustic detection of subcutaneous sounds
Typically, an array is made up of omnidirectional microphones distributed about the perimeter of a
space, linked to a computer that records and interprets the results into a coherent form.
Microphone windscreens

Windscreens[note 1] are used to protect microphones that would otherwise be buffeted by wind or
vocalplosives from consonants such as "P", "B", etc. Most microphones have an integral windscreen
built around the microphone diaphragm. A screen of plastic, wire mesh or a metal cage is held at a
distance from the microphone diaphragm, to shield it. This cage provides a first line of defense
against the mechanical impact of objects or wind. Some microphones, such as the Shure SM58, may
have an additional layer of foam inside the cage to further enhance the protective properties of the
shield. One disadvantage of all windscreen types is that the microphone's high frequency response is
attenuated by a small amount, depending on the density of the protective layer.
Beyond integral microphone windscreens, there are three broad classes of additional wind protection.
Microphone covers
Microphone covers are often made of soft open-cell polyester or polyurethane foam because of the
inexpensive, disposable nature of the foam. Optional windscreens are often available from the
manufacturer and third parties. A visible example of an optional accessory windscreen is the A2WS
from Shure, one of which is fitted over each of the two Shure SM57 microphones used on the United
States president's lectern.[25] One disadvantage of polyurethane foam microphone covers is that they
can deteriorate over time. Windscreens also tend to collect dirt and moisture in their open cells and
must be cleaned to prevent high frequency loss, bad odor and unhealthy conditions for the person
using the microphone. On the other hand, a major advantage of concert vocalist windscreens is that
one can quickly change to a clean windscreen between users, reducing the chance of transferring
germs. Windscreens of various colors can be used to distinguish one microphone from another on a
busy, active stage.
Pop filters
Pop filters or pop screens are used in controlled studio environments to minimize plosives when
recording. A typical pop filter is composed of one or more layers of acoustically transparent gauze-
like material, such as woven nylon (e.g., pantyhose) stretched over a circular frame and a clamp and a
flexible mounting bracket to attach to the microphone stand. The pop shield is placed between the
vocalist and the microphone. The closer a vocalist brings his or her lips to the microphone, the greater
the requirement for a pop filter. Singers can be trained either to soften their plosives or direct the air
blast away from the microphone, in which cases they don't need a pop filter.
Pop filters also keep spittle off the microphone. Most condenser microphones can be damaged by
spittle.
Blimps

Two recordings being made — a blimp is being used on the left. An open-cell foam windscreen is
being used on the right.

"Dead cat" and a "dead kitten" windscreens. The dead kitten covers a stereo microphone for a DSLR
camera. The difference in name is due to the size of the fur.

Blimps (also known as Zeppelins) are large, hollow windscreens used to surround microphones for
outdoor location audio, such as nature recording, electronic news gathering, and for film and video
shoots. They can cut wind noise by as much as 25 dB, especially low-frequency noise. The blimp is
essentially a hollow cage or basket with acoustically transparent material stretched over the outer
frame. The blimp works by creating a volume of still air around the microphone. The microphone is
often further isolated from the blimp by an elastic suspension inside the basket. This reduces wind
vibrations and handling noise transmitted from the cage. To extend the range of wind speed
conditions in which the blimp remains effective, many have the option of a secondary cover over the
outer shell. This is usually an acoustically transparent, synthetic fur material with long, soft hairs.
Common and slang names for this include "dead cat" or "windmuff". The hairs deaden the noise
caused by the shock of wind hitting the blimp. A synthetic fur cover can reduce wind noise by an
additional 10 dB.[26]
Media laws
Introduction
Mass Media systems of the world vary from each other according to the economy, polity, religion and
culture of different societies. In societies, which followed communism and totalitarianism, like the
former USSR and China, there were limitations of what the media could say about the government.
Almost everything that was said against the State was censored for fear of revolutions. On the other
hand, in countries like USA, which have a Bourgeois Democracy, almost everything is allowed.

Shifting our view to the Indian perspective and its system of Parliamentary Democracy, it is true that,
the Press is free but subject to certain reasonable restrictions imposed by the Constitution of India,
1950, as amended ("Constitution"). Before the impact of globalisation was felt, the mass media was
wholly controlled by the government, which let the media project only what the government wanted
the public to see and in a way in which it wanted the public to see it. However, with the onset of
globalisation and privatisation, the situation has undergone a humongous change.

Before the invention of communication satellites, communication was mainly in the form of national
media, both public and private, in India and abroad. Then came 'transnational media' with the progress
of communication technologies like Satellite delivery and ISDN (Integrated Services Digital
Network), the outcome: local TV, global films and global information systems.

In such an era of media upsurge, it becomes an absolute necessity to impose certain legal checks and
bounds on transmission and communication In the due course of this article, we would discuss the
various aspects of media and the relevant legal checks and bounds governing them.

Historical Perspective of Mass Media Laws

Mass Media laws in India have a long history and are deeply rooted in the country’s colonial
experience under British rule. The earliest regulatory measures can be traced back to 1799 when Lord
Wellesley promulgated the Press Regulations, which had the effect of imposing pre-censorship on an
infant newspaper publishing industry. The onset of 1835 saw the promulgation of the Press Act,
which undid most of, the repressive features of earlier legislations on the subject.

Thereafter on 18th June 1857, the government passed the ‘Gagging Act’, which among various other
things, introduced compulsory licensing for the owning or running of printing presses; empowered the
government to prohibit the publication or circulation of any newspaper, book or other printed material
and banned the publication or dissemination of statements or news stories which had a tendency to
cause a furore against the government, thereby weakening its authority.

Then followed the ‘Press and Registration of Books Act’ in 1867 and which continues to remain in
force till date. Governor General Lord Lytton promulgated the ‘Vernacular Press Act’ of 1878
allowing the government to clamp down on the publication of writings deemed seditious and to
impose punitive sanctions on printers and publishers who failed to fall in line. In 1908, Lord Minto
promulgated the ‘Newspapers (Incitement to Offences) Act, 1908 which authorized local authorities to
take action against the editor of any newspaper that published matter deemed to constitute an
incitement to rebellion.

However, the most significant day in the history of Media Regulations was the 26th of January 1950 –
the day on which the Constitution was brought into force. The colonial experience of the Indians
made them realise the crucial significance of the ‘Freedom of Press’. Such freedom was therefore
incorporated in the Constitution; to empower the Press to disseminate knowledge to the masses and
the Constituent Assembly thus, decided to safeguard this ‘Freedom of Press’ as a fundamental right.
Although, the Indian Constitution does not expressly mention the liberty of the press, it is evident that
the liberty of the press is included in the freedom of speech and expression under Article
19(1)(a). [1] It is however pertinent to mention that, such freedom is not absolute but is qualified by
certain clearly defined limitations under Article 19(2) in the interests of the public.

It is necessary to mention here that, this freedom under Article 19(1)(a) is not only cribbed, cabined
and confined to newspapers and periodicals but also includes pamphlets, leaflets, handbills, circulars
and every sort of publication which affords a vehicle of information and opinion[2]:

Thus, although the freedom of the press is guaranteed as a fundamental right, it is necessary for us to
deal with the various laws governing the different areas of media so as to appreciate the vast expanse
of media laws.

Print

“Our freedom depends in large part, on the continuation of a free

press, which is the strongest guarantee of a free society.”
- Richard M. Schmidt[3]

The Freedom Of Press and the Freedom Of Expression can be regarded as the very basis of a
democratic form of government. Every business enterprise is involved in the laws of the nation, the
state and the community in which it operates. Newspaper publishers find themselves more ‘hemmed
in’ by legal restrictions than many other businesses do – despite the fact that the freedom of press is
protected by the Indian constitution. The various Acts, which have to be taken into consideration
when dealing with the regulations imposed upon the Print Media, are:

The Press and Registration of Books Act, 1867 – This Act regulates printing presses and
newspapers and makes registration with an appointed Authority compulsory for all printing presses.

The Press (Objectionable Matters) Act, 1951 – This enactment provides against the printing
and publication of incitement to crime and other objectionable matters.

The Newspaper (Prices and Pages) Act, 1956 – This statute empowers the Central Government
to regulate the price of newspapers in relation to the number of pages and size and also to regulate the
allocation of space to be allowed for advertising matter.

When dealing with this statute, it will be worthwhile to mention about the case of Sakal Papers Ltd.
v. Union of India [4]. In this case, the Daily Newspapers (Price and Control) Order, 1960, which
fixed a minimum price and number of pages, which a newspaper is entitled to publish, was challenged
as unconstitutional. The State justified the law as a reasonable restriction on a business activity of a
citizen. The Supreme Court struck down the Order rejecting the State’s argument. The Court opined
that, the right of freedom of speech and expression couldn’t be taken away with the object of placing
restrictions on the business activity of the citizens. Freedom of speech can be restricted only on the
grounds mentioned in clause (2) of Article 19.

Defence of India Act, 1962 – This Act came into force during the Emergency proclaimed in
1962. This Act aimed at restricting the Freedom Of The Press to a large extent keeping in mind the
unrest prevailing in India in lieu of the war against China. The Act empowered the Central
Government to issue rules with regard to prohibition of publication or communication prejudicial to
the civil defence/military operations, prevention of prejudicial reports and prohibition of printing or
publishing any matter in any newspaper.

Delivery of Books and Newspapers (Public Libraries) Act, 1954 – According to this Act, the
publishers of books and newspapers are required to deliver, free of cost, a copy of every published
book to the National Library at Calcutta and one copy each to three other public libraries specified by
the Central Government.

The Working Journalists and other Newspaper Employees (Conditions of Service and
Miscellaneous Provisions) Act, 1955 – It lays down the minimum standards of service conditions for
newspaper employees and journalists.

Civil Defence Act, 1968 - It allows the Government to make rules for the prohibition of printing
and publication of any book, newspaper or other document prejudicial to the Civil Defence.

Press Council Act, 1978 – Under this Act, the Press Council was reconstituted (after 1976) to
maintain and improve the standards of newspaper and news agencies in India.

Although on one hand, the Constitution confers the fundamental right of freedom of the press, Article
105 (2) provides certain restrictions on the publications of the proceedings in Parliament. In the
famous Searchlight Case[5], the Supreme Court held that, the publication by a newspaper of certain
parts of the speech of members in the House, which were ordered to be expunged by the Speaker
constituted a breach of privilege.

Due to the restrictive scope of this Article, it is not possible for us to delve into all the other statutes;
however, a few of the legislations, which are worth mentioning are the Contempt of Courts Act,
1971 and The Official Secrets Act, 1923.

Broadcast
The broadcast media was under complete monopoly of the Government of India. Private
organizations were involved only in commercial advertising and sponsorships of programmes.
However, in Secretary, Ministry of I&B v. CAB [6], the Supreme Court clearly differed from the
aforementioned monopolistic approach and emphasized that, every citizen has a right to telecast and
broadcast to the viewers/listeners any important event through electronic media, television or radio
and also provided that the Government had no monopoly over such electronic media as such
monopolistic power of the Government was not mentioned anywhere in the Constitution or in any
other law prevailing in the country.

This judgment, thus, brought about a great change in the position prevailing in the broadcast media,
and such sector became open to the citizens.

The Broadcasting Code, adopted by the Fourth Asian Broadcasting Conference in 1962 listing
certain cardinal principles to be followed buy the electronic media, is of prime importance so far as
laws governing broadcast medium are concerned. Although, the Broadcast Code was chiefly set up to
govern the All India Radio, the following cardinal principles have ideally been practiced by all
Broadcasting and Television Organization; viz: -

To ensure the objective presentation of news and fair and unbiased comment
To promote the advancement of education and culture
 To raise and maintain high standards of decency and decorum in all programmes
To provide programmes for the young which, by variety and content, will inculcate the
principles of good citizenship
To promote communal harmony, religious tolerance and international understanding
To treat controversial public issues in an impartial and dispassionate manner
To respect human rights and dignity

Cable Television Networks (Regulation) Act, 1995 basically regulates the operation of Cable
Television in the territory of India and regulates the subscription rates and the total number of total
subscribers receiving programmes transmitted in the basic tier. In pursuance of the Cable Television
Network (Regulation) (Amendment) Bill, 2002, the Central Government may make it obligatory for
every cable operator to transmit or retransmit programme of any pay channel through an addressable
system as and when the Central Government so notifies. Such notification may also specify the
number of free to air channels to be included in the package of channels forming the basic service
tier.

Direct-to-Home Broadcasting – Direct-to-Home (DTH) Broadcasting Service, refers to

distribution of multi-channel TV programmes in Ku Band by using a satellite system and by providing
TV signals directly to the subscribers’ premises without passing through an intermediary such as a
cable operator. The Union Government has decided to permit Direct-to-Home TV service in Ku band
in India.[7]

Film – India is one of the largest producers of motion pictures in the world. Encompassing three
major spheres of activity – production, distribution and exhibition, the industry has an all-India
spread, employing thousands of people and entertaining millions each year. The various laws in force
regulating the making and screening of films are: -

The Cinematograph Act, 1952 – The Cinematograph Act of 1952 has been passed to make
provisions for a certification of cinematographed films for exhibitions by means of
Cinematograph. Under this Act, a Board of Film Censors (now renamed Central Board of Film
Certification) with advisory panels at regional centres is empowered to examine every film and
sanction it whether for unrestricted exhibition or for exhibition restricted to adults. The Board is also
empowered to refuse to sanction a film for public exhibition.

In K. A. Abbas v. Union of India[8], the petitioner for the first time challenged the validity of
censorship as violative of his fundamental right of speech and expression. The Supreme Court
however observed that, pre-censorship of films under the Cinematograph Act was justified under
Article 19(2) on the ground that films have to be treated separately from other forms of art and
expression because a motion picture was able to stir up emotion more deeply and thus, classification
of films between two categories ‘A’ (for adults only) and ‘U’ (for all) was brought about[9].

Furthermore, in Bobby Art International v. Om Pal Singh Hoon[10], the Supreme Court re-affirmed
the afore-mentioned view and upheld the order of the Appellate Tribunal (under the Cinematograph
Act) which had followed the Guidelines under the Cinematograph Act and granted an ‘A’ certificate
to a film.

The Copyright Act, 1957 – According to this Act, ‘copyright’ means the exclusive right to
commercially exploit the original literary, dramatic, artistic, musical work, sound recordings or
cinematographic films as per the wishes of the owner of copyright subject to the restrictions imposed
in the Act.

Although this Act, is applicable to all the branches of media, in some areas it is specific to this
particular genre. In the case of a Cinematographed film, to do or to authorise the doing of any of the
following acts would lead to the infringement of copyright. Those acts are namely: -

To make a copy of the film

To cause the film, in so far, as it consists of visual images, to be seen in
public and in so far as it consists of sounds to be heard in public
To make any record embodying the recording in any part of the
soundtrack associated with the film by utilizing such sound track
To communicate the film by radio-diffusion

The Act also makes it a cognizable offence for anyone to sell, hire, distribute, exhibit, possess or view any
unauthorised recordings and prescribes severe penalties, including imprisonment, fines as well as confiscation of the
equipment used for the purpose of such recording and exhibition. The Amendments to The Copyright Act also
prohibit unauthorized transmission of films on the cable television[11].

Cine Workers and Cinema Theatre Workers (Regulation of Employment) Act, 1981 – This
legislation affords a measure of protection to those employed in the industry by imposing certain
obligations on motion picture producers and theatre owners concerning the former’s condition of
service.

Cine Workers Welfare Cess Act, 1981 and the Cine Workers Welfare Fund Act 1981 – They seek to create
means of financial support to cine employees, the seasonal and unpredictable nature of whose employment often
leaves them impoverished and helpless. Besidesthese, there are also a few local legislations, which affect the film
medium; viz.

The Bombay Police Act, 1951 – It contains provisions empowering the police to regulate the
exhibition of films in the state of Maharashtra (formerly Bombay).

Bombay Cinemas (Regulation) Act, 1953 – It provides a scheme for state licensing of cinema
theatres and other places where motion pictures are exhibited

The Bombay Entertainments Duty Act, 1923 – It imposes a tax on the public exhibition of motion pictures and
other forms of entertainment.

Advertising
Advertising communication is a mix of arts and facts subservient to ethical principles. In order to be
consumer-oriented, advertisement will have to be truthful and ethical. It should not mislead the
consumer. If it so happens, the credibility is lost.

In order to enforce an ethical regulating code, the Advertising Standards Council of India was set
up. Inspired by a similar code of the Advertising Standards Authority (ASA) UK, ASCI follows the
following basic guidelines in order to achieve the acceptance of fair advertising practices in the
interest of the consumer: -
 To ensure the truthfulness and honesty of representations and claims made by
advertisements and to safe guard against misleading advertising;

To ensure that advertisement are not offensive to generally accepted standards of public
decency;

To safeguard against indiscriminate use of advertising for promotion of products which

are regarded as hazardous to society or to individuals to a degree or of a type which is
unacceptable to society at large; and

To ensure that advertisements observe fairness in competition so that the consumers need
to be informed on choices in the market places and canons of generally accepted competitive
behaviour in business are both served.

Few Complaints filed with ASCI –

o HLL’s Clinic All Clear Dandruff shampoo claimed that it had ZPTO, the special ingredient
in Clinic All Clear that stops dandruff. This claim was found to be untrue since ZPTO is a
micro biocide, when in reality, dandruff is known to be caused by several other factors,
besides, microbes. HLL’s multi-crore research wing ‘clearly overlooked’ this aspect. The
advertisement has been withdrawn.

o Novartis India claimed that their disposable contact lenses ensure there is no protein build-
up. This claim was found to be totally false. The truth is that build up is a natural biological
phenomenon with all contact lenses. The ad was discontinued.

The other legislations affecting the area of advertising are: -

Drug and Magic Remedies (Objectionable Advertisement) Act, 1954 – This Act has been
enacted to control the advertisements of drugs in certain cases and to prohibit the advertisement for
certain purposes of remedies alleged to possess magic qualities and to provide for matters connected
therewith.

In Hamdard Dawakhana v. Union of India[12] the Supreme Court was faced with the question as to
whether the Drug and Magic Remedies Act, which put restrictions on the advertisements of drugs in
certain cases and prohibited advertisements of drugs having magic qualities for curing diseases, was
valid as it curbed the freedom of speech and expression of a person by imposing restrictions on
advertisements. The Supreme Court held that, an advertisement is no doubt a form of speech and
expression but every advertisement is not a matter dealing with the expression of ideas and hence
advertisement of a commercial nature cannot fall within the concept of Article 19(1)(a).

However, in Tata Press Ltd. v. Mahanagar Telephone Nigam Ltd[13], a three judge bench of the
Supreme Court differed from the view expressed in the Dawakhana case and held that ‘commercial
advertisement’ was definitely a part of Article 19(1)(a) as it aimed at the dissemination of information
regarding the product. The Court, however, made it clear that the government could regulate
commercial advertisements, which are deceptive, unfair, misleading and untruthful.

Monopolies and Restrictive Trade Practices Act, 1969 - Section 36 A of the Act deals with 5
major Unfair Trade Practices: -
  Any misleading, false, and wrong representation either in writing (i.e. in
advertisements, warranty, guarantee etc.) or oral (at the time of sale) actual or intended, even
if actual injury or loss is not caused to the consumer/buyer constitutes as unfair trade
practices;
 Sales, where there is element of deception;
 All business promotion schemes announcing ‘free gifts’, ‘contests’, etc. where any
element of deception is involved;
 Violation of laws existing for protection of consumers;
 Manipulating sales with a view to raising prices.

Parle’s mango drink ‘Maaza’ gave the advertisement of Maaza mango and the MRTP issued a notice
against Parle Exports Pvt. Ltd. The advertisement implied that the soft drink was prepared from fresh
mango while actually preservatives were added to it. The company had to suspend production pending
enquiry.

Conclusion
In this age of media explosion, one cannot simply remain confined to the boundaries of the traditional
media. The media world has expanded its dimensions by encompassing within its orbit, the widening
vistas of cyber media etc. As a consequence, the laws governing them are also numerous. It is not
within the scope of this Article to deal with the whole subject of media laws, but this Article makes a
person aware of the various important legislations affecting the various branches of Media
Communication, making him aware of his rights and facilitating him to exercise them within the
framework of law existing in India and in the end furthering the cause of “Freedom Of Speech And
Expression” and “Dissemination of Knowledge”.
 INDIAN COPYRIGHT ACT 1957

CHAPTER I
PRELIMINARY
1.Short title, extent and commencement:-(1) This Act may be called the Copyright Act, 1957.
(2) It extends to the whole of India.
(3) It shall come into force on such date{ 21st January,1958, vide Notification No.269 dated 21-1-58
Gazette of India, Extraordinary Part II Section 3 page 167} as the Central Government may, by
notification in the Official Gazette, appoint.
2.Interpretation:- In this Act, unless the context otherwise requires,-

(a) "adapatation" means,-

( i ) in relation to a dramatic work, the conversion of the work into a non-dramatic work;
( ii ) in relation to a literary work or an artistic work, the conversion of the work into a dramatic work
by way of performance in public or otherwise;
( iii ) in relation to a literary or dramatic work, any abridgement of the work or any version of the
work in which the story or action is conveyed wholly or mainly by means of pictures in a form
suitable for reproduction in a book, or in a newspaper, magazine or similar per` iodical; and
( iv ) in relation to a musical work, any arrangement or transcription of the work;
(b) "architectural work of art" means any building or structure having an artistic character or design,
or any model for such building or structure;
(c) "artistic work" means---

( i ) a painting, a sculpture, a drawing (including a diagram, map, chart or plan), an engraving or a

photograph, whether or not any such work possesses artistic quality;
(ii) an architectural work of art; and
( iii ) any other work of artistic craftsmanship;
(d) "author" means,-
( i ) in relation to literary or dramatic work, the author of the work;
( ii ) in relation to a musical work, the composer;
( iii ) in relation to an artistic work other than a photograph, the artist;
( iv ) in relation to a photograph, the person taking the photograph;
( v ) in relation to a cinematograph film, the owner of the film at the time of its completion; and
( vi ) in relation to a record, the owner of the original plate from which the record is made, at the time
of the making of the plate;
(e) "calendar year" means the year commencing on the 1st day of January;
(f) "cinematograph film" includes the sound track, if any, and "cinematograph" shall be construed as
including any work produced by any mechanical instrument or by radio-diffusion;
(g) "delivery", in relation to a lecture, includes delivery by means of any mechanical instrument or by
radio-diffusion;
(h) "dramatic work" includes any piece for recitation, choregraphic work or entertainment in dumb
show, the scenic arrangement or acting form of which is fixed in writing or other wise but does not
include a cinematograph film;
( i ) "engravings" include etchings, lithographs, wood-cuts, prints and other similar works, not being
photographs;
( j ) "exclusive licence" means a licence which confers on the licensee or on the licenses and persons
authorised by him, to the exclusion of all other persons (including the owner of the copy right), any
right comprised in the copyright in a work, and "exclusive licensee" shall be construed accordingly;
(k) "Government work" means a work which is made or published by or under the direction or
control of---
( i ) the government or any department of the Government;
( ii ) any Legislature in India;
( iii ) any court, tribunal or other judicial authority in India;
( l ) "Indian work" means a literary, dramatic or musical work, the author of which is a citizen
of India;
( m ) "infringing copy" means, ---
( i ) in relation to a literary, dramatic, musical or artistic work, a reproduction thereof otherwise than
in the form of a cinematograph film;
( ii ) in relation to a cinematograph film, a copy of the film or a record embodying the recording in
any part of the sound track associated with the film;
( iii ) in relation to a record, any such record embodying the same recording; and
( iv ) in relation to a programme in which a broadcast reproduction right subsists under section 37, a
record recording the programme,
if such reproduction, copy or record is made or imported in contravention of the provisions of this
Act;
( n ) "lecture" includes address, speech and sermon;
( o ) "literary work" includes tables and compilations;
( p ) "musical work" means any combination of melody and harmony or either of them, printed,
reduced to writing or otherwise graphically produced or reproduced;
( q ) "performance" includes any mode of visual or acoustic presentation, including any such
presentation by the exhibition of a cinematograph film, or by means of radio-diffusion, or by the use
of a record, or by any other means and , in relation to a lecture, includes the delivery of such lecture;
( r ) "performing rights society" means a society, association or other body, whether incorporated or
not, which carries on business in India of issuing or granting licences for the performance in India of
any works in which copyright subsists;
( s ) "photograph" includes photo-lithograph and any work produced by any process analogous to
photography but does not include any part of a cinematograph film;
( t ) "plate" includes any stereotype or other plate, stone, block, mould, matrix, transfer, negative or
other device used or intended to be used for printing or reproducing copies of any work, and any
matrix or other appliance by which records for the acoustic presentation of the work are or are
intended to be made;
( u ) "prescribed" means prescribed by rules made under this Act;
( v ) "radio-diffusion" includes communication to the public by any means of wireless diffusion
whether in the form of sounds or visual images or both;
(w) "record" means any disc, tape, perforated roll or other device in which sounds are embodied so as
to be capable of being reproduced there from, other than a sound track associated with a
cinematograph film;
(x) "recording" means the aggregate of the sounds embodied in and capable of being reproduced by
means of a record;
(y) "work" means any of the following works, namely:-
(i) a literary, dramatic, musical or artistic work;
(ii) a cinematograph film;
(iii) a record;
(z) " work of joint authorship" means a work produced by the collaboration of two or more authors
in which the contribution of one authors in which the contribution of one author is not distinct from
the contribution of the other author or authors;
(za) "work of sculpture" includes casts and models.

3.Meaning of publication:- For the purposes of this Act, "publication" means,-----

(a) in the case of a literary, dramatic, musical or artistic work, the issue of copies of the work to the
public in sufficient quantities;

(b) in the case of a cinematograph film, the sale or hire or offer for sale or hire of the film or copies
thereof to the public;

(c) in the case of a record, the issue of records to the public in sufficient quantities;
but does not, except as otherwise expressly provided in this Act, includes,------
(i) in the case of a literary, dramatic or musical work, the issue of any recording such work;
(ii) in the case of a work of sculpture or an architectural work of art, the issue of photographs and
engravings of such work.

4.when work not deemed to be published or performed in public:-Except in relation to

infringement of copyright, a work shall not be deemed to be published or performed in public, if
published, or performed in public, without the licence of the owner of the copyright.

5.when work deemed to be first published in India:- For the purposes of this Act, a work published
in India shall be deemed to be first published in India, notwithstanding that it has been published
simultaneously in some other country, unless such other country provides a shorter term of copyright
for such work; and a work shall be deemed to be published simultaneously in India and in another
country if the time between the publication in India and the publication in such other country does not
exceed thirty days or such other period as the Central Government may, in relation to any specified
country, determine.

6.Certain disputes to be decided by Copyright Board:- If any question arises,-

(a) Whether for the purposes of section 3, copies of any literary, dramatic, musical or artistic work, or
records are issued to the public in sufficient quantities; or
(b) Whether for the purposes of section 5, the term of copyright for any work is shorter in any other
country than that provided in respect of that work under this Act;
it shall be referred to the Copyright Board constituted under section 11 whose decision thereon shall
be final.
7.Nationality of author where the making of unpublished work is extended over considerable
period:- Where, in the case of an unpublished work, the making of the work is extended over a
considerable period, the author of the work shall, for the purposes of this Act, be deemed to be a
citizen of, or domiciled in, that country of which he was a citizen or wherein he was domiciled during
any substantial part of that period.

8.Domicile of corporations:- For the purposes of this Act, a body corporate shall be deemed to be
domiciled in India if it is incorporated under any law in force inIndia.
CENSORSHIP IN INDIA

In general, censorship in India, which involves the suppression of speech or other public
communication, raises issues of freedom of speech, which is constitutionally protected by the Indian
constitution.

The Constitution of India guarantees freedom of expression but places certain restrictionson content,
with a view towards maintaining communal and religious harmony, given the history of communal
tension in the nation.[1]

According to the Information Technology Rules 2011, objectionable content includes anything
that “threatens the unity, integrity, defence, security or sovereignty of India, friendly relations with
foreign states or public order".[2] Analysts from Reporters Without Borders rank India 131st in the
world in terms in their Press Freedom Index,[3] falling from 80th just 11 years earlier.[4] In 2011, the
report Freedom in the World by Freedom Housegave India a political rights rating of 2, and a civil
liberties rating of 3, earning it the designation of free.[5] The rating scale runs from 1 (most free) to 7
(least free).
Laws

[edit]Obscenity and sexual content

Watching or possessing pornographic materials is fully legal, however distribution of such materials
is banned.[6] The Central Board of Film Certification allows release of certain films with sexually
explicit content (labeled A-rated), which are to be shown only in restricted spaces and to be viewed
only by people of age 18 and above.[7] Even India's public television broadcaster, Doordarshan has
aired adult films.[8] Films, television showsand music videos are prone to scene cuts or even bans,
however if any literature is banned, it is not usually for pornographic reasons. Pornographic
magazines are technically illegal, but many softcore Indian publications are available through many
news vendors, who often stock them at the bottom of a stack of non-pornographic magazines, and
make them available on request. Most non-Indian publications (including Playboy) are usually harder
to find, whether softcore or hardcore. Mailing pornographic magazines to India from a country where
they are legal is also illegal in India. In practice, the magazines are almost always confiscated
by Customs and entered as evidence of law-breaking, which then undergoes detailed scrutiny.
[edit]National security
The Official Secrets Act 1923 is used for the protection of official information, mainly related
to national security.[9]
[edit]Censorship by medium

[edit]Press
In 1975 Indira Gandhi government imposed censorship of press in The Emergency. It was removed at
the end of the Emergency rule.[1] On 26 June 1975, a the day after the emergency was imposed,
the Bombay edition of The Times of India in its obituary column carried an entry that read "D.E.M
O'Cracy beloved husband of T.Ruth, father of L.I.Bertie, brother of Faith, Hope and Justica expired
on 26 June".[10]
[edit]Film
The Central Board of Film Certification, the regulatory film body of India, regularly orders directors
to remove anything it deems offensive, including sex, nudity, violence or subjects considered
politically subversive.[11]
In 2002, the film War and Peace, depicting scenes of nuclear testing and the September 11, 2001
attacks, created by Anand Patwardhan, was asked to make 21 cuts before it was allowed to have the
certificate for release.[12][13] Patwardhan objected, saying "The cuts that they asked for are so
ridiculous that they won't hold up in court" and "But if these cuts do make it, it will be the end of
freedom of expression in the Indian media." The court decreed the cuts unconstitutional and the film
was shown uncut.
In 2002, the Indian filmmaker and former chief of the country's film censor board, Vijay Anand,
kicked up a controversy with a proposal to legalise the exhibition of X-rated films in selected cinemas
across the country, saying "Porn is shown everywhere in India clandestinely... and the best way to
fight this onslaught of blue movies is to show them openly in theatres with legally authorised
licences".[11] He resigned within a year after taking charge of the censor board after facing widespread
criticism of his moves.[14]
In 2003, the Indian Censor Board banned the film 'Gulabi Aaina (The Pink Mirror)', a film on
Indian transsexuals produced and directed by Sridhar Rangayan. The censor board cited that the film
was 'vulgar and offensive'. The filmmaker appealed twice again unsuccessfully. The film still
remains banned in India, but has screened at numerous festivals all over the world and won awards.
The critics have appluaded it for its 'sensitive and touching portrayal of marginalized
community'. BBC, YIDFF, Queer India
In 2004, the documentary Final Solution, which looks at religious rioting
between Hindus and Muslims, was banned.[15][16] The film follows 2002 clashes in the western state
of Gujarat, which left more than 1,000 people dead. The censor board justified the ban, saying it was
"highly provocative and may trigger off unrest and communal violence". The ban was lifted in Oct.'04
after a sustained campaign.[17]
In 2006, seven states (Nagaland, Punjab, Goa, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh) have banned the release
or exhibition of the Hollywoodmovie The Da Vinci Code (and also the book),[18] although
India's Central Board of Film Certification cleared the film for adult viewing throughout
India.[19] However, the respective high courts lifted the ban and the movie was shown in the two
states.
The Central Board of Film Certification demanded five cuts from the 2011 American film The Girl
with the Dragon Tattoo because of some scenes containing nudity. The producers and the
director David Fincher finally decided not to release the film in India.[20]
[edit]Music
Heavy Metal band Slayer's 2006 album Christ Illusion was banned in India after Catholic churches in
the country took offense to the artwork of the album and a few song titles and launched a protest
against it. The album was taken off shelves and the remaining catalog was burnt by EMI Music
India.[citation needed]
[edit]Dramas
In 1999 Maharashtra government banned the Marathi play 'Me Nathuram Godse Boltoy" or 'I am
Nathuram Godse Speaking"[21] The ban however no more survives in view of a judgment rendered by
a bench of three judges of the Bombay High Court. The Notification issued by the Maharashtra
government was challenged before the Bombay High Court. The High Court Bench consisting of B.P.
Singh (Chief Justice), S. Radhakrishnan and Dr. D.Y. Chandrachud allowed the writ petition and
declared the notification to be ultra vires and illegal.
In 2004, Eve Ensler's "The Vagina Monologues" was banned in Chennai. The play however, has
played successfully in many other parts of the country since 2003. A Hindi version of the play has
been performing since 2007.
[edit]Maps
In 1961 it was criminalized in India to question the territorial integrity of frontiers of India in a
manner which is, or is likely to be, prejudicial to the interests of the safety or security of India.[22]
[edit]Books

 1989, The import[23] of Salman Rushdie's The Satanic Verses was banned in India for its
purported attacks on Islam.[24] India was the second country in the world (after Singapore) to ban
the book.
 1990, Understanding Islam through Hadis by Ram Swarup was banned[citation needed]. In 1990 the
Hindi translation of the book was banned, and in March 1991 the English original became banned
as well.
 A book on Shivaji by Queens University professor Jayant Lele was also banned.[citation needed] as this
book raised a question aboutShivaji's father.
 Shivaji: Hindu King in Islamic India by American scholar James Laine.
 Laine's translation of the Sivabharata, entitled The Epic of Shivaji, was also banned. The ban
followed an attack by SambhajiBrigade activists on the Bhandarkar Oriental Research
Institute in Pune. The subsequent governments have not revoked the ban.
 In Punjab the Bhavsagar Granth was banned by the state government,[25] following clashes
between mainstream Sikhs and the apostate Sikh sect that produced it. It was said[who?] that the
granth had copied a number of portions from the Guru Granth Sahib. In one of the photographs it
showed Baba Bhaniara, wearing a shining coat and headdress in a style similar to that made
familiar through the popular posters of Guru Gobind Singh, the tenth guru of the Sikhs. In another
Baba Bhaniara is shown riding a horse in the manner of Guru Gobind Singh[citation needed].
 The Polyester Prince - (ISBN 1-86448-468-3) a biography of the Indian businessman Dhirubhai
Ambani was banned.
[edit]Internet
Main article: Internet Censorship in India

The India country report that is included in Freedom House's Freedom on the Net 2011 report,
says:[26]

 India's overall Internet Freedom Status is "Partly Free", unchanged from 2009.
 India has a score of 36 on a scale from 0 (most free) to 100 (least free), which places India 14 out
of the 37 countries worldwide that were included in the 2011 report.
 India ranks second best out of the nine countries in Asia included in the 2011 report.
 There is no sustained government policy or strategy to block access to Internet content on a large
scale, but measures for removing certain content from the web, sometimes for fear they could
incite violence, have become more common.
 Pressure on private companies to remove information that is perceived to endanger public order
or national security has increased since late 2009
 Internet users have sporadically faced prosecution for online postings, and private companies
hosting the content are obliged by law to hand over user information to the authorities.
 Both bloggers and moderators can face libel suits and even criminal prosecution for comments
posted by other users on their websites.
India is classified as engaged in "selective" Internet filtering in the conflict/security and Internet tools
areas and as showing "no evidence" of filtering in the political and social areas by the OpenNet
Initiative in May 2007.[27] ONI states that:

As a stable democracy with strong protections for press freedom, India’s experiments with Internet
filtering have been brought into the fold of public discourse. The selective censorship of Web sites
and blogs since 2003, made even more disjointed by the non-uniform responses of Internet service
providers (ISPs), has inspired a clamor of opposition. Clearly government regulation and
implementation of filtering are still evolving. … Amidst widespread speculation in the media and
blogosphere about the state of filtering in India, the sites actually blocked indicate that while the
filtering system in place yields inconsistent results, it nevertheless continues to be aligned with and
driven by government efforts. Government attempts at filtering have not been entirely effective, as
blocked content has quickly migrated to other Web sites and users have found ways to circumvent
filtering. The government has also been criticized for a poor understanding of the technical feasibility
of censorship and for haphazardly choosing which Web sites to block. The amended IT Act, absolving
intermediaries from being responsible for third-party created content, could signal stronger
government monitoring in the future.[27]
A "Transparency Report" from Google indicates that the Government of India initiated 67 content
removal requests between July and December 2010.[28]

What is Film Appreciation

To be able to appreciate there needs to be an ‘understanding’ and that is what film appreciation is all
about for me. To help you understand the key dynamics of what film is made up of – technology, art,
industry. The next stage of the process hopefully would be to reflect on it and to appreciate it.

To look back at the history of cinema is important as there lies the story of the evolution of the
language of cinema. To really understand what contemporary cinema is made up of we need to look at
what went before because on the foundation of the past is based the present and the future.

The language of cinema is universal which crosses all boundaries. Cinema has been influenced by
various artists, countries, innovators, art forms, businesses and the coming together of these forces
creates something unique which is cinema as we know it today. Understanding these contributions
makes the study of cinema more interesting and valuable.

‘Film Appreciation’ is a humble attempt to make you aware of the potential of cinema and empower
the artist and audience aiming towards a more enriching experience.

Film theory

Film theory is an academic discipline that aims to explore the essence of the cinema and provides
conceptual frameworks for understanding film's relationship to reality, the other arts, individual
viewers, and society at large. Film theory is not to be confused with general film criticism, though
there can be some crossover between the two disciplines.
Advertising media selection

Advertising media selection is the process of choosing the most cost-effective media for advertising,
to achieve the required coverage and number of exposures in a target audience.
Performance

This is typically measured on two dimensions: frequency and spread.

[edit]Frequency
To maximize overall awareness, the advertising must reach the maximum number of the target
audience. There is a limit for the last few percent of the general population who don't see the main
media advertisers use. These are more expensive to reach. The 'cumulative' coverage cost typically
follows an exponential curve. Reaching 90 percent can cost double what it costs to reach 70 percent,
and reaching 95 percent can double the cost yet again. In practice, the coverage decision rests on a
balance between desired coverage and cost. A large budget achieves high coverage—a smaller budget
limits the ambitions of the advertiser.

1. Frequency—Even with high coverage, it is insufficient for a target audience member to have
just one 'Opportunity To See' (OTS) the advertisement. In traditional media, around five OTS
are believed required for a reasonable impact. To build attitudes that lead to brand switching
may require more. To achieve five OTS, even in only 70 percent of the overall audience, may
require 20 or 30 peak-time transmissions of a commercial, or a significant number of
insertions of press advertisements in the national media. As these figures suggest, most
consumers simply don't see the commercials that often (whereas the brand manager, say, sees
every one and has already seen them many times before their first transmission, and so is
justifiably bored).
The life of advertising campaigns can often extend beyond the relatively short life usually expected.
Indeed, as indicated above, some research shows that advertisements require significant exposure to
consumers before they even register. As David Ogilvy long ago recommended, "If you are lucky
enough to write a good advertisement, repeat it until it stops selling. Scores of good advertisements
have been discarded before they lost their potency."
[edit]Spread
More sophisticated media planners also look at the 'spread' of frequencies. Ideally all of the audience
should receive the average number of OTS. Those who receive fewer are insufficiently motivated, and
extra advertising is wasted on those who receive more. It is, of course, impossible to achieve this
ideal. As with coverage, the pattern is weighted towards a smaller number—of heavy viewers, for
example—who receive significantly more OTS, and away from the difficult last few percent.
However, a good media buyer manages the resulting spread of frequencies to weigh it close to the
average, with as few audience members as possible below the average.
Frequency is also complicated by the fact that this is a function of time. A pattern of 12 OTS across a
year may be scarcely noticed, whereas 12 OTS in a week is evident to most viewers. This is often the
rationale for advertising in `bursts' or `waves' (sometimes described as `pulsing'). This concentrates
expenditure into a number of intense periods of advertising, spread throughout the year, so brands do
not remain uncovered for long periods.
[edit]Media Buyers
In the end, it is the media buyers who deliver the goods; by negotiating special deals with the media
owners, and buying the best parcels of `slots' to achieve the best cost (normally measured in terms of
the cost per thousand viewers, or per thousand household `impressions', or per thousand impressions
on the target audience. The "best cost" can also be measured by the cost per lead, in the case of direct
response marketing). The growth of the very large, international, agencies has been partly justified by
their increased buying power over the media owners.
[edit]Types of Media and Their Characteristics

In terms of overall advertising expenditures, media advertising is still dominated by Press and
television, which are of comparable size (by value of 'sales'). Posters and radio follow some way
behind, with cinema representing a very specialist medium.
[edit]Press
In the United Kingdom, spending is dominated by the national & regional newspapers, the latter
taking almost all the classified advertising revenue. The magazines and trade or technical journal
markets are about the same size as each other, but are less than half that of the newspaper sectors.
[edit]Television
This is normally the most expensive medium, and as such is generally only open to the major
advertisers, although some regional contractors offer more affordable packages to their local
advertisers. It offers by far the widest coverage, particularly at peak hours (roughly 7.00–10.30 p.m.)
and especially of family audiences. Offering sight, sound, movement and colour, it has the greatest
impact, especially for those products or services where a 'demonstration' is essential; since it
combines the virtues of both the 'story-teller' and the `demonstrator'. To be effective, these messages
must be simple and able to overcome surrounding family life distractions& mdash;especially the TV
remote.
[edit]Radio
Radio advertising has increased greatly in recent years, with the granting of many more licenses. It
typically reaches specific audiences at different times of the day—adults at breakfast, housewives
during the day, and commuters during rush hours. It can be a cost-effective way of reaching these
audiences—especially since production costs are much cheaper than for television, though the lack of
visual elements may limit the message. In radio advertising it is important to identify the right timing
to reach specific radio listeners. For instance, many people only listen to the radio when they are stuck
in traffic, whereas other listeners may only listen in the evenings. The 24 hour availability of radio is
helpful to reach a variety of customer sub-segments. In addition, it is a well-established medium to
reach rural areas.
[edit]Cinema
Though national audience numbers are down, this may be the most effective medium for extending
coverage to younger age groups, since the core audience is 15 to 24.
[edit]Internet/Web Advertising
This rapidly growing marketing force borrows much from the example of press advertising, but the
most effective use—adopted bysearch engines—is interactive.
[edit]Mobile Advertising
Personal mobile phones have become an attractive advertising media to network operators, but are
relatively unproven and remain in media buyers' sidelines.
[edit]Audience Research

Identifying the audience for a magazine or newspaper, or determining who watches television at a
given time, is a specialized form of market research, often conducted on behalf of media owners.
Press figures are slightly complicated by the fact that there are two measures: readership (total
number of readers of a publication, no matter where they read it), and circulation (the number of
copies actually sold, which is mostly independently validated).
[edit]Advertising-free media

Advertising-free media refers to media outlets whose output is not funded or subsidized by the sale
of advertising space. It includes in its scope mass media entities such
as websites, television and radio networks, and magazines.
The public broadcasters of a number of countries air without commercials. Perhaps the best known
example of this is the United Kingdom's public broadcaster, the BBC, whose domestic networks do
not carry commercials. Instead, the BBC, in common with most other public broadcasters in Europe,
is funded by a television licence fee levied on the owners of all television sets.
A 2006 report by the Senate of Canada suggested that the country's public broadcaster, the Canadian
Broadcasting Corporation, be funded sufficiently by the federal government so that it could air
without any advertising.[1]
[edit]Advertising media scheduling

Scheduling refers to the pattern of advertising timing, represented as plots on a yearly flowchart.
These plots indicate the pattern of scheduled times advertising must appear to coincide with favorable
selling periods. The classic scheduling models are Continuity,Flighting and Pulsing.
[edit]Continuity
This model is primarily for non-seasonal products, yet sometimes for seasonal products. Advertising
runs steadily with little variation over the campaign period.
There may be short gaps at regular intervals and also long gaps—for instance, one ad every week for
52 weeks, and then a pause. This pattern of advertising is prevalent in service and packaged goods
that require continuous reinforcement on the audience for top of mindrecollection at point of
purchase.
Advantages:

 Works as a reminder
 Covers the entire purchase cycle
 Cost efficiencies in the form of large media discounts
 Positioning advantages within media
Program or plan that identifies the media channels used in an advertising campaign, and specifies
insertion or broadcast dates, positions, and duration of the messages.
[edit]Flighting (or "bursting")
In media scheduling for seasonal product categories, flighting involves intermittent and irregular
periods of advertising, alternating with shorter periods of no advertising at all. For instance, all of
2000 Target Rating Poinered in a single month, "going dark" for the rest of the year. Halloween
costumes are rarely purchased all year except during the months of September and October.
Advantages:

 Advertisers buy heavier weight than competitors for a relatively shorter period of time
 Little waste, since advertising concentrates on the best purchasing cycle period
 Series of commercials appear as a unified campaign on different media vehicles
[edit]Pulsing
Pulsing combines flighting and continuous scheduling by using a low advertising level all year round
and heavy advertising during peak selling periods. Product categories that are sold year round but
experience a surge in sales at intermittent periods are good candidates for pulsing. For instance,
under-arm deodorants, sell all year, but more in summer months.
Advantages:

 Covers different market situations

 Advantages of both continuity and flighting possible

In the 21st century we all are aware of the development of science and technology and of the progress
made by mankind. Science has always given us a lot and one of the gifts of science is mass-media
which includes television, radio etc.

Television is having a great impact on our minds and as a result we learn word to word utterances of
the persons acting before us.

This is true whether they are in serials or in advertisements.

Nowadays, we find that children pay more attention towards television than to study or games.

Today,advertisement has become a media for making a product popular in a short period of time and
this is the only reason for the impact of new products in the mind of children.

Today, when parents go to market with their children the latter ask for those products which have not
even reached the market.

This shows how eager they are in catching the words of the people who are advertising the product on
T.V.

Previously, whenever any movie was about to be released there was a news break in between but now
there are several breaks for the advertisement.
Today, if any advertisement is shown, then even before the actor or actress speaks, the child starts
pronouncing the lines of the advertisement much before the advertises.

Thus we can see that children know all the names of the performers, colour of their dresses and the
product they advertise.

Yesterday, while I was passing across the street, I heard a boy telling his friends that a new
advertisement was released and the person who was advertising it was Sachin Tendulkar.

I looked at that boy and found that he was not even seven years and I was surprised that his memory
was so sharp to remember the television programmes. but I doubt if it was the same in regard to his
studies.

I found this out not only in that boy but in all the young children of today. Besides, seven year old
children, even much younger children are attracted towards television.

For example, one of my teachers was saying that her brother's daughter is so keen for watching
television that if television is switched off, then she starts crying. You will be surprised to know that
she is only seven months old.

Today's, the children have developed too expensive tastes. They always ask their parents for new
products. However, I don't mean that advertisements should be totally banned, but their impact should
be minimized.

KAP KNOWLEDGE ATTITIUDE PRACTICE

Introduction

India was the first nation in the world to start a family planning programme at the national level, in
1951. Over the years, the crude birth rate of India has declined from 40.8 (1951) to 26.4 (1999 SRS),
infant mortality rate declined from 146 per 1000 live births (1951) to 72 per 1000 live births (1998
SRS). [1]

However, one criticism that has often been reiterated for the family welfare programme of India is
that it has not become a people's own programme. The family welfare programme focused purely on
demographic goals and concentrated on numerical, method-specific contraceptive targets till the
advent of the "target free approach". [2] Female sterilization accounted for three-quarters of the modern
methods of contraception used in India, only 3.4% of couples rely on vasectomy and 2.4% rely on
condoms. [3] This is because, while the terminal methods, particularly female sterilization have been
promoted consciously, participation of men lagged behind. This lack of involvement of men in family
planning has attracted attention since early eighties but has become a focus of attention during the last
decade, particularly after the International Conference on Population and development (ICPD), Cairo
(1994) and the World Conference on Women at Beijing (1995). [4],[5]

New perspectives on men have emerged from an evolution in thinking about reproductive health with
ICPD programme of action laying down a holistic concept of reproductive health. With the expansion
of the definition of reproductive health to include "…..right of men and women to be informed and to
have access to safe, effective, affordable and acceptable methods of family planning of their
choice…" following ICPD (1994), focus for most of the reproductive health component shifted has
from women to couples. [6] An important concept in family planning is addressing the male 'KAP-
Gap'.

'KAP-Gap' or 'Unmet-Need of family planning' is defined as the difference between fertility

preferences and current fertility behavior. [7] About 201 million women still have an unmet need for
effective contraception [8] Meeting the unmet need of family planning is one of the immediate
objectives of the National Population policy (2000) of India. [9] Researchers have questioned the
validity of the estimates of the unmet need derived from information collected only from
women. [10],[11] Any calculation of unmet need that fails to take into account the desires of male
partners may not be valid for estimating future levels of contraceptive adoption. Imputing male
intentions may allow a clearer understanding of why family planning programs have not been more
successful in developing countries. This study was designed to assess the unmet need of family
planning for husbands and wives and ascertain the level of agreement amongst them.

Materials and Methods

Study area and population : The study was conducted in Dayalpur Village, Ballabgarh block of
district Faridabad, Haryana, India. It is approximately 40 kilometres South-West of New Delhi.
Dayalpur is one of the 28 villages under the Comprehensive Rural Health Services Project (CRHSP)
Ballabgarh, the rural field practice area of Centre for Community Medicine (CCM), All India Institute
of Medical Sciences, New Delhi. It has a 60-bedded secondary level hospital and two Primary Health
Centre (PHC) at villages Dayalpur and Chhainsa. Community-based preventive and promotive
services are provided to the population under the two PHCs (total population approx. 80,000 in
2003).The total population of Dayalpur village was about 6400 in July, 2003 (Study year). The
reference population of the study consisted of couples residing in Dayalpur village. The study
population included married women aged 15-44 years living with their husbands. Married women
were used as the entry point. The study unit included a couple; analysis was based on couple
variables.

Study design and sample size : Study design was cross sectional. Due to a time constraint, and limited
resources, it was decided to limit the sample size to 200 couples.

Sampling technique : The eligible couple list of Dayalpur village was obtained from the Management
Information system of C.R.H.S.P Ballabgarh, and was used as sampling frame. A required number of
couples were selected using random number table generated using Fox Pro software. The list provided
names of the couples and their house number.

Data collection and statistical analysis : Data was collected using a pre-tested, semi-structured
interview schedule, modified from NFHS-2 questionnaire and was administered by the first author
himself. It had two parts. The first part covered socio-economic and demographic information of the
respondents. The second part contained information on family planning covering major parts of the
research objectives. Most of the questions were pre-coded. The instrument for husbands was similar
to that for the wives. It was translated to local language and back translated and pre-tested twenty
individuals (ten couples) in the non study area (village Chhainsa). The instrument was finalized after
necessary corrections.

The interview was conducted at the respondents' home. Both husband and wife were interviewed by
the same interviewer on the same day separately. Since most of the husbands were at work during
working hours, their interviews were conducted in evenings. None of the couples approached for
interview refused to give consent to participate. Data was entered in EPI-Info, 2002. Data analysis
was performed with Microsoft Excel (Windows Office 2000) and SPSS (Version 10 for windows).
Proportions, mean, standard deviation, median and range were used for descriptive statistics. Level of
agreement amongst spouses/partners was analyzed using Kappa statistics. As Kappa statistics may be
influenced by high prevalence of outcome under consideration, prevalence Adjusted Kappa was used
wherever appropriate. [12]

Results

Socio-demographic characteristics : Most of the husbands were aged between 25 to39 years whereas
wives were between 20 to 34 years. The mean age was observed to be higher for husbands (33.4
plus/minus 7.3 yrs) then wives (28.5 plus/minus 6.5 yrs). Compared to husbands, proportionally, more
wives were less than 25 years old (31% vs. 7%) while greater percentage of husbands were in age
groups above 35 years (42% vs. 21%). Illiteracy was reported more by wives (32.5%) as compared to
husbands (9%). Education higher than high school was reported by 71.5% of husbands and 41% of
wives. The mean duration of schooling for husbands was 10.1 years (SD- 4 years) compared to 6.5
years (SD-5.1 years) of wives. Majority of the study population belonged to lower-middle class
(56.5%), followed by middle class (35%), in lower class (4.5%), upper-middle class (3.5%) and upper
class (.5%).

Unmet need of family planning in husbands and wives : Only 11% of husbands reported having unmet
need of family planning as compared to 17.5% of wives, and the difference was highly significant
statistically ( P value<.001) [Table 1]. This overall difference was maintained if the data was analyzed
separately for spacing and limiting only. About 3.5% of husbands reported having unmet need for
spacing compared to six per cent of wives. Similarly, 7.5% of husbands compared to 11.5% of wives
reported unmet need for limiting. Of the 11 couples with pregnant/lactating, none of the husbands
reported that the pregnancy was unwanted or mistimed while five wives reported so [Table 1]. None
of the earlier studies have documented similar findings and the possible explanation could be
dominance of males in deciding pregnancy or males being less forthcoming then females on issue of
unwanted pregnancy.

Husband-wife agreement on unmet need for family planning : Concordance of 93.5% was observed
amongst husbands and wives regarding unmet need of family planning. In majority of the cases
(82.5%) both husbands and wives did not have unmet need of family planning. In 6.5% cases both
had unmet need. The unadjusted kappa statistic was 0.73 and prevalence adjusted kappa was 0.88. In
all cases where disagreement was seen (6.5%), wives reported having unmet need for contraception
whereas their husbands had none. There were no cases when husband reported unmet need and wife
did not. This finding indirectly reflects the possibility that it is husbands who have a predominant role
in deciding use of contraception and even though wives may not want more children, they cannot use
contraception without their husbands consent. Thus, estimates of unmet need of family planning,
based on wives perception and responses alone, (as is routine practise in various national DHS
surveys) may be over-estimates and there is a need for formulating policies keeping husbands
perspective in view.
 Discussion

Unmet need for family planning was higher for wives compared to husbands (11% vs
17.5%, P <.001) in study respondents. The difference was seen both in unmet need for spacing (H-
3.5% vs. W-6%) as well as for limiting family size (H-7.5% vs. W-11.5%). Overall concordance
93.5% and agreement (prevalence adjusted Kappa was 0.88) between husbands and wives for unmet
need, though very good, was significantly low compared to perfect agreement.

We have concurrently looked at the unmet needs of husbands and wives, unlike previous studies, thus
possibly capturing the difference in a more valid way. The fact that interviews were conducted by a
male researcher may affect the internal validity of study especially responses of wives. However,
every effort was made to offset this by establishing good rapport with respondents. The results of the
study can be generalised only to population of Dayalpur village or to the rural field practise area of
CRHSP. Any generalisation to a wider population should be done with caution at it may not share
similar socio-demographic profile as our study population.

The results of our study are similar to NFHS II data reporting 7.6% unmet need for family planning,
with unmet need for spacing being 2.9% and same for limiting family being 4.7%. [8] However, a
higher unmet need has been observed in present study which may be due to the higher literacy level of
respondents leading to higher awareness. Similar results were reported in a study from Agra, 29% of
husbands compared to 39% of wives reported having unmet need for family planning. [10] However,
unlike our study, the difference observed was predominantly seen due to difference in unmet need of
spacing.

None of the previous studies have looked at agreement between husbands and wives on the unmet
need for family planning. However, several authors have looked at agreement regarding current
contraception use and fertility desire, the two variables that combine to make unmet need for family
planning. The findings in these studies were similar to those observed in our study i.e. high degree of
agreement and females reporting greater unmet need of family planning. [12]

The fact that our study sample was restricted because of logistic constraints may have affected the
precision of our estimates of unmet need. But the difference between husband-wife's unmet need is
still valid as it is statistically significant even with the current sample size. The findings of this study,
though internally valid, cannot be generalised to larger population.

The findings of our study have highlighted the significant difference in husband-wife's unmet need of
family planning and re-enforce the fact that responses of wives alone may not suffice The policy
makers should take into account the desires of both to target the unmet need and other family planning
issues.

Conclusion

There is significant difference between husband and wife's unmet need for family planning. This
needs to be factored in family welfare planning and policy making as estimation from only wives
responses might not be reliable.
New Media

Definition

Although there are several ways that New Media may be described, Lev Manovich, in an introduction
to The New Media Reader, defines New Media by using eight simple and concise propositions:[4]

1. New Media versus Cyberculture – Cyberculture is the various social phenomena that are
associated with the Internet and network communications (blogs, online multi-player
gaming), whereas New Media is concerned more with cultural objects and paradigms (digital
to analog television, iPhones).
2. New Media as Computer Technology Used as a Distribution Platform – New Media are
the cultural objects which use digital computer technology for distribution and exhibition.
e.g. (at least for now) Internet, Web sites, computer multimedia, Blu-ray disks etc. The
problem with this is that the definition must be revised every few years. The term "new
media" will not be "new" anymore, as most forms of culture will be distributed through
computers.
3. New Media as Digital Data Controlled by Software – The language of New Media is based
on the assumption that, in fact, all cultural objects that rely on digital representation and
computer-based delivery do share a number of common qualities. New media is reduced to
digital data that can be manipulated by software as any other data. Now media operations can
create several versions of the same object. An example is an image stored as matrix data
which can be manipulated and altered according to the additional algorithms implemented,
such as color inversion, gray-scaling, sharpening, rasterizing, etc.
4. New Media as the Mix Between Existing Cultural Conventions and the Conventions of
Software – "New Media today can be understood as the mix between older cultural
conventions for data representation, access, and manipulation and newer conventions of data
representation, access, and manipulation. The "old" data are representations of visual reality
and human experience, and the "new" data is numerical data. The computer is kept out of the
key "creative" decisions, and is delegated to the position of a technician." e.g. In film,
software is used in some areas of production, in others are created using computer animation.
5. New Media as the Aesthetics that Accompanies the Early Stage of Every New Modern
Media and Communication Technology – "While ideological tropes indeed seem to be
reappearing rather regularly, many aesthetic strategies may reappear two or three times ... In
order for this approach to be truly useful it would be insufficient to simply name the
strategies and tropes and to record the moments of their appearance; instead, we would have
to develop a much more comprehensive analysis which would correlate the history of
technology with social, political, and economical histories or the modern period."
6. New Media as Faster Execution of Algorithms Previously Executed Manually or
through Other Technologies – Computers are a huge speed-up of what were previously
manual techniques. e.g. calculators. "Dramatically speeding up the execution makes possible
previously non-existent representational technique." This also makes possible of many new
forms of media art such as interactive multimedia and video games. "On one level, a modern
digital computer is just a faster calculator, we should not ignore its other identity: that of a
cybernetic control device."
7. New Media as the Encoding of Modernist Avant-Garde; New Media as Metamedia –
Manovich declares that the 1920s are more relevant to New Media than any other time
 period. Meta-media coincides with postmodernism in that they both rework old work rather
than create new work. New media avant-garde "is about new ways of accessing and
manipulating information" (e.g. hypermedia, databases, search engines, etc.). Meta-media is
an example of how quantity can change into quality as in new media technology and
manipulation techniques can "recode modernist aesthetics into a very different postmodern
aesthetics."
8. New Media as Parallel Articulation of Similar Ideas in Post-WWII Art and Modern
Computing – Post WWII Art or "combinatorics" involves creating images by systematically
changing a single parameter. This leads to the creation or remarkably similar images and
spatial structures. "This illustrates that algorithms, this essential part of new media, do not
depend on technology, but can be executed by humans."
[edit]Globalization and new media

The rise of new media has increased communication between people all over the world and the
Internet. It has allowed people to express themselves through blogs, websites, pictures, and other user-
generated media.
Flew (2002) stated that as a result of the evolution of new media technologies, globalization occurs.
Globalization is generally stated as "more than expansion of activities beyond the boundaries of
particular nation states".[5] Globalization shortens the distance between people all over the world by
the electronic communication (Carely 1992 in Flew 2002) and Cairncross (1998) expresses this great
development as the "death of distance". New media "radically break the connection between physical
place and social place, making physical location much less significant for our social relationships"
(Croteau and Hoynes 2003: 311).
However, the changes in the new media environment create a series of tensions in the concept of
"public sphere".[6] According to Ingrid Volkmer, "public sphere" is defined as a process through
which public communication becomes restructured and partly disembedded from national political
and cultural institutions. This trend of the globalized public sphere is not only as a geographical
expansion form a nation to worldwide, but also changes the relationship between the public, the media
and state (Volkmer, 1999:123).[7]
"Virtual communities" are being established online and transcend geographical boundaries,
eliminating social restrictions. Howard Rheingold (2000) describes these globalised societies as self-
defined networks, which resemble what we do in real life. "People in virtual communities use words
on screens to exchange pleasantries and argue, engage in intellectual discourse, conduct commerce,
make plans, brainstorm, gossip, feud, fall in love, create a little high art and a lot of idle talk"
(Rheingold cited in Slevin 2000: 91). ForSherry Turkle "making the computer into a second self,
finding a soul in the machine, can substitute for human relationships" (Holmes 2005: 184). New
media has the ability to connect like-minded others worldwide.
While this perspective suggests that the technology drives – and therefore is a determining factor – in
the process of globalization, arguments involving technological determinism are generally frowned
upon by mainstream media studies.[8][9][10] Instead academics focus on the multiplicity of processes by
which technology is funded, researched and produced, forming a feedback loop when the technologies
are used and often transformed by their users, which then feeds into the process of guiding their future
development.
While commentators such as Castells[11] espouse a "soft determinism"[12] whereby they contend that
"Technology does not determine society. Nor does society script the course of technological change,
since many factors, including individual inventiveness and entrpreneurialism, intervene in the process
of scientific discovery, technical innovation and social applications, so the final outcome depends on a
complex pattern of interaction. Indeed the dilemma of technological determinism is probably a false
problem, since technology is society and society cannot be understood without its technological
tools." (Castells 1996:5) This, however, is still distinct from stating that societal changes are
instigated by technological development, which recalls the theses of Marshall McLuhan.[13][14]
Manovich[15] and Castells[11] have argued that whereas mass media "corresponded to the logic of
industrial mass society, which values conformity over individuality," (Manovich 2001:41) new media
follows the logic of the postindustrial or globalized society whereby "every citizen can construct her
own custom lifestyle and select her ideology from a large number of choices. Rather than pushing the
same objects to a mass audience, marketing now tries to target each individual separately." (Manovich
2001:42).
[edit]As tool for social change

Social movement media has a rich and storied history (see Agitprop) that has changed at a rapid rate
since New Media became widely used (Chris Atton).[16] The Zapatista Army of National
Liberation of Chiapas, Mexico were the first major movement to make widely recognized and
effective use of New Media for communiques and organizing in 1994.[17] Since then, New Media has
been used extensively by social movements to educate, organize, share cultural products of
movements, communicate, coalition build, and more. The WTO Ministerial Conference of 1999
protest activity was another landmark in the use of New Media as a tool for social change. The WTO
protests used media to organize the original action, communicate with and educate participants, and
was used as an alternative media source.[18] The Indymedia movement also developed out of this
action, and has been a great tool in the democratization of information, which is another widely
discussed aspect of new media movement.[19] Some scholars even view this democratization as an
indication of the creation of a "radical, socio-technical paradigm to challenge the dominant, neoliberal
and technologically determinist model of information and communication technologies."[20] A less
radical view along these same lines is that people are taking advantage of the Internet to produce a
grassroots globalization, one that is anti-neoliberal and centered on people rather than the flow of
capital.[21] Of course, some are also skeptical of the role of New Media in Social Movements. Many
scholars point out unequal access to new media as a hindrance to broad-based movements, sometimes
even oppressing some within a movement.[22] Others are skeptical about how democratic or useful it
really is for social movements, even for those with access.[23] There are also many New Media
components that activists cite as tools for change that have not been widely discussed as such by
academics.
New Media has also found a use with less radical social movements such as the Free Hugs Campaign.
Using websites, blogs, and online videos to demonstrate the effectiveness of the movement itself.
Along with this example the use of high volume blogs has allowed numerous views and practices to
be more widespread and gain more public attention. Another example is the on-going Free Tibet
Campaign, which has been seen on numerous websites as well as having a slight tie-in with the
band Gorillaz in their Gorillaz Bitez clip featuring the lead singer 2D sitting with protesters at a Free
Tibet protest. Another social change seen coming from New Media is trends in fashion and the
emergence of subcultures such as Text Speak, Cyberpunk, and various others.
[edit]National security

New Media has also recently become of interest to the global espionage community as it is easily
accessible electronically in databaseformat and can therefore be quickly retrieved and reverse
engineered by national governments. Particularly of interest to the espionagecommunity
are Facebook and Twitter, two sites where individuals freely divulge personal information that can
then be sifted through and archived for the automatic creation of dossiers on both people of interest
and the average citizen.[24]
[edit]Interactivity and new media

Interactivity has become a term for a number of new media use options evolving from the rapid
dissemination of Internet access points, the digitalization of media, and media convergence. In 1984,
Rice defined new media as communication technologies that enable or facilitate user-to-user
interactivity and interactivity between user and information.[25] Such a definition replaces the "one-to-
many" model of traditional mass communication with the possibility of a "many-to-many" web of
communication. Any individual with the appropriate technology can now produce his or her online
media and include images, text, and sound about whatever he or she chooses.[26] Thus the convergence
of new methods of communication with new technologies shifts the model of mass communication,
and radically reshapes the ways we interact and communicate with one another. In "What is new
media?" Vin Crosbie[27] (2002) described three different kinds of communication media. He saw
Interpersonal media as "one to one", Mass media as "one to many", and finally New Media
as Individuation Media or "many to many".
When we think of interactivity and its meaning, we assume that it is only prominent in the
conversational dynamics of individuals who are face-to-face. This restriction of opinion does not
allow us to see its existence in mediated communication forums. Interactivity is present in some
programming work, such as video games. It's also viable in the operation of traditional media. In the
mid 1990s, filmmakers started using inexpensive digital cameras to create films. It was also the time
when moving image technology had developed, which was able to be viewed on computer desktops in
full motion. This development of new media technology was a new method for artists to share their
work and interact with the big world. Other settings of interactivity include radio and television talk
shows, letters to the editor, listener participation in such programs, and computer and technological
programming.[28] Interactive new media has become a true benefit to every one because people can
express their artwork in more than one way with the technology that we have today and there is no
longer a limit to what we can do with our creativity.
Interactivity can be considered a central concept in understanding new media, but different media
forms possess different degrees of interactivity,[29] and some forms of digitized and converged media
are not in fact interactive at all. Tony Feldman[30] considers digitalsatellite television as an example of
a new media technology that uses digital compression to dramatically increase the number of
television channels that can be delivered, and which changes the nature of what can be offered
through the service, but does not transform the experience of television from the user's point of view,
and thus lacks a more fully interactive dimension. It remains the case that interactivity is not an
inherent characteristic of all new media technologies, unlike digitization and convergence.
Terry Flew (2005) argues that "the global interactive games industry is large and growing, and is at
the forefront of many of the most significant innovations in new media" (Flew 2005: 101).
Interactivity is prominent in these online video games such as World of Warcraft, The Sims
Online and Second Life. These games, which are developments of "new media," allow for users to
establish relationships and experience a sense of belonging that transcends traditional temporal and
spatial boundaries (such as when gamers logging in from different parts of the world interact). These
games can be used as an escape or to act out a desired life. Will Wright, creator of The Sims, "is
fascinated by the way gamers have become so attached to his invention-with some even living their
lives through it".[31] New media have created virtual realities that are becoming virtual extensions of
the world we live in. With the creation ofSecond Life and Active Worlds before it, people have even
more control over this virtual world, a world where anything that a participant can think of can
become a reality.[32]
New Media changes continuously because it is constantly modified and redefined by the interaction
between users, emerging technologies, cultural changes, etc.
[edit]Industry

The new media industry shares an open association with many market segments in areas such
as software/video game design, television, radio, and particularly movies, advertising and marketing,
through which industry seeks to gain from the advantages of two-way dialogue with consumers
primarily through the Internet. The advertising industry has capitalized on the proliferation of new
media with large agencies running multi-million dollar interactive advertising subsidiaries. Interactive
websites and kiosks have become popular. In a number of cases advertising agencies have also set up
new divisions to study new media. Public relations firms are also taking advantage of the
opportunities in new media through interactive PR practices. Interactive PR practices include the use
of social media[33] to reach a mass audience of online social network users.
[edit]Youth and new media

Young people tethered to their cell phones to text and access social networking sites on the street, on
transportation, in school and at home are common scenes in the United States. Based on nationally
representative data, a Kaiser Family Foundation Study conducted in five-year intervals in 1998-1999,
2003–2004 and 2008-2009 found that with technology allowing nearly 24-hour media access, the
amount of time young people spend with entertainment media has risen dramatically, especially
among Black and Hispanic youth.[34]Today, 8-18 year-olds devote an average of 7 hours and 38
minutes (7:38) to using entertainment media in a typical day (more than 53 hours a week) – about the
same amount most adults spend at work per day. Since much of that time is spent 'media multitasking'
(using more than one medium at a time), they actually manage to spend a total of 10 hours and 45
minutes worth of media content in those 7½ hours per day. According to the Pew Internet &
American Life Project, 96% of 18-29 year olds and three-quarters (75%) of teens now own a cell
phone, 88% of whom text, with 73% of wired American teens using social networking websites, a
significant increase from previous years.[35]

Mobile media
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Mobility and portability of media, or as Paul Levinson calls it in his book Cellphone, “the media-in-
motion business”[1] has been a process in the works ever since the “first time someone thought to
write on a tablet that could be lifted and hauled – rather than on a cave wall, a cliff face, a monument
that usually was stuck in place, more or less forever”.[2] Today, mobile media devices such as mobile
phones and PDA’s are the primary source of portable media from which we can obtain information
and communicate with one another.

While mobile phone and PDA’s independent technologies and functions may be new and innovative
(in relation to changes and improvements in media capabilities in respect to their function what they
can do when and where and what they look like, in regard to their size and shape) the need and desire
to access and use media devices regardless of where we are in the world has been around for
centuries. Indeed Paul Levinson remarks in regard to telephonic communication that it was
“intelligence and inventiveness applied to our need to communicate regardless of where we may be,
led logically and eventually to telephones that we carry in our pockets”.[3]Levinson in his book goes
on to state that the book, transistor radio, Kodak camera are also bearers of portable information. And
that it is thanks to the printing press that information became available to a mass audience, the
reduction in size and portability of the camera allowed people to capture what they saw no matter
where they were and the internet meant that people could talk to anyone and use on demand
information.

Mobile phones, digital cameras, ipods, walkmans, laptops, PDA, Game Boys and so on consume
much of our daily lives. These devices and their corresponding media technologies and play an
increasingly important role in the everyday lives of millions of people world wide. Media can be
downloaded onto the device by podcasting or can be streamed over the web. Digital applications
include gaming, video, audio, downloadable ring tones and mobizines. A number of mobile operators
are also investigating the viability of Mobile TV.

MediaFLO a division of Qualcomm is already offering broadcast Mobile Media on UHF digital
channel 55 across the United States. AT&T and Verizon are offering this fee based service in their
handset packages.

Mobile media includes a number of portable media devices;

Device Digital Video Media Type Notes

"Within 3rd generation (3G) phones (the ones best Many mobile phones are now
Mobile enabled for media content currently) there are two being equipped with web
Phone competing standards of media format; 3GPP and the browsing so would be able to
confusingly named 3GPP2."[4] also view a Web film.

Uses MPEG-4 video but needs to be encoded and

MPEG-4 and AVC video
PlayStation placed in the correct directory to run. Also
formats are also compatible with
Portable runs Universal Media Disc (UMD) disks with
PlayStation Portable.[5]
feature films.

An example of such a film

Films made with the medium of the Internet and it's
Web Film would be the short film
constraints in mind[6]; AVI, streamed media, Flash
'Distance Over Time'[7]
CITIZEN JOURNLIST

The concept of citizen journalism (also known

as "public", "participatory","democratic",[1] "guerrilla"[2] or "street" journalism[3]) is based
upon public citizens "playing an active role in the process of collecting, reporting, analyzing, and
disseminating news and information."[4] Citizen journalism should not be confused with community
journalism or civic journalism, both of which are practiced by professional journalists.Collaborative
journalism is also a separate concept and is the practice of professional and non-professional
journalists working together. Citizen journalism is a specific form of bothcitizen media and user
generated content.
New media technology, such as social networking and media-sharing websites, in addition to the
increasing prevalence of cellular phones, have made citizen journalism more accessible to people
worldwide. Due to the availability of technology, citizens can often report breaking news more
quickly than traditional media reporters. Notable examples of citizen journalism reporting from major
world events are the Arab Spring and the Occupy Wall Street movement.
Critics of the phenomenon, including professional journalists, claim that citizen journalism is
unregulated, too subjective, amateurish, and haphazard in quality and coverage.
Theory

Mark Glaser, a freelance journalist who frequently writes on new media issues, said in 2006:[5]

The idea behind citizen journalism is that people without professional journalism training can use the
tools of modern technology and the global distribution of the Internet to create, augment or fact-check
media on their own or in collaboration with others. For example, you might write about a city council
meeting on your blog or in an online forum. Or you could fact-check a newspaper article from the
mainstream media and point out factual errors or bias on your blog. Or you might snap a digital photo
of a newsworthy event happening in your town and post it online. Or you might videotape a similar
event and post it on a site such as YouTube.
In What is Participatory Journalism?,[6] J. D. Lasica classifies media for citizen journalism into the
following types:

1. Audience participation (such as user comments attached to news stories, personal blogs,
photos or video footage captured from personal mobile cameras, or local news written by
residents of a community)
2. Independent news and information Websites (Consumer Reports, the Drudge Report)
3. Full-fledged participatory news sites
(NowPublic, OhmyNews, DigitalJournal.com, GroundReport
4. Collaborative and contributory media sites (Slashdot, Kuro5hin, Newsvine)
5. Other kinds of "thin media." (mailing lists, email newsletters)
6. Personal broadcasting sites (video broadcast sites such as KenRadio).
New media theorist Terry Flew states that there are three elements "critical to the rise of citizen
journalism and citizen media": open publishing, collaborative editing and distributed content
itizen journalists
According to Jay Rosen, citizen journalists are "the people formerly known as the audience," who
"were on the receiving end of a media system that ran one way, in a broadcasting pattern, with high
entry fees and a few firms competing to speak very loudly while the rest of the population listened in
isolation from one another— and who today are not in a situation like that at all. ... The people
formerly known as the audience are simply the public made realer, less fictional, more able, less
predictable."[22]
Abraham Zapruder, who filmed the assassination of President John Fitzgerald Kennedy with a home-
movie camera, is sometimes presented as an ancestor to citizen journalists.[23]
Public Journalism is now being explored via new media, such as the use of mobile phones. Mobile
phones have the potential to transform reporting and places the power of reporting in the hands of the
public. Mobile telephony provides low-cost options for people to set up news operations. One small
organization providing mobile news and exploring public journalism is Jasmine News in Sri
Lanka.[citation needed]
According to Mark Glaser, during 9/11 many eyewitness accounts of the terrorist attacks on the
World Trade Center came from citizen journalists. Images and stories from citizen journalists close to
the World Trade Center offered content that played a major role in the story.[citation needed]
In 2004, when the 9.1-magnitude underwater earthquake caused a huge tsunami in Banda Aceh
Indonesia, news footage from many people who experienced the tsunami was widely broadcast.[24]
The microblog Twitter played an important role during the 2009 Iranian election protests, after
foreign journalists had effectively been "barred from reporting". Twitter delayed scheduled
maintenance during the protests that would have shut down coverage in Iran due to the role it played
in public communication.[25]
Sometimes citizen journalists are at the same time bloggers and after some time they often
become professional journalists, just likePaweł Rogaliński, a prized Polish blogger and journalist.
[edit]Criticisms

[edit]Objectivity
Citizen journalists may also be activists within the communities they write about. This has drawn
some criticism from traditional media institutions such as The New York Times, which have accused
proponents of public journalism of abandoning the traditional goal of'objectivity'. Many traditional
journalists view citizen journalism with some skepticism, believing that only trained journalists can
understand the exactitude and ethics involved in reporting news. See, e.g., Nicholas Lemann, Vincent
Maher, and Tom Grubisich.
An academic paper by Vincent Maher, the head of the New Media Lab at Rhodes University, outlined
several weaknesses in the claims made by citizen journalists, in terms of the "three deadly E's",
referring to ethics, economics and epistemology. This paper has itself been criticized in the press and
blogosphere.[26]
[edit]Quality
An article in 2005 by Tom Grubisich reviewed ten new citizen journalism sites and found many of
them lacking in quality and content.[27] Grubisich followed up a year later with, "Potemkin Village
Redux."[28] He found that the best sites had improved editorially and were even nearing profitability,
but only by not expensing editorial costs. Also according to the article, the sites with the weakest
editorial content were able to aggressively expand because they had stronger financial resources.
Another article published on Pressthink examined Backfence, a citizen journalism site with initial
three locations in the DC area, which reveals that the site has only attracted limited citizen
contributions.[29] The author concludes that, "in fact, clicking through Backfence's pages feels like
frontier land -– remote, often lonely, zoned for people but not home to any. The site recently launched
for Arlington, Virginia. However, without more settlers, Backfence may wind up creating more ghost
towns."
David Simon, a former Baltimore Sun reporter and writer/producer of the popular TV series, "The
Wire," criticized the concept of citizen journalism—claiming that unpaid bloggers who write as a
hobby cannot replace trained, professional, seasoned journalists.
"I am offended to think that anyone, anywhere believes American institutions as insulated, self-
preserving and self-justifying as police departments, school systems, legislatures and chief executives
can be held to gathered facts by amateurs pursuing the task without compensation, training or for that
matter, sufficient standing to make public officials even care to whom it is they are lying to."

An editorial published by The Digital Journalist web magazine expressed a similar position,
advocating to abolish the term "citizen journalist", and replacing it with "citizen news gatherer".
"Professional journalists cover fires, floods, crime, the legislature and the White House every day.
There is either a fire line or police line, or security, or the Secret Service who allow them to pass upon
displaying credentials vetted by the departments or agencies concerned. A citizen journalist, an
amateur, will always be on the outside of those lines. Imagine the White House throwing open its
gates to admit everybody with a camera phone to a presidential event."[30]

While the fact that citizen journalists can report in real time and are not subject to oversight opens
them to criticism about the accuracy of their reporting, news stories presented by mainstream media
also occasionally misreport facts that are correctly reported by citizen journalists.
[edit]Legal repercussions
Edward Greenberg, a New York City litigator,[31] notes higher vulnerability of unprofessional
journalists in court compared to the professional ones:
"So-called shield laws, which protect reporters from revealing sources, vary from state to state. On
occasion, the protection is dependent on whether the person asserted the claim is in fact a journalist.
There are many cases at both the state and federal levels where judges determine just who is/is not a
journalist. Cases involving libel often hinge on whether the actor was or was not a member of the
"press"."[30]

The above does not mean that professional journalists are fully protected by shield laws. In the
1972 Branzburg v. Hayes case theSupreme Court of the United States invalidated the use of the First
Amendment as a defense for reporters summoned to testify before agrand jury. In 2005, the reporter's
privilege of Judith Miller and Matthew Cooper was rejected by the appellate court.
[edit]"Citizen journalism" versus "grassroots media"
Others criticize the formulation of the term "citizen journalism" to describe the concept, as the word
"citizen" has a conterminous relation to the nation-state. The fact that many millions of people are
considered stateless and often without citizenship (such as refugees or immigrants without papers)
limits the concept to those recognised only by governments. Additionally the global nature of many
participatory media initiatives, such as the Independent Media Center, makes talking of journalism in
relation to a particular nation-state largely redundant as its production and dissemination do not
recognise national boundaries. Some additional names given to the concept based on this analysis are
"grassroots media," "people's media," or "participatory media."
[edit]Relationship to local journalism

Some major news reporting agencies, threatened by the speed with which news is reported and
delivered by citizen journalism, have launched campaigns to bring in readers and financial support.
For example, Bill Johnson, president of Embarcadero Media, which publishes several Northern
California newspapers, issued an online statement asking readers to subscribe to local newspapers in
order to keep them financially solvent. Johnson put special emphasis on the critical role played by
local newspapers, which, he argues, "reflect the values of the residents and businesses, challenge
assumptions and shine a light on our imperfections and aspirations."[32]
[edit]Proponents of citizen journalism

Dan Gillmor, former technology columnist with the San Jose Mercury News, is one of the foremost
proponents of citizen journalism, and founded a nonprofit, the Center for Citizen Media,[33] to help
promote it. The Canadian Broadcasting Corporation's French-language television network has also
organized a weekly public affairs program called, "5 sur 5", which has been organizing and promoting
citizen-based journalism since 2001. On the program, viewers submit questions on a wide variety of
topics, and they, accompanied by staff journalists, get to interview experts to obtain answers to their
questions.[citation needed]
Jay Rosen, a journalism professor at New York University, was one of public journalism's earliest
proponents. From 1993 to 1997, he directed the Project on Public Life and the Press, funded by the
Knight Foundation and housed at NYU. He also currently runs the PressThink weblog.

Documentary film

Documentary films constitute a broad category of nonfictional motion pictures intended

todocument some aspect of reality, primarily for the purposes of instruction or maintaining a historical
record.[1] A 'documentary film' was originally shot on film stock — the only medium available — but
now includes video and digital productions that can be either direct-to-video, made as a television
program or released for screening in cinemas. "Documentary" has been described as a "filmmaking
practice, a cinematic tradition, and mode of audience reception" that is continually evolving and is
without clear boundaries.[2]
Defining 'documentary'

In popular myth, the word 'documentary' was coined by Scottish documentarian John Grierson in his
review of Robert Flaherty's filmMoana (1926), published in the New York Sun on 8 February 1926,
written by "The Moviegoer" (a pen name for Grierson).[3]
Grierson's principles of documentary were that cinema's potential for observing life could be
exploited in a new art form; that the "original" actor and "original" scene are better guides than their
fiction counterparts to interpreting the modern world; and that materials "thus taken from the raw" can
be more real than the acted article. In this regard, Grierson's definition of documentary as "creative
treatment of actuality"[4] has gained some acceptance, with this position at variance with Soviet film-
maker Dziga Vertov's provocation to present "life as it is" (that is, life filmed surreptitiously) and "life
caught unawares" (life provoked or surprised by the camera).
The American film critic Pare Lorentz defines a documentary film as "a factual film which is
dramatic."[5] Others further state that a documentary stands out from the other types of non-fiction
films for providing an opinion, and a specific message, along with the facts it presents.[6]
Documentary Practice is the complex process of creating documentary projects. It refers to what
people do with media devices, content, form, and production strategies in order to address the
creative, ethical, and conceptual problems and choices that arise as they make documentaries.
There are clear connections in terms of practice with magazine and newspaper feature-writing and
indeed to non-fiction literature. Many of the generic forms of documentary, for example the biopic or
profile; or the observational piece. These generic forms are explored on the University of Winchester
Journalism Department 'features web' where 'long form journalism' is classified by genre or content,
rather than in terms of production as film, radio or 'print'.[7]
[edit]History

[edit]Pre-1900
Early film (pre-1900) was dominated by the novelty of showing an event. They were single-shot
moments captured on film: a train entering a station, a boat docking, or factory workers leaving work.
These short films were called "actuality" films; the term "documentary" was not coined until 1926.
Many of the first films, such as those made by Auguste and Louis Lumière, were a minute or less in
length, due to technological limitations.
Films showing many people (for example, leaving a factory) were often made for commercial
reasons: the people being filmed were eager to see, for payment, the film showing them. One notable
film clocked in at over an hour and a half, The Corbett-Fitzsimmons Fight. Using pioneering film-
looping technology, Enoch J. Rector presented the entirety of a famous 1897 prize-fight on cinema
screens across the country.
The French surgeon Eugène-Louis Doyen started a series of surgical films sometime before July
1898. Until 1906, the year of his last film, Doyen recorded more than 60 operations. As Doyen said
that his first films taught him how to correct professional errors he had been unaware of. For scientific
purposes, after 1906 Doyen combined 15 of his films into three compilations, two of which survive,
the six-film series Extirpation des tumeurs encapsulées (1906), and the four-film Les Opérations sur
la cavité crânienne (1911). These and five other of Doyen's films survive.[8]
Between July 1898 and 1901 the Romanian professor Gheorghe Marinescu made several science
films in his neurology clinic in Bucharest:[9] The walking troubles of organic hemiplegy (1898), The
walking troubles of organic paraplegies (1899), A case of hysteric hemiplegy healed through
hypnosis (1899), The walking troubles of progressive locomotion ataxy (1900) and Illnesses of the
muscles (1901). All these short films have been preserved. The professor called his works "studies
with the help of the cinematograph," and published the results, along with several consecutive frames,
in issues of "La Semaine Médicale" magazine from Paris, between 1899 and 1902.[10] In 1924,
Auguste Lumiere recognized the merits of Marinescu's science films: "I've seen your scientific reports
about the usage of the cinematograph in studies of nervous illnesses, when I was still receiving "La
Semaine Médicale," but back then I had other concerns, which left me no spare time to begin
biological studies. I must say I forgot those works and I am thankful to you that you reminded them to
me. Unfortunately, not many scientists have followed your way."[11][12][13]
[edit]1900–1920
Travelogue films were very popular in the early part of the 20th century. They were often referred to
by distributors as "scenics." Scenics were among the most popular sort of films at the time.[14] An
important early film to move beyond the concept of the scenic was In the Land of the Head
Hunters (1914), which embraced primitivism and exoticism in a staged story presented as truthful re-
enactments of the life of Native Americans.
Contemplation is a separate area. Pathé is the best-known global manufacturer of such films of the
early 20th century. A vivid example is Moscow clad in snow (1909).
Early color motion picture processes such as Kinemacolor and Prizmacolor used travelogues to
promote the new color process. In contrast, Technicolor concentrated primarily on getting their
process adopted by Hollywood studios for fictional feature films.
Also during this period Frank Hurley's documentary film, South (1919), about the Imperial Trans-
Antarctic Expedition was released. It documented the failed Antarctic expedition led by Ernest
Shackleton in 1914.
[edit]1920s
[edit]Romanticism
With Robert J. Flaherty's Nanook of the North in 1922, documentary film embracedromanticism;
Flaherty filmed a number of heavily staged romantic films during this time period, often showing how
his subjects would have lived 100 years earlier and not how they lived right then. For instance,
in Nanook of the North Flaherty did not allow his subjects to shoot a walrus with a nearby shotgun,
but had them use a harpoon instead. Some of Flaherty's staging, such as building a roofless igloo for
interior shots, was done to accommodate the filming technology of the time.
Paramount Pictures tried to repeat the success of Flaherty's Nanook and Moana with two romanticized
documentaries, Grass (1925) and Chang (1927), both directed by Merian Cooper and Ernest
Schoedsack.
[edit]The city symphony
The continental, or realist, tradition focused on humans within human-made environments, and
included the so-called "city symphony" films such as Walter Ruttmann's Berlin, Symphony of a
City (of which Grierson noted in an article[15] that Berlin represented what a documentary
should not be), Alberto Cavalcanti's Rien que les heures, and Dziga Vertov'sMan with the Movie
Camera. These films tend to feature people as products of their environment, and lean towards the
avant-garde.
[edit]Kino-Pravda
Dziga Vertov was central to the Soviet Kino-Pravda (literally, "cinematic truth") newsreel series of
the 1920s. Vertov believed the camera — with its varied lenses, shot-counter shot editing, time-lapse,
ability to slow motion, stop motion and fast-motion — could render reality more accurately than the
human eye, and made a film philosophy out of it.
[edit]Newsreel tradition
The newsreel tradition is important in documentary film; newsreels were also sometimes staged but
were usually re-enactments of events that had already happened, not attempts to steer events as they
were in the process of happening. For instance, much of the battle footage from the early 20th century
was staged; the cameramen would usually arrive on site after a major battle and re-enact scenes to
film them.
[edit]1920s–1940s
The propagandist tradition consists of films made with the explicit purpose of persuading an audience
of a point. One of the most notorious propaganda films is Leni Riefenstahl's film Triumph of the
Will (1935), which chronicled the 1934 Nazi Party Congress and was commissioned by Adolf Hitler.
Leftist filmmakers Joris Ivens and Henri Storck directed Borinage (1931) about the Belgian coal
mining region. Luis Buñuel directed a "surrealist" documentary Las Hurdes (1933).
Pare Lorentz's The Plow That Broke the Plains (1936) and The River (1938) and Willard Van
Dyke's The City (1939) are notable New Deal productions, each presenting complex combinations of
social and ecological awareness, government propaganda, and leftist viewpoints. Frank Capra's Why
We Fight (1942–1944) series was a newsreel series in the United States, commissioned by the
government to convince the U.S. public that it was time to go to war. Constance Bennett and her
husband Henri de la Falaise produced two feature length documentaries, Legong: Dance of the
Virgins (1935) filmed in Bali, and Kilou the Killer Tiger (1936) filmed inIndochina.
In Canada the Film Board, set up by John Grierson, was created for the same propaganda reasons. It
also created newsreels that were seen by their national governments as legitimate counter-propaganda
to the psychological warfare of Nazi Germany (orchestrated byJoseph Goebbels). Today, the National
Film Board of Canada National Film Board of Canada boasts a vast collection of online videos that
are free to the public. The NFB has also taken the unprecedented step in making their videos easily
and legally embeddable on other websites. Here is an example, a documentary on the Singer Leonard
Cohen.
In Britain, a number of different filmmakers came together under John Grierson. They became known
as the Documentary Film Movement. Grierson, Alberto Cavalcanti, Harry Watt, Basil Wright,
and Humphrey Jennings amongst others succeeded in blending propaganda, information, and
education with a more poetic aesthetic approach to documentary. Examples of their work
include Drifters(John Grierson), Song of Ceylon (Basil Wright), Fires Were Started and A Diary for
Timothy (Humphrey Jennings). Their work involved poets such as W. H. Auden, composers such
as Benjamin Britten, and writers such as J. B. Priestley. Among the best known films of the
movement are Night Mail and Coal Face.
[edit]1950s–1970s
[edit]Cinéma-vérité
Cinéma vérité (or the closely related direct cinema) was dependent on some technical advances in
order to exist: light, quiet and reliable cameras, and portable sync sound.
Cinéma vérité and similar documentary traditions can thus be seen, in a broader perspective, as a
reaction against studio-based film production constraints. Shooting on location, with smaller crews,
would also happen in the French New Wave, the filmmakers taking advantage of advances in
technology allowing smaller, handheld cameras and synchronized sound to film events on location as
they unfolded.
Although the terms are sometimes used interchangeably, there are important differences between
cinéma vérité (Jean Rouch) and the North American "Direct Cinema" (or more accurately "Cinéma
direct"), pioneered by, among others, Canadians Allan King, Michel Brault and Pierre Perrault[citation
needed]
, and Americans Robert Drew, Richard Leacock, Frederick Wiseman and Albert and David
Maysles.
The directors of the movement take different viewpoints on their degree of involvement with their
subjects. Kopple and Pennebaker, for instance, choose non-involvement (or at least no overt
involvement), and Perrault, Rouch, Koenig, and Kroitor favor direct involvement or even provocation
when they deem it necessary.
The films Primary and Crisis: Behind a Presidential Commitment (both produced by Robert
Drew), Harlan County, USA (directed byBarbara Kopple), Dont Look Back (D. A.
Pennebaker), Lonely Boy (Wolf Koenig and Roman Kroitor) are all frequently deemed cinéma
vérité films.
The fundamentals of the style include following a person during a crisis with a moving, often
handheld, camera to capture more personal reactions. There are no sit-down interviews, and
the shooting ratio (the amount of film shot to the finished product) is very high, often reaching 80 to
one. From there, editors find and sculpt the work into a film. The editors of the movement — such
as Werner Nold, Charlotte Zwerin, Muffie Myers, Susan Froemke, and Ellen Hovde — are often
overlooked, but their input to the films was so vital that they were often given co-director credits.
Famous cinéma vérité/direct cinema films include Les Raquetteurs,[16] Showman, Salesman, Near
Death, The Children Were Watching, and Grey Gardens.
[edit]Political weapons
In the 1960s and 1970s, documentary film was often conceived as a political weapon
against neocolonialism and capitalism in general, especially in Latin America, but also in a
changing Quebec society. La Hora de los hornos (The Hour of the Furnaces, from 1968), directed
by Octavio Getino and Fernando E. Solanas, influenced a whole generation of filmmakers. Among the
many political documentaries produced in the early 1970s was "Chile: A Special Report," public
television's first in-depth expository look of the September 1973 overthrow of the Salvador
Allende government in Chile by military leaders under Augusto Pinochet, produced by
documentarians Ari Martinez and José Garcia.
[edit]Modern documentaries
Box office analysts have noted that this film genre has become increasingly successful in theatrical
release with films such asFahrenheit 9/11, Super Size Me, Food, Inc., Earth, March of the
Penguins, Religulous, and An Inconvenient Truth among the most prominent examples. Compared to
dramatic narrative films, documentaries typically have far lower budgets which makes them attractive
to film companies because even a limited theatrical release can be highly profitable.
The nature of documentary films has expanded in the past 20 years from the cinema verité style
introduced in the 1960s in which the use of portable camera and sound equipment allowed an intimate
relationship between filmmaker and subject. The line blurs between documentary and narrative and
some works are very personal, such as the late Marlon Riggs's Tongues Untied (1989) and Black
Is...Black Ain't (1995), which mix expressive, poetic, and rhetorical elements and stresses
subjectivities rather than historical materials.[17]
Historical documentaries, such as the landmark 14-hour Eyes on the Prize: America's Civil Rights
Years (1986 – Part 1 and 1989 – Part 2) by Henry Hampton, Four Little Girls (1997) by Spike Lee,
and The Civil War by Ken Burns, UNESCO awarded independent film on slavery 500 Years Later,
expressed not only a distinctive voice but also a perspective and point of views. Some films such
as The Thin Blue Line by Errol Morris incorporated stylized re-enactments, and Michael
Moore's Roger & Me placed far more interpretive control with the director. The commercial success
of these documentaries may derive from this narrative shift in the documentary form, leading some
critics to question whether such films can truly be called documentaries; critics sometimes refer to
these works as "mondo films" or "docu-ganda."[18] However, directorial manipulation of documentary
subjects has been noted since the work of Flaherty, and may be endemic to the form due to
problematic ontological foundations.
Although documentaries are financially more viable with the increasing popularity of the genre and
the advent of the DVD, funding for documentary film production remains elusive. Within the past
decade the largest exhibition opportunities have emerged from within the broadcast market, making
filmmakers beholden to the tastes and influences of the broadcasters who have become their largest
funding source.[19]
Modern documentaries have some overlap with television forms, with the development of "reality
television" that occasionally verges on the documentary but more often veers to the fictional or staged.
The making-of documentary shows how a movie or a computer gamewas produced. Usually made for
promotional purposes, it is closer to an advertisement than a classic documentary.
Modern lightweight digital video cameras and computer-based editing have greatly aided
documentary makers, as has the dramatic drop in equipment prices. The first film to take full
advantage of this change was Martin Kunert and Eric Manes' Voices of Iraq, where 150 DV cameras
were sent to Iraq during the war and passed out to Iraqis to record themselves.
[edit]Documentaries without words
Films in the documentary form without words have been made. From 1982, the Qatsi trilogy and the
similar Baraka could be described as visual tone poems, with music related to the images, but no
spoken content. Koyaanisqatsi (part of the Qatsi trilogy) consists primarily of slow motion and time-
lapse photography of cities and many natural landscapes across the United States. Baraka tries to
capture the great pulse of humanity as it flocks and swarms in daily activity and religious ceremonies.
Bodysong was made in 2003 and won a British Independent Film Award for "Best British
Documentary."
The 2004 film Genesis shows animal and plant life in states of expansion, decay, sex, and death, with
some, but little, narration.
[edit]Other documentary forms

[edit]Docufiction
Docufiction is a hybrid genre from two basic ones, fiction film and documentary, practiced since the
first documentary films were made.
[edit]Compilation films
Compilation films were pioneered in 1927 by Esfir Schub with The Fall of the Romanov Dynasty.
More recent examples include Point of Order (1964), directed by Emile de Antonio about the
McCarthy hearings and The Atomic Cafe which is made entirely out of found footage that various
agencies of the U.S. government made about the safety of nuclear radiation (for example, telling
troops at one point that it is safe to be irradiated as long as they keep their eyes and mouths shut).
Similarly, The Last Cigarette combines the testimony of various tobacco company executives before
the U.S. Congress with archival propaganda extolling the virtues of smoking.
[edit]Docuempathy films
Docuempathy films is a term created by the Indian documentary filmmaker and children's book
writer Simran Kaler. Docuempathy films are films in which the director is the subject of the film. For
example, if a director makes a film on labor issues and he has experienced them personally, then he
should be able to "empathize" with the problem or issue in the documentary. Simran Kaler has made
34 documentary films; some of his docuempathies are Five Rivers Still Thirsty, Saade Hise Di
Zindagi, In Search of Freedom, A Punjab within Punjab, On Rent, Early Hawkers, The Legend of
Malerkotla, Punjab vs. Pesticide, and Wrestling in Punjab.

6 Types of Documentary

1. Poetic documentaries, which first appeared in the 1920’s, were a sort of reaction against both the
content and the rapidly crystallizing grammar of the early fiction film. The poetic mode moved away
from continuity editing and instead organized images of the material world by means of associations
and patterns, both in terms of time and space. Well-rounded characters—’life-like people’—were
absent; instead, people appeared in these films as entities, just like any other, that are found in the
material world. The films were fragmentary, impressionistic, lyrical. Their disruption of the coherence
of time and space—a coherence favored by the fiction films of the day—can also be seen as an
element of the modernist counter-model of cinematic narrative. The ‘real world’—Nichols calls it the
“historical world”—was broken up into fragments and aesthetically reconstituted using film form.

Examples: Joris Ivens’ Rain (1928), whose subject is a passing summer shower over Amsterdam;
Laszlo Moholy-Nagy’s Play of Light: Black, White, Grey (1930), in which he films one of his own
kinetic sculptures, emphasizing not the sculpture itself but the play of light around it; Oskar
Fischinger’s abstract animated films; Francis Thompson’s N.Y., N.Y. (1957), a city symphony film;
Chris Marker’s Sans Soleil (1982).

2. Expository documentaries speak directly to the viewer, often in the form of an authoritative
commentary employing voiceover or titles, proposing a strong argument and point of view. These
films are rhetorical, and try to persuade the viewer. (They may use a rich and sonorous male voice.)
The (voice-of-God) commentary often sounds ‘objective’ and omniscient. Images are often not
paramount; they exist to advance the argument. The rhetoric insistently presses upon us to read the
images in a certain fashion. Historical documentaries in this mode deliver an unproblematic and
‘objective’ account and interpretation of past events.

Examples: TV shows and films like A&E Biography; America’s Most Wanted; many science and
nature documentaries; Ken Burns’ The Civil War (1990); Robert Hughes’ The Shock of the New
(1980); John Berger’s Ways Of Seeing (1974). Also, Frank Capra’s wartime Why We Fight series;
Pare Lorentz’s The Plow That Broke The Plains (1936).

3. Observational documentaries attempt to simply and spontaneously observe lived life with a
minimum of intervention. Filmmakers who worked in this sub-genre often saw the poetic mode as too
abstract and the expository mode as too didactic. The first observational docs date back to the 1960’s;
the technological developments which made them possible include mobile lighweight cameras and
portable sound recording equipment for synchronized sound. Often, this mode of film eschewed
voice-over commentary, post-synchronized dialogue and music, or re-enactments. The films aimed
for immediacy, intimacy, and revelation of individual human character in ordinary life situations.

Examples: Frederick Wiseman’s films, e.g. High School (1968); Gilles Groulx and Michel Brault’s
Les Racquetteurs (1958); Albert & David Maysles and Charlotte Zwerin’s Gimme Shelter (1970);
D.A. Pennebaker’s Don’t Look Back (1967), about Dylan’s tour of England; and parts (not all) of
Jean Rouch and Edgar Morin’s Chronicle Of A Summer (1960), which interviews several Parisians
about their lives. An ironic example of this mode is Leni Riefenstahl’s Triumph Of The Will (1934),
which ostensibly records the pageantry and ritual at the Nazi party’s 1934 Nuremberg rally, although
it is well-known that these events were often staged for the purpose of the camera and would not have
occurred without it. This would be anathema to most of the filmmakers associated with this mode,
like Wiseman, Pennebaker, Richard Leacock and Robert Drew, who believed that the filmmaker
should be a “fly-on-the-wall” who observes but tries to not influence or alter the events being filmed.

4. Participatory documentaries believe that it is impossible for the act of filmmaking to not influence
or alter the events being filmed. What these films do is emulate the approach of the anthropologist:
participant-observation. Not only is the filmmaker part of the film, we also get a sense of how
situations in the film are affected or altered by her presence. Nichols: “The filmmaker steps out from
behind the cloak of voice-over commentary, steps away from poetic meditation, steps down from a
fly-on-the-wall perch, and becomes a social actor (almost) like any other. (Almost like any other
because the filmmaker retains the camera, and with it, a certain degree of potential power and control
over events.)” The encounter between filmmaker and subject becomes a critical element of the film.
Rouch and Morin named the approach cinéma vérité, translating Dziga Vertov’s kinopravda into
French; the “truth” refers to the truth of the encounter rather than some absolute truth.

Examples: Vertov’s The Man with a Movie Camera (1929); Rouch and Morin’s Chronicle of a
Summer (1960); Ross McElwee’s Sherman’s March (1985); Nick Broomfield’s films. I suspect
Michael Moore’s films would also belong here, although they have a strong ‘expository’ bent as well.

5. Reflexive documentaries don’t see themselves as a transparent window on the world; instead they
draw attention to their own constructedness, and the fact that they are representations. How does the
world get represented by documentary films? This question is central to this sub-genre of films. They
prompt us to “question the authenticity of documentary in general.” It is the most self-conscious of all
the modes, and is highly skeptical of ‘realism.’ It may use Brechtian alienation strategies to jar us, in
order to ‘defamiliarize’ what we are seeing and how we are seeing it.

Examples: (Again) Vertov’s The Man with a Movie Camera (1929); Buñuel’s Land Without Bread;
Trinh T. Minh-ha’s Surname Viet Given Name Nam (1989); Jim McBride & L.M. Kit Carson’s
David Holzman’s Diary (1968); David & Judith MacDougall’s Wedding Camels (1980).

6. Performative documentaries stress subjective experience and emotional response to the world. They
are strongly personal, unconventional, perhaps poetic and/or experimental, and might include
hypothetical enactments of events designed to make us experience what it might be like for us to
possess a certain specific perspective on the world that is not our own, e.g. that of black, gay men in
Marlon Riggs’s Tongues Untied (1989) or Jenny Livingston’s Paris Is Burning (1991). This sub-genre
might also lend itself to certain groups (e.g. women, ethnic minorities, gays and lesbians, etc) to
‘speak about themselves.’ Often, a battery of techniques, many borrowed from fiction or avant-garde
films, are used. Performative docs often link up personal accounts or experiences with larger political
or historical realities.

Examples: Alain Resnais’ Night And Fog (1955), with a commentary by Holocaust survivior Jean
Cayrol, is not a historical account of the Holocaust but instead a subjective account of it; it’s a film
about memory. Also, Peter Forgacs’ Free Fall (1988) and Danube Exodus (1999); and Robert
Gardner’s Forest of Bliss (1985), a film about India that I’ve long heard about and look forward to
seeing.