ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

Outline of Lecture: Module 1

I.THE HUMAN ORGANISM

A. Introduction to Anatomy and Physiology
B. Structural and Functional Organization
C. Characteristics of Life
D. Homeostasis
E. Terminology and the Body Plain

II.CHEMICAL BASIS OF LIFE

A. Basic Chemistry
B. Chemical reactions
C. Acids and Bases
D. Inorganic Chemistry
E. Organic Chemistry

III. CELL STRUCTURES AND THEIR FUNCTIONS

A. Cell Structure
B. Functions of the Cell
C. Cell Membrane
D. Movement through Cell Membrane
E. Organelles
F. Whole-cell Activity
G. Cellular Aspects of Aging

IV.TISSUES, GLANDS, and MEMBRANES

A. Epithelial Tissue
B. Connective Tissue
C. Muscle Tissue
D. Nervous Tissue
E. Membranes
F. Inflammation
G. Tissue Repair
H. Tissue and Aging
I. HUMAN ORGANISM D. Homeostasis
 It is a condition in which functions, fluids and
A. Introduction to Anatomy and Physiology other factors of the internal environment are
maintained despite fluctuations in the
 Anatomy- Is the scientific discipline that internal/external environment.
investigates the structure of the body.  *Set point- normal values/
Examines the relationship between the parameter
structure of a body part and its function.
 Negative Feedback- acts to resist or reverse the
 Physiology- Scientific discipline that deals with process when conditions go outside of the
the processes or functions of living things. range.

 2 Basic Approaches to study anatomy  Positive Feedback- encourages and intensifies a

- Systematic Anatomy change in the body’s physiological condition,
- Regional Anatomy actually driving it farther out of the normal
range. This type of feedback is normal for the
B. Structural and Functional Organization body, provided there is a definite endpoint.

 Chemical Level- involves how atoms interact to E. Terminology and the Body Plan
form molecules
 Cell Level- basic functional and structural unit  Anatomical Position: refers to a person standing
 Tissues Level- group of cells upright
 Organ Level- two or more tissues; perform one  Supine: When lying face downward
or more common function  Prone: When lying face downward
 Organ System Level- group or organs that has  Anterior: In front of, front
common function or set of functions.  Posterior: After, behind, following, toward the
 Organism rear
 Distal: Away from, farther from the origin
C. Characteristics of Life  Proximal: Near, closer to the origin
 Dorsal: Near the upper surface, toward the back
 Organization- specific relationships of individual  Ventral: Toward the bottom, toward the belly
parts of organism  Superior: Above, over
 Metabolism- use of energy to perform vital  Inferior: Below, under
functions  Lateral: Toward the side, away from the mid-line
 Responsiveness- ability to sense change in the  Medial: Toward the mid-line, middle, away from
environment the side
 Growth  Caudal: Toward the back, toward the tail
 Development- growth+ differentiation  Bilateral: Involving both sides of the body
 *Differentiation- change in  Unilateral: Involving one side of the body
structure and function from  Ipsilateral: On the same side of the body
generalized to specialized
 Reproduction –formation of new cells or new
organisms

 Contralateral: On opposite sides of the body

 Parietal: Relating to a body cavity wall
  Visceral: Relating to organs within body cavities
 Axial: Around a central axis  Thoracic cavity- contains the trachea, bronchi,
 Intermediate: Between two structures lungs, esophagus, heart and great blood
vessels, thymus gland, lymph nodes, and nerves
 Body Parts and Regions( Fig 1)  Mediastinum- separates to L and
R
Fig 1 -Contains: Trachea, Esophagus,
BV, Thymus, Heart
 Diaphragm- separates thoracic
cavity form abdominal cavity

 Abdominal cavity- contains stomach, liver,

gallbladder, pancreas, spleen, small intestines,
and most of the large intestine

 Pelvic Cavity- contains the end of the large

intestine, rectum, urinary bladder, and internal
reproductive organs
 Abdominopelvic cavity

 Serous Membranes
- Sac that encloses/ covers a certain organ
 Central region of the body: Head, neck and trunk in the body specifically in the trunk area
 Trunk- further subdivided into thorax, abdomen,
pelvis -Parts-
 Upper Limb- arm, foream, wrist, hand  Parietal membrane: lines the wall of the cavity
 Lower limb- thigh, leg ankle and foot  Visceral membrane: is in contact with the
 Abdomen- divided into quadrants or regions (Fig internal organs
2)  Serous fluid: secreted by the serous membrane
and protects organs against friction
Fig 2
Quadrants- 4 Regions-9  3 Serous membrane lined cavities in the
thoracic cavity

- 1(One) Pericardial Cavity- surrounds the

heart
 visceral pericardium, parietal
pericardium; pericardial fluid

- 2 (Two) Pleural Cavity- surrounds the

lungs
 visceral pleura, parietal pleura,
peural fluid
 Body Cavities
- Three large cavities of the body
  Elements and Atoms

 Serous Membrane lined cavity in the  Elements: unique substances that cannot be
Abdominopelvic cavity/peritoneal cavity- broken down by ordinary chemical means
visceral peritoneum, parietal peritoneum,
peritoneal fluid.  Each element has unique physical and chemical
properties
 Planes – Physical properties: those detected with
our senses
– Chemical properties: pertain to the way
atoms interact with one another

 Atoms: more-or-less identical building blocks

for each element

 Atomic Structure

 The nucleus consists of neutrons and protons

– Neutrons:
• No charge
• Mass= one atomic mass unit
(amu)
– Protons:
• Positive charge
• Mass of 1 amu
 Electrons are found orbiting the nucleus
– Electrons:
• Negative charge
 Sagittal plane: divides the body into left and • Mass of 1/2000 amu
right parts
 Transverse plane: divides the body into superior
and inferior parts
 Frontal (coronal) plane: divides the body into
anterior and posterior parts

II. CHEMICAL BASIS OF LIFE

A. Basic Chemistry

 Matter, Mass and Weight

 Matter- anything that occupies space

 Mass- amount of matter in an object
 Weight- gravitational force acting on an object
of a given mass
 Atoms are electrically neutral because the -Ions: charged atoms resulting from the gain or
number of protons in atoms equals the number loss of electrons
of electrons – Anions: negatively charged ions due to
gaining one or more electrons
– Cations: positively charged ions due to
losing one or more electrons
-Ionic compounds form crystals instead of
individual molecules
-Example: NaCl (sodium chloride)

Covalent bond: the sharing of electrons

-Covalent bonds are formed by the sharing of two or
more electrons
-Electron sharing produces molecules
– single covalent bond: sharing of a pair of
 Atomic number: equal to the number of protons electrons (H — H)
 Mass number: equal to the mass of the protons – double covalent bond: sharing of two
and neutrons pairs of electrons (O ═ C ═ O)
 Atomic weight: average of the mass numbers of – polar covalent bond: an unequal sharing
all isotopes of electrons between two atoms
 Isotope: atoms with same number of protons resulting in a slightly positive charge on
but a different number of neutrons one side than the other
– nonpolar covalent bond: An equal
 Electrons and Chemical Bonds sharing of electrons of two atoms
resulting in even charged distribution
 Chemical Bonds- sharing or transferring their among atoms of molecule
outermost electrons
 Electron shells (energy levels) surround the Bonds Between Molecules
nucleus of an atom  Hydrogen bonds: The attraction of oppositely
– Bonds are formed using the electrons in charged ends of one polar molecule to another
the outermost electron shell polar molecule
 Valence shell: outermost energy level
containing chemically active electrons  Molecules and Compounds
 Octet rule: except for the first shell, which is full
with two electrons, atoms interact in a manner  Molecule: two or more atoms held together by
to have eight electrons in their valence shell chemical bonds to form a structure that behaves
 Electronegativity- ability of atom’s nucleus to as an independent unit
pull electrons towards it.  Compound: two or more different kinds of
atoms chemically combined
 Types of Chemical Bonds – covalent compound: a molecule
– ionic compound: organized array of ions
Bonds Between Atoms:
 Ionic bond: formed when one atom loses an  Dissociation
electron and another accepts that electron
-Ionic bonds form between atoms by the  Separation of ions in an ionic compound by polar
transfer of one or more electrons water molecules
 Dissociated ions are called electrolytes because  Reversible Reaction
they can conduct electricity
 Molecules that do not dissociate in water are  All chemical reactions are theoretically
called nonelectrolytes reversible
A + B  AB
B. Chemical reactions AB  A + B
 If neither a forward nor reverse reaction is
 Occur when chemical bonds are formed, dominant, chemical equilibrium is reached
rearranged, or broken
– Reactants: substances that enter a  Energy and Chemical Reactions
chemical reaction
– Products: substances that result from  Energy
the chemical reaction  The capacity to do work (put matter into
 Written in symbolic form using chemical motion)
equations  Types of energy
 Chemical equations contain: – Potential: stored (inactive) energy that
– Number and type of reacting substances could do work
– Products produced – Kinetic: energy that does work by
– Relative amounts of reactants and causing the movement of an object
products  Can be neither created nor destroyed
 Easily converted from one form to another
 Synthesis Reaction – Mechanical: directly involved in moving
matter
 Combination of reactants to form a new larger – Chemical: stored in the bonds of
product chemical substances
– Anabolism- all synthesis reaction that – Electrical: results from the movement of
occurs in the body charged particles
– Dehydration reaction: a synthesis – Radiant or electromagnetic: travels in
reaction in which water is a product waves (i.e., visible light, ultraviolet light,
and
 Decomposition Reaction X-rays)
 Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) stores and
 Breakdown of larger reactants into smaller provides energy
products – Source of immediately usable energy for
– Catabolism- decomposition reactions the cell
that occur in the body
– Hydrolysis reaction: a decomposition  Factors Influencing Rate of Chemical Reactions
reaction that uses water
 Concentration: higher reacting particle
 Exchange Reaction concentrations produce faster reactions
 Temperature: chemical reactions proceed
 Combination of decomposition reaction and quicker at higher temperatures
synthesis reaction  Catalysts: increase the rate of a reaction
without being chemically changed
– Enzymes are biological catalysts
 Particle size: the smaller the particle the faster  Carbon Dioxide(CO2)- is a by-product of the
the chemical reaction breakdown of food molecules
 Water(H2O)- has many important properties for
C. Acids and Bases living organisms and is essential for life
Properties of Water
 Acids release H+ and are therefore proton Stabilizes body temperature
donors – The high heat capacity of water allows it
HCl  H+ + Cl – to absorb and release large amounts of
 Bases release OH– and are proton acceptors heat before changing temperature
NaOH  Na+ + OH– Protection
 Acid-Base concentration is measured using a pH – acts as a lubricant or cushion
scale Chemical reactions
pH Scale – Most of the chemical reactions
 Ranges from 0 to 14 necessary for life do not take place
 Indicates the H+ concentration of a solution unless the reacting molecules are
– Neutral solutions have an equal number dissolved in water
of H+ and OH– and a pH of 7.0 – Water also directly participates in many
– Acidic solutions have more H+ than OH– chemical reactions
and a pH of less than 7.0 Transport
– Basic (alkaline) solutions have fewer H+ – Polar solvent properties: dissolves ionic
than OH– and a pH greater than 7.0 substances, forms hydration layers
around large charged molecules, and
 The normal PH range for human blood 7.35- 7.45 serves as the body’s major transport
medium
 Salts are formed by the reaction of an acid and a
base E. Organic Chemistry
 Buffers are chemicals that resist changes in pH
when acids or bases are added Substances contain carbon, are covalently
Example: Carbonic acid-bicarbonate system bonded, and are often large
– Carbonic acid dissociates, reversibly Usually have carbon-carbon or carbon-hydrogen
releasing bicarbonate ions and protons bonding
– The chemical equilibrium between
carbonic acid and bicarbonate resists pH  Organic Compounds
changes in the blood
Molecules unique to living systems
D. Inorganic Chemistry They include:
– Carbohydrates
 – Lipids
Mostly concerned with non-carbon-containing
– Proteins
substances but does include such carbon-
– Nucleic Acids
containing substances as CO, CO2, and HCO3-

 Inorganic Compounds  Carbohydrates

– Contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen

 Oxygen(O2)- is involved with the extraction of
• Ratio of 1:2:1 (C:H:O)
energy from food molecules to make ATP
– Their major function is to supply a source of – Contain C, H, O, N, and some S
cellular food – Building block of proteins- amino acids
– Composed of 20 basic types of amino acids
Examples: bound together with peptide bonds
– Monosaccharides – glucose and fructose o Dipeptide: Two amino acids
– Disaccharides – sucrose and lactose o Tripeptide: Three amino acids
– Polysaccharides – starch and glycogen o Polypeptide: Many amino acids
 Lipids – Proteins are polypeptides of hundreds of amino
acids
– Dissolve in nonpolar solvents, such as alcohol or Amino Acids
acetone, but not in polar solvents, such as water Organic acids containing
– Contain C, H, and O, but the proportion of • amino group (-NH2)
oxygen in lipids is less than in carbohydrates • a carboxyl group (COOH)
– Buiding blocks of fats- glycerol and fatty acids • a hydrogen atom
Fatty acids A side chain designated by the symbol R
Saturated: only single covalent bonds between attached to the same carbon atom as the
carbons hydrogen
Unsaturated: one or more double covalent Functions of Proteins
bonds between carbons  regulate chemical reactions (enzymes)
Monounsaturated fats  structural proteins provide the framework for
Polyunsaturated fats many of the body’s tissues
Trans fats  responsible for muscle contraction
– Examples of Fats:  Fibrous proteins
 Fats or triglycerides: energy  Extended and strand-like
 Phospholipids: structural proteins
components of cell membranes  Examples: keratin, elastin,
 Eicosanoids: regulate collagen, and certain contractile
physiological processes fibers
 Steroids: regulate physiological  Globular proteins
processes  Compact, spherical proteins with
Examples of Lipids Found in the Body tertiary and quaternary
 Fats: found in subcutaneous tissue and around structures
organs  Examples: antibodies, hormones,
 Phospholipids: chief component of cell and enzymes
membranes Denaturation
 Steroids: cholesterol, bile salts, vitamin D, sex Disruption of hydrogen bonds, which changes
hormones, and adrenal cortical hormones the shape of proteins and makes them nonfunctional
 Eicosanoids: prostaglandins, leukotrienes, and Enzymes
thromboxanes  Speed up chemical reactions by lowering the
 Fat-soluble vitamins: vitamins A, D, E, and K activation energy
 Lipoproteins: transport fatty acids and  Most are globular proteins that act as biological
cholesterol in the bloodstream catalysts
 Are chemically specific
 Proteins  Frequently named for the type of reaction they
catalyze
– Macromolecules  Names usually end in -ase
 Chemical events of the body are regulated  plays a role in communication between
primarily by mechanisms that control cells
– concentration of enzymes – Separates intracellular substances from
– activity of enzyme extracellular substances
 intracellular: inside cells
III. CELL STRUCTURES AND THEIR  extracellular (intercellular): between
FUNCTIONS cells

 Fluid Mosaic Model

A. Cell Structure
 Lipid bilayer
 The cell is the basic structural and functional unit
– double layer of lipids with imbedded,
of life
dispersed proteins
 Each cell is a highly organized unit
 Bilayer consists mainly of phospholipids and
– Plasma membrane: forms the outer
cholesterol (20%)
boundary of the cell
– Phospholipids have hydrophobic
– Cellular organelles: each performs
(nonpolar tails) and hydrophilic (polar
specific functions
heads) bipoles
– Nucleus: contains the cell’s genetic
– Cholesterol gives the membrane added
material and directs cell activities
strength and flexibility
– Cytoplasm: the material between the
plasma membrane and nucleus
D. Movement through Cell Membrane
B. Functions of the Cell
– Ions and molecules move across plasma
membranes by:
1. Metabolize and release energy
 chemical reactions that occur within cells
 Diffusion
 release of energy in the form of heat
helps maintain body temperature
 The movement of a solute from an area of
2. Synthesize molecules
higher concentration to an area of lower
 cells differ from each other because they
concentration within a solvent
synthesize different kinds of molecules
- at equilibrium, there is a uniform
3. Provide a means of communication
distribution of molecules
 achieved by chemical and electrical
 Lipid-soluble molecules diffuse directly through
signaling
the plasma membrane
4. Reproduction and Inheritance
 Most non-lipid-soluble molecules and ions do
 mitosis
not diffuse through the plasma membrane
 meiosis
 Some specific non-lipid-soluble molecules and
ions pass through membrane channels or other
C. Cell Membrane
transport proteins
– Plays a dynamic role in cellular activity
 Leak channels
 encloses cell
 Gated Channels
 supports the cell contents
 a selective barrier that regulates what  Osmosis
goes into and out of the cell
 Diffusion of water (a solvent) across a selectively 2. The ATP breaks down to adenosine diphosphate
permeable membrane, such as the cell (ADP) and a phosphate (P) and releases energy.
membrane, from a region of higher water That energy is used to power a shape change in
concentration to one of lower water the Na+-K+ pump. Phosphate remains bound to
concentration the Na+-K+-ATP binding site.
– Osmotic pressure: the force required to 3. The Na+-K+ pump changes shape, and the Na+
prevent the movement of water across a are transported across the membrane.
selectively permeable membrane 4. The Na+ diffuses away from the Na+-K+ pump.
– Isosmotic solutions: have the same 5. Two potassium ions (K+) bind to the Na+-K+
concentration of solute particles as a pump.
reference solution 6. The phosphate is released from the Na+-K+ pump
– Hyperosmotic solutions: have a greater binding site.
concentration of solute particles than a 7. The Na+-K+ pump resumes its original shape,
reference solution- cell shrinkage transporting K+ across the membrane, and the K+
– Hyposmotic solutions: have a lesser diffuses away from the pump. The Na+-K+ pump
concentration of solute particles than a can again bind to Na+ and ATP.
reference solution- lysis d/t swelling
 Secondary Active Transport
 Mediated Transport – Symport of Na+ and Glucose
1. A Na+-K+ pump (ATP-powered pump)
 Process by which transport proteins mediate, or maintains a concentration of Na+ that is
assist in, the movement of ions and molecules higher outside the cell than inside.
across the plasma membrane 2. Sodium ions move back into the cell
 Characteristics: through a carrier protein (symporter)
 Specificity: selectiveness that also moves glucose. The
+
 Competition: similar molecules concentration gradient for Na provides
or ions compete for a transport energy required to move glucose against
protein its concentration gradient.
Saturation: rate of transport
cannot increase because all
transport proteins are in use  Vesicular Transport

 Facilitated diffusion  Transport of large particles and macromolecules

– Is a carrier mediated transport process that across plasma membranes
moves substances across the cell membrane – Endocytosis: the movement of materials
from area of higher concentration to an area of into cells by the formation of a vesicle
lower concentration at that substance  Phagocytosis: the
– No ATP usage movement of solid
– Ex. Transfer of glucose into cells material into cells
 Pinocytosis: the uptake
 Active Transport of small droplets of
– Atp usage liquids and the materials
– Ex. Sodium-Potassium Pump in them
1. Three sodium ions (Na+) and adenosine  Receptor-mediated
triphosphate (ATP) bind to the Na+-K+ pump, endocytosis: involves
which is an ATP-powered pump. plasma membrane
 receptors attaching to Microvilli Extensions Increase surface area
molecules that are then on Cell of certain cells
taken into the cell surface
– Exocytosis: the secretion of materials
from cells by vesicle formation
E. Organelles
F. Whole-cell Activity
Organelle Location Function (s)
Nucleus Center of Contains DNA and  Gene Expression
cell nucleoli; RNA
synthesis  DNA
Ribosomes Cytoplasm protein synthesis – DNA serves as master blueprint for
Rough ER Cytoplasm Many ribosomes protein synthesis
attached; protein – DNA controls enzyme production and
synthesis cell activity is regulated by enzymes
Smooth ER Cytoplasm lipid synthesis; (Proteins)
detoxification – Genes are segments of DNA carrying
Golgi App Cytoplasm Modifies protein instructions for a polypeptide chain
structure; packages
proteins in secretory  Protein Synthesis
vesicles
Secretory cytoplasm Contains materials  Two step process
Vesicles produced in the cell; 1. Transcription
formed by golgi app; • cell makes a copy of the gene
secreted by exocytosis necessary to make a particular
Lysosomes Cytoplasm Contains enzyme that protein: messenger RNA (mRNA)
digest material taken • mRNA then travels from the
into the cell nucleus to the ribosomes where
Peroxisome Cytoplasm Breaks down fatty the information is translated into
acids, amino acids, and a protein
hydirgen peroxide 2. Translation
Mitochondrion Cytoplasm Aerobic respiration; • requires both mRNA and transfer
ATP synthesis RNA (tRNA)
Microtubule Cytoplasm Supports cytoplasm; • tRNA brings the amino acids
assist in cell division necessary to synthesize the
and form components protein to the ribosome
of cilia and flagella
Centrioles cytoplasm Facilitate movement of  Cell Cycle
chromosomes during
cell division 2 Phases:
Cilia Cell Move subs. over 1. Interphase/Nondividing phase- DNA replication
surface surfaces of certain 2. Cell Division- through Mitosis
cells Stages of Mitosis
Flagella Sperm cell Propel sperm cells i. In prophase, each chromosome consist of 2
surface chromatids joined at the centromere
 ii. In metaphase, the chromosomes align in the A. Epithelial Tissue
center of the cell
iii. In anaphase, chromatids separate at the – Covers surfaces
centromere and migrate to opposite poles – Has little extracellular material
iv. In telophase, the two new nuclei assume – Usually has a basement membrane
their normal structure and cell division is – Has no blood vessels
completed, producing two new daughters. – Epithelial cells
 Following telophase, cytoplasm division is – Have a free, or apical, surface (not attached
completed, and two separate daughter cells are to other cells)
produced. , – A lateral surface (attached to other cells)
– A basal surface (attached to the basement
G. Cellular Aspects of Aging membrane)

1. Cellular Clock  Epithelial Tissue Functions

2. Death Genes
3. DNA damage 1. Protecting underlying structures
4. Free Radicals – Example: outer layer of skin and oral
5. Mitochondrial Damage mucosa
2. Acting as barriers
– Example: outer layer of skin
IV. TISSUES, GLANDS, and MEMBRANES 3. Permitting the passage of substances
– Example: epithelium in the lungs
 TISSUES 4. Secreting substances
– Example: mucous glands and sweat
– Tissues are collections of similar cells and the glands
extracellular matrix surrounding them 5. Absorbing substances
– Histology is the study of tissues – Example: epithelial cells of the intestine
– The four primary tissue types are
 Epithelial tissue  Epithelial Tissue Classification
 Connective tissue
 Muscle tissue Epithelia are classified according to the number of
 Nervous tissue cell layers and the shape of the cells
– Primary tissue types are derived from the
embryonic germ layers  Simple Epithelium- has one layer of cells
 Endoderm  Simple Squamous- flat and thin
– Forms the lining of the digestive tract
and its derivatives
 Mesoderm
– Forms tissues such as muscle, bone, and
blood vessels
 Ectoderm
– Forms the outermost layer of skin and
the nervous system
  Simple Cuboidal cubelike

 Simple Columnar tall and thin  Structural and Functional Relationships

• Cell Layers and Cell Shapes

– Simple epithelium is involved with:
• Diffusion
• Secretion
• Absorption
– Stratified epithelium serves a protective role
– Squamous cells function in:
• Diffusion
 Stratified epithelium- has more than one cell • Filtration
layer – Cuboidal or columnar cells, which contain
 Stratified Squamous- non keratinized cellular organelles
(moist) and keratinized • Secrete
 Stratified Cuboidal-rare • Absorb
 Stratified Columnar-rare – Free Cell Surfaces
• A smooth, free surface reduces
friction
 Pseudostratified epithelium- has one layer, but
• Example: Lining of blood
appears to have two or more layers
vessels
• Microvilli are cylindrical
extensions of the cell membrane
that increase surface area (cells
involved in absorption of
secretion)
• Example: Lining of the
small intestines
• Cilia propel materials over the
cell surface
• Example: Lining of the
 Transitional epithelium- is stratified epithelium nasal cavity and trachea
that can be greatly stretched (from cuboidal to
squamous)
 Glands in Epithelial Tissue B. Connective Tissue

 A gland is a single cell or a multicellular structure  Consist of cells seperated from each other by
that secretes abundant extracellular matrix
 Functions
– Endocrine glands- do not have ducts; Secrete 1. Enclosing and separating
hormones directly into the blood 2. Connecting tissues to one another (Ex.
– Exocrine glands- have ducts; Secretions are Ligaments and Tendons)
released onto a surface or into a cavity 3. Supporting and moving (Ex. Bones and
cartilage)
Structure of Exocrine Glands 4. Storing (Ex. Adipose tissue and Bones)
Simple: have one duct 5. Cushioning and insulating (Ex. Adipose
Compound: have ducts that branch repeatedly tissue)
Tubules: ducts end in small tubes 6. Transporting (Ex. Blood)
Acini: ducts end in saclike structures 7. Protecting (Ex. Blood and Bones)
Alveoli: ducts end in hollow sacs
 Connective Tissue Cells

 Specialized cells of various connective tissues

produce the extra cellular matrix
– End in suffixes that identify the cell
functions
• Blast (germ) cells form the matrix
• Cyte (cell) cells maintain it
• Clast (break) cells break it down

Exocrine Glands and Secretion Types  Classification of Connective Tissue (6)

Merocrine – no loss of cellular material
(Ex. sweat glands) Mesenchyme:
Apocrine – part of the cell pinches off – embryonic connective tissue that gives
(Ex. mammary glands) rise to six major categories of connective
Holocrine – entire cell is shed tissue
(Ex. sebaceous glands)  Loose, or areolar, connective tissue is the “loose
packing” material of the body
Sweat glands and mammary glands – Fills the spaces between organs
Classified by: – Holds organs in place
-Structure  Adipose tissue (fat)
-How products leave the cell – Stores energy
– Pads and protects parts of the body
– Acts as a thermal insulator
 Dense connective tissue consists of a matrix
containing densely packed fibers
– Collagen fibers (Ex. tendons, ligaments,
and dermis of the skin)
Elastic fibers (Ex. elastic ligaments and in the
walls of arteries)
 Cartilage provides support Smooth
– Hyaline cartilage (Ex. covers ends of • Forms the walls of hollow organs
bones and forms costal cartilages) (except the heart) and also is
– Fibrocartilage (Ex. disks between found in the skin and the eyes
vertebrae) • Involuntary, not striated, and
– Elastic cartilage (Ex. external ear) have a single nucleus
 Bone has a mineralized matrix
– forms most of the skeleton of the body
• Compact bone has more matrix D. Nervous Tissue
than spaces
• Cancellous bone has more spaces  Brain, SC, Ganglia/ Spinal Nerves
then matrix  Specialized to conduct action potentials
 Blood has a liquid matrix (electrical signals)
– Found in blood vessels - Neurons- conduct action potentials
– Produced in hemopoietic tissue (red - Neuroglia -support the neurons; surround
bone marrow) neurons
 Neurons have 3 parts:
- Cell Body- contains the nucleus
C. Muscle Tissue - Dendrites-
- Axon
Main fxn: to contract, or shorten, making
movement possible E. Membranes
– Length of muscle cells is greater than the
diameter  Mucous membranes line cavities that open to
– Sometimes called muscle fibers because the outside of the body
they often resemble tiny threads – Digestive, respiratory, urinary, and
reproductive tracts
 Three types of muscle tissue – Contain glands
– Secrete mucus
Skeletal  Serous membranes line trunk cavities that do
• Meat of animals not open to the outside of the body
• Constitutes ~40% of a person’s – pleural, pericardial, and peritoneal
body weight cavities
• Attaches to the skeleton and – Do Not contain glands
allows for movement – Secrete serous fluid
• Voluntary, multinucleated, and  Synovial membranes line freely movable joints
striated (banded)
Cardiac F. Inflammation Process
• Muscle of the heart
• Connected to one another by  Function of the inflammatory response is to
intercalated disks (contain gap mobilize body’s defenses isolate and destroy
junctions) harmful agents
• Involuntary, striated, and usually  Five symptoms:
have one nucleus per cell – Redness
– Heat
– Swelling
 – Pain
– Disturbance of function
 Chronic inflammation results when the agent
causing injury is not removed or something else
interferes with the healing process

G. Tissue Repair

 Tissue repair is the substitution of viable cells for

dead cells by:
– Regeneration: the new cells are the same
type as those that were destroyed and
normal function is usually restored
– Fibrosis: replacement, a new type of tissue
develops that eventually causes scar
production and the loss of some tissue
function.

H. Tissue and Aging

 Cells divide more slowly as people age

 Injuries heal more slowly
 Extracellular matrix containing collagen and
elastic fibers becomes less flexible and less
elastic
 Consequently:
– Skin wrinkles
– Elasticity in arteries is reduced
– Bones break more easily