1.

Ethernet Physical Layer

Standards
The most fundamental cabling choice has to
do with the materials used inside the cable
for the physical transmission of bits: either
copper wires or glass fibers. The use of
unshielded twisted-pair (UTP) cabling saves
money compared to optical fibers, with
Ethernet nodes using the wires inside the
cable to send data over electrical circuits.
UTP Four most common standards-
Ethernet
2:Ethernet Addressing/MAC
Addressing
7

Ethernet addresses, also called Media

Access Control (MAC) addresses, are 6-
byte-long (48-bit long) binary numbers. For
convenience, most computers list MAC
addresses as 12-digit hexadecimal numbers.
Cisco devices typically add some periods to
the number for easier readability as well;
for example, a Cisco switch might list a
MAC address as 0000.0C12.3456
Structure of Unicast Ethernet
Addresses:
3:Error Notification
9

The Data Link Layer provides error

notifications that alert higher layer
protocols that an error has occurred on
the physical link. Examples of link-level
errors include the loss of a signal, the
loss of a clocking signal across serial
connections, or the loss of the remote
endpoint on a Internet link.
Frame Sequencing:
The frame sequencing capabilities of the
Data Link Layer allow frames that are
transmitted out of sequence to be
reordered on the receiving end of a
transmission. The integrity of the packet
can then be verified by means of the bits in
the Layer 2 header, which is transmitted
along with the data payload.
4:Flow Control
10

Flow control within the Data Link Layer allows

receiving devices on a link to detect congestion
and notify their upstream and downstream
neighbors. The neighbor devices transmit the
congestion information to their higher layer
protocols so that the flow of traffic can be
altered or rerouted.
Data Link Sublayers
The Data Link Layer is divided into two
sublayers:
logical link control (LLC) and media access
control (MAC). The LLC sublayer manages
communications between devices over a single
link of a network. This sublayer supports fields
in link-layer frames that enable multiple higher
layer protocols to share a single physical link.
The MAC sublayer governs protocol access to
the physical network medium. Through the
MAC addresses that are typically assigned to
all ports on a device, multiple devices on the
same physical link can uniquely identify one
another at the Data Link Layer. MAC addresses
are used in addition to the network addresses
that are typically configured manually on ports
within a network.

5:Data link layer 3

The Data Link Layer is Layer 2 in the Open Systems

Interconnection (OSI) model. The Data Link Layer is
responsible for transmitting data across a physical
network link.
The data link layer provides access to the
networking media and physical transmission across
the media and this enables the data to locate its
intended destination on a network.
The data link layer provides reliable transit of
data across a physical link by using the Media
Access Control (MAC) addresses.
The data link layer uses the MAC address to
define a hardware or data link address in order for
multiple stations to share the same medium and
still uniquely identify each other
-Examples :-Ethernet, Frame Relay
Each physical medium has link-layer
specifications for network and link-layer protocol
characteristics such as physical addressing, network
topology, error notification, frame sequencing, and
flow control.

6:Wireless Local Area

Network -WLAN What does
Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN) mean? A
wireless local area network (WLAN) is a wireless
distribution method for two or more devices that use
high-frequency radio waves and often include an
access point to the Internet. A WLAN allows users to
move around the coverage area, often a home or
small office, while maintaining a network connection.
A WLAN is sometimes call a local area wireless
network (LAWN). What is the difference between
WIFI and wireless LAN? While wireless LANs
refer to any local area network (LAN) that a mobile
user can connect to through a wireless (radio)
connection; Wi-Fi (short for "wireless fidelity") is a
term for certain types of WLANs that use
specifications in the 802.11 wireless protocol
family.

7:Cellular Systems/Networks?

A cellular network or mobile network is a

communication network where the last link is
wireless. The network is distributed over land
areas called cells, each served by at least one
fixed-location transceiver, known as a cell site
or base station.
This base station provides the cell with the
network coverage which can be used for
transmission of voice, data and others. A cell
might use a different set of frequencies from
neighboring cells, to avoid interference and
provide guaranteed service quality within each
cell.
8:Mobile phone network
15
The most common example of a cellular network is
a mobile phone (cell phone) network. A mobile
phone is a portable telephone which receives or
makes calls through a cell site (base station), or
transmitting tower. Radio waves are used to
transfer signals to and from the cell phone.
A cellular network is used by the mobile phone
operator to achieve both coverage and capacity for
their subscribers. Large geographic areas are split
into smaller cells to avoid line-of-sight signal loss
and to support a large number of active phones in
that area. All of the cell sites are connected to
telephone exchanges (or switches), which in turn
connect to the public telephone network.

9:Digital Subscriber Line(DSL) OR

Digital Subscriber Loop
Digital Subscriber Line (DSL) is a group of
networking technologies that allow for WAN
connections over existing telephone network wires.
Originally short for Digital Subscriber Loop, DSL is
more commonly referred to today as Digital
Subscriber Line. Loop refers to the short-haul
(relating to or engaged in transportation over short
distances) connection between the end user's home
or business and the local telephone company office
where the DSL equipment resides. Line is merely a
friendlier term that more people would understand
than loop. When people refer to DSL, they generally
are referring to ADSL, the most commonly used of
DSL technologies.

10:Voice Over IP (VoIP)

Voice over Internet Protocol (also voice over IP, VoIP or IP telephony)
is a methodology and group of technologies for the delivery of voice
communications and multimedia sessions over Internet Protocol (IP)
networks, such as the Internet. What is Voice over IP? Voice over
Internet Protocol (VoIP) technology lets you use the Internet to make
and receive telephone calls. 6
What is Voice over IP?:
 The Benefits 7 VoIP and unified communications enable you to:
Reduce travel and training costs, thanks to web and video conferencing
Easily grow your phone system as needed Have one phone number
ring simultaneously on multiple devices, helping employees stay
connected to each other and to customers Reduce your phone charges
Have a single network for voice and data, simplifying management
and reducing costs Access your phone system's features at home or at
client offices, in airports and hotels—anywhere you've got a
broadband/Internet connection

11:Real-time Transport Protocol (RTP) 8

The Real-time Transport Protocol (RTP) is a network protocol for
delivering audio and video over IP networks. RTP is used extensively in
communication and entertainment systems that involve streaming media,
such as telephony, video teleconference applications including television
services and web-based push-to-talk features. RTP typically runs over
User Datagram Protocol (UDP). RTP is used in conjunction with the
RTP Control Protocol (RTCP). While RTP carries the media streams
(e.g., audio and video), RTCP is used to monitor transmission statistics
and quality of service (QoS) and aids synchronization of multiple
streams. RTP is one of the technical foundations of Voice over IP and in
this context is often used in conjunction with a signaling protocol such
as the Session Initiation Protocol (SIP) which establishes connections
across the network.

12:Session Initiation Protocol (SIP): 9

How SIP protocol works? SIP (Session Initiation Protocol) is a signaling
protocol, widely used for setting up, connecting and disconnecting
communication sessions, typically voice or video calls over the Internet.
SIP is a standardized protocol with its basis coming from the IP
community and in most cases uses UDP or TCP.

SIP Features: The SIP communications protocol determines five

attributes when establishing and terminating multimedia sessions: • User
location • User availability • User capabilities • Session setup • Session
management Different types of multimedia SIP sessions include internet
telephony calls, video conferencing and other forms of unified
communications.