8 

CHAPTER 2
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

Related literature which was contained the main theory of the study, and

related study which i\was about the author’s research as the supporting theory and

some reference books and reliable sources that support the theory applied in this

research.

2.1 Semantic

Linguistic semantics is the topic of this book, but we need to limit to

ourselves to the expression of meanings in a single language, English. Charles

(1998:03). The researcher thinks that semantic was a part of linguistics. On the

other word, semantics was one of the branched of linguistics studying about the

meaning of language.

According to Charles W. Kreidler (1998:3) semantic is the systematic study

of meaning and linguistic semantic is the study of how languages organize and

express meanings. Its means that, meaning in linguistic semantic was very needed

for us to limit ourselves to the expression of meanings in a single language.

Charles said there were three disciplines were concerned with the systematic

study of meaning, in itself: psychology, philosophy and linguistics. It means that,

psychologist were interest in how individual humans learn, how they retain, recall

or loss information. Philosophies of language were concerned with how we know,

 
 
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how any particular fact that we know or accept as true was related to other

possible facts. And than, the last systematic study of meaning is about linguistic,

linguistics want to understand how language works.

The researcher understands that the meaning of a word is fully reflected by it

context. Here, the meaning of the word is constituted by its contextual relations.

Therefore, a distinction between of participation as well as modes of participation

was made. In order to, accomplish this distinction any part of a sentence that bears

a meaning and combines with the meanings of other constituents. Meaning could

be concluded that are idea or concepts that could be transferred from the mind of

the speaker to the mind the hearer by embodying them, as it were, in the form of

one language or another.

2. 2 Kind of Meanings

The study of linguistic meanings of morphemes, word, phrases, and sentence

is called semantics. Semantic is considered with aspect of meaning in language.

Dealing with the meaning, it could be categorized into some reference. According

to Charles W. Kreidler (1998:41) the dimensions of meaning include reference

and denotation, connotation, sense relations, lexical and grammatical meaning,

morphemes, homonymy, polysemy, lexical ambiguity, sentence and meaning.

According to Abdul Chaer (2007:289) kind of meaning include a lexical,

grammatical and contextual meaning, referential and non referential meaning,

denotative and connotative meaning, conceptual and associative meaning, and

lexeme. According to Jos Daniel Parera (2004:) kind of meaning include a

 
 
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theoretical of referential or correspondence, theoretical of contextual, the theory

of mentalism or conceptual, and theoretical formalism.

According Mansoer Pateda (2001:96) kind of meaning include a cognitive

meaning, ideational meaning, denotasional meaning, proposional meaning, while

Sipley Ed (1962:261-262) in Mansoer Pateda book (1990:16) kind of meaning

include emotive meaning, cognitif meaning, descriptive meaning, referential

meaning, pictorial meaning, dictionary meaning, fringe meaning, core meaning.

According to Verhaar (1983:124) ) in Mansoer Pateda book (1990:16) kind of

meaning include of gramatical meaning and lexical meaning. According to

Boomfield (1933:151) in Mansoer Pateda book (1990:16-17) narrowed meaning

and widened meaning.

All of the kind of meaning with diffrent reference, the researcher take a

focus in lexical meaning and contextual meaning from Charles W. Kreidler and

Daniel Josh Parera book. So that, the researcher explained about kind of meaning

from the two book. Because in this research, the researcher analyzed of “Avril

Lavigne” song.

2.2.1 Lexical meaning

Lexical meaning is the smallest meaning unit in the meaning system of

language that could be distinguished from other similar units. A lexeme is an

abstract unit. It can occur in many different forms of actual spoken or written

sentences. It is regarded as the same lexeme even when inflected. According to

 
 
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Harimurti (1982:103) in Mansoer Pateda book said that lexical meaning is the

meaning of the word when the word is seen in isolation, either in form or shape

lexeme affixes whose meaning more or less fixed, as can be read in a particular

language dictionary.

Lexical meaning refers to the real meaning, meaning that proper with our

sense of observation, or granted meaning. It has been known that a language has

amount of lexical system by which the semantic with structure could be based its

meaning on paradigmatic and systematical. The researcher said that lexical

meaning could be defined as a meaning which has a characteristic of lexicon,

lexeme and word. It also has a meaning as it reference, meaning which is result of

our observation through our sense, or the reality in our life. Not all lexeme were

word-lexeme or lexeme whose forms are words forms. Many of them would be

phrasal lexeme whose forms were phrases.

Lexical meaning is also smallest meaning unit in the meaning system of

language that could be distinguished from other similar units. A lexeme is an

abstract unit. It can be occurring in many different forms of actual spoken or

wrote sentences, and regarded as the same lexeme even when inflected.

Therefore, many people who say that the lexical meaning is the meaning in

the dictionary or that of the lexeme meaning even without any contexts. For

example, “horses” have similar lexical meaning ordinary a quadruped ridden. This

example, the lexical meaning is the exact meaning or meanings that accord with

 
 
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the observation of our senses. In the dictionary, usually contains only lexical

meaning possessed by the word described.

2.2.2 Contextual meaning

Contextual meaning is the meaning according to the context. According to

Abdul Chaer (2007:290), Contextual meaning is the meaning of a lexeme or word

inside a context. A contextual definition is also a definition in which the term is

used by embedding it in a larger expression containing its explanation. According

to J.R. Firth in 1930 in Daniel Josh Parera book (1990:17), said:

If we regard language as ‘expressive’ or ‘communicative’ we imply

situation in the analysis of meaning. Theory contextual has the meaning of a word

tied to the cultural and ecological environment to use that particular language.

This theory also indicates that a word or symbol utterances have no meaning if it

regardless of context.

According Mansoer Petada (116-2001), Contextual meaning could be

regarded as a situational meaning. It arised as a result of the relationship between

speech and context. It took the form of a lot of things. There are some contexts in

here is the first context organs, including those relating to gender, position the

speaker, the speaker or the listener age , socio-economic background speaker or

 
 
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the listener. The second context of the situation, such a situation is safe or noisy

situations. The third context purposes, such as asking or expecting something. The

fourth context of whether or not a formal conversation. The fifth context of the

speaker or the listener’s mood such as afraid, excited, upset or angry. The sixth

time context, for example, night or day. Context seventh place, for example where

at school, at home, in the field, etc. Eighth object context, mean what the focus of

the conversation. Ninth context fittings speak or hear the speaker or the listener.

Tenth linguistic context that does meet the rules of the language used by both

sides. Eleventh context of language, meaning the language used.

According to Abdul Chaer (2007:290) contextual meaning is the meaning of

a lexeme or word inside a context. However, the contextual meaning could be

regarded to the situation, where the time, the language usage environment.

2.2.3 Grammatical Meaning

Grammatical meaning also could be regarded as a structural or functional

meaning, or internal meaning. According to Mansoer Pateda (2001:103)

grammatical meaning is the meaning that arises as a result of the functioning of

words in a sentence. It mean that, every language has a grammatical system and

different language have somewhat different grammatical system.

Grammatical meaning is the meaning of the phrase that is enclosed. This

means the grammatical meaning of each language is limited and could not be

changed or replaced in a long time’s. Grammatical meaning of a language could

be interpreted. It is fixed in accordance with the language user community.

 
 
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2.2.4 Conceptual Meaning

Conceptual meaning is essential in the language. According to Mansoer

Pateda (2001:114) conceptual meaning could be known after we connect or

compare the level of language. So, conceptual meaning regarded as a major factor

in every language.

2.2.5 Denotative Meaning

Denotative meaning is the meaning of what it was. Denotative meaning is

also referred to as a word or group of words which based on straightly relationship

between the unit and form language beyond language unit was treated

appropriately. According to Harimurti (1982:32) in Mansoer Pateda book

(2001:98) based on the denotative meaning is straightly designation on something

outside the language or that are based on certain conventions.

A denotation identifies the central aspect of word meaning. Meaning is more

than denotation. Thus, the denotation is reasonable meaning, the original, which

appeared first, the first known, meaning it is appropriate and in accordance with

the meaning of reality.

2.2.6 Connotative Meaning

Connotation Refers to the personal aspect of meaning, the emotional

association that the word arouses. Connotation is stimulating and evocative

senses, feelings, attitudes, judgments, and beliefs as well as certain purposes. It

can be individually and collectively. JD. Parera (2004:99 ) .

 
 
 15 
 

Connotations have the right to live and need to be talked about, discussed,

and controlled by the user language. However, the used of language usage and

connotations has limits, which not used in report language, the language of

scientific papers, magazines, etc, were formalized.

Connotative meaning is the communicative value of the expression to the

targets, exceed the contents above are purely conceptual. Thus, it opens like a

connotative meaning only our knowledge and belief of nature that also is opened.

According to Charles K W (1998:45), Connotation refers to the personal aspect of

meaning, the emotional association that the word aroused. Connotation of

individuals have common experience, some people has a shared word

connotations.

Connotations can arise between the meanings of synonyms and connotations

also can appear in a word. Therefore, the connotation and there appears to be done

on a historical significance and descriptive. According to JD. Parera (2004:105)

usage connotations have boundaries, which used in report language, the language

of science, language magazines, textbooks discuss. Thus, the use of connotations

must be done carefully because the used of connotations can lead to the power of

rhetoric and leads to certain drawbacks.

2.2.7 Morpheme

According to Charles K W (1998:51) morpheme is the technical term for a

minimal meaningful part. For example, table, orange, drums, and shoe are all

morpheme. One of them can be divide into something smaller that is meaningful.

 
 
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2.2.8 Referential or Correspondence Meaning

Referential or correspondence meaning refers to three as proposed by the

Ogaden and Richard. According to Ogden and Richards (2004:46), the meaning is

the relationship between the reference and the referent is expressed through the

sounds of language symbols in the form of words or phrases or sentences. This

theory emphasizes the direct relationship between the existing references to the

referent in the real world.

2.2.9 Mentalism or Conceptual Meaning

Mentalist theory is a theory that is contrary to the theory of reference.

According to Saussure in JD Parera book (2004:47) recommends that the first

synchronic study of language and language analysis above distinguishes parale la,

la langue, and le lengage, are not real have pioneered the theory of meaning that is

mentalist. This theory was the main characteristics that demonstrate this theory

Mentalist. The main characteristics of this theory was the greeting Glucksberg and

Danks (1975:50) in JD Parera book (2004:47) "the set of possible meanings in any

given word is the set of possible feelings, images, ideas, concepts, thoughts, and

inferences that a person might produce when that word is heard and processed".

2.2.10 The meaning is-use theory

The meaning of an expression is determined, if not identical with, it used in

the language. This theory was developed by Wittgenstein (1830 and 1858).

Wittgenstein said that the word is not possible tactic and meaningful for all

 
 
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context because the context is always changing from time to time. It also affects

the language; the language is a form of the game which was held in several

contexts with multiple objectives. Languages also have rules that allow some

movement, but prohibit other movements. One disadvantage of this theory is the

determination of the concepts or the use of appropriately.

2.3 Relation of Meaning

In any language, the semantic relationship significance or relation between a

word or set of words or other language with the language unit. According to

Abdul Chaer (2002:82) relations of meaning can be categorized as: synonyms,

antonym, hyponym, homonym, polysemy, ambiguity and redundancies.

2.3.1 Synonym

According Verhaar (1978) in Abdul Chaer (2002:82) is a synonym for the

expression (can be words, phrases, or sentences) are more or less the same

meaning with the meaning of other expressions. So, synonyms used to express

sameness of meaning. It is see from the fact that each constituent word dictionary

suggests a number of devices that have the same meaning

Synonym is an instance of mutual entailment and synonym are instance of

mutual hyponymy. Charles K W (1998:97). Synonyms are typically single

lexemes of the same weight. The longer terms explained the simpler term but not

the other way around. Dictionaries typically provide a number of synonyms for at

least some of the lexemes they define, and in fact there are whole dictionaries of

synonyms. But, the synonymy is not a simple matter, for two lexeme, never have

 
 
 18 
 

the same range of syntactic occurrences and even where they share occurrences

and make prediction about the same class of referring expressions. So, Synonym

is a semantic relation that states the similarity of meaning between the units of

speech with other speech units.

2.3.2 Antonym

According to Charles K W (1998:100) Antonyms is two sentences that differ

in polarity like these are mutually contradictory. It means that, if one true, the

other must be false. Two sentence that have the same subject and have predicates. 

So, the relationship between the meanings of two words that have antonyms is

two way.

2.3.3 Hyponym

Hyponym is the phrase (the word also can typically phrase or sentence) whose

meaning was considered to be a part of the meaning of another expression by

Verhar (1983:131) in Mansoer Pateda book (2001:209). Its mean that, hyponym

is a valid one way relationship, and sometimes also used as a noun. According to

Palmer (1978:78) in Mansoer Pateda book (2001:210) that contains a logical

relationship with the hyponym hierarchy. Its mean that, if we said hyponym, then,

we could a imagine a group name, so, we called it hyponym.

According to Abdul Chaer (2007:305) that the hyponym is a semantic relation

between a figure of speech whose meaning is included in the meaning of the other

utterances form. For example, there are word said of between “birds” and pigeons.

Meaning of the word "pigeon" is included in the meaning of the word "bird". We

 
 
 19 
 

could say that the "dove" it is a bird, but "bird" instead of just "dove", the bird

could be a bird of paradise or the name of the other birds. So, hyponym

relationship is close to a synonym. When a word has a meaning all components

other words, but not otherwise, then it called hyponym.

2.3.4 Homonym

A lexeme is a conjunction of form and meaning. The form is fairly easy to

determine: in writing it is a sequence of letters, in speech a sequence of phonemes.

Charles (1998:52). Its mean that, homonym is two lexeme and the same form but,

the meaning is very different. In case, there is two term about homonym, that is

homophone and homograph. Homophone is a same sound. But, homograph is the

same form spelling.

2.3.5 Polysemy

According to Abdul Chaer (2002:302) polysemy is defined as a unit of

language, particularly the word, a phrase that could also have more than one

meaning. For example, the word "chief", the head means "body parts from the

neck up, as there were in humans and animals", it also could be interpreted as a

part of which located on the top or front and is important as, the head of the train,

head of the head of the table, could be interpreted as leaders, such as principals,

head office and head of the station. So, a word or utterance unit called polysemy if

the word has more than one meaning.

 
 
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2.3.6 Ambiguity

Ambiguity is often said to be a double or ambiguous meanings. According to

According to Abdul Chaer (2007:306) that the symptoms may be due to the

multiplicity of meaning different grammatical interpretation. Different

grammatical interpretations are common in wrote language, due to the

suprasegmental elements of wrote language could not be described accurately. For

example, "new history book" can be interpreted as “the history of the newly

published book" or "history book that contains the history of a new era".

2.3.7 Redundancy

In semantics, redundancies are not there, because one of the basic principles

of semantics are different forms when the meaning was different. According to

Abdul Chaer (2002:105) that the redundancy is defined as the excessive use of

segmental elements in a form of speech.

2.4 Word

In language, word is the smallest free form that may be uttered in isolation

with semantic or pragmatic content or with literal or practical meaning. This

contra with a morpheme, which was the smallest unit of meaning but would not

necessarily stand on its own. A word may consist of a single morpheme.

According to Mansoer Pateda (2001-113) word is a linguistic moment together in

sentences conveys a message in a communication, form of word in various forms.

 
 
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2.4.1 Class of word

The researcher began by grouping word more or less on the basis of our

instincts about English. It use a combination of three criteria for determining the

word class of a word, the meaning of the word, the form or shape of the word, the

position or environment of the word in a sentence.

2.4.1.1 Noun

Noun are class of lexical words marked by their appearance following

certain noun-determining function words, such as the, my, some, two, by their use

of two inflection, -es and –s by certain deviational suffixes. A noun is a word

which was used to denote a person.

2.4.1.2 Adjective

Adjective are class of lexical words identified by their ability to fill the

position between noun-determiner and noun and the position after a linking verb

and qualifier such as very, rather and quite. An adjective gave the reader or

speaker extra information about a noun or delimits it in some way.

2.4.1.3 Verb

Verb are a class of lexical word by their use of four inflection, -s, -ed, and –

ing, by their appearance in verb phrases with certain auxiliaries, such as can,

must, is, has, please, about (to), keep (on), by small group of deviational affixes,

such as (-en) and (-ate). A group of words could not be described as a sentence or

 
 
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a clause unless at least one of the words was a verb. In some ways, the researcher

could be describe it as the most important part of speech because it was the action

word that told the listener or reader what was happening in the sentence.

2.4.1.4 Adverb

Adverb is class of lexical word identified by their ability to appear in

utterance-final position following a noun or nouns functioning as complement.

Adverb may be classified in eight groups or form-classes on the basis of their

morphemic structure. The class of adverbs is very wide ranging in form and used

to add comments to many of the other word classes.

2.5 Phrases

Phrases is a group of word, which make sense not complete sense, it called a

phrase. It is a group of related words without a subject and a verb. For example,

the sunrise in the east

2.5.1 Noun Phrase

A noun phrase is a phrase that plays the role of a noun. The head word in a

noun phrase would be a noun or a pronoun. In the examples below, the whole

noun phrase was shaded and the head word was in bold. For example, you like

singing in the bath.

 
 
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2.5.2 Verb Phrase

Verbs are words that demonstrate an action, like sing, dance, smell, talk, and

eat. They serve as a link between the subject of the verb and information about

that subject. The information is usually descriptive. In order to show activities that

could be done, active verbs were used, while linking verbs describe conditions.

For example, she was walking quickly to the mall.

2.5.3 Adjective Phrase

Adjective phrase is a group of words that describe a noun or pronoun in a

sentence. The adjective phrase could be placed before, or after, the noun or

pronoun in the sentence. For example, the movie was not too terribly long.

2.5.4 Adverb Phrase

Adverb phrase is simply two or more words that act as an adverb. It could

modify a verb, adverb, or adjective and can tell “how”, “where”, “why”, or

“when”. An adverb clause which also modifies verbs, adverbs and adjectives; but,

an adverb clause also includes a subject and a verb.

2.5 Previous Study

There are many previous studies investigating semantics namely. But, the

researcher takes only third previous studies. The first, “Lexical Meanings Used In

Five Speeches of The Most Influential Speeches In Twentieth Century” by

Muhammad Syaiful Rizal (2010), thesis English Letters And Language

 
 
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Department, Faculty Of Humaniora, Maulana Malik Ibrahim State Islamic

University. This study further conducted with the following problems: 1. what

lexical meanings are used in the most influential speeches in twentieth century? 2.

How are lexical meanings used in the most influential speeches in twentieth

century? This research was conducted by using qualitative method To answer the

point of utterances used by the speaker that is by describing what and how the

lexical meanings used by the speaker. After the data have been obtained, the

researcher took several steps to analyze the data. First, the researcher categorized

data into five categories in accordance with the number of the speeches uses as the

data sources. The data of each category were presented, analyzed and concluded.

After the data of the whole categories had already been presented, analyzed and

concluded, he made tentative conclusion. After consulting with the informants,

the researcher made final conclusion.

Second, “A semantic Analysis on the English translation of surah Al-

muzammil by Yusuf Ali, by Khulala sundusiyah (2012), thesis English Letters And

Language Department, Faculty Of Humaniora, Maulana Malik Ibrahim State

Islamic University. The study aims answering two following question. First about

kind of meaning and message are used in the English translation of surah Al-

muzammil by Yusuf Ali. She uses conducting descriptive qualitative method,

because the data of this study are in the form of the sentences or word of surah Al-

muzammil by Yusuf Ali.

 
 
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Third, “Semantic Analysis on Iwan Fals’’ Songs by Nila Kurniasari (2005),

thesis English Letters And Language Department, Faculty Of Humaniora,

Maulana Malik Ibrahim State Islamic University. The study was limited on

meanings and messages and therefore, the title of her thesis is Semantic Analysis

on Iwan Fals’ Songs. The problems to be discussed are: (1) what are the meanings

found in Iwan Fals’ songs? (2) What are messages found in Iwan Fals’ songs?

The objectives of the study are to find out the meanings implied and the messages

that exist in Iwan Fals’ songs. In this study, the researcher takes ten songs, by the

way all of songs in Iwan Fals’ songs in the “In Collaboration With” album. The

study was descriptive qualitative. In the research, the researcher used some books

of their works to support this thesis.