Chapter 4:

Security Part II:

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Learning Objectives
• Understand the operational problems inherent in the
flat-file approach to data management that gave rise to
the database approach.
• Understand the relationships among the fundamental
component's of the database concept.
• Recognize the defining characteristics of three database
models: hierarchical, network, and relational.
• Understand the operational features and associated
risks of deploying centralized, partitioned, and
replicated database models in the DDP environment.
• Be familiar with the audit objectives and procedures
used to test data management controls.

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Flat-File Approach
• Associated with large, older legacy systems still in use
today.
• Promotes a single-user view approach where end users
own rather than share data files.
• Separate data sets for each user leads to data
redundancy which causes problems with:
• Data storage: Commonly used data duplicated multiple times
within the organization.
• Data updating: Changes must be made separately for each
user. If updating fails problem of currency of information
with users having outdated information.
• Task-data dependency: Users cannot obtain additional
information as needs change.

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Flat-File Model

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Database Approach
• Access to the data resource is controlled by a
database management system (DBMS).
• Centralizes organization’s data into a common
database shared by the user community.
• All users have access to data they need which may
overcome flat-file problems.
• Elimination of data storage problem: No data
redundancy.
• Elimination of data updating problem: Single update
procedure eliminates currency of information problem.
• Elimination of task-data dependency problem: Users
only constrained by legitimacy of access needs.
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Database Model

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Elements of the Database
Concept

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DBMS Features and Data
Definition Language
• Program Development – Applications may be
created by programmers and end users.
• Backup and Recovery - Copies made during
processing.
• Database Usage Reporting - Captures statistics on
database usage (who, when, etc.).
• Database Access - Authorizes access to sections of
the database.
• Data definition language used to define the
database to the DBMS on three levels (views).

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Database Views
• Internal view/ Physical view: Physical arrangement
of records in the database.
• Describes structures of data records, linkage between
files and physical arrangement and sequence of records
in a file. Only one internal view.
• Conceptual view/ Logical view (schema): Describes
the entire database logically and abstractly rather
than physically. Only one conceptual view.
• External view/ User view (subschema): Portion of
database each user views. May be many distinct
users.

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Data Manipulation Language
(DML)
• DML is the proprietary programming language that
a particular DBMS uses to retrieve, process, and
store data to / from the database.
• Entire user programs may be written in the DML, or
selected DML commands can be inserted into
universal programs, such as COBOL and FORTRAN.
• Can be used to ‘patch’ third party applications to
the DBMS

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Overview of DBMS Operation

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Informal Access: Query Language
• Query is an ad hoc access methodology for
extracting information from a database.
• Users can access data via direct query which requires no
formal application programs.
• IBM’s Structured Query Language (SQL) has
emerged as the standard query language.
• Query feature enhances ability to deal with
problems that pop-up but poses an important
control issue.
• Must ensure it is not used for unauthorized database
access.

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Functions of the Database
Administrator (DBA)

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Organizational Interaction of the
DBA

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The Physical Database
• Lowest level and only one in physical form.
• Magnetic sports on metallic coated disks that create a
logical collection of files and records.
• Data structures are bricks and mortar of database.
• Allows records to be located, stored, and retrieved.
• Two components: organization and access methods.
• The organization of a file refers to way records are
physically arranged on the storage device - either
sequential or random.
• Access methods are programs used to locate records
and to navigate through the database.

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Database Terminology
• Entity: Anything organization wants to capture data
about.
• Record Type: Physical database representation of
an entity.
• Occurrence: Related to the number of records of
represented by a particular record type.
• Attributes: Defines entities with values that vary
(i.e. each employee has a different name).
• Database: Set of record types that an organization
needs to support its business processes.

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Associations
• Record types that constitute a database exist in
relation to other record types. Three basic record
association:
• One-to-one: For every occurrence of Record Type X
there is one (or zero) of Record Type Y.
• One-to-many: For every occurrence of Record Type X,
there are zero, one or many occurrences of Record Type
Y.
• Many-to-many: For every occurrence of Record Types X
and Y, there are zero, one or many occurrences of
Record Types Y and X, respectively.

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Record Associations

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The Hierarchical Model
• Basis of earliest DBAs and still in use today.
• Sets that describe relationship between two linked
files.
• Each set contains a parent and a child.
• Files at the same level with the same parent are siblings.
• Tree structure with the highest level in the tree being
the root segment and the lowest file in a branch the leaf.
• Also called a navigational database.
• Usefulness of model is limited because no child
record can have more than one parent which leads
to data redundancy.
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Hierarchical Data Model

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The Network Model

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The Relational Model
• Difference between this and navigational models is
the way data associations are represented to the
user.
• Relational model portrays data in two-dimensional
tables with attributes across the top forming columns.
• Intersecting columns to form rows are tuples which are
normalized arrays of data similar to records in a flat-file
system.
• Relations are formed by an attribute common to
both tables in the relation.

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Data Integration in the Relational
Model

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Centralized Databases in a
Distributed Environment
• Data retained in a central location.
• Remote IT units send requests to central site which
processes requests and transmits data back to the
requesting IT units.
• Actual processing of performed at remote IT unit.
• Objective of database approach it to maintain data
currency with can be challenging.
• During processing, account balances pass through a state of
temporary inconsistency where values are incorrect.
• Database lockout procedures prevent multiple simultaneous
access to data preventing potential corruption.

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Distributed Databases:
Partitioned Databases
• Splits central database into segments distributed to
their primary users.
• Advantages:
• Users’ control increased by having data stored at local
sites.
• Improved transaction processing response time.
• Volume of transmitted data between IT units is reduced.
• Reduces potential data loss from a disaster.
• Works best for organizations that require minimal
data sharing among units.

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The Deadlock Phenomenon
• Occurs when multiple sites lock each other out of
the database, preventing each from processing its
transactions.
• Transactions in a “wait” state until locks removed.
• Can result in transactions being incompletely processed
and database being corrupted.
• Deadlock is a permanent condition that must be
resolved with special software that analyzes and
resolve conflicts.
• Usually involves terminating one or more transactions to
complete processing of the other in deadlock.
• Preempted transactions must be reinitiated.
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 The Deadlock Condition

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Distributed Databases:
Replicated Databases
• Effective for situations with a high degree of data
sharing, but no primary user.
• Common data replicated at each site, reducing data
traffic between sites.
• Primary justification to support read-only queries.
• Problem is maintaining current versions of
database at each site.
• Since each IT unit processes its own transactions,
common data replicated at each site affected by
different transactions and reflect different values.

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Concurrency Control
• Database concurrency is the presence of complete and
accurate data at all user sites.
• Designers need to employ methods to ensure
transactions processed at each site are accurately
reflected in the databases of all the other sites.
• Commonly used method is to serialize transactions
which involves labeling each transaction by two
criteria:
• Special software groups transactions into classes to identify
potential conflicts.
• Second part of control is to time-stamp each transaction.

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Database Distribution Methods
and the Accountant
• Many issues and trade-offs in distributing
databases.
• Basic questions to be addressed:
• Centralized or distributed data?
• If distributed, replicated or partitioned?
• If replicated, total or partial replication?
• If partitioned, what is the allocation of the data
segments among the sites?
• Choices impact organization’s ability to maintain
database integrity, preserve audit trails, and have
accurate records.

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Controlling and Auditing Data
Management Systems
• Controls over data management systems fall into
two categories.
• Access controls are designed to prevent
unauthorized individuals from viewing, retrieving,
corrupting or destroying data.
• Backup controls ensure tat the organization can
recover its database in the event of data loss.

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Access Controls
• User views (subschema) is a subset of the database that
defines user’s data domain and access.
• Database authorization table contains rules that limit
user actions.
• User-defined procedures allow users to create a
personal security program or routine .
• Data encryption procedures protect sensitive data.
• Biometric devices such as fingerprints or retina prints
control access to the database.
• Inference controls should prevent users from inferring,
through query options, specific data values they are
unauthorized to access.

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Subschema Restricting Access

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Audit Procedures for Testing
Database Access Controls
• Verify DBA personnel retain responsibility for
authority tables and designing user views.
• Select a sample of users and verify access privileges
are consistent with job description.
• Evaluate cost and benefits of biometric controls.
• Verify database query controls to prevent
unauthorized access via inference.
• Verify sensitive data are properly encrypted.

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Backup Controls in the Database
Environment
• Since data sharing is a fundamental objective of the
database approach, environment is vulnerable to
damage from individual users.
• Four needed backup and recovery features:
• Backup feature makes a periodic backup of entire database
which is stored in a secure, remote location.
• Transaction log provides an audit trail of all processed
transactions.
• Checkpoint facility suspends all processing while system
reconciles transaction log and database change log against
the database.
• Recovery module uses logs and backup files to restart the
system after a failure.

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Backup of Direct Access Files

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Audit Procedures for Testing
Database Access Controls
• Verify backups are performed routinely and
frequently.
• Backup policy should balance inconvenience of frequent
activity against business disruption caused by system
failure.
• Verify that automatic backup procedures are in
place and functioning and that copies of the
database are stored off-site.

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