Module 1
Module 1
By
SATYA AMARNADH PARIMI
Assistant Professor
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Casting
Casting is one of the earliest metal shaping
methods to human beings, it generally means
pouring molten metal into a refractory mould
with a cavity of shape to be made, and allowing
it to solidify. When solidified, the desired metal
object is taken out from the refractory mould
either by breaking the mould or by taking mould
apart. The solidified object is called CASTING
Schematic diagram of general casting process
Steps in Making Sand Casting
Contd….
CASTING TERMINOLOGY
FLASK:- The Flask is the box that contains the moulding aggregate.
Cope:- Upper moulding flask.
Drag:- Lower moulding flask.
Cheek:- Intermediate moulding flask used in three piece moulding.
Pattern:-It is the replica of the final object to be made with some modification.
Parting Line:-This is dividing line b/w two parts of flask that makes the sand
moulds.
Bottom board:- This is normally made of wood which is used to support the
one end of the flask.
Facing sand:- The Small amount of carbonaceous sand material sprinkled on
the internal mould surface of cavity to give better surface finish to the casting.
Moulding Sand:- It is Freshly Prepare refractory use for making the mould
cavity.
Backing Sand:- It is the bulk of the sand used to back up the facing sand & to
fill up the volume of the flask.
Contd….
Pouring basin:- A Small Funnel Shaped Cavity at the top of mould in to inch
the molten metal is poured.
Sprue:- Passage through which the molten metal from the pouring basin
reaches the mould cavity.
Runner:- The passage way in the parting line through which molten metal
regulated before they reach to mould cavity.
Gate:- The actual entry point through which molten metal enters the cavity.
Core:- A core is used in Casting and moulding Process to produce internal
hollow cavities in final product.
Chills:- Chills are metallic objects, which are placed in mould to increase the
cooling rate of the castings to provide uniform cooling rate.
Chaplet:- It is used to support core inside the mould cavity to take core of it’s
own weight & over-come metallostatic forces.
Riser :- It is reservoir of molten metal provided in casting show that metal can
flow back into the more cavity there is a reduction in volume of metal due to
solidify.
Patterns
A Pattern is defined as a model of a casting, constructed
in such away that it can be used for forming an
impression in moulding sand, which differs in a number
of respects from the resulting casting such as
– The addition of pattern allowances
– The provision of core prints, and
– Elimination of fine details, which cannot be
obtained by casting and hence are to be obtained
by further processing.
Types of patterns
There are various types of patterns depending upon
the complexity of the job, the number of castings
required and the moulding procedure adopted.
– Single piece pattern
– Split pattern or Two piece pattern
– Gated pattern
– Cope and Drag Pattern
– Match Plate Pattern
– Loose Piece Pattern
– Follow Board Pattern
– Sweep Pattern
– Skeleton Pattern
Contd….
One piece or Solid Pattern Split Pattern
Contd….
Single Piece Pattern
• These are inexpensive and the
simplest type of patterns.
• As the name indicates, they are
made of a single piece as shown
in Fig.
• This type of pattern is used only in cases where the job is very
simple and doesn’t create any withdrawal problems.
• It is also used for applications in very small scale production
or in prototype development.
• One of the surfaces is expected to be flat which is used as the
parting plane.
• The mould cavity of this pattern is entirely in the drag or in
cope.
Contd….
Split pattern or Two piece pattern
• This is the most widely used type of
pattern for intricate castings.
• When the contour of the casting makes
its withdrawal from the mould difficult,
or when the depth of the casting is too
high, then the pattern is split into two
parts so that one part is in the drag and
the other in the cope.
• This split surface of the pattern is the same as the parting plane
of the mould.
• The two halves of the pattern should be aligned properly by
making use of the dowel pins, which are fitted to the cope half.
• These dowel pins match with the precisely made holes in the
drag half of the pattern and thus align the two haves properly.
Contd….
Gated Pattern
• To produce small size objects in “mass production”
cutting of the gating elements for each cavity will
take more time to save time, a no.of castings are
produced in a single mouldcavity mould by joining a
group of patterns.
• This is an improvement over the simple pattern where
the gating and runner system are integral with the
pattern.
• This arrangement reduces time spent by the moulder
in cutting gates and drawing patterns.
• These groups of patterns with gate formers attached
to them are called GATED PATTERNS.
Cope and Drag Pattern
• These are similar to split patterns
• In addition to splitting the pattern, the cope and drag
halves of the pattern along with the gating and risering
systems are attached separately to the metal or wooden
plates along with the alignment pins.
• The cope and drag moulds may be produced using these
patterns separately by two moulders but they can be
assembled to form a complete mould.
Match plate Pattern
• These are extensions of the previous
type.
• Here, the cope and drag patterns along
with the gating and the risering are
mounted on a single matching metal
or wooden plate on either side as
shown in fig.
• On one side of the match plate the cope flask is prepared on
the other, the drag flask.
• After moulding when match plate is removed, a complete
mould with gating is obtained by joining the cope and drag
together.
• These are generally used for small castings with higher
dimensional accuracy and large production.
Loose piece Pattern
• This type of pattern is also used when the
contour of the part is such that withdrawing
the pattern from the mould is not possible.
• Hence during moulding, the obstructing
part of the contour is held as a loose piece
by a wire.
• A Skeleton of the pattern is made of strips of wood is used
for building the final pattern by packing sand around the
skeleton.
• After packing the sand, the desired form is obtained with
the help of a strickle as shown in figure.
• The type of skeleton to be made is dependent upon the
geometry of the work piece.
• This type of pattern is useful generally for very large
castings, required in small quantities where large expense
on complete wooden pattern is not justified.
Functions of the Pattern
1. A pattern is used to prepare a mould cavity.
2. For hollow casting core prints are added to the
pattern to support the core in the mould cavity.
3. Gates, Riser, and channels may become the part
of the casting. however, in most of the cases they
are not an integral part of the pattern
4. Efforts should be made to provide all allowances
in a proper manner on the pattern and the surface
of the pattern need to be made smooth. It results
into less casting defects and low cost.
5. A properly constructed pattern minimizes the
overall cost of the castings.
Design Considerations for a
Good Pattern
• A Pattern should be accurate in its dimensions and posses very
good surface finish.
• Proper material selection of pattern
• A Pattern should carry all Proper allowances.
• In split pattern, parting surface should be such that maximum
portion of pattern is in drag.
• All sharp edges and corners should be rounded.
• Type of pattern selection should be appropriate.
• Jointed core should be avoided to obtain uniform holes.
• Changes in section thickness should be smooth, gradual and
uniform to minimize crack formations
Pattern Material
The pattern can be made out of various material.
Some of the materials used for making the
patterns are wood, metals, alloys, plastic, plaster
of Paris, plastic and rubbers, wax, and resins.
The every material has its own advantages and
disadvantages of being used as a pattern.
Characteristics of Pattern Material
• Light in weight
• Can be worked, shaped and joined easily
• Strong, hard and durable
• Resistant to wear and abrasion
• Resistant to corrosion, and to chemical reactions
• Dimensionally stable and unaffected by variations
in temperature and humidity
• Available at low cost.
Pattern Materials
Wood
• Wood is a common material for preparing pattern,
because of easily availability, less weight and we
can produce the desired shape very easily.
• The most common wood material for the pattern
is “Teak wood” and “Mahagani”, but the wood
material will absorb the moisture which is present
in the mould, due to this the size of the pattern
will be changed because of this dimensional
stability of the casting will be disturbed.
Contd….
Pattern Materials
Metals and Alloys:
– Aluminium, Brass, Steels, Cast Iron etc.,
– To produce more number of castings in “mass
production”, we can use metallic patterns.
– These metallic patterns are produced by using
wooden patterns.
– While design of wooden pattern, pattern material
shrinkage and casting material shrinkage, both will
be added, this is known as master pattern.
Contd….
Pattern Materials
Plastics
– Plastics are also used as pattern material because of
their low weight, easier formability, smooth surfaces
and durability.
– They do not absorb moisture and are therefore,
dimensionally stable and can be cleaned easily.
– The making of a plastic pattern can be done in sand
clay moulds or moulds made of plaster of Paris.
– The most generally used plastics are cold setting epoxy
resins with suitable fillers.
Contd….
Pattern Materials
• Polyurethane foam is also used as pattern material.
• It is very light and can be easily formed into any
shape required.
• It can be used for light duty work for small
number of castings for the conventional casting
and for single casting in the case of full mould
process where the pattern is burned inside the
mould without withdrawing.
• This plastic has a very low ash content and hence
can be burned inside the mould.
Pattern Allowances
• Pattern allowances in order to produce a casting of
proper size and shape depend partly on product
design, mould design, shrinkage and contraction
characteristics of metal being cast.
• This is required because of the various reasons. These
are detailed as follows.
– Shrinkage Allowances
– Finish or Machining Allowances
– Draft or Taper Allowances
– Rapping or Shaking Allowances
– Distortion Allowances Contd….
Shrinkage Allowances
• During the solidification process in the mould cavity,
the metal will get contract.
• The contraction can be takes place in three different
phases.
1. The amount of shrinkage which is takes place in liquid
state, that is cooling from pouring temperature to freezing
temperature is known as “liquid shrinkage”.
2. The amount of shrinkage which is takes place during
phase transformation at constant freezing temperature is
known as “solidification shrinkage”
3. The amount of shrinkage which is takes place, when solid
casting cools from freezing temperature to room
temperature is known as “solid shrinkage”
Contd….
Shrinkage Allowances
• Both liquid and solidification shrinkages are
expressed in terms of “Percentage(%) of
shrinkage volume of the casting” and they can be
compensated by providing the “Riser”.
• Solid Shrinkage is expressed in terms of “linear
dimensions” these will be added always per linear
dimensions of casting while design the pattern.
These shrinkage can be compensated by
increasing the “size of pattern” in the form of
shrinkage allowances.
• Shrinkage values for different materials:
Contd….
Shrinkage Allowances
• Shrinkage values for different materials:
Material Shrinkage allowance, mm/m
Bismuth Negligible
White metal 6
Grey cast iron 7 to 10.5
White cast iron 16 to 23
Aluminium 13
Brass 15.5
Copper 16
Chromium Steel 20
Gunmetal 10 to 16
Monel 20
Lead 26
Magnesium 13
Zinc 10 to 15
Contd….
Shrinkage Allowances
• The shrinkage allowance is always to be added
to the linear dimensions.
• Even in case of internal dimensions (e.g.,
internal diameters of cylinders), the material has
a tendency to contract towards the centre and
thus are to be increased.
– Outside surfaces are solidifies to inside
– Inside core surfaces are solidifies to outside.
• In a Gray Cast iron during the solidification
process, due to formation of “Graphite flakes”,
the casting is slightly expanded to overcome this
size of the pattern will be reduced by
considering negative shrinkage allowance.
Finish or Machining Allowance
• The finish and accuracy achieved in sand casting
are generally poor and therefore when the casting
is functionally required to be of good surface
finish or dimensionally accurate, it generally
achieved by subsequent machining.
• Hence, extra material is to be provided which is to
be subsequently removed by machining or
cleaning process.
• This depends on dimensions, the type of casting
material and the finish required.
• Generally machining allowance will be added on
to the surface of the pattern.
Draft or Tapered Allowance
• At the time of withdrawing the pattern from the
sand mould, the vertical faces of the pattern are
in continual contact with the sand, which may
damage the mould cavity, as shown in fig.
• To reduce the chance of this happening, the
vertical faces of the pattern are always tapered
from the parting line. This provision is called
draft allowance.
• Draft allowance varies with the complexity of the
job. But in general, inner details of the pattern
require higher draft than outer surfaces.
• The amount of taper allowance will depends on
depth of the pattern.
• One thing to be noted here is that draft is always
provided as an extra metal over and above
original casting dimensions.
Shaking Allowance
During the ramming operation the moulding
sand will be adhere to the pattern surface. Due to
adhesive property of the moulding sand for easy
removal of the pattern from the mould cavity
without disturbing the mould walls, some clearance
required between the pattern and mould surface.
This can be generated by shaking the pattern in
different direction.
Due to shaking operation the size of the cavity
will be slightly increase, to overcome this pattern
size will be reduce when compare to casting size, by
considering rapping allowance. It is negative
allowance given to the pattern.
Distortion Allowance
• Depending on “shape and size of object due to
difference in shrinkage rates”, there is a
possibility of distortion of the casting to overcome
this size of the pattern will be slightly change by
providing distortion allowance.
• The direction distortion allowance is opposite to
the direction of distortion.
• This allowance value depends on the ratio of “h/t”
ratio of casting.
Moulding Sand
• Moulding sand are the most commonly used for
making all types of moulds irrespective of whether
they are used for producing casting of ferrous or non-
ferrous metal
• Most sand casting operations are used silica sand.
• Sand used to manufacture a mould for casting process
is held by mixture of water and clay.
• A typical mixture by volume could be 89% sand,4%
water and 7% clay.
Characteristics of Moulding Sand
• Moulding sands are refractory in nature and can
withstand temperature of metal being poured
without fusing.
• The moulding sand do not chemically react with
molten metal.
• The sand have high degree of permeability and
thus allow gases formed during pouring to escape.
• These strength, permeability and hardness of the
sand mix can be varied by changing the structure
of sand .
Types of Moulding Sand
Moulding sands may classified according to their
use into a number of varieties, as given below:
Green sand
Dry sand
Loam sand
Facing sand
System sand
Parting sand and
Core sand
Green sand:
• By green sand we denote sand in its natural, more
or less moist state.
• It is a mixture of silica sand with 18 to 30 percent
clay, having a total water of from 6 to 8 percent.
• The clay and water furnish the bond for green
sand. � It is fine, soft, light and porous.
• Being damped, it retains the shape, the
impression given to it under pressure when
squeezed in the hand.
• Moulds prepared in this sand are known as green
sand moulds.
Dry sand:
• Green sand that has been dried or baked after the
mould is made is called dry sand.
• These are suitable for large castings.
• Moulds prepared in this sand are known as dry
sand moulds.
Loam sand:
• It has high clay content, as much as 50 percent
and dries hard.
• This is particularly employed for loam moulding
usually for large castings.
Facing sand:
• It forms the face of the mould.
• It is used directly next to the surface of the pattern and it
comes into contact with the molten metal when the mould is
poured.
• It must possess high strength and refractoriness.
• It is made of silica sand and clay, without the addition of used
sand.
• Different forms of carbon are used to prevent the metal from
burning into the sand.
• The layer of moulding sand usually ranges from 20 to 30 mm.
• It is about 10 to 15 percent of the whole moulding sand used in
the foundry.
• A facing sand for green sand moulding of cast iron may consist
of 25 percent fresh and specially prepared sand, 70 percent old
sand, and 5 percent sea coal.
Backing sand or floor sand:
• It is used to back up the facing sand and to fill
the whole volume of the flask.
• Old, repeatedly used moulding sand is mainly
employed.
• It is sometimes called black sand because of
the fact that old, repeatedly used moulding
sand is black in colour due to the addition of
coal dust and burning on coming in contact
with molten metal.
System sand:
• The sand used to fill the whole flask in
machine moulding is called system sand.
• In mechanical sand preparation and handling
units, no facing sand is used, the used sand is
cleaned and reactivated by the addition of
water binders and special additives is known as
system sand.
• As the whole mould is made of this system
sand, the strength, permeability and
refractoriness of the sand must be higher than
those of backing sand.
Parting sand:
• It is used to keep the green sand from sticking to
the pattern and
• Also to allow the sand on the parting surface of
the cope and drag to separate without clinging
• It is clean clay-free silica sand, which serves the
same purpose as parting dust.
Core sand:
• It is used for making cores and sometimes called
oil sand.
• This is silica sand mixed with core oil composed
of linseed oil, resin, light mineral oil and other
binding materials.
Moulding Sand Properties
STRENGTH
GREEN STRENGTH:
§ Adequate strength and toughness for making and handling the
mould.
DRY STRENGTH:
§ Dry sand must have strength to resist erosion and also the
metalostatic pressure of the molten metal or else the mould
may enlarge.
HOT STRENGTH:
§ Hot molten metal
§ Metalloid static pressure of the liquid metal bearing against the
mould walls may cause mould enlargement, or if the metal is
still flowing, erosion, cracks, or breakages may occur unless
the sand posses adequate hot strength. Contd….
PERMEABILITY:
§ During the solidification of a casting, large amount of gases
are to be expelled from the mould. The gases are those which
have been absorbed by the metal in furnace, air absorbed from
the atmosphere.
§ If these gases are not allowed to escape from the mould, they
would be trapped inside the casting and cause defects.
§ The mould must be permeable, i.e. , porous to permit the gases
to escape. This gas evolution capability of the mould sand is
termed as Permeability.
THERMAL STABILITY:
§ Heat from the casting causes rapid expansion of the sand
surface at the mould-metal interface.
§ The mould surface may crack, buckle, or flake off (scab)
unless the moulding sand is relatively stable dimensionally
under rapid heating. Contd….
REFRACTORINESS:
§ The absence of melting, softening, or adherence of the sand to
the casting makes for better casting surface and easier cleaning
of the casting.
FLOWABILITY:
§ The sand should pack well/flow under load.
§ Sands of low flowability may result in non-uniform hardness.
§ Soft moulds --- enlargement of the casting or roughness of the
casting surfaces.
COLLAPSIBILITY:
§ The moulding sand should also have collapsibility so that
during the contraction of the solidified casting it does not
provide any resistance, which may result in cracks in the
castings.
§ Besides these specific properties the moulding material should
be cheap, reusable and should have good thermal conductivity
Contd….
ADHESIVENESS
§ The moulding sand should collapse during the contraction of the
solidified casting it does not provide any resistance, which may
result in cracks in the castings.
§ Besides these specific properties the moulding material should be
cheap, reusable and should have good thermal conductivity
COHESIVENESS
§ It is the property of sand due to which the sand grains stick together
during ramming. It is defined as the strength of the moulding sand
REUSABILITY:
§ Since large quantities of sand are used in a foundry it is very
important that the sand be reusable otherwise apart from cost it will
create disposal problems
EASY OF PREPARATION AND CONTROL:
§ Sand should lend itself to easy preparation and control by
mechanical equipment.
CONDUCTIVITY:
§ Sand should have enough conductivity to permit removal of heat
from the castings.
Moulding Sand Composition
Moulding sands are actually mixtures of three or more ingredients.
Green sand -- clay, water, sand (SiO2).
Also a number of other ingredients/materials are added.
SAND: Moulding sand contains 50 to 95 % of the total material in a
moulding sand. These sand particles may differ in the following
ways:
§ Average grain size, grain size distribution and grain shape.
§ Chemical composition.
§ Refractoriness and thermal stability.
§ Generally the purest silica sand, 99.8+ percent SiO2 is considered the
most refractory and thermally stable.
§ Excessive amounts of iron oxide, alkali oxides and lime can cause
objectionable lowering of the fusion point in some sands.
§ The shape of sand grains may be rounded, angular, or sub-angular
depending on their geologic history. Contd….
Clay: 2 to 50 percent
With a suitable water content, it is the principal source of the
strength and plasticity of the moulding sand.
Binder
Natural moulding sand ------- sand + clay in minerals
Synthetic moulding sands
“Essentially aggregates of extremely minute crystalline, usually
flake-shaped particles that can be classified on the basis of their
structure and composition into a few groups which are known as
clay minerals.
Single clay minerals
Mixtures of clay minerals
Clay minerals : bentonites(Al2O3 4SiO2 H2O nH2O), fire clays or
kaolinites (Al2O3 2SiO2 2H2O ) and special clays (halloysite, illite)
Contd….
Water: 1.5 to 8 percent
§ Activate the clay ----------- develop plasticity and
strength.
§ Water in moulding sand is often referred as
“tempering” water.
§ Water in excess -------- free water
§ The rigid clay coatings of the sand grains may be
forced together ---------- develop strength.
§ Free water ----- lubricant --- makes the sand more
plastic and more mouldable though the strength
may be lowered.
§ Control of water in sand (clay) is very important.
Contd….
Comparison of foundry base sand properties
Moulding Sand Preparation
One of the important requirements for preparation of sand is a
thorough mixing of its various ingredients.
Besides manual mixing, an equipment called Mueller is normally
used in foundries to mix the sands. There are two types batch type,
continuous Mueller.
Batch Mueller consists of one or two Mueller wheels
and an equal no. of plough blades, all of them
connected to a single driving source. The combined
action of both these is a sort of kneading action,
which makes the clay and the moisture uniformly
distributed throughout the sand.
A Continuous Mueller consists of two bowls with
Mueller wheels and ploughs, such that sand, clay and
moisture are fed through hopper into one of bowl
which after getting mulled moves into second one
and then finally out. It is generally used for large-
scale production.
Fluidity:
The term fluidity is normally used in a foundry to
designate the casting materials ability to fill the
mould cavity. Fluidity, therefore, is a complex
property and there are no. of variables, which
affect it. Fluidity depends on the casting material
as well as the mould
Cores
A Core is a device used in casting process to produce
internal cavities and re-entrant angles. The core is
normally a disposable item that is destroyed to get it out
of the piece. They are most commonly used in sand casting.
Desired characteristics of Core
§ Green strength
§ Dry strength
§ Refractoriness
§ Permeability
§ Collapsibility
§ Smoothness
§ Low gas emission
Contd….
Core Sands
Core sand mixture consists of
§ Sand grains
§ Binders for green and baked strength and
§ other additives for special purposes
Binders: Core binders serve to hold the sand grains
together and impart sufficient strength to the cores
and to provide the desired degree of collapsibility.
They are classified as:
§ Organic binders
§ Metallo organic binders
§ Inorganic binders
Contd….
Organic binders:
These are combustible, and are destroyed by heat. � Hence
they contribute a good degree of collapsibility to the core
sand.
Core oils (manufactured by blending linseed oil, soya oil,
fish oil and petroleum oil), cereals, resins, plastics, dextrin,
molasses, lignin, etc. are some of the types used.
Metallo organic binders:
Compounds such as sodium perborate and magnesium
dioxide are used as binders. � Some times the baking can be
eliminated completely.
Inorganic binders:
Bentonite, fire clay, sodium silicate are some of the
compounds used .
These are not preferred due to their poor collapsibility.
Contd….
Properties of core sand:
§ It should have sufficient green strength
§ It must be permeable to allow the core gases to escape easily
§ It should have high refractoriness to withstand high temperature of the molten
metal
§ It must be sufficiently low in residual gas-forming materials to prevent excess gas
from entering the metal
§ It should be more collapsible than moulds
§ It must be stable with a minimum of contraction and expansion to make a true form
of casting
§ It must be strong enough to retain its shape without deforming
Types of Cores
Based on type of sand used
Green sand Cores
• Green sand cores are formed by pattern itself.
• A green sand core is a part of the mould
• A green sand core is made out of the same sand from which
the rest of mould has been made i.e moulding steel.
• Horizontal Core
• Vertical Core
• Hanging or Cover Core
• Drop or Stop off Core
Chaplets
Chaplets are metallic supports
often kept inside the mould
cavity to support the cores.
these are of the same
composites as that of the
pouring metal so that the
molten metal would provide
enough heat to completely melt
them and thus fuse with it
during solidification.
ELEMENTS OF GATING
SYSTEM
GATING SYSTEM
• The term gating system refers to all passageways
through which the molten metal passes to enter the
mould cavity.
• The gating system is composed of
Pouring basin
Sprue
Runner
Gates
Risers
Components of Gating System
• Any gating system designed should aim at providing a defect
free casting. This can be achieved by considering following
requirements.
A gating system should avoid sudden or right angle changes in
direction.
A gating system should fill the mould cavity before freezing.
The metal should flow smoothly into the mould without any
turbulence. A turbulence metal flow tends to form dross in the
mould.
The metal entry into the mould cavity should be properly
controlled in such a way that aspiration of the atmospheric air
is prevented.
A proper thermal gradient should be maintained so that the
casting is cooled without any shrinkage cavities or distortions.
Metal flow should be maintained in such a way that no gating
or mould erosion takes place.
• Reduces turbulence at the sprue entrance.
• Helps separating dross, slag etc., from metal before it
enters the sprue.
•If the pouring basins are made large,
Dross and slag formation will tend to float on the surface
of the metal and may be stopped from entering the sprue and
hence the mould.
They may be filled quickly without overflowing and may
act as a reservoir of liquid metal to compensate metal
shrinkage or contraction.
SPRUE
• A sprue feeds metal to runner which in turn reaches
the casting through gates.
• A sprue is tapered with its bigger end at top to receive
the liquid metal. The smaller end is connected to
runner.
GATES
• A gate is a channel which connects runner with the
mould cavity and through which molten metal flows
to fill the mould cavity.
• A small gate is used for a casting which solidifies
slowly and vice versa.
• A gate should not have sharp edges as they may break
during pouring and sand pieces thus may be carried
with the molten metal in the mould cavity.
• Types
• Top gate
• Bottom gate
• Parting line side gate
Top gate
• A top gate is sometimes also called as Drop gate
because the molten metal just drops on the sand in the
bottom of the mould.
•The dropping liquid metal stream erodes the mould
surface.
•There is a lot of turbulence.
Bottom gates
• A bottom gate is made in the drag portion of the
mould.
• As comparison to top gate, bottom gate involves little
turbulence and sand erosion.
• Bottom gate produces good casting surfaces.
Disadvantages
• In bottom gates, liquid metal enters the mould cavity
at the bottom. If freezing takes place at the bottom, it
could choke off the metal flow before the mould is
full.
• The cavity below the parting line will be filled by
assuming top gating and the cavity above the parting
line will be filled by assuming bottom gating.
DESIGN OF GATING SYSTEM
• To fill the mould cavity without breaking the flow of
liquid metal and without using very high pouring
temperatures.
• To avoid erosion of mould cavity.
• To minimize turbulence and dross formation.
• To prevent aspiration of air or mould gases in the
liquid metal stream.
• To obtain favourable temperature gradients to
promote directional solidification.
Defects occurring due to improper
design of gating system
• Oxidation of metal
• Cold shuts
• Mould erosion
• Shrinkages
• Porosity
• Misruns
• Penetration of liquid metal into mould walls.
Reynold’s number (Re)
Re Vd
density velocity diameter
viscosity
Critical Reynold’s
number
• Re < 2,000
– viscosity dominated, laminar flow
• Re > 4,000
– inertia dominated, turbulent flow
• Controlled through gate and runner design
Metal flow rate and velocity
calculations
• Studies of gating system have been based upon two
laws of fluid dynamics.
• Law of continuity
• Q = A1V1 = A2V2
• Q = volume rate of flow
• A = cross sectional area of flow passage
• V = linear velocity of flow
Bernoulli’s Equation
• P1/g + V• 1 2/ 2g + h1 = P2/g + V2 / 2g
2
+ h2
P = pressure h = height above the datum plane
= density
v = velocity
Design criteria for pouring
basin
• The pouring basin should be designed such that the
proper uniform flow system is rapidly established.
• This can be achieved by-
Use of strainer core
Use of DAM to make steady flow
Use of sprue plug
• It should be easy and convenient to fill pouring basin.
Design of
sprue
• As the liquid metal passes down the sprue it loses its
pressure head but gains velocity.
• Assuming
– entire mould is at atmospheric pressure (no
point below atmospheric)
– metal in the pouring basin is at zero velocity
(reservoir assumption)
Mass flow rate = A V = constant
h t 2
2
h A 3
c A
Actual shape of sprue is Parabola
But in order to avoid manufacturing difficulty we use
tapered cylinder shape.
•Tapered sprue reduces the rate of flow at which the
liquid metal enters the mould cavity and hence mould
erosion is reduced.
•The area at the sprue exit controls-
Flow rate of liquid metal into mould cavity
Velocity of liquid metal
Pouring time
In a choked system, gate serves as the choke.
This creates a pressurized system.
Due to high metal velocity and turbulence, this
system experiences oxidation and erosion in mould
cavity.
The area at the sprue exit which if is the least is
known as choke area and can be calculated from the
following relation-
W
CA
c.dt 2 g H
CA is choke area
W is the weight of casting C
is nozzle coefficient
d is density of liquid metal t
is pouring time
H effective liquid metal head
Pouring time
•High pouring rates leads to mould erosion, rough
surface, excessive shrinkages etc.
•Low pouring rate may not permit the complete filling of
the mould cavity in time if the molten metal freezes fast
and thus defects like cold shuts may develop.
W is weight of casting in lbs
K is fluidity factor
• Pouring time for gray cast iron casting
casting weighing more than 1000 lbs.
K 0.95
T 3
w sec onds
0.853
Casting weighing less than 1000 lbs
T
K0.95 wsec
o nds
0.853
W is weight of casting in lbs
T is average section thickness in inches
K is fluidity factor
•Pouring time of light metal alloys
•Unlike steel, Al and Mg alloys are poured at a slow
rate, this is necessary to avoid turbulence, aspiration
and drossing.
DESIGN OF RUNNER AND GATES
• In a good runner and gate design-
Abrupt changes in section and sharp corners which
create turbulence and gas entrapment should be
avoided.
A suitable relationship must exist between the cross-
sectional area of sprue, runner and in gates.
GATING RATIO
• Gating ratio= a:b:c where,
• a= cross-sectional area of sprue
• b= cross-sectional area of runner
• c= total cross-sectional area of ingates.
• Gating ratio reveals-
• whether the total cross- section decreases towards the
mould cavity. This provides a choke effect which
pressurizes the liquid metal in the system.
• Whether the total cross-sectional area increases so
that the passages remain incompletely filled. It is an
unpressurized system.
S.N. Pressurized gating systems Unpressurized gating systems
• Gating ratio and positions of ingates should be such
that the liquid metal fills the mould cavity just rapidly
to-
• For a gating ratio 1:2:4, 66% of liquid metal enters
through gate no. 2 and only 34% does so through gate
no. 1.
• Total ingate area is reduced by making gates farthest
from sprue of smaller cross-section so that less
volume of metal flows through them and makes a
uniform distribution of metal at all ingates.
• Besides with reduced total ingate area, still more
satisfactory result may be obtained if runner beyond
each ingate is reduced in cross section to balance the
flow in all parts of the system and to equalise further
velocity and pressure.
Streamlining the gating system
• Streamlining includes-
• Removing sharp corners or junction by giving a
generous radius.
• Tapering the sprue.
• Providing radius at sprue entrance and exit.
ADVANTAGES OF STREAMLINING
• Metal turbulence is reduced.
• Air aspiration is avoided.
• Mould erosion and dross are minimized.
• Sound and clean casting are obtained.