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Bacterial profile of ocular infections: A systematic review

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DOI: 10.1186/s12886-017-0612-2

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Teweldemedhin et al. BMC Ophthalmology (2017) 17:212
DOI 10.1186/s12886-017-0612-2

RESEARCH ARTICLE Open Access

Bacterial profile of ocular infections: a

systematic review
Mebrahtu Teweldemedhin1*, Hailay Gebreyesus2, Ataklti Hailu Atsbaha3, Solomon Weldegebreal Asgedom4 and
Muthupandian Saravanan5

Abstract
Background: Bacteria are the major contributor of ocular infections worldwide. Ocular infections, if left untreated,
can damage the structures of the eye with possible blindness and visual impairments. This work was aimed to
review the bacterial profile of ocular infections.
Methods: Literature search was made in different electronic databases; the review was systematically made to get
concrete findings.
Results: As far as this review, Staphylococcus aureus, Coagulase negative Staphylococci, Streptococcus pneumoniae and
Pseudomonas aeruginosa are the leading isolates in ocular infections. Frequent pathogens of the respective clinical
diagnose include Staphylococci, Streptococcus pyogenes and Pseudomonas aeruginosa in blepharitis; Staphylococci,
Streptococus pneumoniae, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Klebsiella pneumoniae and Escherichia coli in Conjunctivitis; Staphylococci,
P. aeruginosa and E. coli in dacryocystitis; Coagulase negative Staphylococci, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Staphylococcus
aureus in keratitis; Streptococcus viridians, Streptococcus pneumoniae and Coagulase negative Staphylococci in
endophthalmitis diagnoses. Endogenous endophthalmitis is associated with Klebsiella pneumoniae whereas Coagulase
negative Staphylococci and Bacillus spp. are common causes of post-operative and post-traumatic endophthalmitis.
However, the predominant pathogens may not be exactly same in all areas of the world, in the United States for instance,
Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus pneumoniae and Haemophilus influenzae are the major causes of conjunctivitis.
Conclusion: Gram positive bacteria are the major contributor of bacterial ocular infections. The distribution and proportion
of bacterial isolates among clinical diagnoses varied but without exclusive anatomical restriction. To mitigate the burden of
bacterial ocular infections, physicians should regard on risk reduction and comply with etiologic approach of diagnosis.
Keywords: Ocular infection, Bacterial profile, Review

Background economic and social burdens [5]. During chronicity, the

Bacteria are the major contributor of ocular infections disease can affect not only the conjunctiva but also adjacent
worldwide. Infection can be mono or poly-microbial and is structures including the eye lid and can be a potential risk
associated with many factors including contact lenses, for other extra or intraocular infections. Bacteria contribute
trauma, surgery, age, dry eye state, chronic nasolacrimal duct for about 50–70% of infectious conjunctivitis [6]. Bacterial
obstruction and previous ocular infections [1–3]. Bacteria conjunctivitis is commonly seen in children and the elders
are generally associated with many types of ocular infections but can also be presented among neonates and adults [7, 8].
such as conjunctivitis, keratitis, endophthalmitis, blepharitis, Blepharitis which is an inflammation of the eyelid can
orbital cellulitis and dacryocystitis manifestations [4]. cause loss of eye lash [9]. The infection may not remain
Conjunctivitis, inflammation of the mucosa of conjunc- localized and is known to spread to other anatomical
tiva, is the most frequent ocular case with noticeable sites of the eye [10]. Keratitis, the most serious eye infec-
tion is the leading cause of corneal blindness. Moreover,
the disease can also progress to endophthalmitis if not
* Correspondence: [email protected]
1
Department of Medical Laboratory Sciences, College of Health Sciences,
diagnosed early [11–13].
Aksum University, Aksum, Tigray, Ethiopia
Full list of author information is available at the end of the article

© The Author(s). 2017 Open Access This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0
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the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. The Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication waiver
(http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/) applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated.
Teweldemedhin et al. BMC Ophthalmology (2017) 17:212 Page 2 of 9

Exogenous endophthalmitis is an infective complica- endophthalmitis, keratitis, dacryocystitis and orbital

tion of primary cataract, intraocular surgery and ocular cellulitis; most importantly with blepharitis, conjunctivitis
trauma due to the introduction of infectious pathogens and keratitis [10, 21]. Both S. aureus (Staphylococcus
like bacteria whereas the endogenous one is commonly aureus) and CoNS (Coagulase-negative Staphylococci)
due to systemic dissemination of the pathogens. Both took the highest proportion of the isolates [2, 22].
keratitis and endophthalmitis are potentially devastating Despite their normal existence, CoNS are the most fre-
ocular infections if not diagnosed early [14–16]. quent cause of ocular infections with increasing frequen-
Dacryocystitis is an inflammation of the nasolacrimal cies over time [23]. A 5 year retrospective study in Iran
duct. During chronicity the disease is associated with indicated that 40% of infections were due to CoNS [24].
infection, inflammation of the conjunctiva, accumulation A Similar study in India also found a prevalence of
of fluid and chronic tearing. This can be potentially 45.4% [25]. The problem is worse especially in pre-
dangerous to ocular tissues such as the cornea; leading operative and post-operative cases. In a study conducted
to post surgery endophthalmitis [17, 18]. in patients with cataract surgery, 88.8% of isolates from
Ocular infections, if left untreated, can damage the conjunctival swabs were CoNS [26]. Likewise, 65.9% and
structures of the eye leading to visual impairments and 21% of pre-operative cataract patients had CoNS and S.
blindness. Even though the eye is hard and protected by the aureus isolates respectively. Considering the specific spe-
continuous flow of tear which contains antibacterial cies, S. epidermidis and S. saprophyticus were the com-
compounds, inflammation and scarring once occurred may mon species of CoNS [27]; both species being dominant
not be easily resolved and requires immediate management in subjects with post-operative endophthalmitis as to the
[10]. Effective management of such infections demands study conducted over 20 years in China [28]. In general
knowledge of the specific etiology. However, ocular Staphylococcal infection is common in both post infec-
infections are mostly managed empirically and little is tion and post-operative endophthalmitis cases [29, 30].
known about the specific bacterial etiologies [19, 20]. Moreover, S. aureus and S. epidermidis are known to be
Therefore, the main goal of this work was to review the the common cause of early onset bleb-associated
bacterial profile of the different forms of ocular infections endophthalmitis [31].
in order to come up with concrete information for physi- S. aureus is also the threat of eye infection and has been
cians and policy makers who deals with ocular infections. showing significantly increasing trends over time [32].
Among patients with symptoms of conjunctivitis in
Methods Nigeria, it was the leading isolate [2]. Comparable findings
The literature search was made in Electronic data base such were also reported in Ethiopia; S. aureus was isolated from
as PubMed and Google scholars based on the key words of 47.6% of blepharitis, 26.6% of conjunctivitis, and 25% of
bacterial infection, bacterial profile, microbial spectrum, eye keratitis cases [21]. As in the other clinical cases, it is also
infections and ocular infections. Studies published until common to find both MSSA (Methicillin-sensitive
2016 and emphasizing on external and internal ocular Staphylococcus aureus) and MRSA (Methicillin-resistant
infections were subjected to systematic review and those Staphylococcus aureus) in ocular infections. Studies
that are close to the review objectives were included from indicated that 47.8% of patients with sight-threatening dis-
different parts of the world to get concrete findings (76 out orders, 24.5% of lid disorders as well as 10.6% of lacrimal
of 145); articles written and published in English language, disorders have been infected with MRSA. Hospital
emphasizing on any of the external-ocular infections acquired MRSA has been involved in Ocular infections in
(dacryocystitis, orbital cellulites, blepharitis, conjunctivitis association with health care exposure and ophthalmic
and keratitis) and internal-ocular (endophthalmitis) surgeries [33, 34]. Tsironi et al. from Greece reported
infections were included in the study. Articles written other community-acquired MRSA from a young Infant with
than English language, lacking full length forms and articles orbital cellulitis. Upon the microbiological analysis, the
published before 1999 were excluded from this review. isolate was found to be ST80 strain with Panton-valentine
leukocidin [35]. Even though the prevalence of S. aureus is
Result higher in conjunctivitis diagnoses, MRSA infection was
The distribution and types of bacteria in ocular infections found to be higher in endophthalmitis and keratititis
Gram positive bacteria diagnoses [32]. In Taiwan however, MRSA keratitis was
According to the studies conducted so far Gram positive 36.1% followed by conjunctivitis 20.1% and endophthalmitis
bacteria are associated with variety of ocular infections. 3.3% [33].
The most commonly reported isolates belong to the genus Despite their small proportion, members of the genus
Staphylococci regardless of the study area and population Streptococci including S. pneumoniae (Streptococcus
(see Table 1). Staphylococci are associated with any type of pneumoniae), S. Pyogenes (Streptococcus pyogenes),
eye infections including conjunctivitis, blepharitis, Enterococcus and S. viridians (Streptococcus viridians)
Teweldemedhin et al. BMC Ophthalmology (2017) 17:212 Page 3 of 9

Table 1 Overall proportion of common bacterial isolates in ocular infection

References, % of bacterial isolates
country
Gram positive Gram negative
S. aureus CoNS* S. pyogens S. pneumoniae P. aeruginosa E. coli K. pneumoniae Proteus spp H. influenzae Moraxella spp N. gonorrhoeae
[10], Nigeria 23.7 19.2 6.2 8.6 10.1 4.4 6.2 1.5 7.7 3 3.9
[22], India 13 37 21 3 7
[21], Ethiopia 28.1 10.1 13.5 20.9 5.4 8.8 4 2.7
[46], India 26.6 6.1 1.6 22.14 8.23 0.9 0.6 3.45 5.4 0.42
[53], Japan 21 31.4 3.2 9.7 2.4 1.6 2.4 0.8
[50], India 24.6 19.8 4.9 16 12.3 4.9 4.9
[57], Iran 12.9 32.9 8.6
[75], India 19.13 20.76 0.55 20.76 4.92 1.1 2.74 0.33 19.13 20.76
[65], Ethiopia 21 27.4 14.5 11.3 8.1 14.5
[76], India 32.8 39 14.1 3 4.7 6.2
[77], Ethiopia 21 18.2 4.2 14 4.9 4.9 6.3 3.4 4.2 2.8
[78], USA 19 25 8 8 10
[79], Malaysia 17 3.1 16 4 5.5 8.3
[80], USA 22.1 6.7 2.4 13.7 2.3
Average 20.1 19.5 4.3 6.7 12 5.9 7.7 1.5 5.3 3.2 2.3
Note: CoNS* = Coagulase Negative Staphylococci

have been involved in ocular infection and had worse Upper respiratory tract infections of Streptococcal and
outcomes than the Staphylococcal infection especially in Staphylococcal origin are sometimes associated with orbital
post-cataract endophthalmitis [4, 36]. cellulitis and other complications. For instance, orbital
Around 80% of Streptococcal post injection endophthal- cellulitis, endophthalmitis and acute pan-sinusitis was
mitis cases had final or worse visual outcomes. Moreover, reported as a complication of Streptococcal pharyngitis
Streptococcal infection is 3 times more prevalent in post due to S. pyogenes [44]. In addition, it is common to find
injection than post operation endophthalmitis suggesting S. pneuomoniae and S. aureus from specimens of sub peri-
the possibility of contamination by nasopharyngeal floras osteal abscess [44]. Because S. pneumoniae is a normal
during the process of injection [16]. inhabitant of the Nasopharynx especially in children,
Streptococcal infection is also common in bleb associated immunization may be needed to reduce the spread to
endophthalmitis especially in the early onset bleb-associated other sites including the eye. Clinical trials in a rabbit
endophthalmitis. One study from USA reported that 23% model assured that passive immunization can neutralize
and 65% of isolates from bleb-associated endophthalmitis pneumococcal virulence and remarkably minimize the
were S. pneumoniae and S. viridians respectively while other severity of endophthalmitis [45].
β-hemolytic Streptococci contributed for 12% of the infection Gram positive bacilli are also known to cause ocular
[37]. Like S. aureus and some gram negatives, S. pneumoniae infections. According to the study conducted in Nigeria,
and S. pyogenes also reported to causing hospital acquired Gram positive bacilli accounted for 22.6% of conjunctivitis
infections mainly conjunctivitis in neonates with intensive cases amongst Corynebacterium species were predominant
care unit [38]. Even though they are not as common as S. followed by Bacillus species [2]. Corynebacterium infection
pneumoniae, S. pyogenes, S. viridians and E. faecalis is higher in blepharitis and conjunctivitis diagnoses; 35.7%
(Enterococcus faecalis) were also reported in blepharitis, and 35.3% of Corynebacterium isolates respectively [46].
conjunctivitis and keratitis cases [10, 23, 39]. Not only this, Corynebacterium species have also been
S. pneumoniae, the most pathogenic and fastidious reported in both acute and chronic dacryocystitis [18]. As
Streptococcus is among the common isolates in patients with compared to the other clinical presentations, Bacillus spe-
conjunctivitis and dacrocystitis [40–42]. The bacterium is cies are more prevalent in conjunctivitis and post-traumatic
not limited only to these types of infections. Even though it endophthalmitis [46, 47]. In addition, both groups have
is not as common as CoNS, studies supported the occur- been involved in bacterial keratitis (Bacillus species
rence of the bacteria in eyelid and conjunctival samples of accounted for 5.3% of isolates but 0.3% of the isolates were
patients with pre-cataract surgery [27]. In a study conducted Corynebacterium diphtheria) [39]. Among Bacillus species,
in India, 12.3% of bacterial keratitis was mainly Streptococcal B. cereus (Bacillus cereus) is the major one (56.2%) followed
comprised of 11.6% S. pneumoniae and 0.6% S. viridians by B. thuringiensis (Bacillus thuringiensis) 26.3%, B. subtilis
[39]. Studies implicated that keratitis due to S. pneumoniae (Bacillus subtilis), B. mycoides (Bacillus mycoides) and B.
is more often associated with permanent loss of vision [43]. pumilis (Bacillus pumilis) 5.2% each; B .flexus (Bacillus
Teweldemedhin et al. BMC Ophthalmology (2017) 17:212 Page 4 of 9

flexus) 2.6% [48]. Less commonly, one study from India dacryocytitis diagnoses respectively. Similarly, 73.2% of
reported Clostridium species from endophthalmitis H. influenzae isolates were from conjunctivitis and
cases [49]. dacryocystitis diagnoses [46]. The distribution of H.
influenzae biotypes in ocular diagnoses is noticeably dif-
Gram negative bacteria ferent; biotype II in blepharitis, conjunctivitis, and kera-
Studies from different parts of the world indicated that titis; biotype III common in conjunctivitis, keratitis and
diverse group of Gram negative bacteria are isolated dacryocystitis; biotype VII only being detected in kera-
from ocular infections (see Table 1). Among Gram nega- titis diagnoses [54]. H. influenzae being the most fre-
tives, frequent isolates of conjunctivitis include P. aeru- quent isolate, small numbers of H. parainfluenzae and
ginosa (Pseudomonas aeruginosa), E. Coli (Escherichia H. aegypticus has also been detected in dacryocystits as
coli), Enterobacter spp. (Enterobacter cloacae and Entero- to the study from India [46].
bacter aerogenes), C. koseri (Citrobacter koseri), Proteus N. gonorrhoeae, the Gram negative diplococcic, is the
spp., Moraxella spp., and N. gonorrhoeae (Neisseria common cause of neonatal conjunctivitis though re-
gonorrhoeae) [2, 38, 50]. ported in keratitis cases too. Unlike other cases of con-
In patients presented with dacryocystitis, Pseudomonas junctivitis, involvement of this bacterium needs early
spp., Enterobacter, K. pneumoniae (Klebsiella pneumo- treatment with topical antibiotics. N. gonorhoeae infec-
niae) and H. influenza (Haemophilus influenza) were re- tion happens most commonly vertically. A prospective
ported as the main Gram negative isolates [40]. In study in Angola realized that vertical transmission rate
addition, another study in Egypt reported isolates of E. of N. gonorrhoeae was 50% whereas 10.5% for M. genita-
coli and A. lwoffii (Acinetobacter lwoifi) from chronic lium (Mycoplasma genitalium) [55]. As far as this review
dacryocystitis cases [18]. no study reported the occurrence of N. meningitis in
In keratitis diagnoses, P. auroginosa, E. coli, K. pneu- ocular infections except the one case detected in Nigeria
moniae, Acinetobactor, Serratia (S. marcescens and S. from a child with conjunctivitis and three cases from
liquefaciens), Aeromonas, Fusobacterium, Enterobactor India [10, 46].
spp., P. mirabilis (Proteus mirabilis), P. multocida (Pas- P. aeruginosa is the most frequent isolate of Gram nega-
teurella multocida), M. catarrhalis (Moraxella catarrha- tive ocular infections [22]. The percentage of the organism
lis) and H. influenza have been reported [23, 39, 43]. In varied among clinical diagnoses of ocular infections but the
addition, Propiolactone species have been reported in common cause of bacterial keratitis which is more progres-
small prevalence but higher in chronic post-operative sive with large infiltrate and scarring [43, 56]. A study from
endophthalmitis (41–63%). M. catarrhalis is also among India supported the significantly higher proportion of the
the common cause of delayed onset bleb-associated en- bacteria in dacryocystitis and keratitis manifestations [46].
dophthalmitis [23, 51]. Unexpectedly, polymicrobial in- As to the study conducted in Ethiopia, P. aeruginosa iso-
fection was seen in any type of endophthalmitis (post- lates were 50% of keratitis diagnoses followed by blepharitis
operative, post-traumatic as well as endogenous); isolates (23.8%), conjunctivitis (11.4%) and blepharoconjunctivitis
include Serratia spp., P. aeruginosa, K. pneumoniae, En- (16.7%) [21].The reported figure does note that much vary
terobacter, Acinetobacter, and Haemophilus spp. More- among older and recent works. In Iran for instance, the
over, new Gram positive agents (Pantoea spp. and organism constituted 24.2% of ocular infections [57]. Com-
Massilia spp.) have been reported [49]. parable finding even in studies conducted for extended
M. catarrhalis is an opportunistic pathogen which periods is indicative of the continuous Pseudomonas cor-
commonly affects immune compromised individuals and neal attacks [23]. A 4 years study by Patel et al. convinced
alcohol addicts. The organism preferentially affects the the predominance of P. aeruginosa in keratitis diagnoses
eye especially the cornea but rarely other organs. Despite (more than 40%) but 20% in other clinical diagnoses [58].
its sluggish microbiological activity it can damage the As to Ly et al. from Australia 21% of isolates from keratitis
cornea badly as similar to other virulent pathogens and cases were entirely P. aeruginosa [59]. Similarly, in a study
should be considered as one of the major ocular threats conducted in 2014–2015 in Baghdad P.aeruginosa was
[52]; it results in necrosis and perforation of the cornea detected in 20% of eye specimens collected from symptom-
due to the deepening keratitis and hyperacute inflamma- atic patients [60]. Furthermore, a published case report
tory reaction. In children, M. catarrhalis and H. influen- from Spain revealed that P. aeruginosa caused ocular
zae are common causes of Gram negative bacterial necrotizing fasciitis. The diagnosis was made in a 53 old
conjunctivitis. However, both species have also been iso- male patient who presented with eyelid edema and
lated from endophthalmitis and orbital cellulitis cases purulent secretion in both eyes. The prognosis report
[53]. According to the retrospective study conducted in indicated that the Infection did get worse and involved pre
India, M. catarrhalis (53.17%) and M. lacunata (63.83%) orbital skin regardless of the antibiotic and surgical
infection was significantly higher in blephratis and managements [61].
Teweldemedhin et al. BMC Ophthalmology (2017) 17:212 Page 5 of 9

Ocular infection by K. pneumoniae is most commonly cause eye infections. Gram positive bacteria are the
endogenous spread after liver abscess or biliary tract infec- leading cause of ocular bacterial infections elsewhere
tion. The organism accounts for up to 60% of bacterial [22, 23, 28, 65]. As compared to Gram positives, Gram
endophthalmitis [62]. Endogenous endophthalmitis due to negative bacteria are less prevalent but more diverse
this organism can rapidly cause complete loss of vision than Gram positive pathogens [53]. Specifically, S. aureus,
[63]. Moreover, studies supported the involvement of the CoNS, S. pneumoniae and P. aeruginosa are the leading
bacterium in any of the other clinical manifestations isolates in ocular infections. Frequent pathogens of the
(blepharitis, conjunctivitis, keratitis and dacryocystitis) (see respective clinical diagnose include Staphylococci, S.
Tables 2 and 3). Even though K. pneumoniae is the most pyogenes and P. aeruginosa in blepharitis; Staphylococi, S.
frequent one, K. oxytoca (Klebsiella oxytoxa) has also been pneumoniae, P. aeruginosa, K. pneumoniae and E. coli in
reported in 2% of bacterial keratitis [59]. Conjunctivitis; Staphylococci, P. aeruginosa and E. coli in
dacryocystitis; CoNS, P. aeruginosa and S. aureus in
Other less commonly encountered and newly reported keratitis; S. viridians, S. pneumoniae and CoNS in endoph-
organisms thalmitis diagnoses. However, there may be some differ-
Studies implicated that P. maltocida has been noticed in ences in the leading type of bacterial isolates in some parts
a case with purulent conjunctivitis in association with of the world. In the United States of America for instance,
animal contact with a domestic dog being the suspected acute conjunctivitis is the most common ocular infection in
animal which contaminated an old man after sneezing outpatient healthcare settings and the most common
[64]. Another newly identified organism is S. maltophilia bacterial causes are S. aureus, H. influenzae, S. pneumoniae
(Stenotrophomonas maltophilia), an aerobic gram negative and M. catarrhalis [7, 66]. S. aureus is the common cause
bacterium formerly identified as Pseudomonas maltophilia. of conjunctivitis in adults but S. pneumoniae and H.
According to the study conducted in China, this organism influenzae are the most frequent causes of bacterial
was detected in 36% of patients with post cataract surgery. conjunctivitis in Children [66].
Infection was accompanied with complications (retinal The distribution of each bacterial isolate among the
detachment and recurrence) and statistically associated different type of ocular infections might be determined
with age and posterior capsule rupture [63]. by variety of factors. For instance, ocular surface disease
Micrococcus, the Gram positive organism contributed to and contact lens use have been strongly associated with
4.3% of ocular infections in a study conducted in Iran [57]. bacterial keratitis; the inflammatory reaction and
Furthermore, a study which targeted endophthalmitis cases anatomical disruption might be a good opportunity for
has revealed new Gram positive agents including Lysineba- some normal floras such as members of the Staphylococci
cillus, Gemella and Exiguobacterium species [49]. to elicit infection. Moreover, infections might be
attributed to traumatic inoculation of the organisms along
Discussion with foreign bodies and delayed repair secondary to
The summary of literatures in this review indicated that trauma [67]. This has been evidenced in post-traumatic
both gram positive and Gram negative bacteria can infections of Staphylococci, Streptococci, B. cereus and

Table 2 Proportion of frequent bacterial isolates in keratitis diagnoses

References, % of bacterial isolates
country
Gram positive Gram negative
S. aureus CoNS* S. pneumoniae S. viridians Bacillus spp. P. aeruginosa E. coli K. pneuoniae Proteus spp. H. influenzae
[10], Nigeria 22.4 22.4 3 1.5 22.4 22.4 4.5
[23], UK 14.2 25.8 3 0.4 0.4 24.3 0.4 0.7
[27], Uganda 20.5 66.6 1.3
[39], India 19.5 20.2 11.6 0.6 5.2 9.7 0.99
[59],Australia 11 38 21
[81], Iran 3.85 6.2 24.7 6.6 0.55 24.7 0.55 0.55
[67], Mexico 7.1 28.1 14.3 14.3 14.3
[82], Israel 10 14 16 3
[83], France 5.2 32.7 2.3 6.8 0.7
[84],Thailand 2 11 2 55 2 2 2
[85], Brazil 5.9 4.4 2.4a 7.7 0.6 0.6
Note: *CoNS = Coagulase Negative Staphylococci; aStreptococus species
Teweldemedhin et al. BMC Ophthalmology (2017) 17:212 Page 6 of 9

Table 3 Comparative distribution of bacterial pathogens in clinical diagnoses other than keratitis
Type of Clinical diagnose
Blephritis Conjunctivitis Dacryocystitis Endophthalmitis
Reference [10] [21] [77] [2] [10] [27] [38] [74] [86] [69] [18] [40] [37] [49] [74]
% 0f bacterial isolates Gram positive S. aureus 45.5 32 27.1 20.3 21.7 8.2 52.5 5 26 50 19.4 12.5
CoNS* 22.7 35.6 22.6 18 65 30.1 83.1 45.4 52.2 29 10.5 18.8
S. pyogenes 13.6 3.6 5.7
S. pneumoniae 9 3.6 10.4 5 1.6 6.5 21 21 31.3
S. viridians 2.3 3.6 4.5 1.7 71 10.5
Enterococcus 2.25 1.7
Bacillus spp. 0.9 10.5
Gram negative P. aeruginosa 23.8 9.7 8.5 18 2.5 1.6 37.5 21
E. coli 3.6 6.5 0.45 23 0.9
K. pneumoniae 6.8 6.8 9.8 2.6 0.4 2.8 17.4 6.5 5.25 12.5
Serratia 4.8 28
Acinetobacter 5.25
Enterobacter 1.9 13 6.5
Proteus 3.6 2.25 1.9 5.14 1.6 6.2
H. influenzae 4.8 10.4 6.5 5.25
M. catarrhalis 9.5 4.5 4.5 0.4 12.5
N. gonorrhoeae 5.4
Note: Country of the references: 2 (Nigeria); 10 (Nigeria); 18 (Egypt); 21, 40&77 (Ethiopia); 27 (Uganda); 37 (USA); 38 (Portugal); 49 (India); 74 (Pakistan); 86 (India);
69 (Colombia); *CoNS = Coagulase Negative Staphylococci

many other gram negative organisms mentioned in this infection largely depends on the type of predisposing fac-
review [28, 68]. Bacteria such as P. aeruginosa are resistant tors. This study reviewed the bacterial profile of external-
to lens cleaning solutions where they adhere and spread ocular as well as intra-ocular infections; as a limitation
through the formation of lipid rafts in contact lens users Chylamydia trachomatis was not included in this review.
[12, 69, 70].
In Individuals with underlying disease such as diabetic
Conclusion
mellitus and rheumatoid arthritis, the diminished
Both Gram positive and Gram negative bacteria are threats
immunity may result in loss of control of systemic
of ophthalmic tissues. However, Gram positive bacteria are
infections with subsequent spread to ocular tissues
the major contributor of ocular infections. Bacterial ocular
especially in endophthalmitis [62, 71]. This has also been
infection involves but is not limited to blepharitis, conjunc-
evidenced in case of K. pneumoniae endophthalmitis
tivitis, keratitis, endophthalmitis, and orbital cellulitis. The
infections and M. catarrhalis keratitis infections [72, 73]
distribution and proportion of bacterial isolates varied
In addition, age might be a factor due to waning immunity
among the different clinical diagnoses but without exclusive
and susceptibility to bacterial ocular infections [13, 74].
anatomical restriction. To mitigate the burden of bacterial
Operative procedures, prophylactic measures and topical
ocular infections, physicians should regard on risk reduc-
use of corticosteroids are also good predisposing factors
tion and comply with etiologic approach of diagnosis.
for bacterial ocular infections associated with the immune
suppression and inability to kill some organisms like P.
Abbreviations
aeruginosa and S. epidermidis [12, 59]. Because many of CoNS: Coagulase negative Staphylococci; MRSA: Methicillin Resistant
the bacteria in this review are nosocomial pathogens, in- Staphylococcus aureus
fections might have also been explained by hospitalization
and intensive use of medical devices [69]. This has been Acknowledgements
supported by some other studies in that many organisms We would like to acknowledge Mekelle University College of health sciences
and Aksum University College of Health Sciences and Referral Hospital for
including MRSA, S. marscecence, P. aeruginosa and E. coli the internet access.
were associated with hospital acquired neonatal ocular
infections [34, 38]. In general, each bacterium can possibly Funding
affect the different ocular structures but the frequency of This review was not supported by any funding agent.
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MT: Medical Microbiologist and lecturer at Aksum university college of infectious keratitis in Central China. BMC Ophthalmol. 2014;14:43.
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AH: Medical Microbiologist, Tigray Health and Research Laboratory, Ethiopia. the art. Clin Ophthalmol. 2015;9:95–108.
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Competing interests 20. Harbarth S, Samore MH. Antimicrobial resistance determinants and future
The authors declare that they have no competing interests. control. Emerg Infect Dis. 2005;11(6):798–801.
21. Tesfaye, T, Beyene G, Gelaw Y, Bekele S and Saravanan M. Bacterial profile
and antimicrobial susceptibility pattern of external ocular infections in
Publisher’s Note Jimma University specialized hospital, Southwest Ethiopia. AJIGM. 2013; 1
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in (1):13-20.
published maps and institutional affiliations. 22. Summaiya M, Neeta K, Sangita R. Ocular infections: rational approach to
antibiotic therapy. Natl J Med Res. 2012;2(1):22–4.
Author details 23. Orlans HO, Hornby SJ, Bowler ICJW. In vitro antibiotic susceptibility
1 patterns of bacterial keratitis isolates in Oxford, UK: a 10-year review.
Department of Medical Laboratory Sciences, College of Health Sciences,
Aksum University, Aksum, Tigray, Ethiopia. 2Department of Public health, Eye. 2011;25:489–93.
College of Health Sciences, Aksum University, Aksum, Tigray, Ethiopia. 3Tigray 24. Baghani A, Sadeghian A, Bagheri M, Ghazvini K. The most common bacteria
Health and Research Laboratory, Mekell, Tigray, Ethiopia. 4Department of causing ocular infection in north-east of Iran between 2005-2011 and their
Clinical Pharmacy, School of Pharmacy, College of Health Sciences, Mekelle antibiotic resistance pattern. Int J Microbiol Res Rev. 2013;2(7):118–21.
University, Mekelle, Tigray, Ethiopia. 5Department of Medical Microbiology 25. Reddy GP, Alam MR, Gopinathan U, Sharma S, Krishnaiah S. Comparision of
and Immunology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, College of Health vitro susceptibilities of gram-positive cocci isolated from ocular infections
Sciences, Mekelle University, Mekelle, Tigray, Ethiopia. against the second and fourth generation quinolones at a tertiary eye care
centre in South India. Eye. 2010;24:170–4.
Received: 2 February 2017 Accepted: 16 November 2017 26. Ansari MR, Madani H, Ghaderi E. Conjunctival bacterial flora and antibiotic
resistance pattern in patients undergoing cataract surgery. Pak J Med Sci.
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