Clinical Management

of Mental, Neurological and Substance Use Conditions

in Humanitarian Emergencies

mhGAP Humanitarian
Intervention Guide
(mhGAP-HIG)

mental health Gap Action Programme

WHO Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

mhGAP Humanitarian Intervention Guide (mhGAP-HIG): clinical management of mental,

neurological and substance use conditions in humanitarian emergencies.

1.Mental Disorders. 2.Substance-related Disorders. 3.Nervous System Diseases. 4.Relief Work.

5.Emergencies. I.World Health Organization. II.UNHCR.

ISBN 978 92 4 154892 2 (NLM classification: WM 30)

© World Health Organization 2015

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Suggested citation: World Health Organization and United Nations High Commissioner
for Refugees. mhGAP Humanitarian Intervention Guide (mhGAP-HIG): Clinical management
of mental, neurological and substance use conditions in humanitarian emergencies.
Geneva: WHO, 2015.

Contact for feedback and communication: Department of Mental Health and Substance Abuse
at WHO ([email protected]) or the Public Health Section at UNHCR ([email protected])
Foreword

Today, the world is facing an unprecedented number of humanitarian emergencies arising from
armed conflicts and natural disasters. The number of refugees and internally displaced persons
has not been so high since the end of World War II. Tens of millions of people – especially in the
Middle East, Africa and Asia – are in urgent need of assistance. This includes services that are
capable of addressing the population’s heightened mental health needs.

Adults and children affected by emergencies experience a substantial and diverse range of
mental, substance use, and neurological problems. Grief and acute distress affect most people,
and are considered to be natural, transient psychological responses to extreme adversity.
However, for a minority of the population, extreme adversity triggers mental health problems
such as depressive disorder, post-traumatic stress disorder, or prolonged grief disorder – all of
which can severely undermine daily functioning. In addition, people with severe pre-existing
conditions such as psychosis, intellectual disability, and epilepsy become even more vulnerable.
This can be due to displacement, abandonment, and lack of access to health services. Finally,
alcohol and drug use pose serious risks for health problems and gender-based violence.
At the same time that the population’s mental health needs are significantly increased, local
mental health-care resources are often lacking. Within such contexts, practical and easy-to-use
tools are needed more than ever.

This guide was developed with these challenges in mind. The mhGAP Humanitarian Intervention
Guide is a simple, practical tool that aims to support general health facilities in areas affected by
humanitarian emergencies in assessing and managing mental, neurological and substance use
conditions. It is adapted from WHO’s mhGAP Intervention Guide (2010), a widely-used evidence-
based manual for the management of these conditions in non-specialized health settings, and
tailored for use in humanitarian emergencies.

This guide is fully consistent with the Inter-Agency Standing Committee (IASC) Guidelines on
Mental Health and Psychosocial Support in Emergency Settings and the UNHCR Operational
Guidance for Mental Health and Psychosocial Support in Refugee Operations, which call
for a multisectoral response to address the mental health and social consequences of
humanitarian emergencies and displacement. It also helps realize a primary objective of the
WHO Comprehensive Mental Health Action Plan 2013-2010, namely to provide comprehensive,
integrated and responsive mental health and social care services in community-based settings.

We call upon all humanitarian partners in the health sector to adopt and disseminate this
important guide, to help reduce suffering and increase the ability of adults and children with
mental health needs to cope in humanitarian emergency settings.

Margaret Chan António Guterres

Director-General United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees
World Health Organization

i
Table of Contents

Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iv

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Advice for Clinic Managers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

General Principles of Care for People with Mental, Neurological and Substance Use Conditions
in Humanitarian Settings (GPC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1. Principles of Communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2. Principles of Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
3. Principles of Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
4. Principles of Reducing Stress and Strengthening Social Support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
5. Principles of Protection of Human Rights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
6. Principles of Attention to Overall Well-being . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

Modules
1. Acute Stress (ACU) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

2. Grief (GRI) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

3. Moderate-severe Depressive Disorder (DEP) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

4. Post-traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

5. Psychosis (PSY) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

6. Epilepsy/Seizures (EPI) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

7. Intellectual Disability (ID) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

8. Harmful Use of Alcohol and Drugs (SUB) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

9. Suicide (SUI) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

10. Other Significant Mental Health Complaints (OTH) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

Annexes
Annex 1: UNHCR (2014) Health Information System (HIS) Case Definitions . . . . . . . . . . 56
Annex 2: Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Annex 3: Symptom Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60

iii
 Acknowledgements

Conceptualization
Mark van Ommeren (WHO), Yutaro Setoya (WHO), Peter Ventevogel (UNHCR) and Khalid Saeed (WHO),
under the direction of Shekhar Saxena (WHO) and Marian Schilperoord (UNHCR)

Project Writing and Editorial Team

Peter Ventevogel (UNHCR), Ka Young Park (Harvard Kennedy School) and Mark van Ommeren (WHO)

WHO mhGAP Review Team

Nicolas Clark, Natalie Drew, Tarun Dua, Alexandra Fleischmann, Shekhar Saxena, Chiara Servili, Yutaro Setoya,
Mark van Ommeren, Alexandra Wright and M. Taghi Yasamy

Other Contributors/Reviewers
Helal Uddin Ahmed (National Institute of Mental Health, Bangladesh), Corrado Barbui (WHO Collaborating Centre
for Research and Training in Mental Health, University of Verona), Thomas Barrett (University of Denver),
Pierre Bastin (International Committee of the Red Cross), Myron Belfer (Harvard Medical School),
Margriet Blaauw (IASC Reference Group on Mental Health and Psychosocial Support in Emergency Settings),
Boris Budosan (Malteser International), Kenneth Carswell (WHO), Jorge Castilla (ECHO-European Commission),
Vanessa Cavallera (WHO), Elizabeth Centeno-Tablante (WHO), Lukas Cheney (University of Melbourne),
Rachel Cohen (Common Threads), Ana Cuadra (Médecins du Monde, MdM), Katie Dawson (University
of New South Wales), Joop de Jong (University of Amsterdam), Pamela Dix (Disaster Action), Frederique Drogoul
(Médecins Sans Frontière, MSF), Carolina Echeverri (UNHCR), Rabih El Chammay (Ministry of Public Health Lebanon),
Mohamed Elshazly (International Medical Corps, IMC), Michael First (Colombia University), Richard Garfield (Centers
for Disease Control and Prevention, CDC), Anna Golaz (University of Geneva), David Goldberg (King’s College London),
Marlene Goodfriend (MSF), Margaret Grigg (MIND Australia), Norman Gustavson (PARSA Afghanistan),
Fahmy Hanna (WHO), Mathijs Hoogstad (in non-affiliated capacity, the Netherlands), Peter Hughes (Royal College
of Psychiatrists, United Kingdom), Takashi Izutsu (World Bank), Lynne Jones (Harvard School of Public Health),
Devora Kestel (Pan American Health Association/WHO), Louiza Khourta (UNHCR), Cary Kogan (University of Ottawa),
Roos Korste (in2mentalhealth, the Netherlands), Marc Laporta (McGill University), Jaak Le Roy (in non-affiliated
capacity, Belgium), Barbara Lopes-Cardozo (CDC), Ido Lurie (Physicians for Human Rights-Israel),
Andreas Maercker (University of Zürich), Heini Mäkilä (International Assistance Mission, Afghanistan),
Adelheid Marschang (WHO), Carmen Martínez-Viciana (MSF), Jessie Mbwambo (Muhimbili University of Health
and Allied Sciences, Tanzania), Fernanda Menna Barreto Krum (MdM), Andrew Mohanraj (CBM, Malaysia),
Emilio Ovuga (Gulu University, Uganda), Sarah Pais (WHO), Heather Papowitz (UNICEF), Xavier Pereira (Taylor’s
University School of Medicine and Health Equity Initiatives, Malaysia), Pau Perez-Sales (Hospital La Paz, Spain),
Giovanni Pintaldi (MSF), Bhava Poudyal (in non-affiliated capacity, Azerbaijan), Rasha Rahman (WHO),
Ando Raobelison (World Vision International), Nick Rose (Oxford University), Cecile Rousseau (McGill University),
Khalid Saeed (WHO), Benedetto Saraceno (Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Portugal), Alison Schafer (World Vision
International), Nathalie Severy (MSF), Yasuko Shinazaki (MdM), Derrick Silove (University of New South Wales),
Stephanie Smith (Partners in Health), Leslie Snider (War Trauma Foundation), Yuriko Suzuki (National Institute
of Mental Health, Japan), Saji Thomas (UNICEF), Ana María Tijerino (MSF), Wietse Tol (Johns Hopkins University
and Peter C Alderman Foundation), Senop Tschakarjan (MdM), Bharat Visa (WHO), Inka Weissbecker (IMC),
Nana Wiedemann (International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies) and William Yule
(King’s College London).

Funding
United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR)

Design
Elena Cherchi

iv
Introduction

This guide is an adaptation of the WHO mhGAP Intervention Guide (mhGAP-IG) for Mental, Neurological and
Substance Use Disorders in Non-specialized Health Settings for use in humanitarian emergencies. Accordingly,
it is called the mhGAP Humanitarian Intervention Guide (mhGAP-HIG).

What is mhGAP?
The mental health Gap Action Programme (mhGAP) is These include general physicians, nurses, midwives and
a WHO programme that seeks to address the lack of clinical officers, as well as physicians specialized in areas
care for people suffering from mental, neurological other than psychiatry or neurology.
and substance use (MNS) conditions. As part of this
programme, the mhGAP Intervention Guide (mhGAP- In addition to clinical guidance, the mhGAP programme
IG) was issued in 2010. mhGAP-IG is a clinical guide provides a range of tools to support programme
on mental, neurological and substance use disorders implementation useful for situational analysis,
for general health-care providers who work in non- adaptations of clinical protocols to local contexts,
specialized health-care settings, particularly in low- and programme planning, training, supervision and monitoring.1
middle-income countries.

Why is there a need for adaptation to humanitarian emergency contexts?

Humanitarian emergencies include a broad range Challenges include:
of acute and chronic emergency settings arising from »»Heightened urgency to prioritize and allocate scarce
armed conflicts and both natural and industrial resources
disasters. Humanitarian emergencies often involve
mass displacement of people. In these settings, the »»Limited time to train health-care providers
population’s need for basic services overwhelms local »»Limited access to specialists (for training, supervision,
capacity, as the local system may have been damaged by mentoring, referrals or consultations)
the emergency. Resources vary depending on the extent
and availability of local, national and international »»Limited access to medications due to disruption of usual
humanitarian assistance. supply chain.

Humanitarian crises pose a set of challenges as well as The mhGAP Humanitarian Intervention Guide was
unique opportunities for providers of health services. developed in order to address these specific challenges
Opportunities include increased political will and of humanitarian emergency settings.
resources to address and improve mental health services. 2

Contents of this guide

The mhGAP Humanitarian Intervention Guide contains Other changes include the following:
first-line management recommendations for MNS »»Guidance on conduct disorder was rewritten as
conditions for non-specialist health-care providers in guidance on behavioural problems in adolescents,
humanitarian emergencies where access to specialists found in the module on other significant mental health
and treatment options is limited. complaints (OTH).
This guide extracts essential information from the full »»The module Assessment and Management of
mhGAP-IG and includes additional elements specific to Conditions Specifically Related to Stress: mhGAP
humanitarian emergency contexts. Intervention Guide Module (WHO, 2013) was separated
This guide covers: into 3 modules: acute stress (ACU), grief (GRI) and
post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD).
»»Advice for clinic managers;
»»General principles of care applicable to humanitarian »»A glossary has been added. Terms marked with the
asterisk symbol * are defined in Annex 2.
emergency settings, including:
◆◆Provision of multi-sectoral support in accordance This guide is considerably shorter in length compared with
with the IASC Guidelines for Mental Health and the mhGAP-IG. It does not contain guidance on:
Psychosocial Support in Emergency Settings (IASC, »»Alcohol and drug intoxication and dependence*
2007), Operational Guidance for Mental Health (however, alcohol withdrawal and harmful alcohol and
and Psychosocial Support Programming in Refugee drug use are covered in this guide);
Operations (UNHCR, 2013) and other emergency-
related tools; »»Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (however,
◆◆Instructions on stress reduction; adolescent behavioural problems are covered in this
guide’s module on other significant mental health
»»Brief modules on the assessment and management of: complaints);
◆◆Acute stress (ACU)
◆◆Grief (GRI) »»Autism-spectrum disorders;
◆◆Moderate-severe depressive disorder (DEP) »»Dementia (however, support for carers of people with
◆◆Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) any MNS condition is covered in this guide’s General
◆◆Psychosis (PSY) Principles of Care);
◆◆Epilepsy/seizures (EPI)
◆◆Intellectual disability (ID) »»Non-imminent risk of self-harm;
◆◆Harmful use of alcohol and drugs (SUB) »»Second-line treatments for most MNS conditions.
◆◆Suicide (SUI) Guidance on these latter topics continues to be available
◆◆Other significant mental health complaints (OTH). in the full mhGAP-IG.
1
Email [email protected] to obtain a copy of these tools.
2
See World Health Organization (WHO). Building back better: sustainable mental health care after emergencies. WHO: Geneva, 2013.
1
Advice for Clinic Managers

The integration of mental, neurological and substance use (MNS) conditions in general health care needs to be
overseen by a leader (e.g. district-level public health officer, agency medical director, etc.) who is responsible for
designing and coordinating care in a number of health facilities, based on relevant situation analyses (see WHO
& UNHCR [2012] assessment toolkit). Each facility has a clinic manager (head of the health facility) with specific
responsibilities. Clinic managers need to consider the following points.

Environment
»»Arrange for a private space, preferably a separate »»Consider having the room unmarked, in order to prevent
room, to do consultations for MNS conditions. If a avoidance of MNS services out of fear of social stigma.
separate room is not available, try to divide the room
using curtains or other means in order to optimize privacy.

Service model
»»Consider having at least one trained staff member be »»Alternatively, consider holding a weekly or twice-weekly
physically present at any given time on “MNS duty”, i.e. “MNS clinic” within the general health facility, at a time
a person who is assigned to assess and manage people of the day when the clinic is less busy. If people show up
with MNS conditions. during non-MNS clinic times, they could gently be asked
to come back when the clinic is being held. Setting up
such MNS clinics can be helpful in busy health facilities,
especially for conducting initial assessments that
typically take longer than follow-up visits.

Staffing and training

»»Brief all staff about providing a supportive atmosphere »»Consider assigning someone in the health-care team
for people with MNS conditions. (e.g. a nurse, a psychosocial worker, a community
»»Identify staff members to be trained on MNS care. social worker) to be trained and supervised to provide
psychosocial support (e.g. providing brief psychological
»»Ensure that resources are available not only for the
treatments, running self-help groups, teaching stress
training but also for supervision. Clinical supervision of
management).
staff is an essential part of good MNS care.
»»If only a few staff can be trained on the contents of »»Orient all staff on local protection arrangements:
this guide, then ensure that the rest of the clinical staff
◆◆Requirements for and limitations of consent,
including reporting around suspected child abuse,
can offer psychological first aid (PFA)* at the least.
sexual and gender-based violence and other human
Orientation on PFA can be provided in approximately
rights violations;
half a day. The Psychological First Aid Guide for Field
Workers and accompanying Orientation materials for
◆◆Identifying, tracing and reuniting families. Separated
children in particular must be protected and referred
facilitators can be found online.
to appropriate temporary care arrangements, if
»»Orient the receptionist (or person with similar role) on needed.
how to deal with agitated people who may demand or
require immediate attention.
»»If international mental health professionals are
attached to the clinic to provide supervision, they
»»Train community workers and volunteers, if available, should be briefed about the local culture and context.
on how to (a) raise awareness about MNS care (see
below), (b) help people with MNS conditions to seek
»»Orient all staff on how to refer to available services.
help at the clinic and (c) assist with follow-up care.

Referral
»»Ensure that the clinic has an updated contact list for »»Ensure that the clinic has an updated contact list for
referrals for the care of MNS conditions. other available sources of support in the region (e.g.
basic needs such as shelter and food aid, social and
community resources and services, protection and legal
support).

3
 Raising awareness around available services
»»Prepare messages for the community about available »»Where appropriate, consider discussing the messages with
MNS care (e.g. purpose and importance of MNS care, local indigenous and traditional healing practitioners
services available at the clinic, clinic location and hours). who may be providing care for people with MNS
»»Discuss the messages with community leaders. conditions and who may be willing to collaborate and
refer certain cases (for guidance, see Action Sheet 6.4 of
»»Utilise various information distribution channels, e.g. the IASC Guidelines on Mental Health and Psychosocial
radio, posters at health clinics, community workers or Support in Emergency Settings [IASC, 2007]).
other community resources who can inform the general
population. »»Reach out to marginalized groups who may not be
aware of or have access to the clinic.

Medicines
»»Work with relevant decision-makers to ensure a ◆◆The following psychotropic medicines are included in
constant supply of essential medicines. the IEHK:
»»Ensure availability of: ▸▸Amitriptyline tablets: 25 mg tablet x 4000
◆◆at least one antipsychotic medicine (tablet and ▸▸Biperiden tablets: 2 mg tablet x 400
injectable forms) ▸▸Diazepam tablets: 5 mg tablet x 240
◆◆at least one anti-Parkinsonian medicine (to deal ▸▸Diazepam injections: 5 mg/ml, 2 ml/ampoule x 200
with potential extrapyramidal side effects*) ▸▸Haloperidol tablets: 5 mg tablet x 1300
(in tablet form) ▸▸Haloperidol injections: 5 mg/ml; 1 ml/ampoule x 20
◆◆at least one anticonvulsant/antiepileptic medicine ▸▸Phenobarbital tablets: 50 mg x 1000.
(tablet form) ◆◆The quantity of medicines in the IEHK is not sufficient
◆◆at least one antidepressant medicine (tablet form) for programmes that proactively identify and manage
and epilepsy, psychosis and depression. Additional
◆◆at least one anxiolytic medicine (tablet and injectable medicines will need to be ordered.
forms). ◆◆Over the long term, the necessary quantities of
medicines should be informed by actual use.
»»You may have access to the Interagency Emergency
Health Kit (IEHK) (WHO, 2011), a large box with »»In addition to psychotropic medicines, atropine should be
medicines and medical supplies designed to meet the available for the clinical management of acute pesticide
expected primary health-care needs of 10 000 people intoxication, a common form of self-harm. Atropine is
exposed to major humanitarian emergencies for 3 contained in the IEHK (1mg/ml, 1 ml/ampoule x 50).
months. »»Ensure that all medicines are stored securely.

Information management
»»Ensure confidentiality. Health records should be stored »»Collect and analyse the data and report the results to
securely. relevant public health decision-makers.
»»Identify data needed for input into the health
information system.
◆◆Consider using the UNHCR Health Information
System’s 7-category neuropsychiatric component for
guidance on documenting MNS disorders (see Annex 1).
◆◆In large, acute emergencies, public health decision-
makers may not be ready to add 7 items to the
health information system. In such a situation, at
the very least an item labelled “mental, neurological
or substance use problem” should be added to the
health information system. Over time this item should
be replaced with a more detailed system.

4
G P
eneral rinciples of are
for People with Mental,
Neurological and Substance Use
Conditions in Humanitarian Settings
C
GPC
1. Principles of Communication
In rapidly changing and unpredictable humanitarian environments, health-care providers are under enormous pressure to
see as many people as possible in the shortest amount of time. Consultations in health facilities need to be brief, flexible and
focused on the most urgent issues. Good communication skills will help health-care providers achieve these goals and will
help deliver effective care to adults, adolescents and children with mental, neurological and substance use (MNS) conditions.

»»Create an environment that facilitates open ◆◆Summarize and repeat key points. It can be helpful
communication to ask the person or carers to write down important
◆◆Meet the person in a private space, if possible. points. Alternatively, provide a written summary of
◆◆Position yourself to be at the same eye level as the the key points for the person.
person (e.g. if the person is sitting, sit down too).
◆◆Welcome the person; introduce yourself and your »»Respond with sensitivity when people disclose difficult
position/role in a culturally appropriate way. experiences (e.g. sexual assault, violence or self-harm)
◆◆Acknowledge everyone present. ◆◆Let the person know that you will respect the
◆◆Ask the person whether he/she wants their carers or confidentiality of the information.
other people to stay. ◆◆Never belittle the person’s feelings or preach or be
▸▸Unless the person is a young child, suggest that you judgemental.
would like to talk to the person alone if possible. ◆◆Acknowledge that it may have been difficult for the
If the person wants others to stay, respect this. person to share.

GPC
▸▸If you see the person alone, seek permission to ◆◆If referral to other services is necessary, explain clearly
∙∙ask the carers relevant assessment questions to what the next steps will be. Seek the consent of the
find out their perspective, and person to share information with other providers who
∙∙involve the carers when the management plan is may be able to help. For example:
discussed and agreed. ▸▸You have told me that your neighbour has done
◆◆Let the person know that information discussed something very bad to you. I will not share this
during the visit will be kept confidential and will not with anyone else but I can think of some people
be shared without their permission, except when you who may be able to help you. Is it OK if I discuss
perceive a risk to the person or to others (note that your experience with my colleague from agency X?
this message may need to be adapted according to »»Do not judge people by their behaviours
national legal limits on confidentiality). ◆◆People with severe MNS conditions may demonstrate
»»Involve the person with the MNS condition as much unusual behaviours. Understand that this may be
as possible because of their illness. Stay calm and patient. Never
◆◆Even if the person’s functioning is impaired, always try laugh at the person.
to involve them in the discussion. This is also true for ▸▸If the person behaves inappropriately (e.g.
children, youths and elderly people with MNS conditions. agitated, aggressive, threatening), look for the
Do not ignore them by talking only with their carers. source of the problem and suggest solutions.
◆◆Always try to explain to the person what you are Involve their carers or other staff members in
doing (e.g. during physical examination) and what creating a calm, quiet space. If they are extremely
you are going to do. distressed or agitated, you may need to prioritize
their consultation and bring them into your
»»Start by listening consulting space at once.
◆◆Allow the person with an MNS condition to speak
without interruption. Distressed people may not »»If needed, use appropriate interpreters
always give a clear history. When this happens, be ◆◆If needed, try to work with trained interpreters,
patient and ask for clarification. Try not to rush them. preferably of the same gender as the person with
◆◆Do not press the person to discuss or describe potentially the MNS condition. If a trained interpreter is not
traumatic events* if they do not wish to open up. available, other health-care staff or carers may
Simply let them know that you are there to listen. interpret, with the consent of the person.
◆◆Children may need more time to feel comfortable. ◆◆In situations where the carer interprets, be aware
Use language that they can understand. Establishing that the person with the MNS condition may not fully
a relationship with children may require talking disclose. In addition, conflict of interest between the
about their interests (toys, friends, school, etc.). person and the carer may influence communication.
If this becomes an issue, arrange for an appropriate
»»Be clear and concise interpreter for future visits.
◆◆Use language that the person is familiar with. Avoid ◆◆Instruct the interpreter to maintain confidentiality
using technical terms. and translate literally, without adding their own
◆◆Stress can impair people’s ability to process information. thoughts and interpretations.
Provide one point at a time to help the person
understand what is being said before moving on to
the next point.
5
 2. Principles of Assessment
Clinical assessment involves identifying the MNS condition as well as the person’s own understanding of the problem(s).
It is important also to assess the person’s strengths and resources (e.g. social supports). This additional information will
help health-care providers offer better care.
It is important to always pay attention to the overall appearance, mood, facial expression, body language and speech
of the person with an MNS condition during assessment.

»»Explore the presenting complaint »»Explore possible alcohol and drug use
◆◆What brings you here today? When and how did the Questions regarding alcohol and drugs can be perceived
problem start? How did it change over time? as sensitive and even offensive. However, this is an
◆◆How do you feel about this problem? Where do you essential component of MNS assessment. Explain to the
think it came from? person that this is part of the assessment and try to ask
◆◆How does this problem impact on your daily life? questions in a non-judgemental and culturally
How does the problem affect you at school/work or in sensitive way.
daily community life? ◆◆I need to ask you a few routine questions as part of
◆◆What kind of things did you try to solve this problem? the assessment. Do you take alcohol (or any other
Did you try any medication? If so, what kind (e.g. substance known to be a problem in the area)? [If
prescribed, non-prescribed, herbal)? What effect did yes] How much per day/week?
it have? ◆◆Do you take any tablets when you feel stressed, upset
or afraid? Is there anything you use when you have
»»Explore possible family history of MNS conditions pain? Do you take sleeping tablets? [If yes] How
◆◆Do you know of anyone in your family who has had much/many do you take per day/week? Since when?
a similar problem?
»»Explore the person’s general health history »»Explore possible suicidal thoughts and suicide attempts
Questions regarding suicide may also be perceived as
◆◆Ask about any previous physical health problem: offensive, but they are also essential questions in an
▸▸Have you had any serious health problem
MNS assessment. Try to ask questions in a culturally
in the past?
sensitive and non-judgemental way.
▸▸Do you have any health problem for which you are
currently receiving care?
◆◆You may start with: What are your hopes for the
future? If the person expresses hopelessness, ask
◆◆Ask if the person is taking any medication: further questions (>> Box 1 of SUI module), such as
▸▸Has a health-care provider prescribed any
Do you feel that life is worth living? Do you think
medication you are supposed to be taking
about hurting yourself? or Have you made any plans
GPC

right now?
to end your life? (>> SUI)
▸▸What is the name of that medication? Did you
bring it with you? How often do you take it? »»Conduct a targeted physical examination
◆◆Ask if the person has ever had an allergic reaction ◆◆This should be a focused physical examination, guided
to a medication. by the information found during the MNS assessment.
If any physical condition is found at this stage, either
»»Explore current stressors, coping strategies and social manage or refer to appropriate resources.
support
◆◆How has your life changed since the … [state
the event that caused the humanitarian crisis]?
◆◆Have you lost a loved one?
◆◆How severe is the stress in your life?
How is it affecting you?
◆◆What are your most serious problems right now?
◆◆How do you deal/cope with these problems day
by day?
◆◆What kind of support do you have? Do you get help
from family, friends or people in the community?

»»If an MNS condition is suspected, go to the relevant module for assessment.

»»If the person presents with features relevant to more than one MNS condition,
then all relevant modules need to be considered.

6
3. Principles of Management
Many MNS conditions are chronic, requiring long-term monitoring and follow-up. In humanitarian settings, however,
continuity of care may be difficult because mental health care is not consistently available or people have been or are
about to be displaced. Therefore, it is important to recognize the carers of people with MNS conditions as a valuable
resource. They may be able to provide consistent care, support and monitoring throughout the crisis. Carers include
anyone who shares responsibility for the well-being of the person with an MNS condition, including family, friends or
other trusted people. Increasing the person’s and the carer’s understanding of the MNS condition, management plan
and follow-up plan will enhance adherence.

»»Manage both mental and physical conditions in people »»Before the person leaves:
with MNS conditions ◆◆Confirm that the person and the carer understand
◆◆Provide information about the condition to the and agree on the management plan (e.g. you may ask
person both to repeat the essentials of the plan).
▸▸If the person agrees, also provide the information ◆◆Encourage self-monitoring of the symptoms and
to the carer. educate the person and carer on when to seek
◆◆Discuss and determine achievable goals, and develop urgent care.
and agree on a management plan with the person ◆◆Arrange a follow-up visit.
▸▸If the person agrees, also involve the carer in this ▸▸Create a follow-up plan, taking into consideration
discussion the current humanitarian situation (e.g. fleeing/
▸▸For the proposed management plan, provide moving population and disruptions in services).
information on: ▸▸If the person is unlikely to be able to access the
∙∙expected benefits of treatment; same clinic:
∙∙duration of treatment; ∙∙Provide a brief written management plan and
∙∙importance of adhering to treatment, encourage the person to take this to any future
including practising any relevant psychological clinical visits.
interventions (e.g. relaxation training) at home ∙∙Provide contact information for other health-
and how carers could help; care facilities nearby.
∙∙potential side-effects of any medication being ◆◆Initial follow-up visits should be more frequent until
prescribed; the symptoms begin to respond to treatment.
∙∙potential involvement of social workers, case ◆◆Once the symptoms start improving, less frequent but
managers, community health workers or other regular appointments are recommended.
trusted members in the community ◆◆Explain that the person can return to the clinic at any
(>> Principles of Reducing Stress and time in between follow-up visits if needed (e.g. when

GPC
Strengthening Social Support below); experiencing side-effects of medications).
∙∙prognosis. Maintain a hopeful tone, but be
realistic about recovery.
»»At each follow-up meeting, assess for:
◆◆Provide information about the financial aspects of ◆◆Response to treatment, medication side-effects
and adherence to medications and psychosocial
the management plan, if relevant.
interventions. Acknowledge all progress towards the
»»Address the person’s and the carer’s questions and goals and reinforce adherence.
concerns about the management plan ◆◆General health status. Monitor physical health
regularly.
◆◆Self-care (e.g. diet, hygiene, clothing) and functioning
in the person’s own environment.
◆◆Psychosocial issues and/or change in living conditions
that can affect management.
◆◆The person’s and the carer’s understanding
and expectations of the treatment. Correct any
misconceptions.
If the person is pregnant or breastfeeding:
◆◆Always check the latest contact information, as it can
change frequently.
»»Avoid prescribing medications that may have
potential risks to the fetus, and facilitate »»During the entire follow-up period:
access to antenatal care. ◆◆Maintain regular contact with the person and their
»»Avoid prescribing medications that may carer. If available, assign a community worker or
have potential risks to the infant/toddler of another trusted person in the community to keep
a breastfeeding woman. Monitor the baby in touch with the person. This person may be a family
of a breastfeeding woman who is on any member.
medication. Consider facilitating access to ◆◆Have a plan of action for when the person does not
baby-friendly spaces/tents. show up.
▸▸Try to find out why the person did not return.
A community worker or another trusted person
can help locate the person (e.g. home visits).
▸▸If possible, try to address the issue so that the
person can return to the clinic.
◆◆Consult a specialist if the person does not improve.

7
 4. Principles of Reducing Stress and Strengthening Social Support
Reducing stress and strengthening social support is an integral part of MNS treatment in humanitarian settings, where
people often experience extremely high levels of stress. This includes not only the stress felt by people with MNS conditions
but also the stress felt by their carers and dependants. Stress often contributes to or worsens existing MNS conditions. Social
support can diminish many of the adverse effects of stress; therefore, attention to social support is essential. Strengthening
social support is also an essential component of protection (>> Principles of Protection of Human Rights) and overall well-
being of the population affected by humanitarian crises (>> Principles of Attention to Overall Well-Being).

»»Explore possible stressors and the availability of social provide the person with a short referral note.
support ◆◆Teach stress management:
◆◆What is your biggest worry these days? ▸▸Identify and develop positive ways to relax
◆◆How do you deal with this worry? (e.g. listening to music, playing sports, etc.).
◆◆What are some of the things that give you comfort, ▸▸Teach the person and the carers specific stress
strength and energy? management techniques (e.g. breathing exercises
◆◆Who do you feel most comfortable sharing your (>> Box GPC 2)).
problems with? When you are not feeling well, who ∙∙In some settings, you can refer to a health worker
do you turn to for help or advice? (e.g. nurse or psychosocial worker) who can teach
◆◆How is your relationship with your family? In what these techniques.
way do your family and friends support you and in
what way do you feel stressed by them? »»Address stress of the carers
◆◆Ask the carer(s) about:
»»Be aware of signs of abuse or neglect ▸▸worries and anxiety around caring for the person
◆◆Be attentive to potential signs of sexual or physical with MNS conditions in the current humanitarian
abuse (including domestic violence) in women, emergency situation;
children and older people (e.g. unexplained bruises or ▸▸practical challenges (e.g. burden on the carers’
injuries, excessive fear, reluctance to discuss matters time, freedom, money);
when a family member is present).
▸▸ability to carry out other daily activities, such as
◆◆Be attentive to potential signs of neglect, particularly work or participation in community events;
in children, people living with disability and older
▸▸physical fatigue;
people (e.g. malnourishment in a family with access
▸▸social support available to the carers:
to sufficient food, a child who is overly withdrawn).
∙∙Are there other people who can help you when
◆◆When signs of abuse or neglect are present, interview
the person in a private space to ask if anything you are not able to care for the person (for
hurtful is going on. example, when you are sick or very tired)?;
◆◆If you suspect abuse or neglect: ▸▸psychological well-being. If carers seem distressed
▸▸Talk immediately with your supervisor to discuss or unstable, assess them for MNS conditions
GPC

the plan of action. (e.g. >> DEP, SUB).

▸▸With the person’s consent, identify community ◆◆After the assessment, try to address the carers’ needs
resources (e.g. trusted legal services and protection and concerns. This may involve:
networks) for protection. ▸▸giving information;
▸▸linking the carer with relevant community services
»»Based on information gathered, consider the following and supports;
strategies: ▸▸discussing respite care. Another family member
◆◆Problem-solving: or a suitable person can take over the care of the
▸▸Use problem-solving techniques* to help the person
person temporarily while the main carer takes a
address major stressors. When stressors cannot be
rest or carries out other important activities;
solved or reduced, problem-solving techniques may
▸▸performing problem-solving counselling* and
be used to identify ways to cope with the stressor.
teaching stress management;
In general, do not give direct advice. Try to
▸▸managing any MNS conditions identified in the carer.
encourage the person to develop their own
solutions. ◆◆Acknowledge that it is stressful to care for people
▸▸When working with children and adolescents, it is with MNS conditions, but tell the carer that it is
essential to assess and address the carer’s sources important that they continue to do so. Even when
of stress as well. this is difficult, carers need to respect the dignity of
◆◆Strengthen social support: the people they care for and involve them in making
▸▸Help the person to identify supportive and trusted decisions about their own lives as much as possible.
family members, friends and community members
and to think through how each one can be
involved in helping.
▸▸With the person’s consent, refer them to other
community resources for social support. Social
workers, case managers or other trusted people in
the community may be able to assist in connecting
the person with appropriate resources such as:
∙∙social or protection services
∙∙shelter, food and non-food items
∙∙community centres, self-help and support groups
∙∙income-generating activities and other
vocational activities
∙∙formal/informal education
∙∙child-friendly spaces or other structured activities
for children and adolescents.
When making a referral, help the person to access
them (e.g. provide directions to the location,
operating hours, telephone number, etc.) and
8
Box GPC 1: Strengthening community supports
In addition to clinical management, encourage activities that enhance family and community support for
everyone, especially marginalized community members. For further guidance, see Understanding Community-
Based Protection (UNHCR, 2013) and Action Sheet 5.2 of the IASC Guidelines on Mental Health and Psychosocial
Support in Emergency Settings (IASC, 2007).

Box GPC 2: Relaxation exercise: instructions for slow breathing technique

I am going to teach you how to breathe in a way that will help relax your body and your mind. It will take some
practice before you feel the full benefits of this breathing technique.

The reason this strategy focuses on breathing is because when we feel stressed our breathing becomes fast and
shallow, making us feel tenser. To begin to relax, you need to start by changing your breathing.

Before we start, we will relax the body. Gently shake and loosen your arms and legs. Let them go floppy and
loose. Roll your shoulders back and gently move your head from side to side.

Now place one hand on your belly and the other hand on your upper chest. I want you to imagine you have a
balloon in your stomach and when you breathe in you are going to blow that balloon up, so your stomach will
expand. And when you breathe out, the air in the balloon will also go out, so your stomach will flatten. Watch
me first. I am going to exhale first to get all the air out of my stomach.

[Demonstrate breathing from the stomach – try and exaggerate the pushing out and in of your stomach]

OK, now you try to breathe from your stomach with me. Remember, we start by breathing out until all the air is
out; then breathe in. If you can, try and breathe in through your nose and out through your mouth.

Great! Now the second step is to slow the rate of your breathing down. So we are going to take three seconds to
breathe in, then two seconds to hold your breath, and three seconds to breathe out. I will count with you. You
may close your eyes or keep them open.

GPC
OK, so breathe in, 1, 2, 3. Hold, 1, 2. And breathe out, 1, 2, 3. Do you notice how slowly I count?

[Repeat this breathing exercise for approximately one minute]

That’s great. Now when you practise on your own, don’t be too concerned about trying to keep exactly to three
seconds. Just try your best to slow your breathing down when you are stressed.

OK, now try on your own for one minute.

9
 5. Principles of Protection of Human Rights
People with severe MNS conditions need protection since they are at higher risk of human rights violations. They often
experience difficulties in taking care of themselves and their families in addition to facing discrimination in many areas
of life, including work, housing and family life. They may have poor access to humanitarian aid. They may experience
abuse or neglect in their own families and are often denied opportunities to fully participate in the community. Some
people with severe MNS conditions may not be aware that they have a problem that requires care and support.

People with MNS conditions may experience a range of human rights violations during humanitarian emergencies, including:
»»Discrimination in access to basic needs for survival such as food, water, sanitation, shelter, health services, protection and
livelihood support;
»»Denial of the right to exercise legal capacity;
»»Lack of access to services for their specific needs;
»»Physical and sexual abuse, exploitation, violence, neglect and arbitrary detention;
»»Abandonment or separation from family during displacement;
»»Abandonment and neglect in institutional settings.
Unfortunately, community protection systems and disability programmes do not always include, and sometimes even
actively exclude, protection of people with severe MNS conditions. Health-care providers should therefore actively
advocate for and address the gap in protection of these people.

Below are key actions to address the protection of people with MNS conditions living in communities in humanitarian
settings.

»»Engage the key stakeholders »»Protect the rights of people with severe MNS conditions
◆◆Identify key stakeholders who should be made aware in health-care settings
of the protection issues surrounding people with MNS ◆◆Always treat people with MNS conditions with respect
conditions. These key stakeholders include: and dignity.
▸▸people with MNS conditions and their carers; ◆◆Ensure that people with MNS conditions have the
▸▸community leaders (e.g. elected community same access to physical health care as people without
representatives, community elders, teachers, MNS conditions.
religious leaders, traditional and spiritual healers); ◆◆Respect a person’s right to refuse health care unless
▸▸managers of various services (e.g. protection/ they lack the capacity to make that decision (cf.
GPC

security, health, shelter, water and sanitation, signed international conventions).

nutrition, education, livelihood programmes); ◆◆Discourage institutionalization. If the person is
▸▸managers of disability services (many disability already institutionalized, advocate for their rights in
services inadvertently overlook disability due to the institutional setting.
MNS conditions);
▸▸representatives of community groups (youth or
»»Promote the integration of people with severe MNS
conditions in the community
women’s groups) and human rights organizations;
police and legal authorities.
◆◆Advocate for the inclusion of people with MNS
conditions in livelihood supports, protection
◆◆Organize awareness-raising activities for the key programmes and other community activities.
stakeholders:
▸▸Consider offering orientation workshops on MNS
◆◆Advocate for the inclusion of children with epilepsy
and other MNS conditions in mainstream education.
conditions.
▸▸Consult people with MNS conditions, their carers
◆◆Advocate for the inclusion of programmes for
children and adults with intellectual disabilities/
and the disability and social service sectors in the
developmental delay in community disability support
design and implementation of awareness-raising
programmes.
activities.
▸▸During the awareness raising activities:
◆◆Advocate for maintaining, as far as possible,
autonomy and independence for people with MNS
∙∙Educate and dispel misconceptions about people
conditions.
with MNS conditions.
∙∙Educate on the rights of people with
MNS conditions, including equal access to
humanitarian aid and protection.
∙∙Dispel discrimination against people with MNS
conditions.
∙∙Advocate for support for the carers of people
with MNS conditions.

General principles of protection in humanitarian action are described in the Sphere Handbook (Sphere Project,
2011). For additional guidance on the protection of people in mental hospitals/institutions, see Action Sheet 6.3
of the IASC Guidelines on Mental Health and Psychosocial Support in Emergency Settings (IASC, 2007).

10
6. Principles of Attention to Overall Well-being
In addition to clinical care, people with MNS conditions need a range of other supports for their overall well-being.
This is especially true in humanitarian settings where basic services, social structures, family life and security are often
disrupted. People with MNS conditions face extra challenges to their daily routines and basic self-care. The role of
health-care providers extends beyond clinical care to advocacy for the overall well-being of people with MNS conditions
across multiple sectors, as shown in the IASC Guidelines pyramid (see figure GPC 1).

»»Support people with MNS conditions to safely access »»Arrange priority access to relevant activities for people
services necessary for survival and for a dignified with MNS conditions, such as helping children with
way of living (e.g. water, sanitation, food aid, shelter, such conditions to access child-friendly spaces.
livelihoods support). This may involve:
◆◆advising about the availability and location of such »»Support the general physical health of people with
MNS conditions:
services;
◆◆actively referring and working with the social sector ◆◆Arrange regular health assessments and vaccinations.
to connect people to social services (e.g. social work-
◆◆Advise about basic self-care (nutrition, physical
activity, safe sex, family planning, etc.).
type case management);
◆◆advising about security issues when the person is not
sufficiently aware of threats to security.

Examples:

Clinical mental health care (whether by Clinical

GPC
PHC staff or mental health professionals) services

Basic emotional and practical support Focused psychosocial

to selected individuals or families supports

Activating social networks Strengthening community

and family supports
Supportive child-friendly spaces

Advocacy for good humanitarian practice: Social considerations in

basic services that are safe, socially
basic services and security
appropriate and that protect dignity

Figure GPC 1. The IASC intervention pyramid for mental health and psychosocial support in emergencies
(adapted with permission)

11
Acute Stress ACU
In humanitarian emergencies, adults, adolescents and children are often exposed
to potentially traumatic events*. Such events trigger a wide range of emotional,
cognitive, behavioural and somatic reactions. Although most reactions are self-limiting
and do not become a mental disorder, people with severe reactions are likely to present
to health facilities for help.
In many humanitarian emergencies people suffer various combinations of potentially
traumatic events and losses; thus they may suffer from both acute stress and grief.
The symptoms, assessment and management of acute stress and grief have much
in common. However, grief is covered in a separate module (>> GRI).

ACU
After a recent potentially traumatic event, clinicians need to be able to identify
the following:

»»Significant symptoms of acute stress (ACU).

People with these symptoms may present with a wide range of non-specific psychological and medically
unexplained physical complaints. These symptoms include reactions to a potentially traumatic event within the
last month, for which people seek help or which causes considerable difficulty with daily functioning, and which
does not meet the criteria for other conditions covered in this guide. The present module covers assessment and
management of significant symptoms of acute stress.

»»Post-traumatic stress disorder (>> PTSD).

When a characteristic set of symptoms (re-experiencing, avoidance and heightened sense of current threat)
persists for more than a month after a potentially traumatic event and if it causes considerable difficulty with daily
functioning, the person may have developed post-traumatic stress disorder.

»»Problems and disorders that are more likely to occur after exposure
to stressors (e.g. potentially traumatic events) but that could also occur
in the absence of such exposure.
These include: moderate-severe depressive disorder (>> DEP), psychosis (>> PSY), harmful use of alcohol and drugs
(>> SUB), suicide (>> SUI) and other significant mental health complaints (>> OTH).

»»Reactions that are not clinically significant and that do not require clinical
management.
Of all reactions, these are the most common. They include transient reactions for which people do not seek help
and which do not impair day-to-day functioning. In these cases, health providers need to be supportive, help
address the person’s needs and concerns and monitor whether expected natural recovery occurs.

13
 Assessment

Assessment question 1: Has the person recently experienced a potentially

traumatic event?
»»Ask if the person has experienced a potentially »»Ask how much time has passed since the event(s).
traumatic event. A potentially traumatic event is any »»Go to assessment question 2 if a potentially traumatic
threatening or horrific event such as physical or sexual event has occurred within the last month.
violence (including domestic violence), witnessing of
atrocity, or major accidents or injuries. Consider asking: »»If a major loss (e.g. the death of a loved one) has
◆◆What major stress have you experienced? Has your occurred, also assess for grief (>> GRI).
life been in danger? Have you experienced something »»If a potentially traumatic event has occurred more than
that was very frightening or horrific or has made you 1 month ago, then consider other conditions covered in
feel very bad? Do you feel safe at home? this guide (>> DEP, PTSD, PSY, SUB).

Assessment question 2: If a potentially traumatic event has occurred within the

last month, does the person have significant symptoms of acute stress?
»»Check for: »»Significant symptoms of acute stress stress are likely if
◆◆anxiety about threats related to the traumatic the person meets all of the following criteria:
event(s) ◆◆a potentially traumatic event has occurred within
◆◆sleep problems approximately 1 month
◆◆concentration problems ◆◆the symptoms started after the event
◆◆recurring frightening dreams, flashbacks* or intrusive ◆◆considerable difficulty with daily functioning because
memories* of the events, accompanied by intense of the symptoms or seeking help for the symptoms.
fear or horror
◆◆deliberate avoidance of thoughts, memories, activities
or situations that remind the person of the events
ACU

(e.g. avoiding talking about issues that are reminders,

or avoiding going back to places where the events
happened)
◆◆being “jumpy” or “on edge”; excessive concern and
alertness to danger or reacting strongly to loud noises
or unexpected movements
◆◆feeling shocked, dazed or numb, or inability to feel
anything
◆◆any disturbing emotions (e.g. frequent tearfulness,
anger) or thoughts
◆◆changes of behaviour such as:
▸▸aggression
▸▸social isolation and withdrawal
▸▸risk-taking behaviours in adolescents
▸▸regressive behaviour* such as bedwetting,
clinginess or tearfulness in children
◆◆hyperventilation (e.g. rapid breathing, shortness of
breath)
◆◆medically unexplained physical complaints, such as:
▸▸palpitations, dizziness
▸▸headaches, generalized aches and pains
▸▸dissociative symptoms relating to the body (e.g.
medically unexplained paralysis*, inability to speak
or see, “pseudoseizures”*).

Assessment question 3: Is there a concurrent condition?

»»Check for any physical conditions that may explain the »»Check for any other mental, neurological and substance
symptoms, and manage accordingly if found. use (MNS) condition (including depression) covered in
this guide that may explain the symptoms and manage
accordingly if found.

14
Basic Management Plan

DO NOT prescribe medications to manage symptoms of acute stress

(unless otherwise noted below).

1. In ALL cases:
»»Provide basic psychosocial support3 »»Offer additional psychosocial support as described in
◆◆Listen carefully. DO NOT pressure the person to talk. the Principles of Reducing Stress and Strengthening
◆◆Ask the person about his/her needs and concerns. Social Support (>> General Principles of Care):
◆◆Help the person to address basic needs, access services ◆◆Address current psychosocial stressors.
and connect with family and other social supports. ◆◆Strengthen social support.
◆◆Protect the person from (further) harm. ◆◆Teach stress management.
»»Educate the person about normal reactions to grief and
acute stress, e.g.:
◆◆People often have these reactions after such events.
◆◆In most cases, reactions will reduce over time.
»»Manage concurrent conditions.

2. In case of sleep problems as a symptom of acute stress,

offer the following additional management:
»»Explain that people commonly develop sleep problems »»Exceptionally, in extremely severe cases where
(insomnia) after experiencing extreme stress. psychologically oriented interventions (e.g. relaxation
»»Explore and address any environmental causes of techniques) are not feasible or not effective, and
insomnia (e.g. noise). insomnia causes considerable difficulty with daily

ACU
functioning, short-term (3–7 days) treatment with
»»Explore and address any physical cause of insomnia (e.g. benzodiazepines may be considered.
physical pain). ◆◆Dose:
»»Advise on sleep hygiene, including regular sleep ▸▸For adults, prescribe 2–5 mg of diazepam at
routines (e.g. regular times for going to bed and bedtime.
waking up), avoiding coffee, nicotine and alcohol late ▸▸For older people, prescribe 1–2.5 mg of diazepam
in the day or before going to bed. Emphasize that at bedtime.
alcohol disturbs sleep. ▸▸Check for drug-drug interactions before
prescribing diazepam.
▸▸Common side-effects of benzodiazepines include
drowsiness and muscle weakness.
▸▸Caution: benzodiazepines can slow down
breathing. Regular monitoring may be necessary.
▸▸Caution: benzodiazepines may cause dependence*.
Use only for short-term treatment.
◆◆Note:
▸▸This treatment is for adults only.
▸▸Do not prescribe benzodiazepines to children or
adolescents.
▸▸Avoid this medication in women who are pregnant
or breastfeeding.
▸▸Monitor for side-effects frequently when using
this medication in older people.
▸▸This is a temporary solution for an extremely
severe sleep problem.
▸▸Benzodiazepines should not be used for insomnia
caused by bereavement in adults or children.
▸▸Benzodiazepines should not be used for any other
symptoms of acute stress or PTSD.

3
The approach described here is often referred to as psychological first aid (PFA) when applied in the immediate aftermath of an extremely stressful event
(>> WHO, WTF & WVI, 2013).

15
 3. In the case of bedwetting in children as a symptom of acute stress, offer
the following additional management:
»»Obtain the history of bedwetting to confirm that it »»Consider training carers on the use of simple
started after experiencing a stressful event. Rule out behavioural interventions (e.g. rewarding avoidance of
and manage other possible causes (e.g. urinary tract excessive fluid intake before sleep, rewarding toileting
infection). before sleep, rewarding dry nights). The reward can be
»»Explain: anything the child likes, such as extra playtime, stars on
◆◆Bedwetting is a common, harmless reaction in a chart or local equivalent.
children who experience stress.
◆◆Children should not be punished for bedwetting
because punishment adds to the child’s stress and
may make the problem worse. The carer should avoid
embarrassing the child by mentioning bedwetting in
public.
◆◆Carers should remain calm and emotionally
supportive.

4. In the case of hyperventilation (breathing extremely fast and

uncontrollably) as a symptom of acute stress, offer the following additional
management:
»»Rule out and manage other possible causes, even if »»Be calm and remove potential sources of anxiety if
hyperventilation started immediately after a stressful possible. Help the person regain normal breathing by
event. Always conduct necessary medical investigations practising slow breathing (>> Principles of Reducing
to identify possible physical causes such as lung disease. Stress and Strengthening Social Support in General
»»If no physical cause is identified, reassure the Principles of Care) (do not recommend breathing into
person that hyperventilation sometimes occurs after a paper bag).
experiencing extreme stress and that it is unlikely to be
a serious medical problem.
ACU

5. In the case of a dissociative symptom relating to the body (e.g.

medically unexplained paralysis, inability to speak or see, “pseudoseizures”)
as a symptom of acute stress, offer the following additional management:
»»Rule out and manage other possible causes, even if the »»Ask for the person’s own explanation of the symptoms
symptoms started immediately after a stressful event. and apply the general guidance on the management of
Always conduct necessary medical investigations to medically unexplained somatic symptoms (>> OTH).
identify possible physical causes. See epilepsy module »»Reassure the person that these symptoms sometimes
for guidance on medical investigations relevant to develop after experiencing extreme stress and that it is
seizures/convulsions (>> EPI). unlikely to be a serious medical problem.
»»Acknowledge the person’s suffering and maintain a »»Consider the use of culturally specific interventions that
respectful attitude. Avoid reinforcing any gain that the do no harm.
person may get from the symptoms.

6. Ask the person to return in 2–4 weeks if the symptoms do not improve, or
at any time if the symptoms get worse.

16
Grief GRI
In humanitarian emergencies, adults, adolescents and children are often exposed to
major losses. Grief is the emotional suffering people feel after a loss. Although most
reactions to loss are self-limiting without becoming a mental disorder, people with
significant symptoms of grief are more likely to present to health facilities for help.
After a loss, clinicians need to be able to identify the following:

»»Significant symptoms of grief (GRI).

As with similar to symptoms of acute stress, people who are grieving may present with a wide range of non-specific
psychological and medically unexplained physical complaints. People have significant symptoms of grief after
a loss if the symptoms cause considerable difficulty with daily functioning (beyond what is culturally expected)
or if people seek help for the symptoms. The present module covers assessment and management of significant
symptoms of grief.

GRI
»»Prolonged grief disorder.
When significant symptoms of grief persist over an extended period of time, people may develop prolonged
grief disorder. This condition involves severe preoccupation with or intense longing for the deceased person
accompanied by intense emotional pain and considerable difficulty with daily functioning for at least 6 months
(and for a period that is much longer than what is expected in the person’s culture). In these cases, health providers
need to consult a specialist.

»»Problems and disorders that are more likely to occur after exposure
to stressors (e.g. bereavement) but that also occur in the absence
of such exposure.
These include: moderate-severe depressive disorder (>> DEP), psychosis (>> PSY), harmful use of alcohol and drugs
(>> SUB), self-harm/suicide (>> SUI) and other significant mental health complaints (>> OTH)

»»Reactions that are not clinically significant and that do not require clinical
management.
Of all reactions, these are the most common. They include transient reactions for which people do not seek
help and which do not impair day-to-day functioning beyond what is culturally expected. In these cases, health
providers need to be supportive, help address the person’s needs and concerns and monitor whether expected
natural recovery occurs; however, such reactions do not require clinical management.

17
 Assessment

Assessment question 1: Has the person recently experienced a major loss?

»»Ask if the person has experienced a major loss. »»Ask how much time has passed since the event(s).
Consider asking: »»Go to assessment question 2 if a major loss has occurred
◆◆How has the disaster/conflict affected you? within the last 6 months.
◆◆Have you lost family or friends? Your house? Your
money? Your job or livelihood? Your community? »»If a major loss has occurred more than 6 months ago
◆◆How has the loss affected you? or if a potentially traumatic event has occurred more
◆◆Are any family members or friends missing? than 1 month ago, then consider other conditions
covered in this guide ( >> DEP, PTSD, PSY, SUB) or
prolonged grief disorder.

Assessment question 2: If a major loss has occurred within the last 6 months,4
does the person have significant symptoms of grief?
»»Check for: »»Significant symptoms of grief are likely if the person
◆◆sadness, anxiety, anger, despair meets all of the following criteria:
◆◆yearning and preoccupation with loss ◆◆one or more losses within approximately 6 months
◆◆intrusive memories*, images and thoughts of the ◆◆any of the above symptoms that started after the loss
deceased ◆◆considerable difficulty with daily functioning because
◆◆loss of appetite of the symptoms (beyond what is culturally expected)
◆◆loss of energy or seeking help for the symptoms.
◆◆sleep problems
◆◆concentration problems
◆◆social isolation and withdrawal
◆◆medically unexplained physical complaints (e.g.
palpitations, headaches, generalized aches and pains)
GRI

◆◆culturally specific grief reactions (e.g. hearing the

voice of the deceased person, being visited by the
deceased person in dreams).

Assessment question 3: Is there a concurrent condition?

»»Check for any physical conditions that may explain »»Check for any other mental, neurological and substance
the symptoms, and manage accordingly if found. use (MNS) condition (including depression) covered in
this guide that may explain the symptoms and manage
accordingly if found.

4
This period may be longer than 6 months in cultures where the expected duration for mourning/bereavement is longer than 6 months.

18
Basic Management Plan

DO NOT prescribe medications to manage symptoms of grief.

1. Provide basic psychosocial support5

»»Listen carefully. DO NOT pressure the person to talk. »»Help the person to address basic needs, access services
»»Ask the person about his/her needs and concerns. and connect with family and other social supports.
»»Protect the person from (further) harm.

2. Offer additional psychosocial support as described in the Principles

of Reducing Stress and Strengthening Social Support (>> General Principles
of Care)
»»Address current psychosocial stressors. »»Teach stress management.
»»Strengthen social support.

3. Educate the person about common reactions to losses, e.g.:

»»People may react in different ways after major losses. »»Sometimes a person may feel fine for a while, then
Some people show strong emotions while others do not. something reminds them of the loss and they may feel
»»Crying does not mean you are weak. as bad as they did at first. This is normal and again
these experiences become less intense and less frequent
»»People who do not cry may feel the emotional pain just

GRI
over time.
as deeply but have other ways of expressing it.
»»You may think that the sadness and pain you feel will »»There is no right or wrong way to feel grief. Sometimes
you might feel very sad, and at other times you might
never go away, but in most cases, these feelings lessen
be able to enjoy yourself. Do not criticise yourself for
over time.
how you feel at the moment.

4. Manage concurrent conditions.

5. Discuss and support culturally appropriate adjustment/mourning* processes

»»Ask if appropriate mourning ceremonies/rituals have »»If the body cannot be found, discuss alternative ways to
occurred or have been planned. If this is not the case, preserve memories, such as memorials.
discuss the obstacles and how they can be alleviated.
»»Find out what has happened to the body. If the body is
missing, help trace or identify the remains.

6. If feasible and culturally appropriate, encourage early return to previous,

normal activities (e.g. at school or work, at home or socially).

7. For the specific management of sleep problems, bedwetting,

hyperventilation and dissociative symptoms after recent loss, see the
relevant sections in the module on acute stress (>> ACU).

5
The approach described here is often referred to as psychological first aid (PFA) when applied in the immediate aftermath of an extremely stressful event
(>> WHO, WTF & WVI, 2013).

19
 8. If the person is a young child:
»»Answer the child’s questions by providing clear and »»Check for and correct “magical thinking” common in
honest explanations that are appropriate to the child’s young children ( e.g. children may think that they are
level of development. Do not lie when asked about responsible for the loss; for example, they may think
a loss (e.g. Where is my mother?). This will create that their loved one died because they were naughty or
confusion and may damage the person’s trust in the because they were upset with them).
health provider.

9. For children, adolescents and other vulnerable persons who have

lost parents or other carers, address the need for protection and ensure
consistent, supportive caregiving, including socio-emotional support.
»»If needed, connect the person to trusted protection
agencies/networks.

10. If prolonged grief disorder is suspected, consult a specialist for further

assessment and management.
»»The person may have prolonged grief disorder
if the symptoms of bereavement include severe
preoccupation with or intense longing for the deceased
person accompanied by intense emotional pain and
considerable difficulty with daily functioning for at least
6 months.6
GRI

11. Ask the person to return in 2–4 weeks if the symptoms do not improve
or at any time if the symptoms get worse.

6
This period may be longer than 6 months in cultures where the expected duration for mourning/bereavement is longer than 6 months.

20
M oderate-severe DEP
Depressive Disorder
Moderate-severe depressive disorder may develop in adults, adolescents and children
who have not been exposed to any particular stressor. In any community there will be
people suffering from moderate-severe depressive disorder. However, the significant
losses and stress experienced during humanitarian emergencies may result in grief,
fear, guilt, shame and hopelessness, increasing the risk of developing moderate-severe
depressive disorder. Nevertheless, these emotions may also be normal reactions to
recently experienced adversity.

Management for moderate-severe depressive disorder should only be considered

if the person has persistent symptoms over a number of weeks and as a result has
considerable difficulties carrying out daily activities.

DEP
Typical presenting complaints of moderate-severe depressive disorder:

Low energy, fatigue, sleep problems

Multiple persistent physical symptoms with no clear cause (e.g. aches and pains)

Persistent sadness or depressed mood, anxiety

Little interest in or pleasure from activities.

21
 Assessment
Assessment question 1: Does the person have moderate-severe depressive disorder?
»»Assess for the following:7
A. The person has had at least one of the following core ◆◆Reduced ability to concentrate and sustain attention on tasks
symptoms of depressive disorder for at least 2 weeks: ◆◆Indecisiveness
◆◆Persistent depressed mood ◆◆Observable agitation or physical restlessness
▸▸For children and adolescents: either irritability or ◆◆Talking or moving more slowly than normal
depressed mood ◆◆Hopelessness about the future
◆◆Markedly diminished interest in or pleasure from ◆◆Suicidal thoughts or acts.
activities, including those that were previously C. The individual has considerable difficulty with daily
enjoyable functioning in personal, family, social, educational,
▸▸The latter may include reduced sexual desire. occupational or other important domains.
B. The person has had at least several of the following
additional symptoms of depressive disorder to »»If A, B and C – all 3 – are present for at least 2 weeks,
a marked degree (or many of the listed symptoms then moderate-severe depressive disorder is likely.
to a lesser degree) for at least 2 weeks: ◆◆Delusions* or hallucinations* may be present.
◆◆Disturbed sleep or sleeping too much Check for these. If present, treatment for depressive
◆◆Significant change in appetite or weight (decrease disorder needs to be adapted. Consult a specialist.
or increase) »»If the person’s symptoms do not meet the criteria for
◆◆Beliefs of worthlessness or excessive guilt moderate-severe depressive disorder, go to >> OTH
◆◆Fatigue or loss of energy module for assessment and management of the
presenting complaint.

Assessment question 2: Are there other possible explanations for the symptoms
(other than moderate-severe depressive disorder)?
»»Rule out concurrent physical conditions that can ◆◆If a manic episode has ever occurred, then the
resemble depressive disorder. depression is likely to be part of another disorder
◆◆Rule out and manage anaemia, malnutrition, called bipolar disorder* and requires different
hypothyroidism*, stroke and medication side-effects management (>> Box DEP 2 at the end of this
DEP

(e.g. mood changes from steroids*). module).

»»Rule out a history of manic episode(s). »»Rule out normal reactions to major loss (e.g.
◆◆Assess if there has been a period in the past bereavement, displacement) (>> GRI).
when several of the following symptoms occurred ◆◆The reaction is more likely to be a normal reaction
simultaneously: to major loss if:
▸▸decreased need for sleep ▸▸There is marked improvement over time without
▸▸euphoric, expansive or irritable mood clinical intervention;
▸▸racing thoughts; being easily distracted ▸▸None of the following symptoms is present:
▸▸increased activity, feeling of increased energy ∙∙beliefs of worthlessness
or rapid speech ∙∙suicidal ideation
▸▸impulsive or reckless behaviours such as excessive ∙∙talking or moving more slowly than normal
gambling or spending, making important decisions ∙∙psychotic symptoms (delusions or hallucinations);
without adequate planning ▸▸There is no previous history of depressive disorder
▸▸unrealistically inflated self-esteem. or manic episode; and
◆◆Assess to what extent the symptoms impaired ▸▸Symptoms do not cause considerable difficulty
functioning or were a danger to the person or to with daily functioning.
others. For example: ∙∙Exception: impaired functioning can be part of
▸▸Was your excessive activity a problem for you a normal response after bereavement when it is
or your family? Did anybody try to hospitalize within cultural norms.
or confine you during that time because of your »»Rule out prolonged grief disorder: symptoms include
behaviour? severe preoccupation with or intense longing for the
◆◆There is a history of manic episode(s) if both deceased person accompanied by intense emotional
the following occurred: pain and considerable difficulty with daily functioning
▸▸Several of the above 6 symptoms were present for at least 6 months (and for a period that is much
for longer than 1 week. longer than what is expected in that person’s culture).
▸▸The symptoms caused significant difficulty with Consult a specialist if this disorder is suspected.
daily functioning or were a danger to the person
or to others.

Assessment question 3: Is there a concurrent mental, neurological and substance

use (MNS) condition requiring management?
»»Assess for thoughts or plans of self-harm or suicide »»If a concurrent MNS condition is found, manage the
(>> SUI). condition and moderate-severe depressive disorder at
»»Assess for harmful alcohol or drug use (>> SUB). the same time.

7
This description of moderate-severe depressive episode is consistent with the current draft ICD-11 proposal.

22
Basic Management Plan
Psychosocial interventions

1. Offer psychoeducation
»»Key messages to the person and the carers: ◆◆Even if it is difficult, the person should try to do
◆◆Depression is a very common condition that can as many of the following as possible, as they can all
happen to anybody. help to improve mood:
◆◆The occurrence of depression does not mean that the ▸▸Try to start again (or continue) activities that were
person is weak or lazy. previously pleasurable.
◆◆The negative attitudes of others (e.g. “You should be ▸▸Try to maintain regular sleeping and waking times.
stronger”, “Pull yourself together”) may relate to the ▸▸Try to be as physically active as possible.
fact that depression is not a visible condition (unlike ▸▸Try to eat regularly despite changes in appetite.
a fracture or a wound) and the false idea that people ▸▸Try to spend time with trusted friends and family.
can easily control their depression by sheer force of ▸▸Try to participate in community and other social
will. activities as much as possible.
◆◆People with depression tend to have unrealistically ◆◆The person should be aware of thoughts of self-harm
negative opinions about themselves, their life or suicide. If they notice these thoughts, they should
and their future. Their current situation may be not act on them, but should tell a trusted person and
very difficult, but depression can cause unjustified come back for help immediately.
thoughts of hopelessness and worthlessness.
These views are likely to improve once the depression
improves.

2. Offer psychosocial support as described in the Principles of Reducing

Stress and Strengthening Social Support (>> General Principles of Care)
»»Address current psychosocial stressors. »»Teach stress management.
»»Strengthen social supports.

DEP
◆◆Try to reactivate the person’s previous social
networks. Identify prior social activities that, if
reinitiated, would have the potential for providing
direct or indirect psychosocial support (e.g. family
gatherings, visiting neighbours, community activities).

3. If trained and supervised therapists are available, consider encouraging

people with moderate-severe depression to use one of the following brief
psychological treatments whenever they are available:
»»problem-solving counselling* »»cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT)*
»»interpersonal therapy (IPT)* »»behavioural activation*.

There is increasing evidence that brief psychological

treatments for depression can be done by trained
and supervised lay/community workers.

23
 Pharmacological interventions
1. Consider antidepressants
»»In children younger than 12: ◆◆Discuss with the person and decide together whether
◆◆Do not prescribe antidepressants. to prescribe antidepressants. Explain:
»»In adolescents 12–18 years of age: ▸▸Antidepressants are not addictive.
◆◆Do not consider antidepressants as first-line ▸▸It is very important to take the medication every
treatment. Offer psychosocial interventions first. day as prescribed.
▸▸Some side-effects (>> Table DEP 1) may be
»»In adults: experienced within the first few days but they
◆◆If the person has a concurrent physical condition that usually resolve.
can resemble depressive disorder (>> Assessment ▸▸It usually takes several weeks before improvements
question 2), always manage that condition first. in mood, interest or energy can be noticed.
Consider prescribing antidepressants if the depressive ◆◆Antidepressant medication usually needs to be continued
disorder does not improve after managing the for at least 9–12 months after the person feels well.
concurrent physical conditions. ◆◆Medications should not be stopped just because
◆◆If you suspect the symptoms are normal reactions the person has experienced some improvement
to a major loss (>> Assessment question 2), do not (it is not like a painkiller for headaches). Educate
prescribe antidepressants. the person on the recommended timeframe for
the medication.

2. If it is decided to prescribe antidepressants, choose an appropriate

antidepressant (>> Table DEP 1)
»»Choose the antidepressant based on the person’s age, »»In elderly people:
concurrent medical conditions and drug side-effect ◆◆Avoid amitriptyline if possible.
profile (>> Table DEP 1). »»In people with cardiovascular disease:
»»In adolescents 12 years and older: ◆◆Do not prescribe amitriptyline.
◆◆Consider fluoxetine (but no other selective serotonin »»In adults with thoughts or plans of suicide:
reuptake inhibitors (SSRI) or tricyclic antidepressants ◆◆Fluoxetine is the first choice. If there is an imminent
(TCAs)) only if symptoms persist or worsen despite risk of self-harm or suicide (>> SUI), only give
DEP

psychosocial interventions. a limited supply of antidepressants (e.g. one week

»»In pregnant or breastfeeding women: of supply at a time). Ask the person’s carers to keep
◆◆Avoid antidepressants if possible. Consider and monitor medications and to follow up frequently
antidepressants at the lowest effective dose if there to prevent medication overdose.
is no response to psychosocial interventions.
If the woman is breastfeeding, avoid fluoxetine.
Consult a specialist, if available.

Table DEP 1: Antidepressants

Amitriptylinea (a TCAb) Fluoxetine (an SSRIc)
10 mg once per day. Increase to 20 mg
Starting dose for adults 25–50 mg at bedtime
after 1 week
Not applicable (do not prescribe TCAs
Starting dose for adolescents 10 mg once per day
in adolescents)
Starting dose for elderly and medically ill 25 mg at bedtime 10 mg once per day
If no response in 6 weeks, increase
Dose increment for adults Increase by 25–50 mg per week
to 40 mg once per day
Typical effective dose in adults 100–150 mg (max. dose 300 mg)d 20–40 mg (max. dose 80 mg)
Typical effective dose in adolescents, 50–75 mg (max. dose 100 mg)
20 mg (max. dose 40 mg)
elderly and medically ill Do not prescribe in adolescents
Prolonged akathisia*
Bleeding abnormalities in those
who use aspirin or other non-steroid
Serious and rare side effects Cardiac arrhythmia
anti-inflammatory drugs*
Ideas of self-harm (especially
in adolescents and young adults)
Orthostatic hypotension (risk of fall), dry Headache, restlessness, nervousness,
Common side-effects mouth, constipation, difficulty urinating, gastrointestinal disturbances, reversible
dizziness, blurred vision and sedation sexual dysfunction
Stop immediately if the person develops Stop immediately if the person develops
Caution
a manic episode a manic episode
a
Available in the Interagency Emergency Health Kit (WHO, 2011)
b
TCA indicates tricyclic antidepressant
c
SSRI indicates selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor
d
Minimum effective dose in adults: 75 mg (sedation may be seen at lower doses).

24
3. Follow-up
»»Offer regular follow-up. »»Monitor response to antidepressants.
◆◆Schedule and conduct regular follow-up sessions ◆◆It may take a few weeks for antidepressants to
according to the Principles of Management show effect. Monitor the response carefully before
(>> General Principles of Care). increasing the dose.
◆◆Schedule the second appointment within 1 week and ◆◆If symptoms of a manic episode develop
subsequent appointments depending on the course (>> assessment question 2), stop the medication
of the disorder. immediately and go to >> PSY module for
management of the manic episode.
◆◆Consider tapering off the medication 9–12 months
after the resolution of symptoms. Reduce the dose
gradually over at least 4 weeks.

Box DEP 2: Medical management of current depressive episode in a person with bipolar disorder
In people with bipolar disorder, never prescribe antidepressants alone without a mood
stabilizer, because antidepressants can lead to a manic episode.

If the person has a history of manic episode:

»»Consult a specialist.
»»If a specialist is not immediately available, prescribe an antidepressant in combination with a mood stabilizer
such as carbamazepine or valproate (>> Table DEP 2).
◆◆Start the medicine at a low dose. Increase slowly over the following weeks.
▸▸If possible, avoid carbamazepine and valproate in women who are pregnant or who are
planning pregnancy, because of potential harm to the fetus from the medication. The decision
to start mood stabilizers in a pregnant woman should be made in discussion with the woman.

DEP
The severity and frequency of manic and depressive episodes should be taken into consideration.
◆◆Consult a specialist for ongoing treatment of bipolar disorder.
»»Tell the person and the carers to stop the antidepressant immediately and return for help if symptoms
of manic episode develop.

Table DEP 2: Mood stabilizers in bipolar disorder

Carbamazepine Valproate

Starting dose 200 mg/day 400 mg/day

1000–2000 mg/day
Typical effective dose 400–600 mg/day (max. dose 1400 mg/day)
(max. dose 2500 mg/day)

Dosing schedule Twice daily, oral Twice daily, oral

◆◆Severe skin rash (Stevens-Johnson syndrome*, ◆◆Drowsiness

Rare but serious side-effects toxic epidermal necrolysis*)
◆◆Bone marrow depression* ◆◆Confusion
◆◆Lethargy
◆◆Sedation
◆◆Drowsiness ◆◆Tremor
Common side-effects ◆◆Troubling walking ◆◆Nausea, diarrhoea
◆◆Nausea ◆◆Weight gain
◆◆Transient hair loss (re-growth
normally begins within 6 months)
◆◆Impaired hepatic function

25
PStress
ost-traumatic
Disorder
PTSD
As mentioned in the Acute Stress (ACU) module, it is common for adults, adolescents
and children to develop a wide range of psychological reactions or symptoms after
experiencing extreme stress during humanitarian emergencies.
For most people, these symptoms are transient.

When a specific, characteristic set of symptoms (re-experiencing, avoidance

and heightened sense of current threat) persists for more than a month after
a potentially traumatic event*, the person may have developed post-traumatic
stress disorder (PTSD).

PTSD
Despite its name, PTSD is not necessarily the only or the main condition that occurs
after exposure to potentially traumatic events. Such events can also trigger many
of the other mental, neurological and substance use (MNS) conditions described
in this guide.

Typical presenting complaints of PTSD

People with PTSD may be hard to distinguish from those suffering from other
problems because they may initially present with non-specific symptoms, such as:

»» sleep problems (e.g. lack of sleep)

»» irritability, persistent anxious or depressed mood

»» multiple persistent physical symptoms with no clear physical cause

(e.g. headaches, pounding heart).

However, on further questioning they may reveal that they are suffering from
characteristic PTSD symptoms.

27
 Assessment

Assessment question 1: Has the person experienced a potentially traumatic

event more than 1 month ago?
»»Ask if the person has experienced a potentially »»If the person has experienced a potentially traumatic
traumatic event. This is any threatening or horrific event, ask when this occurred.
event such as physical or sexual violence (including
domestic violence), witnessing of atrocity, destruction
of the person’s house, or major accidents or injuries.
Consider asking:
◆◆How have you been affected by the disaster/conflict?
Has your life been in danger? At home or in the
community, have you experienced something that
was very frightening or horrific or has made you feel
very bad?

Assessment question 2: If a potentially traumatic event occurred more than

1 month ago, does the person have PTSD?8
»»Assess for: »»If all of the above are present approximately 1 month
◆◆Re-experiencing symptoms. These are repeated after the event, then PTSD is likely.
and unwanted recollections of the event as though
it is occurring in the here and now (e.g. through
frightening dreams, flashbacks* or intrusive
PTSD

memories* accompanied by intense fear or horror).

▸▸In children this may involve replaying or drawing
the events repeatedly. Younger children may have
frightening dreams without a clear content.
◆◆Avoidance symptoms. These involve deliberate
avoidance of thoughts, memories, activities or
situations that remind the person of the event (e.g.
avoiding talking about issues that are reminders of
the event, or avoiding going back to places where the
event happened).
◆◆Symptoms related to a heightened sense of current
threat (often called “hyperarousal symptoms”). These
involve excessive concern and alertness to danger
or reacting strongly to loud noises or unexpected
movements (e.g. being “jumpy” or ”on edge”).
◆◆Considerable difficulty with daily functioning.

Assessment question 3: Is there a concurrent condition?

»»Assess for and manage any concurrent physical »»Assess for and manage all other MNS conditions that
conditions that may explain the symptoms. are covered in this guide.

8
The description of PTSD is consistent with the current draft ICD-11 proposal for PTSD, with one difference: the ICD-11 proposal allows
for classification of PTSD within 1 month (e.g. several weeks) after the event. The ICD-11 proposal does not include non-specific PTSD symptoms such as
numbing and agitation.

28
Basic Management Plan

1. Educate on PTSD
»»Explain that: »»Advise the person to:
◆◆Many people recover from PTSD over time without ◆◆Continue their normal daily routine as much as
treatment while others need treatment. possible.
◆◆People with PTSD repeatedly experience unwanted ◆◆Talk to trusted people about what happened and
recollections of the traumatic event. When this how they feel, but only when they are ready to do so.
happens, they may experience emotions such as fear ◆◆Engage in relaxing activities to reduce anxiety and
and horror similar to the feelings they experienced tension.
when the event was actually happening. They may ◆◆Avoid using alcohol or drugs to cope with PTSD
also have frightening dreams. symptoms.
◆◆People with PTSD often feel that they are still in
danger and may feel very tense. They are easily
startled (“jumpy”) or constantly on the watch for
danger.
◆◆People with PTSD try to avoid any reminders of the
event. Such avoidance may cause problems in their
lives.
◆◆(If applicable), people with PTSD may sometimes have
other physical and mental problems, such as aches
and pains in the body, low energy, fatigue, irritability
and depressed mood.

2. Offer psychosocial support as described in the Principles of Reducing

PTSD
Stress and Strengthening Social Support (>> General Principles of Care)
»»Address current psychosocial stressors. »»Strengthen social supports.
◆◆When the person is a victim of severe human rights »»Teach stress management.
violations, discuss with them possible referral to a
trusted protection or human rights agency.

3. If trained and supervised therapists are available, consider referring for:

»»Cognitive behavioural therapy with a trauma focus* »»Eye movement desensitization and reprocessing
(EMDR)*.

4. In adults, consider antidepressants (selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors

or tricyclic antidepressants) when cognitive behavioural therapy, EMDR
or stress management do not work or are unavailable
»»Go to the module on moderate-severe depression for »» DO NOT offer antidepressants to manage PTSD in
more detailed guidance on prescribing antidepressants children and adolescents.
(>> DEP).

5. Follow-up
»»Schedule and conduct regular follow-up sessions »»Schedule the second appointment within 2–4 weeks and
according to the Principles of Management subsequent appointments depending on the course of
(>> General Principles of Care). the disorder.

29
Psychosis PSY
Adults and adolescents with psychosis may firmly believe or experience things
that are not real. Their beliefs and experiences are generally considered abnormal
by their communities. People with psychosis are frequently unaware that they have
a mental health condition. They are often unable to function normally in many areas
of their lives.

During humanitarian emergencies, extreme stress and fear, breakdown of social

supports and disruption of health-care services and medication supply can occur.
These changes can lead to acute psychosis or can exacerbate existing symptoms
of psychosis. During emergencies, people with psychosis are extremely vulnerable
to various human rights violations such as neglect, abandonment, homelessness,

PSY
abuse and social stigma.

Typical presenting complaints of psychosis

Abnormal behaviour (e.g. strange appearance, self-neglect, incoherent speech,

wandering aimlessly, mumbling or laughing to self)

Strange beliefs

Hearing voices or seeing things that are not there

Extreme suspicion

Lack of desire to be with or talk with others; lack of motivation to do daily chores
and work.

31
 Assessment

Assessment question 1: Does the person have psychosis?

»»Note that while people with psychosis may have »»Psychosis is likely if multiple symptoms are present.
abnormal thoughts, beliefs or speech, this does not Always assess for imminent risk of suicide (>> SUI)
mean that everything they say is wrong or imaginary. and harm to and from others.
Careful listening is key to psychosis assessment.
More than one visit may be necessary to ensure full
assessment. Carers are often a source of helpful
information.
»»Assess for:
◆◆Delusions* (fixed false beliefs or suspicions that
are firmly held even when there is evidence to
the contrary)
▸▸Tip: Probe further by asking what the person
means, and listen carefully.
◆◆Hallucinations* (hearing, seeing or feeling things that
are not there)
▸▸Do you hear or see things that others cannot?
◆◆Disorganized thoughts that switch between topics
without logical connection; speech that is difficult
to follow
◆◆Unusual experiences such as believing that others
place thoughts in one’s mind, that others withdraw
thoughts from one’s mind or that one’s thoughts are
being broadcast to others
◆◆Abnormal behaviour such as odd, eccentric, aimless
and agitated activity or maintaining an abnormal
body posture or not moving at all
◆◆Chronic symptoms that involve a loss of normal
PSY

functioning, including:
▸▸lack of energy or motivation to do daily chores
and work
▸▸apathy and social withdrawal
▸▸poor personal care or neglect
▸▸lack of emotional experience and expressiveness.

Assessment question 2: Are there acute physical causes of psychotic

symptoms that can be managed?
»»Rule out delirium* from acute physical causes such as »»Rule out alcohol or drug intoxication/withdrawal
head injury, infections (e.g. cerebral malaria, sepsis* or (>> SUB).
urosepsis*), dehydration and metabolic abnormalities ◆◆Ask about alcohol, sedative or other drug use.
(e.g. hypoglycaemia*, hyponatraemia*). ◆◆Smell for alcohol.
»»Rule out medication side-effects (e.g. from certain
antimalaria medications).

Assessment question 3: Is this a manic episode?

»»Rule out mania. Assess for: »»Manic episode is likely if several of these symptoms are
◆◆decreased need for sleep present for more than 1 week, and either the symptoms
◆◆euphoric, expansive or irritable mood cause considerable difficulty with daily functioning or
◆◆racing thoughts; being easily distracted the person cannot be managed safely at home.
◆◆increased activity, feeling of increased energy or rapid
speech
◆◆impulsive or reckless behaviours such as excessive
gambling or spending, making important decisions
without adequate planning
◆◆unrealistically inflated self-esteem.

32
Basic Management Plan

A. Pharmacological interventions

1. For psychosis without acute physical causes

»»Initiate an oral antipsychotic medication. Consider ◆◆Manage side-effects.
intramuscular (i.m.) treatment only if oral treatment ▸▸In case of significant acute extrapyramidal
is not feasible. Check if the person has used an side-effects* such as Parkinsonism (combination
antipsychotic medication in the past that helped control of tremors*, muscular rigidity and decreased body
the symptoms. If yes, resume the medication at the movements) or akathisia* (inability to sit still):
same dose. If the medication is not available, start a ∙∙Reduce the dose of antipsychotic medication.
new medication. The involvement of a carer or health ∙∙If extrapyramidal side effects persist despite
worker in keeping and giving out the medication will reducing the dose, consider short-term use of
be essential at the start of treatment to ensure safe anticholinergics (e.g. biperiden for 4-8 weeks
compliance. (>> Table PSY 2).
◆◆Prescribe only one antipsychotic at a time ▸▸In case of acute dystonia (acute spasm of muscles,
(e.g. haloperidol >> Table PSY 1). typically of neck, tongue and jaw):
◆◆“Start low, go up slow”: start with the lowest ∙∙Stop antipsychotic medication temporarily and
therapeutic dose and increase slowly to achieve provide anticholinergics (e.g. biperiden >> Table
the desired effect at the lowest effective dose. PSY 2). If these are not available, diazepam may
◆◆Try the medication for an adequate amount of time be given to induce muscle relaxation.
at a typical effective dose before considering it ◆◆If possible, consult a specialist about the duration
ineffective (i.e. for at least 4–6 weeks) of treatment and when to discontinue antipsychotic
(>> Table PSY 1). medications.
▸▸Use the lowest effective oral dose in women who ▸▸In general, continue the antipsychotic medication
are planning pregnancy, are pregnant or are for at least 12 months after the symptoms resolve.
breastfeeding. ▸▸Taper down slowly when discontinuing the
◆◆If agitation cannot be adequately managed by an medication over several months.
antipsychotic alone, give a dose of benzodiazepine ▸▸Never stop the medication abruptly.
(e.g. diazepam, maximum 5 mg orally) and consult

PSY
a specialist immediately.

2. For psychotic symptoms from acute physical causes (e.g. alcohol

withdrawal or delirium)
»» Manage the acute cause. ◆◆In case of acute physical causes other than alcohol
◆◆For management of alcohol withdrawal, see Box 1 withdrawal, prescribe an oral antipsychotic
in SUB module. medication as needed (e.g. haloperidol, initially 0.5
mg per dose up to 2.5–5 mg 3 times a day). Only
prescribe antipsychotic medication at a moment
when there is a need to control agitation, psychotic
symptoms or aggression. Stop the medication as soon
as these symptoms resolve. Consider intramuscular
treatment only if oral treatment is not feasible.

3. For manic episode

»» Initiate an oral antipsychotic medication »» A manic episode is part of bipolar disorder*.
(>> #1 above under Pharmacological interventions). Once the acute mania is managed, the person needs
»» When the person is extremely agitated despite assessment and treatment for bipolar disorder with
antipsychotic treatment, consider adding a dose of a mood stabilizer such as valproate or carbamazepine.
benzodiazepine (e.g. diazepam, maximum 5 mg orally) Consult a specialist for management and/or follow
and consult a specialist immediately. instructions on bipolar disorder in the full
mhGAP Intervention Guide.

33
 Table PSY 1: Antipsychotic medications
Medication Haloperidola Chlorpromazine Risperidone
Starting dose 2.5 mg daily 50–75 mg daily 2 mg daily
75–300 mg/dayb 4–6 mg/day
Typical effective dose 4–10 mg/day (max. dose 20 mg)
(max. dose 1000 mg) (max. dose 10 mg)
Route Oral/intramuscular Oral Oral
Significant side-effects:
Extrapyramidal side-effects* +++ + +
Sedation (especially in elderly) + +++ +
Urinary hesitancy ++
Orthostatic hypotension* + +++ +
Neuroleptic malignant syndrome* Rarec Rarec Rarec
a
Available in the Interagency Emergency Health Kit (WHO, 2011)
b
Up to 1 g may be necessary in severe cases.
c
Stop antipsychotic medicine immediately if this syndrome is suspected and keep the person cold and provide sufficient fluid.

Table PSY 2: Anticholinergic medications

Medication Biperidena Trihexphenidyl
Starting dose 1 mg twice daily 1 mg daily
5–15 mg daily
Typical effective dose 3–6 mg/day (max. dose 12 mg)
(max. dose 20 mg)
Route Oral Oral
Significant side-effects:
Confusion, memory disturbance (especially in elderly) +++ +++
Sedation (especially in elderly) + +
Urinary hesitancy ++ ++
a
Available in the Interagency Emergency Health Kit (WHO, 2011)

B. Psychosocial interventions
For all cases:
1. Offer psychoeducation
PSY

Key messages to the person and the carer(s): Messages to the carer(s):
»»Psychosis can be treated and the person can recover. »»Do not try to convince the person that his or her beliefs
»»Stress can worsen psychotic symptoms. or experiences are false or not real.
»»Try to continue regular social, educational and »»Try to be neutral and supportive even when the person
occupational activities as much as possible, even if that shows unusual or aggressive behaviour.
may be difficult in the emergency setting. »»Avoid getting into arguments or being hostile towards
»»Do not use alcohol, cannabis or other non-prescribed drugs, the person.
because they can make the psychotic symptoms worse. »»Try to give the person freedom to move about. Avoid
»»People with psychosis need to take the prescribed restraining the person while ensuring that their basic
medications and return for follow up regularly. security and that of others is met.
»»Recognize if the psychotic symptoms return or worsen. »»Psychosis is not caused by witchcraft or spirits.
Return to the clinic as management may need to be »»Do not blame the person or others in the family or
changed accordingly. accuse them of being the cause of the psychosis.
»»If the person has recently given birth, do not leave her
alone with the baby, in order to ensure the baby’s safety.

2. Facilitate rehabilitation back into the community

»»Talk with community leaders to increase community »»Connect with community resources such as community-
acceptance and tolerance of the person. based health workers, protection service workers, social
»»Facilitate the inclusion of the person in community- workers and disability service workers. Ask for their
based economic and social activities. help in assisting the person to resume appropriate
social, educational and occupational activities.

3. Care for the carers according to the Principles of Reducing Stress and
Strengthening Social Support (>> General Principles of Care)
C. Follow-up
»»Schedule and conduct regular follow-up sessions »»Continue the antipsychotic treatment for at least
according to the Principles of Management 12 months after complete resolution of symptoms.
(>> General Principles of Care). If possible, consult a specialist regarding the decision
»»Schedule the second visit within 1 week and subsequent to continue or discontinue the medication.
visits depending on the course of the condition.
34
Epilepsy/Seizures EPI
See Box EPI 2 on page 40 for assessment and management of a person
who is convulsing or is unconscious following a seizure*.

Epilepsy is the most frequently treated condition of all mental, neurological and
substance use (MNS) conditions in humanitarian settings in low- and middle-income
countries. Epilepsy affects all age groups including young children.

Epilepsy is a chronic neurological condition involving recurrent unprovoked seizures

caused by abnormal electrical activity in the brain. There are various types of epilepsy

EPI
and this module covers only the most prevalent type, convulsive epilepsy.
Convulsive epilepsy is characterized by seizures that cause sudden involuntary
muscle contractions alternating with muscle relaxation, causing the body and limbs
to shake or become rigid. Seizures are often associated with impaired consciousness.
A convulsing person may fall and suffer injuries.

The supply of antiepileptic medications is often disrupted during humanitarian

emergencies. Without continuous access to these medications, people with epilepsy
may begin experiencing seizures again, which can be life-threatening.

Typical presenting complaints of convulsive epilepsy

A history of convulsive movements or seizures.

35
 Assessment

Assessment question 1: Does the person meet the criteria for convulsive seizure?
»»Ask the person, and carer, if the person has had any of »»The person meets the criteria for a convulsive seizure
the following symptoms: if there are convulsive movements and at least 2 other
◆◆convulsive movements lasting longer than 1–2 minutes symptoms from the above list.
◆◆loss of or impaired consciousness »»Suspect non-convulsive seizures or other medical
◆◆stiffness or rigidity of the body or limbs lasting longer conditions if only 1 or 2 of the above criteria are
than 1–2 minutes present.
◆◆bitten or bruised tongue or bodily injury ◆◆Consult a specialist if the person has had more than
◆◆loss of bladder or bowel control during the episode. one non-convulsive seizure.
◆◆After the abnormal movements, the person may ◆◆Manage accordingly if other medical conditions are
demonstrate confusion, drowsiness, sleepiness or suspected.
abnormal behaviour. The person may also complain ◆◆Follow up after 3 months to re-assess.
of fatigue, headache, or muscle ache.

Assessment question 2: In the case of convulsive seizure, is there an acute cause?

»»Check for signs and symptoms of neuroinfection: »»Refer to a hospital immediately if neuroinfection*,
◆◆fever head injury or metabolic abnormality is suspected.
◆◆headache ◆◆Suspect neuroinfection in a child (aged 6 months to 6
◆◆meningeal irritation* (e.g. stiff neck). years) with a fever if any of the following criteria for
»»Check for other possible causes of convulsions: complex febrile seizures is present:
◆◆head injury ▸▸focal seizure – seizure starts in one part of the body
◆◆metabolic abnormality* (e.g. hypoglycaemia*, ▸▸prolonged seizure – seizure lasts more than
hyponatraemia*) 15 minutes
◆◆alcohol or drug intoxication or withdrawal ▸▸repetitive seizure – more than 1 seizure during
the current illness.
EPI

(>> Box SUB 1 on page 48).

◆◆If none of the above 3 criteria are present in a febrile
»»If there is an identifiable acute cause of convulsive child, suspect simple febrile seizure. Manage the
seizure, treat the cause. fever and look for its cause according to local IMCI
◆◆Maintenance treatment with antiepileptic guidelines. Observe the child for 24 hours.
medications is not required in these cases.
»»Follow up in 3 months to re-assess.

Assessment question 3: In the case of convulsive seizure without an identified

acute cause, is this epilepsy?
»»It is considered epilepsy if the person has had 2 or more »»If there was only 1 convulsive seizure in the last 12
unprovoked, convulsive seizures on 2 different days in months without an acute cause, then antiepileptic
the last 12 months. treatment is not required. Follow up in 3 months.

36
Basic Management Plan

1. Educate the person and carers about epilepsy

»»Explain:
◆◆What epilepsy is and what causes it: ▸▸People with epilepsy should avoid:
▸▸Epilepsy is a chronic condition, but with medication ∙∙jobs that require working near heavy machinery or fire
three out of every four people can be seizure-free. ∙∙cooking over open fires
▸▸Epilepsy involves recurrent seizures. ∙∙swimming alone
A seizure is a problem related to abnormal ∙∙alcohol and recreational drugs
electrical activity in the brain. ∙∙looking at flashing lights.
▸▸Epilepsy is not caused by witchcraft or spirits. ∙∙changing sleep patterns (e.g. sleeping much less
▸▸Epilepsy is not contagious. Saliva does not transmit than usual).
epilepsy. ◆◆What to do at home when seizures occur
◆◆What the relevant lifestyle issues are: (message to carers):
▸▸People with epilepsy can lead normal lives: ▸▸If a seizure starts while the person is standing
∙∙They can marry and have healthy children. or sitting, help to prevent a fall injury by gently
∙∙They can work productively and safely at most jobs. assisting them to sit or lie on the ground.
∙∙Children with epilepsy can go to school. ▸▸Make sure that the person is breathing properly.
Loosen the clothes around the neck.
▸▸Place the person in the recovery position
(see Figures A–D below).

Figures A–D: The recovery position

A B

EPI
C D

A. Kneel on the floor on one side of the person. D. The person’s top arm should be supporting the head
Place the arm closest to you at a right angle to their and the bottom arm will stop the person from rolling
body with the person’s hand upwards towards the too far (see Figure D above). Open the person’s airway
head (see Figure A above). by gently tilting his or her head back and lifting the
B. Place the other hand under the side of the person’s chin, and check that nothing is blocking the airway.
head, so that the back of the hand is touching the This manoeuvre moves the tongue out of the airway
cheek (see Figure B above). and helps the person breathe better and prevents
C. Bend the knee furthest from you to a right angle. choking from secretions and vomit.
Roll the person carefully onto his or her side by pulling
▸▸Do not try to restrain or hold the person to the floor.
on the bent knee (see Figure C above).
▸▸Do not put anything in the person’s mouth.
▸▸Move any hard or sharp objects away from the
person to prevent injury.
▸▸Stay with the person until the seizure stops and the
person regains consciousness.

»»Ask the person and the carers to keep a simple seizure diary (see Figure EPI GPC 1).

37
 2. Initiate or resume antiepileptic drugs
»»Check if the person has ever used an antiepileptic »»Explain to the person and carers:
medication that controlled the seizures. If yes, then ◆◆Medication dosing schedule (>> Table EPI 1)
resume the same medication at the same dose. ◆◆Potential side-effects (>> Table EPI 1).
»»If the medication is not available, start a new Most side-effects are mild and will resolve over time.
medication. If severe side-effects occur, the person should
immediately stop the medication and seek medical
»»Choose only one antiepileptic drug (see Table EPI 1). help.
◆◆Consider potential side-effects, drug-disease ◆◆Importance of medication adherence. Missed doses
interactions* or drug-drug interactions*. Consult or abrupt discontinuation can cause seizures to recur.
the National or WHO Formulary, as necessary. The medications should be taken at the same time
◆◆Start with the lowest dose and increase gradually each day.
until complete seizure control is obtained. ◆◆Time for the medication to start working. It usually
takes a few weeks before the effect becomes clear.
◆◆Duration of treatment. Continue the medication until
the person has not had a seizure for at least 2 years.
◆◆Importance of regular follow-up.

Table EPI 1: Antiepileptic medications

Phenobarbitala Carbamazepine Phenytoin Valproate
Starting dose 2–3 mg/kg/day 5 mg/kg/day 3–4 mg/kg/day 15–20 mg/kg/day
in children
Typical effective 3–8 mg/kg/day
2–6 mg/kg/day 10–30 mg/kg/day 15–30 mg/kg/day
dose in children (max. dose 300 mg/day)
Starting dose 60 mg/day 200–400 mg/day 150–200 mg/day 400 mg/day
in adults
Typical effective 60–180 mg/day 400–1400 mg/day 200–400 mg/day 400–2000 mg/day
dose in adults
In children, give twice
Dosing schedule Once daily at bedtime Twice daily daily; in adults, it can be Usually 2 or 3 times daily
given once daily
◆◆Anaemia and other
haematological
◆◆Severe skin rash (Stevens- ◆◆Severe
EPI

skin rash abnormalities

(Stevens-Johnson
Rare but serious
Johnson syndrome*) syndrome*, toxic ◆◆Hypersensitivity ◆◆Drowsiness
side-effects
◆◆Bone marrow epidermal necrolysis*) reactions including ◆◆Confusion
depression* severe skin rash
◆◆Liver failure ◆◆Bone marrow (Stevens-Johnson
depression* syndrome*)
◆◆Hepatitis
◆◆Lethargy
◆◆Nausea, vomiting, ◆◆Sedation
constipation ◆◆Tremor
◆◆Drowsiness ◆◆Tremor ◆◆Nausea, diarrhoea
Common side-effects ◆◆Drowsiness ◆◆Trouble walking ◆◆Drowsiness ◆◆Weight gain
◆◆Hyperactivity in children ◆◆Nausea ◆◆Ataxia and slurred ◆◆Transient hair loss
speech (regrowth normally
◆◆Motor twitching begins within 6 months)
◆◆Mental confusion ◆◆Impaired hepatic
function
◆◆Avoid phenobarbital in
Precautions
children with intellectual ◆◆Avoid valproate
disability or behavioural in pregnant women
problems
a
Available in the Interagency Emergency Health Kit (WHO, 2011)

38
3. Follow-up
»»Ensure regular follow-up: ◆◆Consider stopping the antiepileptic medication if
◆◆For the first 3 months or until seizures are controlled, no seizure has occurred in the last 2 years.
schedule follow-up appointments at least once a ▸▸When stopping the medication, the dose should be
month. tapered down slowly over several months to avoid
◆◆Meet every 3 months if seizures are controlled. seizures from medication withdrawal.
◆◆Refer to Principles of Management ◆◆Involve carers in monitoring for seizure control.
(>> General Principles of Care) for more detailed ◆◆Review lifestyle issues and provide further
advice on follow-up. psychoeducation/support to the person and the carers
»»At each follow-up: (>> Basic management plan step 1 described above).
◆◆Monitor for seizure control:
▸▸Refer to the seizure diary to see how well seizures
are controlled.
◆◆Maintain or adjust the antiepileptic medication
according to how well the seizures are controlled.
▸▸If seizures are still not controlled at the maximum
therapeutic dose of one medication or the side-
effects have become intolerable, change to
another medication. Gradually increase the dose
until seizures are controlled.
▸▸If seizures are very infrequent and a further
increase in the dose may produce severe side-
effects, then the current dose may be acceptable.
▸▸Consult a specialist if 2 medications were tried
one after another and neither achieved adequate
seizure control. Avoid treatment with more than
one antiepileptic medication at a time.

EPI
Box EPI 1: Special management considerations for women with epilepsy
»»If the woman is of childbearing age: »»The decision to start an antiepileptic medication in a
◆◆Give folate 5 mg/day to prevent possible birth pregnant woman should be made together with the
defects if she becomes pregnant. woman. The severity and frequency of the seizures
»»If she is pregnant: as well as the potential harm to the fetus from either
◆◆Consult with a specialist for management. the seizures or the medication should be considered.
◆◆Advise more frequent antenatal visits and delivery in If the decision is made to start medication, then
a hospital. either phenobarbital or carbamazepine can be used.
◆◆At delivery, give 1 mg vitamin K intramuscularly Valproate and polytherapy* should be avoided.
(i.m.) to the newborn. »»Carbamazepine can be used by women who are
breastfeeding.

Figure EPI 1: Example seizure diary

When the seizure occurred Description of seizure (including body Medications that were taken

Date Time parts affected and duration of seizure) Yesterday Today

39
 Box EPI 2: Assessment and management of a person who is convulsing or is unconscious
following a seizure
Assessment and management of acute seizures should proceed simultaneously.

»»Assessment of seizures »»Management of seizures

◆◆Stay calm. ◆◆Put the person on their side in the recovery position
Most seizures will stop after a few minutes. (see Basic management plan and Figures A–D
◆◆Check airway, breathing and circulation, including above).
blood pressure, respiratory rate and temperature. ◆◆If the seizure does not spontaneously stop after
◆◆Check for signs of head or spinal injury (e.g. dilated 1–2 minutes, insert an intravenous (i.v.) line
pupils may be a sign of serious head injury). as quickly as possible and give glucose and
◆◆Check for stiff neck or fever (signs of meningitis). benzodiazepines slowly (30 drops/minute).
»»Ask the carer: ▸▸If an i.v. line is difficult to establish, give the
◆◆When did this seizure start? benzodiazepines through the rectum.
◆◆Is there a past history of seizures? ▸▸Caution: benzodiazepines can slow down
◆◆Is there is a history of head or neck injury? breathing. Give oxygen if available and monitor
◆◆Are there other medical problems? the person’s respiratory status frequently.
◆◆Did the person take any medication, poison, alcohol ▸▸Child glucose dose: 2–5 ml/kg of 50% glucose
or drugs? ▸▸Child benzodiazepines dose:
◆◆If female: Is she in the second half of pregnancy or ∙∙diazepam rectally 0.2–0.5 mg/kg or
first week after delivery? ∙∙diazepam i.v. 0.1–0.3 mg/kg or
∙∙lorazepam i.v. 0.1 mg/kg.
»»Refer urgently to a hospital: ▸▸Adult glucose dose: 5 ml of 50% glucose
◆◆If there is any sign of major injury, shock* or ▸▸Adult benzodiazepines dose:
breathing problem ∙∙diazepam rectally 10–20 mg or
◆◆If the person may have had a serious head or neck ∙∙diazepam i.v. 10–20 mg slowly or
injury: ∙∙lorazepam i.v. 4 mg.
▸▸Do not move the person’s neck.
▸▸Do not give benzodiazepines intramuscularly
▸▸Log-roll* the person when transferring them.
(i.m.).
◆◆If the person is a woman in the second half of ◆◆Give the second dose of benzodiazepines if the
pregnancy or less than 1 week after delivery seizure continues for 5–10 minutes after the first
◆◆If neuroinfection is suspected dose.
◆◆If it has been more than 5 minutes since ◆◆Use the same dose as the first dose.
EPI

the seizure started. ◆◆Do not give more than 2 doses of benzodiazepines.
If the person needs more than 2 doses, they should
be sent to a hospital.
◆◆Suspect status epilepticus if:
▸▸Seizures occur frequently and the person does
not recover in between episodes, or
▸▸Seizures are not responsive to 2 doses of
benzodiazepines, or
▸▸Seizures last for more than 5 minutes.
»»Refer urgently to a hospital:
◆◆If status epilepticus is suspected (see above)
◆◆If the person does not respond to the first 2 doses
of benzodiazepines
◆◆If the person is having breathing problems after
receiving benzodiazepines.

40
Intellectual Disability ID
Intellectual disability9 is characterized by limitations across multiple areas of expected
intellectual development (i.e. cognitive*, language, motor and social skills)
that are not reversible. The limitations have existed from birth or started during
childhood. Intellectual disability interferes with learning, daily functioning and
adaptation to a new environment.
People with intellectual disability often have substantial care needs. They often
experience challenges in accessing health care and education. They are extremely
vulnerable to abuse, neglect and exposure to hazardous situations in chaotic
emergency environments. For example, people with intellectual disability are more
likely to walk into dangerous areas unknowingly. Moreover, they can be perceived
as burdensome by their families and communities and may be abandoned during

ID
displacement. Therefore, people with intellectual disability require extra attention
during humanitarian emergencies.
This module covers moderate, severe and profound intellectual disability in children,
adolescents and adults.

Typical presenting complaints

»» In infants: poor feeding, failure to thrive, poor motor tone, delay in meeting
expected developmental milestones for appropriate age and stage such as
smiling, sitting, standing.

»» In children: delay in meeting expected developmental milestones for appropriate

age such as walking, toilet training, talking, reading and writing.

»» In adults: reduced ability to live independently or look after oneself

and/or children.

»» In all ages: difficulty carrying out daily activities considered normal for the
person’s age; difficulty understanding instructions; difficulty meeting demands
of daily life.

9
The draft, proposed ICD-11 name for this condition is Disorder of Intellectual Development.

41
 Assessment

Assessment question 1: Does the person have intellectual disability?

»»Review the person’s skills and functioning: ◆◆Rule out hearing impairment:
◆◆For young children and toddlers, assess whether ▸▸For a child >6 months, ask the carer if the child can
the child has fully reached age-appropriate do the following, while directly observing the child
milestones across all developmental areas yourself:
(>> Box ID 1 with warning signs). ∙∙if the child turns his/her head to see who is
◆◆Suggested questions to carers of children: speaking from behind
▸▸Is your child behaving like others of the same age? ∙∙if the child reacts to loud noises
▸▸What kinds of things can your child do alone ∙∙if the child makes various vocal sounds (tata,
(sitting, walking, eating, dressing or toileting)? dada, baba).
▸▸How does your child communicate with you? ▸▸ If any of the answers is No, inform the carer that
Does the child smile at you? Does the child react the child may have impaired hearing and consult a
to his/her name? How does the child talk to you? specialist, if available.
Is the child able to ask for what he/she wants? ◆◆Rule out problems in the environment:
▸▸How does your child play? Is your child able to play ▸▸Moderate-severe depressive disorder in the mother
well with other children of the same age? or main carer (>> DEP)
◆◆For older children and adolescents, ask whether ▸▸Lack of stimulation (stimulation is essential for
they go to school and, if so, how they are managing brain development in young children).
schoolwork (learning, reading and writing) and ∙∙Who regularly interacts and plays with the child?
everyday household activities. ∙∙How do you/they play with your child?
▸▸Are you going to school? How are you doing in How often?
school? Are you able to finish your schoolwork? ∙∙How do you/they communicate with your child?
Do you often have difficulties in school because How often?
you cannot understand or follow instructions? ◆◆Rule out malnutrition and other nutritional
◆◆For adults, ask whether they work and, if so, how or hormonal deficiencies including iodine deficiency*
they are managing their work and other daily and hypothyroidism*.
activities. ◆◆Rule out epilepsy (>> EPI), which can mimic or occur
▸▸Do you work? What kind of work do you do? together with intellectual disability.
Do you often get into trouble at work because you »»Manage the identified treatable problems and follow
cannot understand or follow instructions? up to reassess whether the person has intellectual
ID

◆◆For older children, adolescents and adults, ask how disability.

much help the person is currently receiving to do ◆◆For confirmed cases of hearing and visual
daily activities (e.g. at home, school, work). impairments, provide or advocate for necessary aids
»»If there is delay in reaching expected developmental (glasses, hearing aid).
milestones, rule out treatable or reversible conditions ◆◆Manage depressive disorder in the carer, if applicable.
that can mimic intellectual disability. ◆◆Teach the carer how to provide a more stimulating
◆◆Rule out visual impairment: environment for young children. See Counsel the
▸▸For a child >6 months, ask the carer if the child can Family for Care for Development: Counselling Cards
do the following, while directly observing the child (UNICEF and WHO, 2012).
yourself: ◆◆Refer the person to Early Childhood Development
∙∙if the child can follow a moving object with (ECD) programmes, if appropriate.
their eyes »»Intellectual disability is likely if a) there is a significant
∙∙if the child can recognize familiar people delay in reaching expected developmental milestones
∙∙if the child can grab an object with their hands. and difficulty meeting demands of daily life and b)
▸▸If any of the answers is No, inform the carer that treatable or reversible conditions have been ruled out
the child may have impaired vision and consult or addressed.
a specialist, if available.

Assessment question 2: Are there associated behavioural problems?

»»Not listening to carers »»Eating non-organic materials
»»Temper tantrums. Aggression and self-harming »»Reckless sexual or other problematic behaviour.
behaviour when upset

42
Basic Management Plan

1. Offer psychoeducation
»»Explain the disability to the person and their carers. ◆◆Carers should reward the person when the behaviour
People with intellectual disability should not be blamed is good and withhold rewards when the behaviour is
for the disability. The aim is for the carers to have problematic. Use a balanced discipline:
realistic expectations and to be kind and supportive. ▸▸Give clear, simple and short instructions on what
»»Provide parenting skills training. The aim should be to the person should do rather than what the person
improve positive interactions between parent/carer should not do. Break complex activities into smaller
and child. Teach the carers skills that can help reduce steps so that the person can learn and be rewarded
behaviour problems. one step at a time (e.g. learning to put trousers on
◆◆Carers should understand the importance of training before buttoning them up).
the person to perform self-care and hygiene (e.g. ▸▸When the person does something good, offer a
toilet training, brushing teeth). reward. Distract the person from the things they
◆◆Carers should have very good knowledge of the should not do. However, such distraction should
person. Carers should know what stresses the person not be pleasurable and rewarding for the person.
and what makes them happy, what causes behaviour ▸▸DO NOT use threats or physical punishments when
problems and what prevents them, what the person’s the behaviour is problematic.
strengths and weaknesses are and how the person »»Educate the carers that the person is more vulnerable
learns best. to physical and sexual abuse in general, requiring extra
◆◆Carers should keep the person’s daily activities such attention and protection.
as eating, playing, learning, working and sleeping as »»Educate carers to avoid institutionalization.
regular as possible.

2. Promote community-based protection

»»Assess the availability of community-based protection
(e.g. informal groups, local NGOs, governmental
agencies or international agencies) and ask for relevant
support for the person.

ID
3. Advocate for inclusion in community activities
»»If the person is a child, keep them in normal schools »»Encourage participation in enjoyable social activities in
as much as possible. the community.
◆◆Liaise with the child’s school to explore possibilities »»Assess availability of community-based rehabilitation
of adapting the learning environment to the child. (CBR*) programmes and advocate to have the person
Simple tips are available in Inclusive Education of with intellectual disability included in such programmes.
Children At Risk (INEE).

4. Care for the carers according to the Principles of Reducing Stress

and Strengthening Social Support (>> General Principles of Care)

5. If possible, refer to a specialist for further assessment and management

of possible concurrent developmental conditions
»»Irreversible motor impairment or cerebral palsy* »»Birth defects, genetic abnormalities or syndromes
(e.g. Down syndrome*).

6. Follow-up
»»Schedule and conduct follow-up sessions according
to the Principles of Management (>> General Principles
of Care).

43
 Box ID 1: Developmental milestones: warning signs to watch for

◆◆Poor suckling at the breast or refusing to suckle

◆◆Little movement of arms and legs
By the age of 1 MONTH ◆◆Little or no reaction to loud sounds or bright lights
◆◆Crying for long periods for no apparent reason
◆◆Vomiting and diarrhoea, which can lead to dehydration
◆◆Stiffness or difficulty moving limbs
◆◆Constant moving of the head (this might indicate an ear infection, which could
By the age of 6 MONTHS lead to deafness if not treated)
◆◆Little or no response to sounds, familiar faces or the breast
◆◆Refusing the breast or other foods
◆◆Does not make sounds in response to others
By the age of 12 MONTHS
◆◆Does not look at objects that move
◆◆Listlessness and lack of response to the caregiver
◆◆Lack of appetite or refusal of food
◆◆Lack of response to others
◆◆Difficulty keeping balance while walking
By the age of 2 YEARS ◆◆Injuries and unexplained changes in behaviour (especially if the child has been
cared for by others)
◆◆Lack of appetite
◆◆Loss of interest in playing
◆◆Frequent falling
By the age of 3 YEARS
◆◆Difficulty manipulating small objects
◆◆Failure to understand simple messages
◆◆Inability to speak using several words
◆◆Little or no interest in food

By the age of 5 YEARS

◆◆Fear, anger or violence when playing with other children, which could be signs
of emotional problems or abuse
ID

◆◆Difficulties making and keeping friends and participating in group activities

◆◆Avoiding a task or challenge without trying, or showing signs of helplessness
By the age of 8 YEARS ◆◆Trouble communicating needs, thoughts and emotions
◆◆Trouble focusing on tasks, understanding and completing schoolwork
◆◆Excessive aggression or shyness with friends and family
Source: UNICEF, WHO, UNESCO, UNFPA, UNDP, UNAIDS, WFP and World Bank (2010)

44
H armful Use of
Alcohol and Drugs
SUB
See Box SUB 1 on page 48 for assessment and management
of life-threatening alcohol withdrawal.

Use of alcohol or drugs (e.g. opiates* (e.g. heroin), cannabis*, amphetamines*, khat*,
diverse prescribed medications such as benzodiazepines* and tramadol*)
can lead to various problems. These include withdrawal (physical and mental
symptoms that occur upon cessation or significant reduction of use), dependence*
and harmful use (damage to physical or mental health and/or general well-being).
Use of alcohol or drugs is harmful when it leads to physical or mental disorders,
risky health behaviours, family/relationship problems, sexual and physical violence,

SUB
accidents, child abuse and neglect, financial difficulties and other protection issues.
The prevalence of harmful alcohol or drug use may increase during humanitarian
emergencies as adults and adolescents may try to cope with stress, loss or pain
by self-medicating*.
Acute emergencies can disrupt alcohol or drug supply, leading to unexpected life-
threatening withdrawal symptoms in individuals who were using substances over a
prolonged period of time at relatively high doses. This is particularly true for alcohol.
This module focuses on harmful use of alcohol or drugs and includes a box on
life-threatening alcohol withdrawal (>> Box SUB 1). For other aspects of alcohol
or drug use, see alcohol or drug use modules of the full mhGAP Intervention Guide.

Typical presenting complaints

»» Appearing to be under the influence of alcohol or drugs

(e.g. smelling of alcohol, looking intoxicated, being agitated, fidgeting, having
low energy, slurred speech, unkempt appearance, dilated/constricted pupils*)

»» Recent injury

»» Signs of intravenous (i.v.) drug use (injection marks, skin infection)

»» Requests for sleeping tablets or painkillers.

45
 Assessment

Assessment question 1: Is there harm to physical or mental health and/or

general well-being from alcohol or drug use?
»»Explore the use of alcohol or drugs, without sounding »»Perform a quick general physical examination to look
judgemental. for the signs of chronic alcohol or drug use
»»Ask: ◆◆Gastrointestinal bleeding
▸▸abdominal pain
◆◆Amount and pattern of use
▸▸blood in vomit
▸▸Do you drink alcohol? If so, in what form?
▸▸blood in stool or black stool
How many drinks per day/week?
▸▸Do you use prescribed sleeping tablets/anxiety
◆◆Liver disease
▸▸Severe: jaundice, ascites*, enlarged and hardened
pills/painkillers? What kind? How many per day/
week? liver and spleen, hepatic encephalopathy*
▸▸Do you use illegal drugs? What kind?
◆◆Malnutrition, severe weight loss
How do you take them – by mouth, injection, ◆◆Evidence of infections associated with drug use
snorting? How much/how often per day/week? (e.g. HIV, hepatitis B or C, injection site skin infections
or tuberculosis).
◆◆Triggers to alcohol or drug use
▸▸What makes you want to take alcohol or drugs? »»Assess for both harmful alcohol and drug use in the
◆◆Harm to self or others same person as they often occur together.
▸▸Medical problems or injuries as a result of alcohol
or drug use
∙∙Have you experienced health problems since you
started drinking alcohol or using drugs?
∙∙Have you ever been injured while you were
under the influence of alcohol or drugs?
▸▸Continued use of alcohol or drugs despite advice
to stop
∙∙When the person was pregnant or breastfeeding
∙∙When the person was told there is a problem
SUB

with their stomach or liver because of drinking or

drug use
∙∙When the person was on medications that have
harmful interactions with alcohol or drugs,
such as sedatives, analgesics or tuberculosis
medications
▸▸Social problems as a result of alcohol or drug use:
∙∙Financial or legal problems
∙∙Have you ever been in trouble with money or
broken the law because of alcohol or drug use?
∙∙Occupational problems
∙∙Have you ever lost a job or done badly at work
because of your alcohol or drug use?
∙∙Difficulty caring for children or other dependants
∙∙Have you ever found it hard to take care of your
child/family because of alcohol or drug use?
∙∙Violence towards others
∙∙Have you ever hurt someone while taking
alcohol or drugs?
∙∙Relationship/marital problems
∙∙Has your alcohol or drug use ever caused
a problem with your partner?

46
Basic Management Plan

1. Manage the harmful effects of alcohol or drug use

»»Provide necessary medical care for physical »»Address urgent social consequences (e.g. liaise with
consequences of harmful alcohol or drug use. protection services in case of abuse, such as gender-
»»Manage any concurrent mental conditions, such based violence).
as moderate-severe depressive disorder, PTSD and
psychosis (>> DEP, PTSD, PSY).

2. Assess the person’s motivation to stop or reduce the use of alcohol or drugs
»»Assess whether the person sees alcohol or drug use as ◆◆Have you thought about stopping or reducing your
a problem and if the person is ready to do something alcohol or drug use?
about it. ◆◆Have you tried stopping or reducing alcohol or drug
◆◆Do you think you may have a problem with alcohol use in the past?
or drugs?

3. Motivate the person to either stop or reduce the use of alcohol or drugs
»»Initiate a brief motivational conversation about ◆◆Provide additional information on the harmful effects
harmful use: of alcohol and drugs, both short-term and long-term.
◆◆Ask about the perceived benefits and harms ▸▸Alcohol or drugs may result in serious medical
of alcohol or drug use. Do not be judgemental, and mental health problems, including injuries
but try to understand what motivates the person and addiction.
to use alcohol or drugs. ◆◆Acknowledge that stopping alcohol or drug use
▸▸What kind of pleasure do you get when taking is difficult. Let the person know you are willing
alcohol or drugs? to support them. Encourage people to decide
▸▸Do you see any negative aspects of taking alcohol for themselves if it is a good idea to stop alcohol
or drugs? or drugs.
▸▸Did you ever regret using alcohol or drugs?
◆◆If the person is not ready to stop or reduce alcohol

SUB
◆◆Challenge any exaggerated sense of benefit from or drugs, respect the decision. Ask the person
alcohol or drug use. For example, if the person uses to come back another time to talk further.
alcohol or drugs to try to forget life problems, say:
▸▸Is forgetting the problem really a good thing?
»»Repeat the brief motivational conversations described
Does that make the problem go away? above over several sessions.

◆◆Highlight some of the negative aspects of alcohol

and drug use that may have been underestimated
by the person.
▸▸How much money do you spend buying alcohol
or drugs? Per week? Per month? Per year?
What else could you be doing with that money?

4. Discuss various ways to reduce or stop harmful use

»»Discuss the following strategies: »»Consider referral to a self-help group for alcohol
◆◆Do not store alcohol or drugs at home. or drug use, if available.
◆◆Do not go near places where people may use alcohol »»If the person agrees to stop using alcohol or drugs, then
or drugs. inform them of the possibility of developing transient
◆◆Ask for support from carers and friends. withdrawal symptoms (i.e. <1 week).
◆◆Ask carers to accompany the person to follow-up visits. Describe the symptoms (e.g. anxiety and agitation after
◆◆Encourage social activities without alcohol or drugs. withdrawal from opiates, benzodiazepines
and alcohol). Advise the person to return to the clinic
if there are severe symptoms.

5. Offer psychosocial support as described in the Principles of Reducing Stress

and Strengthening Social Support (>> General Principles of Care)
»»Address current psychosocial stressors. »»Teach stress management.
»»Strengthen social support.

6. Offer regular follow-up

»»Continue to offer support, discuss and work together Schedule and conduct regular follow-up sessions
with the person and the carers about reducing (>> Principles of Management in General Principles
or stopping alcohol or drug use. of Care).

47
 Box SUB 1 Assessment and management of life-threatening alcohol withdrawal
Typical presenting complaints of person with life-threatening alcohol withdrawal
»»Agitation, severe anxiety »»Convulsions/seizures
»»Confusion or hallucinations* (seeing, hearing »»Increased blood pressure (e.g. >180/100 mm Hg)
or feeling things that are not there) and/or heart rate (e.g >100 bpm).

Assessment of life-threatening alcohol withdrawal

Assessment question 1: Is this alcohol withdrawal? Assessment question 2: If the person has alcohol
»»Rule out and manage other causes that can explain the withdrawal, is this life-threatening alcohol withdrawal?
symptoms, including: »»Assess for life-threatening features:
◆◆Malaria, HIV/AIDS, other infections, head injury, ◆◆Convulsions/seizures (typically within 48 hours)
metabolic abnormality* (e.g. hypoglycemia*, ◆◆Features of delirium* (typically within 96 hours)
hyponatraemia*), hepatic encephalopathy, ▸▸acute confusion, disorientation
hyperthyroidism*, stroke, drug use ▸▸hallucinations.
(e.g. amphetamines), known history of psychosis »»Assess whether the person is at high risk of developing
and known history of epilepsy. life-threatening features (convulsions or delirium) in the
»»If the above causes are ruled out, take an alcohol history next 1–2 days:
by asking the person and carers: ◆◆Previous life-threatening features (convulsions or
◆◆Does the person drink alcohol? delirium) or
◆◆When was the last drink? ◆◆Current and severe withdrawal symptoms:
◆◆How much does the person usually drink? ▸▸severe agitation, severe irritability, severe anxiety
»»Alcohol withdrawal is likely if the symptoms develop ▸▸excessive sweating, tremor of hands
after the cessation of regular/heavy alcohol use. This ▸▸increased blood pressure (e.g. >180/100 mm Hg)
happens typically 1–2 days after the last drink. and/or heart rate (e.g. >100 bpm).
◆◆If the person has seizures or hallucinations and if
alcohol withdrawal is not suspected, then assess for
epilepsy (>> EPI) or psychosis (>> PSY).

If delirium due to alcohol withdrawal is suspected, initiate the emergency management plan for life-
threatening alcohol withdrawal (see below) and arrange accompanied transfer to the nearest hospital.

Emergency management plan for life-threatening alcohol withdrawal

SUB

1. Treat alcohol withdrawal immediately »»If possible, provide a quiet, non-stimulating and well-lit
with diazepam (>> Table SUB 1) environment. Try to provide some light even at night to
»»The dose of diazepam treatment depends on the prevent falls if the person decides to get up in the middle
person’s tolerance* for diazepam, the severity of the of the night. Consider putting the person on a mattress
withdrawal symptoms and the presence of concurrent on the floor to prevent injury. If possible, ask a carer to
physical disorders. stay with the person and monitor. Avoid restraints if at
◆◆Adjust the dose to the observed effect. The right dose all possible.
is the one that gives slight sedation.
▸▸Too high a dose can cause over-sedation and depress 2. Address malnutrition
respiration. Monitor the person’s respiratory rate »»Give vitamin B1 (thiamine) 100 mg/day orally for 5 days.
and level of sedation (e.g. sleepiness) frequently. »»Assess for and address malnourishment.
▸▸Too low a dose risks seizures/delirium.
»»Monitor the withdrawal symptoms frequently (every 3–4 3. Maintain hydration
hours). Continue to use diazepam until symptoms resolve »»Start i.v. hydration if possible.
(typically 3–4 days but no longer than 7 days).
»»Encourage oral fluid intake (at least 2–3 litres/day).
»»In the case of a withdrawal seizure, DO NOT use
antiepileptic drugs. Continue using diazepam.
4. When the life-threatening withdrawal is over,
»»Symptoms of delirium such as confusion, agitation proceed to assessment and management
or hallucinations can persist for several weeks after other
alcohol withdrawal symptoms have resolved. In this case,
of harmful alcohol or drug use
consider using antipsychotics such as haloperidol 2.5–5 (see main text of this module)
mg orally up to 3 times daily until confusion, agitation or
hallucinations improve. In some cases it may take several
weeks for hallucinations and confusion to resolve. Do not
oversedate.

Table SUB 1: Diazepam for life-threatening alcohol withdrawal

Diazepama
Initial dose 10–20 mg up to 4 times/day for 3–7 days
Gradually decrease the dose and/or frequency as soon as the symptoms improve.
Subsequent dose Monitor frequently, as people respond differently to this medication
Route Oral
Respiratory depression*, severely impaired consciousness
Severe side-effects (rare) Caution: monitor respiratory rate and level of sedation frequently
Drowsiness, amnesia, altered consciousness, muscle weakness
Common side-effects Caution: do not give another dose if the person is drowsy
Use one quarter to half of the suggested dose in older people
Precautions in special groups Do not use in people with respiratory problems
a
Available in the Interagency Emergency Health Kit (WHO, 2011)

48
Suicide SUI
Mental disorder, acute emotional distress and hopelessness are common
in humanitarian settings. Such problems may lead to suicide* or acts of self-harm*.
Some health-care workers mistakenly fear that asking about suicide will provoke
the person to attempt suicide. On the contrary, talking about suicide often reduces
the person’s anxiety around suicidal thoughts, helps the person feel understood and
opens opportunities to discuss the problem further.

Adults and adolescents with any of the mental, neurological or substance use (MNS)
conditions covered in this guide are at risk of suicide or self-harm.

SUI
Typical presenting complaints of a person at risk of suicide
or self-harm

Feeling extremely upset or distressed

Profound hopelessness or sadness

Past attempts of self-harm (e.g. acute pesticide intoxication, medication overdose,

self-inflicted wounds).

49
 Assessment

Assessment question 1: Has the person recently attempted suicide or self-harm?

»»Assess for:
◆◆Poisoning, alcohol/drug intoxication, medication
overdose or other self-harm
◆◆Signs requiring urgent medical treatment
▸▸Bleeding from self-inflicted wound
▸▸Loss of consciousness
▸▸Extreme lethargy.

Assessment question 2: Is there an imminent risk of suicide or self-harm?

»»Ask the person and/or carers about: »»The person is considered at imminent risk of suicide
◆◆Thoughts or plans of suicide or self-harm if either of the following is present:
(currently or in past month) ◆◆Current thoughts, plans or acts of suicide
◆◆Acts of self-harm in the past year ◆◆History of thoughts or plans of self-harm in the
◆◆Access to means of suicide (e.g. pesticides, rope, past month or acts of self-harm in the past year in
weapons, knives, prescribed medications and drugs). a person who is now extremely agitated, violent,
»»Look for: distressed
◆◆Severely emotional distress or hopelessness or uncommunicative.
◆◆Violent behaviour or extreme agitation
◆◆Withdrawal or unwillingness to communicate.
SUI

Assessment question 3: Are there concurrent conditions associated

with suicide or self-harm?
»»Assess and manage possible concurrent conditions: ◆◆Psychosis (>> PSY)
◆◆Chronic pain or disability (e.g. due to recent injuries ◆◆Harmful alcohol or drug use (>> SUB)
incurred during the humanitarian emergency) ◆◆Post-traumatic stress disorder (>> PTSD)
◆◆Moderate-severe depressive disorder (>> DEP) ◆◆Acute emotional distress (>> ACU, GRI, OTH).

Box SUI 1: How to talk about suicide or self-harm

1. Create a safe and private atmosphere for the person to share thoughts.
»»Do not judge the person for being suicidal. »»Offer to talk with the person alone or with other
people of their choice.

2. Use a series of questions where any answer naturally leads to another question. For example:
»»[Start with the present] How do you feel? »»Do you think about hurting yourself?
»»[Acknowledge the person’s feelings] You look sad/ »»Have you made any plans to end your life?
upset. I want to ask you a few questions about it. »»If so, how are you planning to do it?
»»How do you see your future? What are your hopes »»Do you have the means to end your life?
for the future?
»»Have you considered when to do it?
»»Some people with similar problems have told me
that they felt life was not worth living. Do you go »»Have you ever attempted suicide?
to sleep wishing that you might not wake up in
the morning?

3. If the person has expressed suicidal ideas:

»»Maintain a calm and supportive attitude »»Do not make false promises.

50
Basic Management Plan

1. If the person has attempted suicide, provide the necessary medical care,
monitoring and psychosocial support
»»Provide medical care: »»Monitor the person continuously while they are still
◆◆Treat those who have inflicted self-harm with the at imminent risk of suicide (see below for guidance).
same care, respect and privacy given to others. Do not »»Offer psychosocial support (see below for guidance).
punish them.
◆◆Treat the injury or poisoning. »»Consult a mental health specialist if available.
▸▸For acute pesticide intoxication, see Clinical
Management of Acute Pesticide Intoxication
(WHO, 2008).
◆◆In the case of a prescribed medication overdose
where medication is still required, choose the least
harmful alternative medication. If possible, prescribe
the new medication for short periods of time only
(e.g. a few days to 1 week at a time) to prevent
another overdose.

2. If the person is at imminent risk of suicide or self-harm,

monitor and provide psychosocial support
»»Monitor the person: »»Offer psychosocial support:
◆◆Create a safe and supportive environment for the ◆◆DO NOT start by offering potential solutions to the
person. Remove all possible means of self-harm/ person’s problems. Instead, try to instil hope. For
suicide and, if possible, offer a separate, quiet room. example:
However, do not leave the person alone. Have carers ▸▸Many people who have been in similar situations

SUI
or staff stay with the person at all times. – feeling hopeless, wishing they were dead – have
◆◆DO NOT routinely admit people to general medicine then discovered that there is hope, and their
wards to prevent acts of suicide. Hospital staff may feelings have improved with time.
not be able to monitor a suicidal person sufficiently. ◆◆Help the person to identify reasons to stay alive.
However, if admission to a general ward for the ◆◆Search together for solutions to the problems.
medical consequences of self-harm is required, ◆◆Mobilize carers, friends, other trusted individuals
monitor the person closely to prevent subsequent acts and community resources to monitor and support
of self-harm in the hospital. the person if they are at imminent risk of suicide.
◆◆Regardless of the location, ensure that the person Explain to them about the need for 24-hour-per-day
is monitored 24 hours a day until they are no longer monitoring. Ensure that they come up with a concrete
at imminent risk of suicide. and feasible plan (e.g. who is monitoring the person
at what time of the day).
◆◆Offer additional psychosocial support as described in
the Principles of Reducing Stress and Strengthening
Social Support (>> General Principles of Care).
»»Consult a mental health specialist if available.

3. Care for the carers as described in the Principles of Reducing Stress

and Strengthening Social Support (>> General Principles of Care)

4. Maintain regular contact and follow-up

»»Make sure there is a concrete plan for follow-up »»Follow up frequently in the beginning (e.g. weekly
sessions and that the carers take responsibility for for the first 2 months) and decrease frequency
ensuring follow-up (>> Principles of Management in as the person improves (every 2–4 weeks).
General Principles of Care). »»Follow up for as long as the suicide risk persists.
»»Maintain regular contact (e.g. via telephone, text At every contact, routinely assess suicidal thoughts
messages or home visits) with the person. and plans.

51
 ther Significant OTH
OMental Health Complaints

While this guide has covered key mental, neurological and substance use (MNS)
conditions relevant to humanitarian settings, it does not cover all possible mental
health conditions that can occur. Therefore, this module aims to provide basic guidance
on initial support for adults, adolescents and children who suffer from mental health
complaints that are not covered elsewhere in this guide.

Other mental health complaints include

OTH
(a) various physical symptoms that do not have physical causes and
(b) mood and behaviour changes that cause concern but do not fully meet
the criteria of the conditions covered in other modules of this guide.

These may include complaints involving mild depressive disorder and a range
of subclinical conditions.

Other mental health complaints are considered significant when they impair
daily functioning or when the person seeks help for them.

53
 Assessment

Assessment question 1: Is there a physical cause that fully explains

the presenting symptoms?
»»Conduct a general physical examination followed by »»Manage any physical cause identified and recheck
appropriate medical investigations. if the symptoms persist.

Assessment question 2: Is this an MNS condition discussed in another

module of this guide?
»»Exclude: ◆◆Harmful alcohol or drug use (>> SUB)
◆◆Significant symptoms acute stress (>> ACU) ▸▸Core feature:
▸▸Core features: ∙∙use of alcohol or drugs that is causing harm to
∙∙potentially traumatic event within the last month self and/or others.
∙∙symptoms started after the loss ◆◆Suicide/self-harm (>> SUI)
∙∙help-seeking to relieve symptoms or has ▸▸Core features:
considerable difficulty with daily functioning ∙∙current acts of self-harm; current thoughts and
because of the symptoms. plans of suicide, or
◆◆Significant symptoms grief (>> GRI) ∙∙recent thoughts, plans and acts of self-harm in
▸▸Core features: a person who is severely distressed, agitated,
∙∙major loss unwilling to communicate or withdrawn.
∙∙symptoms started after the event »»If any of the above conditions are suspected, then
∙∙help-seeking to relieve symptoms or has go to the appropriate module for assessment and
considerable difficulty with daily functioning management.
because of the symptoms.
◆◆Moderate-severe depressive disorder (>> DEP) »»If 1) physical causes are excluded, 2) the above MNS
▸▸Core features (for at least 2 weeks):
conditions are excluded and 3) the person is seeking
∙∙persistent depressed mood
help to relieve symptoms or has considerable difficulty
∙∙markedly diminished interest or pleasure in
with daily functioning because of their symptoms,
OTH

activities, especially those that were previously then the person has another significant mental health
enjoyable complaint.
∙∙considerable difficulty with daily functioning
◆◆It usually takes more than one meeting to exclude
because of the symptoms. physical causes and the above MNS conditions.
◆◆Post-traumatic stress disorder (>> PTSD)
▸▸Core features:
∙∙potentially traumatic event that happened more
than a month ago
∙∙recurring frightening dreams, flashbacks* or
intrusive memories* of the events accompanied
by intense fear or horror
∙∙deliberate avoidance of reminders of the event
∙∙heightened sense of current threat (excessive
concern and alertness to danger or reacting
strongly to loud noises or unexpected
movements)
∙∙Considerable difficulty with daily functioning
because of the symptoms.

Assessment question 3: If the person is an adolescent, is there a behavioural

problem?
»»Interview both the adolescent and the carers to assess »»If the adolescent has a behaviour problem, ask further
for persistent or concerning behavioural problems. questions about:
Examples include: ◆◆Extreme stressors in the adolescent’s past or current
◆◆Initiating violence life (e.g. sexual abuse)
◆◆Drug use ◆◆Parenting (inconsistent or harsh discipline, limited
◆◆Bullying or being cruel to peers emotional support, limited monitoring, mental
◆◆Vandalism condition in the carer)
◆◆Risky sexual behaviour. ◆◆How the adolescent spends most of his or her time.
Ask:
▸▸(if the adolescent works or goes to school)
How do you spend your time after work/school?
Are there any regular activities that you do?
▸▸Are you often bored?
What do you do when you are bored?
54
Basic Management Plan

DO NOT prescribe medicines for “other significant mental health complaints”

(unless advised by a specialist).
DO NOT give vitamin injections or other ineffective treatments.

1. In all cases (whether the person presents with emotional, physical

or behavioural problems), provide basic psychosocial support as described
in the Principles of Reducing Stress and Strengthening Social Support
(>> General Principles of Care)
»»Address current psychosocial stressors. »»Teach stress management.
»»Strengthen social support.

2. When no physical condition is identified that fully explains a presenting

somatic symptom, acknowledge the reality of the symptoms and provide
possible explanations
»»DO NOT order more laboratory or other investigations »»Acknowledge that the symptoms are not imaginary and
unless there is a clear medical indication (e.g. abnormal that it is still important to address symptoms that cause
vital signs). significant distress.
◆◆Ordering unnecessary clinical investigations may »»Ask for the person’s own explanation for the cause
reinforce the person’s belief that there is a physical
of the symptoms. This may give clues as to the cause,
problem.
help build a trusting relationship with the person and
◆◆Clinical investigations can have adverse side-effects. increase the person’s adherence to management.
»»Inform the person that no serious disease has been »»Explain that emotional suffering/stress often involves
identified. Communicate the normal clinical and test

OTH
the experience of bodily sensations (stomach ache,
findings.
muscle tension, etc.). Ask for and discuss potential links
◆◆We did not find any serious physical problem. between the person’s emotions/stress and symptoms.
I do not see a need for any more tests at this point.
»»If the person insists on further investigations, »»Encourage continuation of (or gradual return to) daily
activities.
consider saying:
◆◆Performing unnecessary investigations can be harmful »»Remember also to apply the Principles of Reducing
because they can cause unnecessary worry and Stress and Strengthening Social Support (>> General
side-effects. Principles of Care).

3. If the person is an adolescent who has behaviour problems

»»Take time to listen to the adolescent’s own perception ▸▸Never use physical punishment. Use praise for good
of the problem (preferably do this without the presence behaviour more than punishment for bad.
of the carers). ▸▸Do not confront the adolescent when you are very
»»Provide psychoeducation to the adolescent and their upset. Wait until you are calm.
carers. Explain the following: ◆◆Specific points for discussion with the adolescent:
◆◆Adolescents sometimes develop problematic ▸▸There are healthy ways to deal with boredom, stress
behaviours when they are angry, bored, anxious or or anger (e.g. doing activities that are relaxing,
sad. They need continuous care and support despite being physically active, engaging in community
their behaviour. activities).
◆◆Carers should make every effort to communicate with ▸▸It can be helpful to talk to trusted people about
the adolescent, even that it is difficult. feeling angry, bored, anxious or sad.
◆◆Specific messages for the carers: ▸▸Alcohol and other substance use can worsen feelings
▸▸Try to identify positive, enjoyable activities that of anger and depression and should be avoided.
you can do together. »»Promote participation in:
▸▸Be consistent with respect to what the adolescent ◆◆Formal and informal education
is allowed to do and not allowed to do. ◆◆Concrete, purposeful, common interest activities (e.g.
▸▸Praise or reward the adolescent for good constructing shelters)
behaviours and correct only the most problematic ◆◆Structured sports programmes.
behaviours. »»Remember also to apply the Principles of Reducing Stress
and Strengthening Social Support (>> General Principles
of Care) to this group of adolescents and their carers.
4. Follow-up
»»Advise the person to come back if the symptoms persist, »»If no improvement is seen or the person or the carer
worsen or become intolerable. insists on further investigations and treatment, consult
a specialist.
55
 Annex 1: UNHCR (2014) Health Information System (HIS) Case Definitions

1. Epilepsy/seizures 5. Moderate-severe emotional

A person with epilepsy has at least 2 episodes of disorder/depression
seizures not provoked by any apparent cause such as
This person’s daily normal functioning is markedly
fever, infection, injury or alcohol withdrawal. These
impaired for more than 2 weeks due to a)
episodes are characterized by loss of consciousness
overwhelming sadness/apathy and/or b) exaggerated,
with shaking of the limbs and sometimes associated
uncontrollable anxiety/fear. Personal relationships,
with physical injuries, bowel/bladder incontinence
appetite, sleep and concentration are often affected.
and tongue biting.
The person may complain of severe fatigue and be
socially withdrawn, often staying in bed for much of
the day. Suicidal thinking is common.
2. Alcohol or other substance
use disorder This category includes people with disabling forms
of depression, anxiety disorders and post-traumatic
A person with this disorder seeks to consume alcohol stress disorder (characterized by re-experiencing,
or other addictive substances and has difficulties avoidance and hyper-arousal). Presentations of
controlling consumption. Personal relationships, milder forms of these disorders are classified as
work performance and physical health often “other psychological complaint”.
deteriorate. The person continues consuming alcohol
or other addictive substances despite these problems.
6. Other psychological complaint
3. Intellectual disability This category covers complaints related to emotions
(e.g. depressed mood, anxiety), thoughts (e.g.
The person has very low intelligence, causing ruminating, poor concentration) or behaviour (e.g.
problems in daily living. As a child, this person is slow inactivity, aggression, avoidance).
in learning to speak. As an adult, the person can
work if tasks are simple. Rarely will this person be The person tends to be able to function in most
able to live independently or look after themselves day-to-day, normal activities. The complaint may be
and/or dependants without support from others. a symptom of a less severe emotional disorder (e.g.
When the disability is severe, the person may have mild forms of depression, of anxiety disorder or of
difficulties speaking and understanding others and post-traumatic stress disorder) or may represent
may require constant assistance. normal distress (i.e. no disorder).

Inclusion criteria: This category should only be

4. Psychotic disorder applied if a) if the person is requesting help for the
(including mania) complaint and b) if the person is not positive for any
of the above 5 categories.
The person may hear or see things that are not there
or strongly believe things that are not true. They may
talk to themselves, their speech may be confused 7. Medically unexplained
or incoherent and their appearance unusual. They
may neglect themselves. Alternatively, they may go somatic complaint
through periods of being extremely happy, irritable, This category covers any somatic/physical complaint
energetic, talkative and reckless. The person’s that does not have an apparent organic cause.
behaviour is considered “crazy”/highly bizarre by
other people from the same culture. This category Inclusion criteria: This category should only be
includes acute psychosis, chronic psychosis, mania applied a) after conducting necessary physical
and delirium. examinations, b) if the person is not positive for
any of the above 6 categories and c) if the person is
requesting help for the complaint.

56
Annex 2: Glossary 10 11

Ascites Abnormal accumulation of fluid in the abdomen, from various causes.

A subjective sense of restlessness, often accompanied by observed excessive movements (e.g.
Akathisia
fidgety movements of the legs, rocking from foot to foot, pacing, inability to sit or stand still).
Group of drugs that have a stimulant effect on the central nervous system. They can heighten
mental alertness and sense of being awake. They may be used as the basis of treatment
Amphetamines
for some health conditions but are also drugs of abuse that can produce hallucinations,
depression and cardiovascular effects.
Psychological treatment that focuses on improving mood by engaging again in activities that
Behavioural
are task-oriented and used to be enjoyable, in spite of current low mood. It may be used as
activation
a stand-alone treatment, and it is also a component of cognitive behavioural therapy.
Class of medicines that have sedative (sleep-inducing), anti-anxiety, anticonvulsant
Benzodiazepines
and muscle-relaxing properties.
Bipolar disorder Severe mental disorder characterized by alternation between manic and depressive episodes.
Bone marrow
Suppression of bone marrow function, which can lead to deficiencies in blood cell production.
depression
General name for parts of the hemp plant, from which marijuana, hashish and hash oil
are derived. These are either smoked or eaten to induce euphoria, relaxation and altered
Cannabis
perceptions. They may reduce pain. Harmful effects include demotivation, agitation
and paranoia.
Disorder of motor and intellectual abilities caused by early permanent damage to
Cerebral palsy
the developing brain.
Mental processes associated with thinking. These include reasoning, remembering,
Cognitive
judgement, problem-solving and planning.
Psychological treatment that combines cognitive components (aimed at thinking differently,
Cognitive behavioural for example through identifying and challenging unrealistic negative thoughts)
therapy (CBT) and behavioural components (aimed at doing things differently, for example by helping
the person to do more rewarding activities).
Psychological treatment based on the idea that people who were exposed to a traumatic
Cognitive behavioural event have unhelpful thoughts and beliefs related to that event and its consequences.
therapy with a These thoughts and beliefs result in unhelpful avoidance of the reminders of the event
trauma focus (CBT-T) and a sense of current threat. The treatment usually includes exposure to those reminders
and challenging unhelpful trauma-related thoughts or beliefs.
Set of interventions delivered through a multi-sectoral strategy in community settings, using
Community-based available community resources and institutions. It aims to achieve rehabilitation by enhancing
rehabilitation (CBR) the quality of life for people with disabilities and their families, meeting basic needs
and ensuring inclusion and participation.
Transient fluctuating mental state characterized by disturbed attention (i.e., reduced ability
to direct, focus, sustain, and shift attention) and awareness (i.e., reduced orientation to
the environment) that develops over a short period of time and tends to fluctuate during
Delirium the course of a day. It is accompanied by (other) disturbances of perception, memory,
thinking, emotions or psychomotor functions. It may result from acute organic causes such
as infections, medication, metabolic abnormalities, substance intoxication or substance
withdrawal.
Fixed belief that is contrary to available evidence. It cannot be changed by rational argument
Delusion and is not accepted by other members of the person’s culture or subculture (i.e., it is not an
aspect of religious faith).
People are dependent on a substance (drugs, alcohol or tobacco) when they develop
uncomfortable cognitive, behavioural and physiological symptoms in its absence.
Dependence
These withdrawal symptoms result in their seeking to take more of that substance.
They cannot control their substance use and continue despite adverse consequences.
The pupil (black part of the eye) is the opening in the centre of the iris that regulates
Dilated /constricted the amount of light getting into the eye. Pupils normally constrict (shrink) in light to protect
pupils the back of the eye and dilate (enlarge) in the dark to allow maximum light into the eye.
Having dilated or constricted pupils can be a sign of being under the influence of drugs.
A genetic condition caused by the presence of an extra chromosome 21.
Down syndrome It is associated with varying degrees of intellectual disability, delayed physical growth
and characteristic facial features.
10
Glossary terms are marked with the asterisk symbol * in the text.
11
The operational definitions included in this glossary are for use only within the scope and context of the publication mhGAP Humanitarian Intervention Guide
(mhGAP-HIG): Clinical management of mental, neurological and substance use conditions in humanitarian emergencies (WHO & UNHCR, 2015).

57
 Drug-disease Situation where a drug prescribed to treat one health condition affects another health
interaction condition in the same person.
Situation where two drugs taken by the same person interact with each other, altering
Drug-drug interaction the effect of either or both drugs. Interactions can include lessening the effect of a drug,
enhancing or speeding up an effect, or having a toxic effect.
Extrapyramidal side- Abnormalities in muscle movement, mostly caused by antipsychotic medication.
effects These include muscle tremors, stiffness, spasms and/or akathisia.
Psychological treatment based on the idea that negative thoughts, feelings and behaviours
Eye movement result from unprocessed memories of traumatic events. The treatment involves standardized
desensitisation and procedures that include focusing simultaneously on (a) associations of traumatic images,
reprocessing (EMDR) thoughts, emotions and bodily sensations and (b) bilateral stimulation that is most commonly
in the form of repeated eye movements.
An episode where the person believes and acts for a moment as though they are back
Flashback at the time of the event, living through it again. People with flashbacks briefly lose touch
with reality, usually for a few seconds or minutes.
False perception of reality: seeing, hearing, feeling, smelling or tasting things that are
Hallucination
not real.
Hepatic
Abnormal mental state including drowsiness, confusion or coma caused by liver dysfunction.
encephalopathy
Condition in which the thyroid gland produces and secretes excessive amounts of thyroid
Hyperthyroidism hormones. Some of the symptoms of this condition such as delirium, tremors, high blood
pressure and increased heart rate may be confused with alcohol withdrawal.
Breathing abnormally fast, resulting in hypocapnia (too little CO2 in the blood).
Hyperventilation This can produce characteristic symptoms of tingling or having a sensation of pins and needles
in the fingers and around the mouth, chest pain and dizziness.
Hypoglycaemia Abnormally low concentration of glucose (sugar) in the blood.
Hyponatraemia Abnormally low concentration of sodium (salt) in the blood.
Abnormally low activity of the thyroid gland. In adults, it can cause a range of symptoms
Hypothyroidism such as fatigue, lethargy, weight gain and low mood that can be confused with depression. If
present at birth and untreated, it may lead to intellectual disability and failure to grow.
Psychological treatment that focuses on the link between depressive symptoms and
Interpersonal therapy
interpersonal problems, especially those involving loss, conflict, isolation and major life
(IPT)
changes.
Intrusive memories Recurrent, unwanted, distressing memories of a traumatic event.
Condition where the body lacks iodine required for normal production of thyroid hormone,
Iodine deficiency
affecting growth and development.
Leaves of the shrub Catha edulis, containing a stimulant substance. It is both a recreational
Khat
drug and a drug of abuse and can create dependence.
Method of turning a person from one side to another without bending their neck or back,
Log-roll
in order to prevent spinal cord damage.
Medically
Partial or total loss of strength in any part of the body without any identifiable organic cause.
unexplained paralysis
Irritation of the layers of tissue that cover the brain and spinal cord, usually caused by
Meningeal irritation
an infection.
Metabolic
Abnormality in the body’s hormones, minerals, electrolytes or vitamins.
abnormality
The processes through which a bereaved person pays attention, bids farewell and
Mourning memorialises the dead, both in private and in public. Mourning usually involves rituals such as
funerals and customary behaviours such as changing clothing, remaining at home and fasting.
Neuroinfection Infection involving the brain and/or spinal cord.
Neuroleptic A rare but life-threatening condition caused by antipsychotic medications, which is
malignant syndrome characterised by fever, delirium, muscular rigidity and high blood pressure.
Non-steroidal anti-
Group of drugs used to suppress inflammation. They are often used for pain relief
inflammatory drugs
(for example, ibuprofen is an NSAID).
(NSAIDs)
Narcotic drug derived from the opium poppy. Opiates are very effective painkillers but can be
Opiate
addictive and create dependence. Heroin is an opiate.
Sudden drop of blood pressure that can occur when one changes position from lying to sitting
Orthostatic
or standing up, usually leading to feelings of light-headedness or dizziness.
hypotension
It is not life-threatening.

58
Polytherapy Provision of more than one medicine at the same time for the same condition.
Any threatening or horrific event such as physical or sexual violence, witnessing of an atrocity,
Potentially traumatic
destruction of a person’s house, or major accidents or injuries. Whether or not these kinds of
event
event are experienced as traumatic will depend on the person’s emotional response.
Problem-solving Psychological treatment that involves the systematic use of problem identification
counselling and problem-solving techniques over a number of sessions.
Techniques that involve working together with a person to brainstorm solutions and coping
Problem-solving strategies for identified problems, prioritizing them, and discussing how to implement these
techniques solutions and strategies. In mhGAP the term “problem-solving counselling” is used when
these techniques are used systematically over a number of sessions.
An episode that appears to be an epileptic seizure but actually is not. They can mimic
epileptic seizures closely in terms of changes in consciousness and movements, although
tongue biting, serious bruising due to falling, and incontinence of urine are rare. Such
“Pseudoseizure”
episodes do not show the electrical activity of epileptic seizures. Symptoms are not due to
a neurological condition or to the direct effects of a substance or medication. In ICD-11
proposals, these episodes are covered under dissociative motor disorder.
Provision of supportive care to people in distress who have recently been exposed to a crisis
Psychological first aid event. The care involves assessing immediate needs and concerns; ensuring that immediate
(PFA) basic physical needs are met; providing or mobilizing social support; and protecting from
further harm.
Behaviour that is inappropriate to a child’s actual developmental age but would be
Regressive behaviour appropriate for someone younger. Common examples are bedwetting and clinginess
in children.
Respiratory Inadequate slow breathing rate, resulting in insufficient oxygen. Common causes include
depression brain injury and intoxication (e.g. due to benzodiazepines).
Seizure Episode of brain malfunction due to abnormal electrical discharges.
Intentional self-inflicted poisoning or injury to oneself, which may or may not have a fatal
Self-harm
intent or outcome.
Self-administering alcohol or drugs (including prescribed medicines) to reduce physical
Self-medicating
or psychological problems without consulting a health professional.
Life-threatening condition caused by severe infection, with signs such as fever,
Sepsis
disruption of the circulatory system and dysfunction of organs.
Condition where a person’s circulatory system collapses as a result of an infection or other
toxins whereby the blood pressure may drop to a level unsustainable for survival. Signs
Shock
include low or undetectable blood pressure, cold skin, a weak or absent pulse, troubled
breathing and altered level of consciousness.
Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors: class of antidepressant drugs that selectively block the
SSRI reuptake of serotonin. Serotonin is a chemical messenger (neurotransmitter) in the brain that
is thought to affect a person’s mood. Fluoxetine is an SSRI.
A group of hormones available as medication that have important functions including
suppressing inflammatory reactions to infections, toxins and other immune-related disorders.
Steroids
Examples of steroid medication include glucocorticoids (e.g., prednisolone) and hormonal
contraceptives.
Life-threatening skin condition characterized by painful skin peeling, ulcers, blisters and
Stevens-Johnson crusting of mucocutaneous tissues such as mouth, lips, throat, tongue, eyes and genitals,
syndrome sometimes associated with fever. It is most often caused by severe reaction to medications,
especially antiepileptic drugs.
Suicide The act of deliberately causing one’s own death.
Tricyclic antidepressants: class of antidepressant drugs that block the reuptake
TCA of the neurotransmitters noradrenaline and serotonin. Examples include amitriptyline
and clomipramine.
Diminishing effect of a drug when used at the same dose. It results from the body’s
Tolerance habituation to the drug due to repeated consumption. Higher doses are then required
to create the same effect.
Toxic epidermal Life-threatening skin peeling that is usually caused by a reaction to a medicine or infection.
necrolysis It is similar to but more severe than Stevens-Johnson syndrome.
Prescribed opioid used to relieve pain. It is sometimes misused because it can induce feelings
Tramadol
of euphoria (feeling “high” or happy).
Tremor Trembling or shaking movements, usually of the fingers.
Urosepsis Sepsis caused by urinary tract infection.

59
 Annex 3: Symptom Index

Acute Stress (ACU)

Moderate-severe Depressive Disorder (DEP)
Anxiety Post-traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)
Psychosis (PSY)
Harmful Use of Alcohol and Drugs (SUB)

Acute Stress (ACU)

Appetite problem Grief (GRI)
Moderate-severe Depressive Disorder (DEP)

Acute Stress (ACU)

Bedwetting
Intellectual Disability (ID)

Psychosis (PSY)
Confusion Epilepsy/Seizures (EPI)
Harmful Use of Alcohol and Drugs (SUB)

Delusions Psychosis (PSY)

Acute Stress (ACU)

Grief (GRI)
Moderate-severe Depressive Disorder (DEP)
Difficulty carrying out usual activities Post-traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)
Psychosis (PSY)
Intellectual Disability (ID)
Harmful Use of Alcohol and Drugs (SUB)

Acute Stress (ACU)

Flashbacks
Post-traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)

Psychosis (PSY)
Hallucinations
Harmful Use of Alcohol and Drugs (SUB)

Grief (GRI)
Hopelessness Moderate-severe Depressive Disorder (DEP)
Suicide (SUI)

Hyperventilation Acute Stress (ACU)

Epilepsy/Seizures (EPI)
Incontinence
Intellectual Disability (ID)

Acute Stress (ACU)

Grief (GRI)
Insomnia Moderate-severe Depressive Disorder (DEP)
Post-traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)
Harmful Use of Alcohol and Drugs (SUB)

Acute Stress (ACU)

Intrusive memories Grief (GRI)
Post-traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)

Acute Stress (ACU)

Grief (GRI)
Irritability Moderate-severe Depressive Disorder (DEP)
Post-traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)
Harmful Use of Alcohol and Drugs (SUB)

Learning problem Intellectual Disability (ID)

Grief (GRI)
Loss of energy
Moderate-severe Depressive Disorder (DEP)

60
 Acute Stress (ACU)
Low interest, pleasure Grief (GRI)
Moderate-severe Depressive Disorder (DEP)

Psychosis (PSY)
Poor hygiene Intellectual Disability (ID)
Harmful Use of Alcohol and Drugs (SUB)

Acute Stress (ACU)

Grief (GRI)
Reduced concentration Moderate-severe Depressive Disorder (DEP)
Post-traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)
Harmful Use of Alcohol and Drugs (SUB)

Grief (GRI)
Sad mood
Moderate-severe Depressive Disorder (DEP)

Epilepsy/Seizures (EPI)
Seizures, convulsions
Harmful Use of Alcohol and Drugs (SUB)

Self-harm Suicide (SUI)

Acute Stress (ACU)

Grief (GRI)
Social withdrawal
Moderate-severe Depressive Disorder (DEP)
Psychosis (PSY)

Acute Stress (ACU)

Grief (GRI)
Unexplainable physical symptoms
Moderate-severe Depressive Disorder (DEP)
Post-traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)

61
In every general health facility in humanitarian emergencies
at least one supervised health care-staff member should
be capable to assess and manage mental, neurological
and substance use conditions.

The mhGAP Humanitarian Intervention Guide (mhGAP-HIG)

is a simple, practical resource that aims to ensure this target.

mental health Gap Action Programme