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UNSTEADY FLOW IN PIPES

INTRODUCTION – PRESSURE TRANSIENTS

CAUSES OF TRANSIENTS

A sudden change of flow rate in a large pipeline (due to valve closure, pump turnoff, etc) may
involve a great mass of water moving within the pipe walls. The force resulting from changing the
speed of the water mass may cause a pressure rise in the pipe with a magnitude several times
greater than the normal static pressure in the pipe. This phenomenon is commonly known as water
hammer and is so called because of the noise and vibration with which it is sometimes accompanied
with. The excessive pressure may fracture the pipe walls or cause other damage to the pipeline
system.

TYPES OF TRANSIENT FLOW

Problems of unsteady flow may be put into one of three broad categories, according to the rate at
which the change occurs:

1. Quasi-steady flows, characterized by the absence of inertial or elastic effects on the flow
behaviour. In such a flow the variation of discharges and pressures with time is gradual, and
over short time intervals the flow appears to be steady. Examples are the drawdown of a
reservoir, the draining of a large tank, or the variation in demand in a water distribution system
over a 24-hour period.

2. Mass oscillation, in which flow changes rapidly enough for the forces producing temporal
acceleration to be important, but still so slow as to permit the compressibility of the fluid to be
ignored. The pressures generated within the affected system are often termed surge pressures.
Examples include reciprocating machinery and oscillatory fluid motion.

3. True transient flow, in which the effect of the fluid inertia and/or elasticity of the fluid and pipe
is an essential factor in the flow behaviour and must be considered. If inertial effects are
significant but pipe and fluid compressibility effects are relatively minor or negligible, the
transient is referred to as rigid-column transient. If, in addition, the elastic effects of the fluid
and pipe were retained in order to obtain an accurate characterization of the transient, the
transient is termed water hammer. The distinction between rigid column flow and water
hammer is not easily categorized and depends, in a general way, on how rapidly events change
in a system. For example, the oscillation of the water level in the surge chamber of a
hydroelectric facility can be analyzed accurately as a rigid-column flow. In this case inertial
effects must be considered, but elastic or compressibility effects clearly are minor. On the other
hand, the sudden closure of a valve in a pipeline is a water hammer situation; to simulate
accurately the resulting behaviour would require the inclusion of the elasticity of both the pipe
and the liquid in the analysis. When the valve is closed more slowly, however, uncertainty
arises. If the closure time is sufficiently long, then a rigid-column flow analysis may represent
the physics of the problem well and produce good results.

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TRUE PRESSURE TRANSIENT

Consider a long pipe from a reservoir to a consumer’s valve. If the valve is fully open the mean speed
in the pipe is v0, and the pressure falls along the pipe in accordance with the hydraulic friction
gradient.

Suppose now that the valve is shut instantaneously, thus completely stopping the fluid near it.
Farther away upstream, the fluid is still moving so that the near fluid is compressed, increasing its
pressure and density.

L
P1 v0 v = 0, P2,

Area

In the piece of pipe shown above, the fluid near the valve is stopped, its pressure being ∆P above the
pressure in the moving fluid, and the density is raised from ρ to ρ + ∆ρ. The force required to reduce
the entire fluid momentum in the pipe to zero in time t is given by:

Force = mass x acceleration

v
PA   AL
t

P2  P1 A   AL 0  v0 
t

Lv0
 P 
t

And the corresponding head is

L v
H   
g t

However, the majority of non-steady flow problems are too complex for normal algebraic methods
to yield a solution. The simplest procedure is to regard the water as incompressible, but this
assumption leads to appreciable error when flow adjustment is rapid. Elasticity of water and pipeline
must then be taken into account.

INCOMPRESSIBLE THEORY

The water column is assumed to behave as a rigid rod so that any change brought about at one end
of a pipeline is immediately felt at the other to the same extent.

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The figure below shows a uniform pipeline, length L and sectional area A, connected to a reservoir.
Discharge is controlled by a valve at the downstream end, the mass of water in motion being ρAL.
dv
During a period of flow adjustment the instantaneous velocity is v0 and the retardation, 
dt
dv
(negative because  is an acceleration).
dt

∆H

hf

Hs

According to Newton‘s second law, the pressure force developed at the valve is given by

Force = mass x acceleration

v
PA   AL
t

v
 P   L or
t

L v
H   
g t

Where ∆H is the additional head generated by altering the valve setting. The equation shows that
∆H increases with both the pipe length and the speed at which the valve closes. It diminishes linearly
towards the reservoir. ∆H is also referred to as the surge or inertia pressure.

Taking into account the pipe friction losses, the unsteady incompressible equation is given by

L dv L v02
  Hs  H   
g dt D 2g

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Provided that the retardation is known, this equation may be solved. In this equation Hs is the static
head obtained when there is no flow in the pipeline, and H is the instantaneous pressure head at the
valve during the period of flow adjustment.

Example

The outlet valve on a 25 m pipeline is closed in 2 seconds. If the initial velocity of flow was 8 m/s,
calculate the pressure rise on valve closure if the pipe is assumed to be rigid.

ESTABLISHMENT OF FLOW

Consider a pipe leading from a large reservoir. A valve at the downstream end controls the flow. If
the valve is opened suddenly, it takes a while for the flow to be fully established. The head, Hs is
available to accelerate the flow in the first instants.

Hs

Let v = velocity at any time t

v0 = final steady state velocity

λ = Darcy-Weisbach friction factor

ki = sum of minor loss coefficients for the pipe

Hs = static head at the outlet

v02  L v
2
v2 v2 L
 Total head loss, H s    ki  0  0  K 0 where K   ki
2g  D  2g 2g 2g D

2 gH s
Then v0 
1 K

If v = 0 at t = 0,

the time taken to attain a velocity v after sudden opening of the valve, is given by

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L v  v 
t ln  0
1  K v0  v0  v 
From the equation, it is seen that v approaches v0 asymptotically i.e. it takes infinite time for v to
attain the value v0. In practice, owing to the elastic and viscous properties, the time required for the
establishment of steady flow is finite. An approximation is given by the value of t when v = 0.99v0.
For friction-less pipe, K = 0.

Example

A 150 mm diameter, 1500 m long pipe leads from a large reservoir to an outlet which is 20 m below
the water level in the reservoir. If a valve at the pipe outlet is suddenly opened, estimate the time
required to reach (i) 50% and (ii) 95% of steady state discharge. Assume λ = 0.02 and minor losses as
v2
ki with ki = 5.0.
2g

ELASTIC THEORY

Because of the elastic properties of the fluid, the pressure and velocity changes produced by some
disturbance do not affect all points in a pipeline simultaneously. Instead a pressure wave is
propagated along the pipeline at an extremely rapid but finite rate. Until the wave reaches a
particular point the original steady flow conditions at that point are maintained.

Two cases are considered – a rigid pipeline and an elastic pipeline.

RIGID PIPELINE

Consider a pipeline discharging into the atmosphere through a valve. Under conditions of steady
flow the velocity is v0 and the pressure P. When a sudden closure of the valve is effected, a pressure
wave is propagated upstream along the pipeline at the speed of sound in the liquid. The speed of the
wave travel along the pipe is referred to as celerity and is denoted as C.

C
t= 1 sec
P
v0 v = 0, Valve
P+ΔP,

Area

Flow is arrested as the pressure wave passes and due to transformation of kinetic energy, the
pressure and density are increased to P+ΔP and ρ+Δρ respectively.

In one unit of time, the pressure wave travels a distance C upstream and brings to rest a volume of
liquid AC that initially had a mass of ρAC and velocity v0. The force required to reduce the velocity of
this body of water from v0 to 0 is obtained by applying the momentum equation in the direction of
motion i.e.

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 F  Qv 2  v1 

PA  P  P A  AC0  v0 

P  Cv0

Cv0
or H 
g

In terms of steady flow velocity, v0

P
v0 
C

Also in one unit of time a mass ρAv0 is compressed into a mass ΔρAC

 Av0  AC

C
 v0 


Equating the two expressions for v0, we get

P C

C 

P 
 C2  
 

P
But    Eb


Where Eb is the bulk modulus of elasticity of fluid.

Eb
 C


Example

If the initial velocity in a pipeline is 1.5 m/s, determine the rise in pressure when the valve is
suddenly closed. Neglect the elasticity of the pipe walls but take into account the compressibility of
the water in the pipe for which the bulk modulus is 2.2 GPa.

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ELASTIC PIPELINE (NON-RIGID PIPELINE)

Elasticity of the pipe material has the effect of reducing the celerity of the compression wave and
therefore the pressure rise. The speed of pressure wave travel in a pipe depends on the modulus of
elasticity of water, Eb and the modulus of elasticity of the pipe wall material, E.

The relationship may be expressed as

EC
C


Where EC is the composite modulus of elasticity of the water pipe system and ρ is the density of
water. EC is composed of the elasticity of the pipe wall and the elasticity of the fluid within. It may be
calculated by the following relationship:

1 1 Dk
 
EC Eb Et

Where D is the internal pipe diameter, t is the thickness of the pipe walls and k is a constant
depending upon the method of pipeline anchoring.

 
k  5   , for pipes free to move longitudinally
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 
k  1   2 , for pipes anchored at both ends against longitudinal movement

k  1 0.5  , for pipes with expansion joints

Where ϵ is the Poisson’s ratio of the pipe wall material. It may take on the value ϵ = 0.25 for common
pipe materials. If the longitudinal stress in a pipe can be neglected, k = 1.0 and the equation can be
simplified to:

1 1 D
 
EC Eb Et

Example

A cast iron pipe with 20 cm diameter and 15 mm wall thickness is carrying water when the outlet is
suddenly closed. If the design discharge is 40 L/s, calculate the pressure rise for:

(a) Rigid pipe wall

Take Eb = 1.6 x 109 N/m2 and E = 1.6 x 1011 N/m2

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TIME SERIES EVENTS FOLLOWING SUDDEN CLOSURE

Consider a pipe of length L leading from a reservoir and terminating in a valve at its downstream
end. When the valve is instantaneously closed a water hammer pressure of magnitude ΔP is
formed and moves up with a velocity C. The wave undergoes reflections at the reservoir end as
well as at the valve. The time taken for pressure waves to travel from one end of the pipe to the
other is

L
t 
C

For the case of a frictionless flow, the sequence of events is as follows:

1. At t = 0 the valve is closed. The water immediately next to the valve is compressed to an
excess pressure +ΔP and a pressure wave starts to propagate back along the pipe.

C
t=0

v0

For 0 < t < Δt the propagating wave moves into unaffected fluid (v = v 0 and P = 0). Behind the wave is
stationary, compressed fluid (v = 0, P = +ΔP).

0 < t < Δt C

v0 v=0
P= 0
ΔP=ρCv0

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2. At t = Δt the wave reaches the reservoir. All the fluid in the pipe is at rest; however, it is
compressed to a higher pressure than the reservoir, so begins to drive a flow v0 back toward
the reservoir. The water hammer wave is reflected.

t = Δt C

v=0
P= 0
ΔP=ρCv0

For Δt < t < 2 Δt the wave propagates back toward the valve gradually decompressing the pipe.

∆ t <t < 2Δt C

v0 v=0
P= 0
ΔP=ρCv0

3. At t = 2∆t the wave arrives back at the valve. The entire pipe is now decompressed;
however, the fluid in it is all moving backwards and cannot be brought to rest immediately.

C
t = 2∆t

v0

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For 2∆t<t<3∆t a negative pressure wave travels toward the reservoir, leaving behind lower pressure
fluid, P = -∆P.

2∆t < t < 3Δt C

v0 v=0
P= 0
ΔP=-ρCv0

4. At t = 3∆t the wave reaches the reservoir. All of the fluid in the pipe is now at rest; however
it is at lower pressure than the reservoir, so a forward moving flow (v = v 0) begins to rush in.
The wave is again reflected.

t = 3Δt C

v=0
P= 0
ΔP=-ρCv0

For 3∆t < t < 4∆t the pressure wave travels back towards the valve, restoring the initial conditions in
the pipe.

3∆ t <t < C
4Δt
v0 v=0
P= 0
ΔP=-ρCv0

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C
t = 4∆t

v0

At t = 4∆t conditions in the pipe have been restored to the initial conditions at the moment of valve
closure; all the fluid in the pipe is moving towards the valve with velocity v0 and the pressure is back
to the original value. The complete cycle of events is therefore repeated and, in the absence of
friction would be repeated indefinitely, each cycle occupying a period of time 4L/C.

In practice, energy is gradually dissipated by friction and imperfect elasticity, and so the waves
diminish in intensity and die away.

The sequence of pressures at the valve is as shown below. The diagram shows the water hammer
pressure ∆P as a function of time at various locations of the pipe. Pressures stay at ±∆P for the time
it takes a wave to travel along the pipe and back (2∆t).

C B A

L/2

(a) Graph of pressure against time for section A

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∆
P

2L/C

Initial pressure

2L/C

∆t

(b) Graph of pressure against time for section B

∆
P

L/2C L/C

Initial pressure

2L/C L/C

∆t

SURGE PROTECTION

In practice, water hammer is a highly undesirable phenomenon and it’s common to incorporate
devices to alleviate rapid and large fluctuations in pressure. Two such devices are surge tanks (often
fitted to hydropower schemes) and pump bypass valves (widely used to protect pumps).

SURGE TANKS

The figure below shows a typical hydroelectric scheme, where a surge tank is incorporated to
circumvent water hammer pressures. The water surface in a surge tank is exposed to atmospheric
pressure, while the bottom of the tank is open to the pipeline.

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+z
z=0
-z
Surge tank, area
A
As, diameter D

Penstock
L B
Control valve

C
D

Turbine
Tailrace

Assuming negligible losses in the surge tank,

1. Rigid column equation:

L dV L V2
  z   
g dt D 2g

If friction is neglected, then

dV gz

dt L

Where z = depth of level in surge tank below the delivery head

L = pipeline length between the tank and delivery end

2. Continuity equation: obtained from the difference between inflow and outflow at the surge
tank junction.
dz
As  VA  Q
dt

Where A and As are the cross-sectional areas of the pipe and surge tank respectively, Q is the volume
rate of flow continuing along the pipe BC to the turbines.

Under steady operation (Q = Qo) the left hand side of the rigid column and continuity equations is
zero, and the steady flow velocity and level of water in the surge tank are given by

Qo
Vo 
A

L Vo2
z o   
D 2g

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When there is total rejection of flow, Q = 0, therefore

dz
As  VA
dt

PROCEDURE FOR ANALYSIS

In general, the unsteady rigid column equation and the continuity equation are solved numerically as
a pair of coupled differential equations. The analysis requires the determination of the maximum
height of the surge and the time interval required for this maximum to be reached.

If the initial, steady conditions are known, the continuity equation may be used to obtain dz at
dt
the beginning of the surge, and hence the value of dz at the end of a small time interval dt . This
value of dz is substituted in the unsteady incompressible flow equation to obtain the velocity dV
during the time interval dt , and hence the value of V at the end of the interval. These results are
used as the starting point for similar calculations for a subsequent time interval, and the process is
repeated as many times as necessary until the maximum height in the surge tank (i.e. minimum
value of dz ) is obtained.

Example

A 100 m long penstock with a cross-sectional area, A1, of 1 m2 is protected against water hammer by
a surge tank at the turbine, with a cross-sectional area, A2, of 2 m2 and an unrestricted orifice. The
initial velocity in the conduit is 1 m/s and there is a sudden complete load rejection at the turbine.
Calculate the maximum rise in water level in the surge tank neglecting friction. Take dt  1sec .

OSCILLATION OF LIQUID IN A SURGE TANK

A useful estimate of oscillation period and, more importantly, maximum rise may be obtained,
however, by neglecting pipe friction. The equations then yield simple harmonic motion about the
level of water in the reservoir.

L dV
  z
g dt d 2z g A 
2
    z
dz
dt  L As 
As  VA  Q
dt

Where Q is any remaining flow to the turbine (often zero). Hence

d 2z g A
2
  2 z where  
dt L As

With boundary conditions

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dz Qo  Q
z 0  at t  0
dt As

This has solution

z  z max sin t

2
Where the period is T  and the maximum surge height is


Qo  Q
z max 
As 

Example

A pipe (L = 500m, diameter D = 1.5m) is used to deliver water from a reservoir to a turbine at a
volumetric flow rate of 2 m3/s. The turbine is protected by a cylindrical surge tank of inside diameter
5m. If friction losses can be neglected find the maximum surge in the surge tank and the period of
oscillation if:

(a) the entire flow to the turbine is shut off

PUMP BYPASS

If a pump were to trip out suddenly a large and damaging negative pressure would occur on the
downstream side, as it takes a finite time to arrest the flow of water away from the pump. To
prevent this, a length of pipe with a non-return valve is used to bypass the pump.

Flow
Pump

Non-return valve

Under normal operation the pressure is higher on the downstream side of the pump, keeping the
non-return valve closed. If the pump were to stop suddenly, the drop in pressure would open the
valve, sucking water through to prevent a void. The flow would then continue until eventually
stopped by friction and the downstream head.

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