drilling fluid

rheology
rheology

section 5
rheology of drilling fluids

Section 5
contents

theory of rheology...............................................................................................................1

rheology background ...............................................................................................1

shear rate .......................................................................................................................2

shear stress ...................................................................................................................3

viscosity ..........................................................................................................................4

fluid models ..................................................................................................................5

measurement of shear stress - shear rate relationship ...............................10

“n” and “K” constants ...............................................................................................12

laminar and turbulent flow regimes .................................................................15

rheology – field application ..........................................................................................17

plastic viscosity (pv) ................................................................................................17

yield point (yp) ..........................................................................................................17

gel strength ...............................................................................................................19

funnel viscosity .........................................................................................................20

low shear rheology...................................................................................................20

shear rates in the drilling fluid circulating system.................................................22

cuttings transportation theory ....................................................................................23

cuttings transport ratio ..........................................................................................23

general transport ratio (gtr) .................................................................................24

annular cutting concentration and optimum rop .......................................24

01 rheology of drilling fluids
Section 5

theory of rheology
rheology background
Rheology is derived from the Greek words rheo, meaning flow and
logi, meaning science. It can be defined as the science of the deformation
and/or flow of solids, liquids and gases under applied stress. In essence,
the science deals with the stress-strain-time relationships of any matter.

The rheological characteristics of materials form a continuous spectrum

of behaviour ranging from that of the perfectly elastic solid at one
extreme to that of the purely viscous Newtonian fluid at the other.
Between these extremes lies the behaviour of fluids which possess
varying degrees of the character of both extreme materials, such materials
are termed visco-elastic.

Relatively little theoretical or experimental work was done in the field

of rheology until the early twentieth century. The science is in fact still
in it’s infancy in terms of the ability to provide accurate predictions of
the behaviour of real systems. This is particularly true with regard to
both the polymer and invert oil emulsion muds being used in drilling
operations today, which have far more complex behaviour than true
fluids.

Despite this it is still common practice to express flow characteristics in

terms of simple viscosity terms such as the constants used in the
Bingham Plastic and Power Law models. It is also recognized that
surface measurements do not truly represent the fluid behaviour under
downhole conditions at temperature and pressure, but extensive field
studies have resulted in a high degree of success in predicting a fluids
performance from this data.

Certain basic concepts of rheology require to be understood to make

optimum use of collected data. Of these concepts the relationship
between shear stress and shear rate is most important in predicting
drilling fluid behaviour.

Knowledge of the flow characteristics of circulating fluids is of advantage

in almost all phases of down hole operations. Some of the more
important applications relate to selection and design of fluids to obtain
optimum rates of circulation to transport and suspend drill cuttings,
increase drilling rates and reduce hole erosion.
rheology of drilling fluids 02

Section 5
In the drilling situation the application of rheological concepts for
drilling fluids are primarily directed towards:

a) Suspension.
b) Hydraulic calculations.
c) Hole cleaning and hole erosion.
d) Filtrate migration.
e) Solids Control.

Although these applications may be of equal importance, drilling

requirements vary with time and location so that one may take
precedence over another at a particular time.

In all applications, whether or not a fluid performs a specific function can

be attributed to the absence or presence of viscosity at the shear rate of
interest.

shear rate
In a moving fluid shear rate can be defined as the rate at which one
layer of fluid is moving by another layer divided by the distance between
the layers. It is the velocity gradient i.e. the ratio of velocity to distance
between layers.

Consider a fluid between two flat plates one centimetre apart. If the
bottom plate is fixed while the top plate slides parallel to it at a constant
velocity of 1 cm per sec, a velocity profile will be found within the fluid.
The fluid layer in contact with the bottom plate is static while the layer
in contact with the top plate is moving at 1 cm per sec. Halfway between
the plates the fluid velocity is the average 0.5 per sec.

If a moving layer of fluid has a velocity 1cm/sec relative to a static layer

at separation distance of 1cm then the shear rate between these layers
will be:
1 cm/sec
= 1 sec –1
1cm

The reciprocal second is the standard unit of shear.

In a drilling fluid circulating system the shear rate is determined by the

flow rate through a particular geometrical configuration. Since the relative
velocity between fluid layers is greatest adjacent to the pipe or hole wall
03 rheology of drilling fluids
Section 5

wall the shear rate is highest at this point. An average shear rate may be
used, but the shear itself is not constant everywhere in the flow.

shear stress
Shear Stress is defined as the force required to move a given area of
the fluid. In this case one Newton is required for each square meter of area.
The units of shear stress are Newtons per square metre, also known as
Pascals. Alternative units for shear stress are dynes per square centimetre
and pounds force per square inch. Shear stress is related to the force
required to sustain fluid flow. In a drilling fluid circulating system this is
analogous to the pump pressure.

This diagram shows the forces acting on a theoretical liquid. The liquid
is contained between the two 1 square metre plates which are separated
by one metre. The bottom plate is stationary and the top plate is moved
at a rate of 1 metre per second. The amount of force required to maintain
this movement is measured in Newtons.

In a drilling fluid circulating system the shear rate is determined by the

flow rate through a particular geometrical configuration. Since the relative
velocity between fluid layers is greatest adjacent to the pipe or hole
wall the shear rate is highest at this point. An average shear rate may be
used, but the shear itself is not constant everywhere in the flow.

If, in the parallel plate example used to describe shear rate, a force
of 1.0 dyne was applied to each square centimetre of the top plate to
keep it moving. Then the shear stress would be 1.0 dyne per cm2. The
rheology of drilling fluids 04

Section 5
same force in the opposite direction would be needed on the bottom
plate to keep it from moving. The same shear stress would be found
at any level in the fluid. Shear stress is constant only as long as the
flow system geometry is constant. It is more common to find the shear
stress varying from one part of a flow system to another.

The units of shear stress are the same as for pressure, but whereas
pressure defines the applied force per unit area, shear stress is the
internal resistance to an applied stress.

Shear stress can be expressed:

shear stress = F/A

Where F = force
A = area of surface subject to stress.

The standard unit of shear stress is dynes/cm2

Shear rate and shear stress are the two basic quantities involved in
the sliding (shearing) flow of a fluid. Then shear rate is related to the
velocity of motion and the shear stress to the forces being transmitted
both to the fluid and from one part of a fluid to another.

viscosity
Viscosity can be described as the resistance to flow and is defined as
the ratio of shear stress to shear rate
2
Viscosity= shear stress.dynes/cm = Poise
shear ratesec –1

Viscosity = shear stress dynes / cm2 =Poise

Shear rate sec–1

The units of Poise are too large for drilling fluid studies and viscosity is
reported in centipoises or millipascal.second (1cP = 1 mPa.s).

Since viscosity is dependent on both shear rate and shear stress, one
or the other must be specified when a viscosity measurement is stated.
Shear rate is the usual variable defined, either as an actual shear rate
in reciprocal seconds or as speed in rpm from a concentric cylinder
viscometer.
05 rheology of drilling fluids
Section 5

fluid models
Fluids can be separated into different classes according to the
relationships which exists in a fluid between shear rate and shear
stress. The most simple class of fluids are called Newtonian. Water and
light oils are examples of Newtonian fluids.

In these fluids the shear stress is directly proportional to the shear rate.
When the shear rate is doubled the shear stress is doubled i.e. when
the circulation rate is doubled the pressure required to pump the fluid
is doubled. Such fluids have a constant viscosity.

For most fluids, viscosity is not a constant, but varies with the shear
rate. Such non Newtonian fluids are called rate dependent. Almost all
drilling fluid viscosifiers provide rate dependent fluids.

To illustrate rate dependent effects a fluid is tested for shear stress or

viscosity at a number of shear rates. When these data are plotted on a
log-log scale a viscosity profile of the fluid is obtained. Examples of types
of flow are:
rheology of drilling fluids 06

Section 5
The shear rate / shear stress ratio of non Newtonian fluids is not
constant, which is true of most drilling fluids. The two most popular
mathematical models for describing non-Newtonian drilling fluids are
called the Bingham Plastic model and Power Law model.

Non Newtonian Fluid Behaviour

τ
SHEAR STRESS,

SHEAR RATE γ,
07 rheology of drilling fluids
Section 5

Some fluids have a critical yield stress which must be exceeded before flow
is initiated. If the fluid has essentially Newtonian flow after the yield stress
is exceeded it is termed a Bingham Plastic fluid. The major shortcoming of
the application of this model to drilling fluids is that it only describes fluid
flow over a short shear rate range of 511 - 1022 sec-1. Consequently the
Bingham model may not accurately describe fluid rheological characteristics
in all drilling situations.

Most drilling fluids are Pseudoplastic. In this case increased shear rate produces
a progressive decrease in viscosity. In polymer solutions this is due to the
alignment of the long polymer chains along the flow lines. If the application
of any shear stress above zero produces fluid flow, i.e. no critical yield stress,
the fluid is termed a Power Law fluid. This model more accurately describes
flow characteristics of drilling fluids over the shear rate ranges experienced in
the annulus of a well bore.

Polymeric drilling fluids can be shown to follow the Power Law model very
closely. Some other fluids show a profile which falls between Power Law and
Bingham Plastic.

Although the API has selected the Power Law model as the standard model,
the Power Law model, however, does not fully describe drilling fluids because
it does not have a yield stress and underestimates low shear rate viscosity.
The modified Power Law or Herschel-Bulkley model can be used to account for
the stress required to initiate fluid movement (yield stress).

The diagram shows the differences between the modified Power Law, the
Power Law and Bingham Plastic models. The modified Power Law falls
between the Bingham Plastic model, which is highest, and the Power Law,
which is lowest and consequently more closely resembles the flow profile of a
typical drilling mud.

However, the three parameters are difficult to derive from the rheometer
readings. In practice, it is assumed that the YP is equal to the 3 rpm reading.
Using this assumption, allows the calculation of the n and K values.
rheology of drilling fluids 08

Section 5
The general form of the equation is τ = YP + Kγn,

where
YP = θ3 (lb/100 ft2),
n = (3.32) log [(θ 600 – YP) ÷ (θ 300 – YP)],
K = θ 300 ÷ 511n.

Although the modified Power Law is a slightly more complicated

model than either the Bingham Plastic model or the Power Law, it can
approximate more closely the true rheological behaviour of most drilling
fluids.

Invert emulsion muds are suspensions of both solids and emulsions

and there is no accepted rheological model that can be applied to both
emulsions and suspensions, in addition these fluids show pronounced
pressure and temperature effects. A Casson Model is sometimes used
to describe invert fluids though some oil muds can be shown to follow
the Bingham Plastic model between shear rates of 127- 340 sec–1 (75-250
rpm). Below 127–1 the characteristics lie between Power Law and Bingham
Plastic.

The Newtonian, Bingham Plastic, and Power Law models are specific cases
of the Robertson-Stiff model. It is a three parameter model that includes
the 3 rpm rheometer dial reading and is written in its general form as:

τ = K(γ 0 + γ)n

To use common rheometer data for the analysis of a fluid conforming to

the Robertson-Stiff model, the general equation becomes
1 1
τ1 n N3 − N2
+
τ3 n N2 − N1
=1
τ2 N3 – N1 τ2 N3 – N1

Where:
N3, N2, and N1 are rpm speeds and N3 > N2 > N1,
09 rheology of drilling fluids
Section 5

τ3, τ2,and τ1 are rheometer sheer stress readings at N3, N2, and N1,
respectively.

This equation must be solved iteratively to find n. γ 0 and k can then be

calculated by solving the following equations.

where

b = the ratio of the rheometer sleeve radius to the bob radius.

The Robertson-Stiff equation will generally provide the best approximation

for pressure losses in the circulating system in most drilling situations. It
will not, however, emulate a fluid that follows the Casson equation.

If a fluid profile shows a critical yield stress and then flows like the
pseudoplastic model it is referred to as an Ellis fluid. This model has been
used to describe Xanthan Gum solutions. The yield stress is equivalent to
the elastic modulus of the solution.

Some rare fluids show Dilatant or reverse pseudoplastic behaviour.

These are characteristically suspensions having a high solids loading e.g.
high concentration gypsum suspensions. These fluids increase in viscosity
with increasing shear rate and can show a negative calculation of yield
point, the true figure is zero.
rheology of drilling fluids 10

Section 5
Besides shear rate dependent effects some fluids can also exhibit time
dependent effects. In these cases the viscosity changes with continued
shear at constant rate.

Time Dependent Effects

RHEOPECTIC
VISCOSITY

THIXOTROPIC

TIME

Fluids which are thixotropic in nature decrease in viscosity with time.

This type of fluid shows a memory effect or hysteresis when subjected
to varying rates of shear. There is a time lag in establishing an
equilibrium viscosity when the shear rate is changed, the fluid will
initially tend towards to the viscosity associated with the previous shear
rate.

Some highly concentrated suspensions can display herpetic flow. In this

case the viscosity of the fluid will increase with time at a constant shear
rate.

measurement of shear stress - shear rate relationship.

The most commonly used instrument for the rheology evaluation of a
drilling fluid is the concentric cylinder or cup and bob viscometer. This is
typically a Fann 35A six speed model.

In operation the rotor and bob is immersed in the fluid sample and the
rotor is turned at a constant speed. The fluid’s resistance to flow imparts
a torque on the bob which deflects the dial proportionally to the viscous
properties of the fluid.
11 rheology of drilling fluids
Section 5

The geometry of rotor and bob determines the shear rates obtainable with
this viscometer. The standard rotor – bob combination has a 0.117cm gap
and the conversion of rpm to shear rate in sec–1 is given by the formula

Shear rate (sec–1) = rpm x 1.703

The shear stress from this instrument is taken from the dial reading R.

Shear Stress (lb/100ft2) = R x 1.067

Shear Stress (dynes/cm2) = R x 5.1

The six speeds of the Fann 35A and the corresponding shear rates are:-

600 rpm - 1022.0 sec–1

300 rpm - 511.0 sec–1
200 rpm - 340.7 sec–1
100 rpm - 170.3 sec–1
6 rpm - 10.22 sec–1
3 rpm - 5.11 sec–1

In order to obtain accurate correlations, it is important that viscometer

readings are taken at the same temperature, normally 120˚ F.

Using the Bingham Plastic model for data interpretation, the following
values are reported.

PV = R600 reading – R300 reading

YP = R300 reading – PV
rheology of drilling fluids 12

Section 5
The Bingham values PV and YP give a poor definition of the flow
characteristics of the fluid over a wide shear range, but shear stress
values at all six speeds can be converted to viscosity values for the six
shear rates and plotted on a log/log viscograph. This gives a good
viscosity profile in a form readily correlated with the various shear
ranges experienced in the circulating system and solids control
equipment.

Measurement of initial gel strength is indicative of the elastic modulus

and hence suspension characteristics of the fluid and the relationship
of initial and 10 minute gel strength illustrates the degree of thixotropy
present.

The R6 value is directly relevant to annular viscosity of some hole

diameters and this value is increasingly being used as a control
parameter in ensuring good hole cleaning properties.

“n” and “K” constants

Although the Bingham Model constants, PV and YP are the most widely
used properties for evaluating drilling fluid rheology, it has to be
recognised that this model does not always accurately predict drilling
fluid performance. This applies in particular to annular rheological
calculations.
13 rheology of drilling fluids
Section 5

Shear Stress v Shear Rate

The Power Law Model more closely approximates to the actual drilling
fluid, in particular to low solids polymer based systems. This model can be
calculated over the annular region (normally less than 100 rpm or 150 sec–1
shear rate), it will more accurately predict a drilling fluids performance.

Power Law Model w = K γ N

Where  = shear stress dynes / cm2

K = Consistency index dynes secn/ cm2
γ = Shear rate sec–1

n = Power Law Index

The “n” constant indicates the degree of non-Newtonian character that a

fluid exhibits over a defined shear rate range. Newtonian Fluids have an “n”
value of equal to one. As “n” decreases from one the fluid becomes more
rheology of drilling fluids 14

Section 5
pseudoplastic or shear thinning with increase in shear rate. Lowering
the “n” value improves hole cleaning performance by increasing the
effective annular viscosity and flattening the annular velocity profile.
This reduces any turning effect on cuttings, helping to prevent particle
breakage and moves the solids more directly up the hole.

The “n” constant is dependant upon the type of viscosifier used. Every
material has an inherent “n” constant, but it may vary with concentration
and shear rate. Xanthan Gum provides the lowest “n” constant, the only
material providing a similar value being extended bentonite.

“K” the consistency index is the shear stress or viscosity of the fluid at a
shear rate of one sec–1 . It relates directly to the system viscosity at low
shear rates. An increase in “K” raises the effective annular viscosity and
therefore the hole cleaning capacity. It can also increase, however, the
bit viscosity and circulating pressure loss. The “K” constant is controlled
by both the type of viscosifier and the total solids content of the fluid.
It will increase with decrease in the “n” constant or by increase in
solids concentration. “K” can be reported as dynes / secn/cm2 or
llbs-sec/100ft2. An increase in “K” value should if possible be obtained via a
decrease in “n” value to avoid increasing the circulating system viscosity.

The “n” and “K” values can be calculated from any two viscometer dial
readings. For Hydraulic calculations determining “n” and “K” in the range
of interest (i.e. 5 -150 sec–1 for annular calculations) will provide more
accurate results.

" n"=
(
log R2 ÷ R 1 )
log rpm 2 ÷ rpm 1

5.11R2
" K"=
(1.7 rpm 2 )
n

where:

R1 = Dial reading at rpm1

R2 = Dial reading at rpm2
15 rheology of drilling fluids
Section 5

laminar and turbulent flow regimes

Single phase flow can be either laminar or turbulent. In a drilling situation
it is usually important to know which of these two flow regimes are present
in a hole interval.

In laminar flow, motion is parallel to the walls of the flow channel. The
particles of fluid move in straight lines or in long smooth curves. Flow
tends to be laminar when it is slow or the fluid is viscous. In laminar
flow the force required to move the fluid increases with increase in the
velocity and viscosity.

In turbulent flow the fluid is continually swirling and eddying as it moves

along the flow channel. There is an average movement of the fluid in a
particular direction but individual particles of the fluid move along in
random loops and circles. In turbulent flow these velocity fluctuations
arise spontaneously and are not caused by wall projections or changes in
direction. These factors can however increase the degree of turbulence.
Flow tends to be turbulent when the flow is rapid or when the fluid has
low viscosity. In turbulent flow, the force required to move the fluid
increases linearly with density and as the square of viscosity.

Transition Velocity - The flow of any particular fluid in any particular flow
channel can be either laminar or turbulent. At low velocities, the flow
will be laminar. If the velocity of a fluid in laminar flow is increased, the
flow at some point will suddenly become turbulent. If the velocity is
reduced again, the flow will return to it’s laminar character. Thus for any
particular system there will be a transition velocity where the flow shifts
between laminar and turbulent.

The transition between laminar and turbulent flow occurs because the
inertial forces vary as the square of the flow rate, while viscous forces vary
only as the flow rate. The ratio of inertial forces to viscous forces is the
Reynolds Number.
rheology of drilling fluids 16

Section 5
In general laminar flow is the desired regime, but exceptions occur
where turbulent flow is desired for specialized applications e.g.
turbulent sweeps to remove cutting beds and clean out enlarged hole
sections. Turbulent flow is often chosen by preference to drill horizontal
intervals. Turbulent flow however, does give larger annular pressure losses,
increased wellbore erosion and cause drill cutting attrition through the
tumbling effect in the annulus.

In a turbulent regime the fluid viscosity has no contribution to hole

cleaning, but the viscosity of a fluid determines whether a flow regime is
turbulent or laminar for a given velocity and hole diameter.
17 rheology of drilling fluids
Section 5

rheology – field application

plastic viscosity (pv)
Drilling muds are usually composed of a continuous fluid phase in which
solids are dispersed. Plastic viscosity is that part of the resistance to flow
caused by mechanical friction. The friction is caused by:

ƒ Solids concentration.
ƒ Size and shape of solids.
ƒ Viscosity of the fluid phase.

For practical field applications, plastic viscosity is regarded as a guide to

solids control. Plastic viscosity increases if the volume percent of solids
increases or if the volume percent remains constant, and the size of the
particle decreases. Decreasing particle size increases surface area, which
increases frictional drag. Plastic viscosity can be decreased by decreasing
solids concentration or by decreasing surface area. Plastic viscosity is
decreased by reducing the solids concentration by dilution or by mechanical
separation. As the viscosity of water decreases with temperature, the
plastic viscosity decreases proportionally. Therefore, controlling PV of
a mud in practical terms involves controlling size, concentration and
shape of the solids and minimising the viscosity of the liquid phase - such as
avoiding viscosifying polymers and salts unless absolutely needed.

The value of plastic viscosity is obtained by subtracting the 300 rpm

reading from the 600 rpm reading:

PV = 600 rpm reading – 300 rpm reading

PV of a mud is the theoretical minimum viscosity a mud can have

because it is the effective viscosity as shear rate approaches infinity.
The highest shear rate occurs as the mud passes through the bit
nozzles; therefore, PV will approximate the mud’s viscosity at the nozzles.

yield point (yp)

The yield point is the initial resistance to flow caused by electrochemical
forces between the particles. This electrochemical force is due to
charges on the surface of the particles dispersed in the fluid phase. Yield
point is a measure of these forces under flow conditions and is dependent
upon:
rheology of drilling fluids 18

Section 5
ƒ The surface properties of the mud solids
ƒ The volume concentration of the solids and
ƒ Ionic environment of the liquid surrounding the solids

High viscosity resulting from high yield point is caused by:

ƒ Introduction of soluble contaminant (ions) such as: salt, cement,

anhydrite or gypsum, which interact with the negative charges on
the clay particles.
ƒ Breaking of the clay particles through mechanical grinding action
creating new surface area of the particles. These new charged
surfaces (positive and negative) pull particles together as a floccs.
ƒ Introduction of inert solids (barite) into the system, increasing the
yield point. This is the result of the particles being forced closer
together. Because the distance between the particles is now
decreased, the attraction between particles is greatly increased.
ƒ Drilling hydratable shales or clays which introduces new, active
solids into the system, increasing attractive forces by bringing the
particles closer together and by increasing the total number of
charges.
ƒ Insufficient deflocculant treatment.

Yield point can be controlled by proper chemical treatment. As the

attractive forces are reduced by chemical treatment, the yield point will
decrease. The yield point can be lowered by the following methods:

ƒ Charges on the positive edges of particles can be neutralised

by adsorption of large negative ions on the edge of the clay
particles. These residual charges are satisfied by chemicals such as:
tannins, lignins, complex phosphates, lignosulphonate, etc.
The attractive forces that previously existed are satisfied by the
chemicals, and the negative charge of the clay particles
predominates, so that the solids now repel each other.
ƒ In the case of contamination from calcium or magnesium, the
ions causing the attractive force are removed as insoluble
precipitants, thus decreasing the attractive forces and YP of the
mud.
ƒ Water dilution can lower the yield point, but unless the solids
concentration is very high, it is relatively ineffective.
19 rheology of drilling fluids
Section 5

Yield point (YP) is calculated from VG measurements as follows:

YP = 300 rpm reading – (600 rpm reading - 300 rpm reading)

YP = 300 rpm reading – PV

The limitation of the Bingham plastic model is that most drilling fluids,
being pseudoplastic, exhibit an actual yield stress which is considerably
less than calculated Bingham yield point. This error exists because the
Bingham plastic parameters are calculated using a VG meter at 600 rpm
(1022 sec-1) and 300 rpm (511 sec-1); whereas, typical annular shear rates are
much less (Table 1).

gel strength
Gel strengths, 10-second and 10-minute, measured on the VG meter,
indicate strength of attractive forces (gelation) in a drilling fluid under
static conditions. Excessive gelation is caused by high solids concentration
leading to flocculation.

Types of Gel Strengths

rheology of drilling fluids 20

Section 3a Section 5
Signs of rheological trouble in a mud system often are reflected by a
mud’s gel strength development with time. When there is a wide range
between the initial and 10-minute gel readings they are called “progressive
gels”. This is not a desirable situation. If initial and 10-minute gels are
both high, with no appreciable difference in the two, these are “high-flat
gels”, also undesirable. The magnitude of gelation with time is a key factor
in the performance of the drilling fluid. Gelation should not be allowed to
become much higher than is necessary to perform the function of suspension
of cuttings and weight material. For suspension “low-flat gels” are desired.

Excessive gel strengths can cause:

ƒ Swabbing, when pipe is pulled.

ƒ Surging, when pipe is lowered.
ƒ Difficulty in getting logging tools to bottom.
ƒ Retaining of entrapped air or gas in the mud.
ƒ Retaining of sand and cuttings while drilling.

Gel strengths and yield point are both a measure of the attractive forces
in a mud system. A decrease in one usually results in a decrease in the other;
therefore, similar chemical treatments are used to modify them both. The
10-second gel reading more closely approximates the true yield stress
in most drilling fluid systems. Water dilution can be effective in lowering
gel strengths, especially when solids are high in the mud.

funnel viscosity
The funnel viscosity is measured with the Marsh funnel and is a timed
rate of flow in seconds per quart. It is basically a quick reference check
that is made routinely on a mud system; however, there is no shear rate/
shear stress relationship in the funnel viscosity test. Thus, it cannot be
related to any other viscosity nor can it give a clue as to why the viscosity
may be high or low.

low shear rheology

While many invert emulsions, particularly high o/w ratio formulations,
approximate Bingham plastic behaviour at shear rates most commonly
examined (600 & 300 rpm) they do not maintain this behaviour
as shear rates decrease. This is of particular importance when studying
hole cleaning with inverts particularly in large diameter holes where
annular shear rates are low. The use of Yield Point derived from 600 &
21 rheology of drilling fluids
Section 5

300 viscometer readings can be misleading when considering efficient

hole cleaning particularly in large diameter or deviated holes. Both
experimental and field data have shown that it is of great importance to
study the viscosity at shear rates nearer to those prevailing at the wall of
the hole. The 6 rpm reading, equivalent to a shear rate of 10.2 sec-1, is
the best approximation of low annular shear rate for fluids in laminar
flow available on a standard V-G meter. This shear rate of 10.2 sec-1 is
equivalent to a mean annular velocity of 53 ft/min. in 17 1/2” hole.

The following rule of thumb for 6 rpm readings for fluids in laminar flow
is useful:

Hole deviation 0 - 45° 1.0 x Hole Diameter (inches)

45 - 90° 1.2-1.5 x Hole Diameter (inches)

In water based fluids, increases in low shear viscosities are best achieved
with biopolymers e.g. XCD, Rhodopol.

In invert emulsions the required 6 rpm readings can usually be attained

with the normal organophilic clay viscosifiers. Several rheology modifiers
are currently available which claim to boost low end viscosity without
greatly altering overall viscosity. The success of these products appears
to vary greatly with base oil type hence laboratory pilot testing is
necessary before inclusion in invert formulations.
rheology of drilling fluids 22

Section 5
shear rates in the drilling fluid circulating system.
Shear rates present in the circulating system of a drilling operation usually
fall within the following ranges.

Shear Rate V-G Meter rpm

Mud Pits 1 - 5 sec -1 0-3
Annulus 5 - 170 sec -1 3 - 100
Solids Removal Equipment 170 -10,000 sec -1 100 - 600 (+)
Bit 10,000 - 100,000 sec -1 N/A
23 rheology of drilling fluids
Section 5

cuttings transportation theory

cuttings transport ratio
Cuttings transport ratio is the ratio of the cuttings transport velocity (Vt)
and the mean annular velocity (Va).

Cuttings transport velocity is the difference between the mean annular

velocity and the cuttings slip velocity (Vs).

Transport Ratio (Tm) = Vt / Va

= (Va - Vs) / Va
= 1 - Vs/Va

This ratio is a measure of the effectiveness of hole cleaning. Any positive

value indicates that some cuttings will be removed. A value of 100%
indicates the removal of all cuttings from the hole. Any value in excess
of 75% is generally considered to indicate efficient hole cleaning.

Slip Velocity =

Where Dp = Particle diameter (in)

Pp = Particle density (lb/gal)
Pf = Fluid density (lb/gal)
u = Fluid viscosity (cps) (Equivalent thickness)

The above equation approximates to slip velocity, in fact the equation

varies with Reynold’s number.

Many PC and hand held calculator programmes exist for slip velocity
calculations and first principle calculations for all cases will not be given
here. It suffices to say that in all cases slip velocity can be reduced by
increasing viscosity and fluid density, or by reducing particle size (by bit
selection). The most practical approach is to increase fluid viscosity bearing
in mind that this will increase ECD, and oil retention figures and hinder
efficient solids removal.

It can be seen from the second equation that the transport ratio can be
increased by increasing annular velocity or by decreasing slip velocity.
rheology of drilling fluids 24

Section 5
general transport ratio (gtr)
The application of Cuttings Transport Ratio, in hole cleaning calculations
works well in vertical holes, but its effectiveness is reduced as hole angle
increases. To allow for this fact, in calculations of optimum rates of
penetration a constant (the GTR) is required and has been determined by
experimentation to fall within the following range:

Hole Angle 0 20 30 40 50 60
GTR 1.0 0.8 0.5 0.3 0.25 0.2

annular cutting concentration and optimum rop

It is generally accepted that the recommended cuttings concentration in
the annulus should not exceed 4% v/v and that an optimum ROP should
be employed to achieve this figure is not exceeded. The optimum ROP is
calculated as follows: -

where
F = cuttings concentration (0.04)
Tm = cuttings transport ratio
GTR = general transport ratio