Carrie N. Baker - The Women's Movement Against Sexual Harassment - Cambridge University Press (2008) PDF

The Women's Movement against Sexual Harassment
The Women's Movement against Sexual Harassment recounts the story of

how a diverse grassroots social movement placed sexual harassment on the
public agenda in the I970S and I980s. The collaboration of women from
varying racial, economic, and geographic backgrounds strengthened the
movement by representing the experiences and perspectives of a broad
range of women, and incorporating their resources and strategies for social
change. Black women; middle-class feminists; women breaking into con-
struction, coal mining, and other nontraditional occupations; and women
in pink-collar and working-class white-collar jobs all helped to convince
governments to adopt public policies against sexual harassment in the
United States. Based on interviews and voluminous original research, this
book is the first to show how the movement against sexual harassment
fundamentally changed American life in ways that continue to advance
women's opportunities today.
Carrie N. Baker is a Visiting Assistant Professor of Women's Studies at

Smith College, on leave from Berry College, where she is an Assistant Pro-
fessor in the Program for Women and Gender Studies and Sociology. She
holds a B.A. in philosophy from Yale University and a J.D. and Ph.D. in
women's studies from Emory University. Dr. Baker was Editor-in-Chief
of the Emory Law Journal while attending law school and later served as
law clerk to United States District Court Judge Marvin Shoob in Atlanta.
Dr. Baker's primary areas of research are women's legal history, gender and
public policy, and women's social movements. Her work has been pub-
lished in Feminist Studies, Women in Politics, the Journal of Women's
History, NWSA Journal, the Journal of Law and Inequality, Emory Law
Journal, and Women and Social Movements in the United States. Dr. Baker
is a member of the National Women's Studies Association and the Amer-
ican Sociological Association.
The Women's Movement against
Sexual Harassment
CARRIE N. BAKER
Smith College
II1II CAMBRIDGE
. . " UNIVERSITY PRESS
CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS
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Cambridge University Press

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© Carrie N. Baker 2008
This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception

and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements,
no reproduction of any part may take place without
the written permission of Cambridge University Press.
First published 2008
Printed in the United States of America
A catalog record for this publication is available from the British Library.
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data
Baker, Carrie N.
The Women's movement against sexual harassment / Carrie N. Baker.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-0-521-87935-4 (hardback) - ISBN 978-0-521-70494-6 (pbk.)
I. Sexual harassment of women - United States - History - 20th century.
2. Feminism - United States - History - 20th century. 3. Sexual harassment of women - Law
and legislation - United States. 4. Women's rights - United States. I. Title.
HQ1237.5.u6B35 2008
305.420973'o9047-dC22 2007028242
ISBN 978-0-521-87935-4 hardback

ISBN 978-0-521-70494-6 paperback
Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or

accuracy of URLS for external or third-party Internet Web sites referred
to in this publication and does not guarantee that any content on such
Web sites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate.
Contents
Figures page vi
Acknowledgments Vll
Organizational Abbreviations IX
Introduction: Enter at Your Own Risk I
PART I: RAISING THE ISSUE OF SEXUAL HARASSMENT
I Articulating the Wrong: Resistance to Sexual Harassment

in the Early I970S II
2 Speaking Out: Collective Action against Sexual Harassment
in the Mid-I970S 27
3 A Winning Strategy: Early Legal Victories against
Sexual Harassment 49
PART II: GROWTH OF A MOVEMENT AGAINST SEXUAL HARASSMENT
4 Blue-Collar Workers and Hostile Environment Sexual Harassment 67

5 Expansion of the Movement against Sexual Harassment in the
Late I970S 82
PART III: THE MOVEMENT'S INFLUENCE ON PUBLIC POLICY
6 Government Policy Develops III

7 Fighting the Backlash: Feminist Activism in the I980s
8 Legal Victory: The Supreme Court and Beyond
Conclusion: Entering the Mainstream I77

Appendix A: Time Lines of Significant Events I93
Appendix B: Glossary of Select Cases I97
Notes 20I
Bibliography
Index
v
Figures
2.1 Sexual Harassment Speak Out Poster, 1975 page 33

2.2 Ms. Magazine Cover, November 1977 39
4. 1 Sandra Bundy, 1979 79
5. 1 Women's Rights March, New York City, 1980 85
5. 2 Sexual Harassment Protest, New York City, 1979 90
5·3 Sexual Harassment Protest, New York City, 1980 91
6.1 Eleanor Holmes Norton, 198I II7
8.1 Anita Hill, I991 I7 2
Acknowledgments
I have vivid memories of October 1991, during my first year of law

school, sitting in the student lounge watching Anita Hill on television testify
in excruciating detail before the Senate Judiciary Committee about her experien-
ces of sexual harassment while working for Supreme Court nominee Clarence
Thomas a decade prior at the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission
(EEOC). The year before, when I was a graduate student at the same institu-
tion, the issue had arisen closer to home when a senior member of the law
school faculty departed, allegedly with a golden parachute, after students had
staged a walkout from classes because the administration had repeatedly failed
to act on student complaints of sexual harassment against him. Then the
Tailhook scandal broke out. Seemingly out of nowhere, the issue of sexual
harassment was all over the headlines and on the minds of everyone, every-
where. I wondered why sexual harassment had suddenly become such a big
deal. Where did it come from? What was sexual harassment, and what was the
law? Had sexual harassment always been around, and, if so, how had women
dealt with it in the past? These and other questions set me on a path to explore
the social movement against sexual harassment that emerged in the I970S and
brought the issue to the Supreme Court in the 1980s. This book is the result of
that exploration.
Many people helped me along the way. I would like to thank everyone who
read drafts of this manuscript and provided guidance and encouragement
during the research and writing of this book, especially Mary Odem, Beth
Reingold, Mary Radford, Cherrie Granrose, Mindy Wilson, and John Salatti.
Many people associated with libraries, collections, and archives around the
country have assisted me with this project. In particular I would like to thank
David Hopson, Elaine Bailey, and Kathy Jiang at the Barnard Center for Re-
search on Women; Deborah Richards at the Arthur and Elizabeth Schlesinger
Library on the History of Women in America at Radcliffe College; and Aaron
Mooney at Emory University's Woodruff Library. My appreciation also goes to
Yolanda Wu at NOW Legal Defense and Education Fund, Terri Witherspoon at
vii
V111 Acknowledgments
Equal Rights Advocates (ERA), and Frances Hart at the EEOC for digging
through old files for me. I offer heartfelt thanks to the many wonderful women
who provided me with interviews and access to their private papers, including
Karen Sauvigne, Freada Klein, K. C. Wagner, Susan Meyer, Lynn Rubinett,
Nadine Taub, Peggy Crull, Anne Simon, Maudine Rice Cooper, Katherine
Mazzaferri, Joan Grafff, Trudy Levy, and Nan Stein. For financial support
I thank Emory University's Institute for Women's Studies and the Graduate
School of Arts and Sciences, Emory Women's Club, the Woodrow Wilson Foun-
dation, and Berry College. I would like to thank my editor, Lewis Bateman,
at Cambridge University Press, as well as the anonymous reviewers who pro-
vided very helpful comments. I also thank Diane Land, Amy Summerlin, and
Darla Fox at Berry College for editorial support. Finally, I thank my family,
especially Harvey Hill, who throughout the research and writing of this book
generously offered his support and encouragement.
I dedicate this book to all the courageous women who spoke up and broke
the silence.
Organizational Abbreviations
AASC Alliance Against Sexual Harassment, Cambridge, MA

ACLU American Civil Liberties Union, New York, NY
CASH Committee on Sexual Harassment, Columbus, OH
CEP Coal Employment Project, Oak Ridge, TN
CETA Comprehensive Employment Training Act
CLUW Coalition of Labor Union Women, New York, NY
DOL Department of Labor, Washington, D.C.
EEOC Equal Employment Opportunity Commission, Washington,
D.C.
ERA Equal Rights Advocates, Inc., San Francisco, CA
HAP Human Affairs Program, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY
IUE International Union of Electrical, Radio & Machine
Workers, Pittsburgh, PA
LCCRUL Lawyer's Committee for Civil Rights Under Law,
Washington, D.C.
LSCRRC Law Students Civil Rights Research Council, New York,
NY
MALDEF Mexican-American Legal Defense & Education Fund, San
Francisco, CA
MSPB Merit System Protection Board, Washington, D.C.
NOW National Organization for Women, Washington, D.C.
NOWLDEF NOW Legal Defense & Education Fund, New York, NY
OBAW Organization of Black Activist Women, Washington, D.C.
OCR Office of Civil Rights, Department of Education,
Washington, D.C.
OFCCP Office of Federal Contract Compliance Programs,
Washington, D.C.
OPM Office of Personnel Management, Washington, D.C.
UAW United Auto Workers, Detroit, MI
ix
x Organizational Abbreviations
WAJE Women's Alliance for Job Equity, Philadelphia, PA

WLDF Women's Legal Defense Fund, Washington, D.C.
WOASH Women Organized Against Sexual Harassment, Berkeley,
CA
WOW Women Office Workers, New York, NY
WREE Women for Racial and Economic Opportunity, New York,
NY
WWU Working Women United, Ithaca, NY
WWUI Working Women United Institute, New York, NY
WWI Working Women's Institute, New York, NY
Introduction: Enter at Your Own Risk
In March 1975, a group of feminist activists in Ithaca, New York coined the
term "sexual harassment" to name something they had all experienced but
rarely discussed - unwanted sexual demands, comments, looks, or sexual
touching in the workplace. The experience they wanted to spotlight was one
that women in this country had faced since colonial times. Seventeenth-century
indentured servants, eighteenth-century black slaves, nineteenth-century fac-
tory workers, and twentieth-century office workers all shared the experience of
having fended off the sexual demands of those wielding economic power over
their lives - masters, overseers, foremen, and supervisors. I
Women responded to workplace sexual coercion in a myriad of ways, often
submitting, but also resisting. Some escaped the situation, others tried using
official channels to stop the abuse or seek relief from its effects, and yet others
joined together to protest sexual coercion by their employers. Escape was the
only option for many female slaves, who had little power to resist their owner's
sexual advances, no legal recourse, and no home outside their owner's reach. In
her 1861 autobiography, Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl, Harriet Jacobs
described her escape from a master who "began to whisper foul words in [her]
ear" when she was fifteen.2. Domestic servants who could afford to do so
escaped the sexual abuse of employers by leaving their jobs. In 1874, Louisa
May Alcott published an account of how at the age of eighteen she had left a job
as a domestic servant because her employer assigned her backbreaking work
after she refused his sexual advances. 3
Women sometimes turned to governmental authorities for help. Although
colonial courts heard charges against masters for "violating" female servants,
making "forcible attempts" on their chastity, and exhibiting "lewd behavior,"
victims rarely gained relief. 4 In cases when a servant ended up pregnant, courts
sometimes required masters to pay a fine or give security to maintain the child. 5
However, indentured servants did not have easy access to the judicial system,
and their direct dependence on those who assaulted them often dissuaded them
from taking action. When former slaves registered charges of sexual abuse by
I
2 The Women's Movement against Sexual Harassment
white men with the Freeman's Bureau, an agency set up after emancipation to
assist blacks, they seldom obtained relief. 6 Sometimes, women sued their
employers for assault or for monetary damages when they became pregnant?
In 1908, a young immigrant woman sued her employer, a saloon-keeper,
because he "abused her shamefully and then turned her out when he found
that she was to become the mother of his illegitimate child," but she lost her
case. 8
Women also resisted sexual coercion in the workplace collectively. In
Chicago, at the turn of the century, Grace Abbot formed immigrant protective
organizations with a primary goal of protecting immigrant girls from lecherous
employers. 9 Later, tradeswomen formed groups to fight sexual abuse in the
workplac.e. In 1914, a group of women in the needle trades formed the Young
Ladies Educational Society to support each other in resisting the sexual advan-
ces of their employers. 10 A major goal of the Working Women's Society, a fore-
runner of the Women's Trade Union League, was to protect working women
from unwanted sexual advances by supervisors. I I Sexual abuse of workers
sometimes became an issue that sent unions out on strike. One of the issues
in a 1937 strike at the Chevrolet-Flint Plant in Michigan was sexual abuse,
after a large number of female workers had to go to the county hospital to be
treated for venereal disease traced to a single foreman. A worker recalled,
"Those were the conditions that young women had to accept in order to sup-
port their families. Sometimes they earned just enough to provide food for the
family and they couldn't lose their jobs because nobody else in the family had
a job."I2
Despite their resistance, women often were blamed for sexual abuse because
of their presence in the workplace, which was thought to provoke uncontrol-
lable male lust or to reflect women's promiscuous nature. The nineteenth-
century white middle-class ideal of "true womanhood" required women to
guard their purity and deny knowledge of sexuality. To admit a sexual incident
blemished a woman's character, which silenced many. Women were traditionally
classified as respectable or not respectable, and for a woman to enter the
workplace was to forfeit respect.13 Working women were often characterized
as enticing their employers and later becoming prostitutes. If the sexual abuse
of female workers was acknowledged at all, it was considered a moral issue,
and concern focused on the moral degradation of the women targeted. During
industrialization, when women began entering mills and factories in large
numbers, sexual behavior in the workplace was framed as a social problem -
one of vice, not economic coercion. Concern for the moral conditions of wom-
en's employment led to official investigations by the federal government in
1887 and again in 191 I. A 1911 Bureau of Labor Statistics study of the relation
between occupations and the criminality of women warned, "Wherever the
sexes work indiscriminately together great laxity obtains."'4
Beginning in the nineteenth century, however, female social reformers shifted
the terms of the debate by characterizing working women as victimized by male
lust and seduction rather than being promiscuous seducers themselves.
Introduction: Enter at Your Own Risk 3
Although they identified the problem to be male sexual aggression and violence,
their solutions often restricted women socially and economically by rigidly
enforcing sex-segregated workplaces and strong cultural taboos against sexual
mixing. Reformers fought for protective labor legislation to shield women from
workplace sexual abuse. They expressed concern for the "physical and moral
safety" of women in the workplace. Unions, protective associations, and set-
tlement house organizations were at the forefront of the drive for protective
legislation for women workers. Reformers believed that limiting women's
hours, banning night work, and prohibiting women from certain occupa-
tions would help to shield women from sexual abuse. 15 But these social reform-
ers still characterized the problem of sexual coercion in the workplace primarily
as one of moral degeneration, not economic abuse.
During the second wave of the women's movements in the I9705, a grass-
roots movement against sexual harassment emerged, which framed workplace
sexual abuse in new ways. For those with backgrounds in the rape crisis move-
ment, sexual coercion in the workplace was an issue of violence against
women. For others, sexual harassment was a form of sex discrimination in
employment and a violation of women's civil rights. This book charts the
evolution of sexual harassment from a private indignity women suffered silen-
tly to an issue of public concern and debate. This transformation occurred as
a result of women speaking out - a few women took legal action, others began
talking about their experiences with each other - and then women collectively
began to recognize sexual harassment as a widespread and systemic problem.
This gathering chorus of women's protests soon began to resound in the larger
society.
The movement against sexual harassment emerged from multiple feminisms -
the grassroots activism of diverse groups of women - and the resulting public
policy reflected this diverse participation. The activists' experiences of harass-
ment and strategies to combat it were fundamentally shaped by their gender,
race, and class identities. African-American women brought most of the pre-
cedent-setting lawsuits. They filed employment discrimination complaints with
equal employment offices in the early I970s, turning to civil rights organiza-
tions for assistance. The early sexual harassment plaintiffs were the first to
conceptualize sexual harassment as sex discrimination under Title VII of the
Civil Rights Act, thus fundamentally shaping the movement against sexual
harassment by grounding it in Title VII sex discrimination law.
White middle-class feminists also made significant contributions to the
movement against sexual harassment and were similarly shaped by their iden-
tities and backgrounds. Two of the first organizations to work on sexual harass-
ment, Working Women United in Ithaca, New York, and Alliance Against Sexual
Coercion in Cambridge, Massachusetts, were founded by white middle-class
women with experience in the women's movement. These women used feminist
theory to analyze sexual coercion in the workplace and used the tools and
resources of the women's movement to raise awareness of the problem through
speak-outs, surveys, newsletters, and the media. Feminist attorneys litigated most
of the early sexual harassment cases and actively participated in developing

public policy on sexual harassment. By the end of the I980s, a wide range of
mainstream feminist organizations were working on the issue.
The third important group to shape the movement against sexual harass-
ment was working-class women in nontraditional and blue-collar occupations,
who advocated for broadening the definition of sexual harassment to include
hostile environment harassment. In the late I970s, a diverse array of women
began to break into traditionally male fields like construction and coal mining.
In unions and on the job, women experienced male hostility to their presence in
these nontraditional work settings. Male supervisors and co-workers subjected
them to sexual abuse and even physical violence in order to push them out of
the workplace. The women used the resources of their unions and employee
associations to raise awareness about sexual harassment and develop strategies
to combat it. They also urged courts and policymakers to broaden their defi-
nitions of sexual harassment to include not just sexual demands by a supervisor
of a subordinate employee, but hostile environment harassment, both sexual
and nonsexual, not only just from supervisors but from co-workers as well.
Blue-collar women brought several precedent-setting lawsuits, and they partic-
ipated in and influenced organizations that fought sexual harassment, including
Working Women United Institute and Alliance Against Sexual Coercion.
Finally, women working in female-dominated "pink-collar" occupations and
working-class "white-collar" jobs were involved at every stage of the movement
against sexual harassment, filing lawsuits, raising public awareness of the issue,
and fighting for better treatment in the workplace. Flight attendants, clerical
workers, and other women in female-dominated occupations, who had orga-
nized against sex discrimination in the workplace since the mid-I960s, turned
to the issue of sexual exploitation of women in the workplace in the early
I970s. Through groups like Stewardesses for Women's Rights and the
National Association of Working Women, these women fought for the need
to be treated as professionals rather than sex objects.
Through the use of social movement theory, this book seeks to understand
how the movement against sexual harassment emerged and thrived in the I970S
and I980s. Social movements are usually defined as a mixture of informal
networks and formal organizations outside of conventional politics that make
clear demands for fundamental social, political, or economic change and utilize
unconventional or protest tactics. Social movements function at multiple levels:
the microlevel of individual activists and their interactions, the meso level of
groups and institutions and their interactions, and the macrolevel, where these
individuals, groups, and institutions function as a coherent whole to create
societal change. Activism against sexual harassment emerged from an array
of grassroots locations around the country, including from individual women
filing lawsuits to the formation of organizations to combat harassment, ulti-
mately converging at the national level in the I980s. The movement against
sexual harassment was not only rooted in the civil rights and women's move-
ments, but was also influenced by the student movements of the 1960s, the
sexual revolution, the gay and lesbian rights movement, and the labor
movement. This movement resulted from formal and informal resources mo-
bilized from these other movements, including most importantly, the civil rights
legal framework and the women's movement's network of rape crisis centers
and feminist attorneys. The movement took advantage of the political oppor-
tunities available at the time - progressive judicial appointees of presidents
Kennedy and Johnson and the legacy of the Warren Court's advancement of
individual rights, as well as the government agencies developed to advance
equal employment opportunity and human rights in the wake of the civil rights
movement. Finally, activists against sexual harassment developed a shared un-
derstanding of the issue that legitimated and motivated collective action. They
tapped into the tension between women's increasing need to enter the work-
place (and stay there) and many men's tendency to view women through the
lens of sexuality. They also tapped into the tension between the emerging
feminist demand that women should be able to control their bodies, particu-
larly their sexuality, and women's experience of sexual coercion in the work-
place. I6 This book seeks to understand the movement against sexual
harassment by analyzing the relationship between the movement's internal
dynamics and its external context - how the political and social context shaped
the movement's collective identity, its forms of collective action, and the mean-
ings and structures it created to effect social change. I7 In order to understand
this complex mix of factors that creates a social movement, this study draws on
many stories of grassroots activists and "acts by individuals and small groups in
everyday life as part of a struggle for social change.'H8 It also emphasizes how
intersections of race, class, and gender shaped the movement. Finally, this book
seeks to understand how the movement effected both policy change and cul-
tural change over time.
This story of the early movement against sexual harassment challenges the
standard conceptualization of the feminist movement as primarily white and
middle-class. This whitewashed version of the movement has obscured much of
the complexity of the second wave of the women's movements. Recent scholar-
ship has explored this complexity, such as the work of Maria Bevacqua on rape,
Premilla Nadasen on welfare rights, Dennis Deslippe and Dorothy Sue Cobble
on working-class women, Winifred Breines on the relation of white and black
women in the women's liberation movement, and the works of Kimberly
Springer, Benita Roth, and Nancy MacLean on Black and Chicana feminisms. I9
This scholarship reveals that the second wave of the women's movements was
a diverse movement, and there were a number of issues that drew diverse
women into collaborative activism. Sexual harassment was an important issue
to women because it affected so many, so often, across race and class lines, and
was rooted in fundamental concerns about economic survival and basic per-
sonal integrity. Not surprisingly, the fight against sexual harassment brought
women together across differences to fight a common problem. This book
demonstrates how the movement against sexual harassment arose from multi-
ple locations, from diverse political communities, and how structural and
political intersectionality shaped women's experiences of sexual harassment

and their responses to it. It tells about the connections and cleavages from these
multiple locations, and how these efforts dovetailed to create public policy on
sexual harassment in the United States. The differences among women actually
strengthened the movement by mobilizing a wider population into the move-
ment, by enabling the movement to draw on a diverse array of strategies and
resources, and by providing "multiple faces to outsiders. "2-0 This book is part of
a broader turn among scholars toward focusing on the grassroots of the wom-
en's movements in the late twentieth-century United States.2-I Rather than fo-
cusing on the stars of the movement, this literature is discovering the grassroots
of the movement and the ways that women found common cause across dif-
ference to create feminist change. Finally, this literature challenges the declen-
sion narrative of the second wave, as much of this diverse grassroots activism,
including activism against sexual harassment, was just beginning in the mid-
1970S.2.2-
This book traces the shift from the early movement against sexual harass-
ment, which sought radical social change to transform racist, patriarchal, cap-
italist systems, to later individualistic and legalistic approaches to the issue. A
similar movement occurred in media coverage of the issue. Early media cover-
age of sexual harassment was heavily shaped by feminist activists and reflected
feminist perspectives on the issue. By the early 1980s, the discussion of sexual
harassment in the media and elsewhere came to be bounded by a narrow legal
framework shaped by lawyers, government bureaucrats, and employee man-
agement personnel. The issue that feminists hoped would lead to fundamental
societal transformation had in many ways become primarily an issue of legal
liability and risk management. The movement against sexual harassment suc-
ceeded in many ways, not just in changing laws, but in raising awareness and
creating institutional and organizational frameworks for dealing with sexual
harassment. Most employers and schools have policies against sexual harass-
ment, governments keep statistics on it, studies of sexual harassment continue
to be conducted by governments, academics, and activists, and lawsuits con-
tinue to be filed. However, rates of sexual harassment are still high, and the fight
continues. My hope is that a look at the past will help inform the future.
Part I of the book explains how activists in the early and mid-1970S first
articulated the issue of sexual harassment. Two strands of activism -litigation
and collective organization to raise awareness of sexual coercion in the work-
place - came together to convince courts to rule that sexual harassment in the
workplace and in schools was sex discrimination. Part II recounts the growth of
the movement against sexual harassment in the late 1970s, including the increas-
ing participation of women working in nontraditional and blue-collar occupa-
tions, the development of feminist theory on sexual harassment, and the influence
of feminists on media coverage of sexual harassment. Part III explains the move-
ment's influence on public policy, the backlash against public policy in the early
1980s, the first Supreme Court decision on sexual harassment in 1986, and
the subsequent developments in sexual harassment policy and activism. The
conclusion assesses the history of the movement against sexual harassment.

Through an analysis of organizational archives, interviews, media coverage,
court cases, and government documents, this book explores the complex ways
in which a diverse group of activists around the country transformed conduct
that for centuries had been a private problem into a public issue.
PART I
RAISING THE ISSUE OF SEXUAL

HARASSMENT
I
Articulating the Wrong: Resistance to Sexual Harassment

in the Early 1970S
Resistance to sexual harassment emerged in the form of several lawsuits filed

around the country, under Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964. Sexual
harassment litigation was a battleground on which traditional notions that
women belonged in the private sphere and entered the public sphere at their
own risk struggled with feminist notions that women were entitled to partici-
pate fully in the public sphere. Since the founding of the United States, the law
enforced male dominance and female subordination by excluding women from
the public sphere of the marketplace and government and refusing to intervene
in disputes arising in the domestic sphere. Women could not vote, serve on
juries, or testify in court. Under the legal doctrine of coverture, inherited from
English common law, a woman's legal identity merged into her husband's upon
marriage. Married women could not control their property, sue or be sued, or
enter into a contract in their own names, and a woman's husband controlled
any wages she earned. The doctrine of marital unity also gave men control over
their wives' bodies so the state rarely interfered in ongoing family relationships,
even in cases of battery and rape. I
By custom, as well, women were largely excluded from public life. In the
early nineteenth century, the social ethic of domesticity shaped the lives of
white middle-class women, excluding them from participation in the work-
place. The ideology of domesticity distinguished between home - the locus of
tranquility, rest, and familial love associated with women - and the public life
of business and politics associated with men. 2 This ideology, however, often did
not reflect the lives of poor women and women of color, who had no choice but
to work outside of their homes. Many women, as domestic servants in partic-
ular, straddled the line between the public and the private spheres. 3 The in-
fluence of this ideology of domesticity on the law, however, powerfully shaped
all women's lives by limiting women's participation in the public sphere and
denying legal relief for harms arising in the private sphere.
Courts in the United States consistently used the public/private ideology
when adjudicating legal cases brought by women. Courts upheld laws
II
excluding women from the public sphere, including protective labor laws that
limited women's participation in the workplace and laws that allowed women
to be excluded from armed combat, refused credit, excluded from trade unions
and professional associations, and denied public accommodations and mem-
bership in business clubs. 4 Courts often refused to adjudicate cases involving
violence or coercion in intimate relationships or cases involving sexual behav-
ior, which was associated with the private sphere. In the early I970s, when
women began to bring sexual harassment cases before federal courts, they
encountered the ongoing legacy of the public/private ideology in courts' refusal
to grant relief.
However, social mores were changing, and activists built upon these changes
to convince courts, and the public, to take women's concerns seriously. Over
the course of the twentieth century, American society saw a decline of Victorian
ideas about men's sexual aggressiveness being natural and unchanging. By the
I960s, the sexual revolution led to increasing openness about sexuality in the
culture at large. 5 This enabled women to question the inevitability of men's
sexual behavior in the workplace and to begin to articulate opposition to this
behavior. Another change that contributed to the rise of a movement against
sexual harassment was a decline in the notion of men's entitlement to a family
wage and women's entitlement to economic support from men, a change that
strengthened women's claim to full participation in the workplace. 6 This move-
ment also resulted from an increasing reliance on the state and law to solve
problems. The civil rights movement had successfully challenged school segre-
gation in Brown v. Board of Education, and the women's movement had chal-
lenged sex discriminatory laws and obstacles to birth control using the Bill of
Rights. Following this legacy, activists against sexual harassment turned to the
law and the courts to challenge sexual coercion in the workplace.
The movement against sexual harassment emerged out of the social move-
ments that were challenging the status quo in the early I960s, including the civil
rights movement, the new left and antiwar movements, the labor movement,
and the women's movements. In the I960s and I970s, dramatic social, polit-
ical, and legal changes transformed women's lives in the United States. The
publication of Betty Friedan's The Feminine Mystique in I963 raised the prob-
lem of middle-class women's lack of fulfilling roles and responsibilities in Amer-
ican society, galvanizing women across the country to demand expanded roles.
Middle-class women were much more likely to find themselves in the workforce
as these decades progressed, particularly before marriage and after divorce, as
the average age of first marriage rose and the divorce rate doubled between the
early I960s and the mid-I970S.7 Women were having fewer children and were
more able to control when they had their children because of FDA approval of
the Pill in I960, for the first time giving women a highly effective method of
pregnancy prevention that they controlled, and the Supreme Court's legaliza-
tion of abortion in I973. Women's increasing control over their reproductive
lives freed them to engage more fully in the workplace. As a result, women's
participation in the civilian labor force jumped from 37.7% in 1960 to over
Resistance to Sexual Harassment in the Early 1970S 13
51% in 1980. Women moved into new types of jobs, entering traditionally male
fields in higher numbers, such as mining, construction, and law, and they began
to move up from the bottom rungs of the employment ladder.8 Because more
women were in the workplace, and working in a wider variety of occupations,
workplace equality became an increasingly compelling issue.
The first advancements in women's workplace rights occurred during the
Kennedy administration. After Kennedy was elected in 1960, he appointed
a Presidential Commission on the Status of Women, chaired by Eleanor
Roosevelt. In 1963, the Commission issued a detailed report describing wide-
spread gender discrimination in the United States, including discrimination in
employment, unequal pay, lack of social services such as child care, and con-
tinuing legal inequality. As a result, Kennedy signed a presidential order pro-
hibiting the civil service from discriminating on the basis of sex in hiring for
career positions. Congress then passed the Equal Pay Act in 1963, prohibiting
sex-based pay discrepancies in most jobs, and in 1964 passed Title VII of the
Civil Rights Act, prohibiting employment discrimination on the basis of race,
color, national origin, religion, and sex. The failure of the government to en-
force Title VII's prohibition of sex discrimination in the workplace led to the
formation in 1966 of the National Organization for Women (NOW), which
became a leading women's rights advocate in the second wave of the women's
movements. Herman Edelsberg, the first executive director of the federal en-
forcement agency for Title VII, the EEOC, told reporters at his first press
conference that he and other men at the EEOC thought men were entitled to
have female secretaries, and he publicly labeled the sex provision of Title VII "a
fluke conceived out of wedlock."9 The EEOC virtually ignored the sex discrim-
ination provision of Title VII, leading Betty Friedan, Pauli Murray, Sonia Pressman,
and others to form NOW to fight for an expansive definition of sex-based
discrimination under Title VII. 10 Later, NOW would raise the issue of sexual
exploitation on the job after National Airlines initiated a $9.5 million adver-
tising campaign that required female cabin crew to wear buttons saying "Fly
Me." The first all-female national organization of flight attendants, Steward-
esses for Women's Rights, and NOW denounced the advertising campaign,
staged protests, and worked with female flight attendants to file suit against
National Airlines and Continental to stop the "sexploitation" of women in the
workplace. I I
The women's movement quickly expanded to focus on a wide range of
issues, including health, abortion, rape, domestic violence, and sexuality. In
the late 1960s, the women's liberation movement emerged, posing a radical
challenge to patriarchy and male domination in society. Consciousness-raising
groups brought women together to analyze the problems they faced, leading to
the creation of groups like Redstockings, Cell 16, The Feminists, The Combahee
River Collective, and New York Radical Women, and women began to produce
manifestos, newsletters, music, and art to express their ideas. Women's book-
stores began popping up all over, facilitating communication among women. A
major focus of radical feminist activism was men's sexual exploitation of and
violence against women, as well as women's sexual autonomy and pleasure,

especially with other women. In I968, radical feminists protested the sexual
objectification of women in the Miss America pageant in Atlantic City, where
they crowned a live sheep and tossed girdles, bras, curlers, and issues of the
Ladies Home Journal in a "freedom trashcan." The Boston Women's Health
Book Collective formed in I969, and soon published the first edition of Our
Bodies, Our Selves to educate women about their bodies and health. The same
year, feminists held the first abortion speak-out in New York, thereby fueling
the reproductive rights movement. In I97I, feminists in New York held the first
speak-out and conference on rape, launching the feminist antirape movement,
which created rape crisis centers across the nation, raised public awareness
through guerrilla actions and Take Back the Night marches, taught self-defense
classes, and fought for rape law reform. The battered women's movement, also
formed in the early I970s, established hundreds of shelters and crisis centers
around the country. Women articulated their identities not only as women, but
also as members of other social groups, resulting in a range of feminist move-
ments, including Black feminism, Chicana feminism, and lesbian feminism. I 2
This activism contributed to women's growing sense of their rights to economic
opportunity and bodily self determination, creating a foundation from which
the movement against sexual harassment sprung.
In response to this growing movement, women's rights were significantly
enhanced in the I970s. In I972, Congress passed the Equal Employment Act
and the Educational Amendments to the Civil Rights Act, strengthening laws
against sex discrimination in employment and prohibiting sex discrimination in
education under Title IX, which later became the foundation for activism
against sexual harassment in education. In I976, Congress passed the Preg-
nancy Discrimination Act, prohibiting employment discrimination against
pregnant women. By I977, thirty-five states had ratified the Equal Rights
Amendment, which Congress had passed in I972. During this time, the
Supreme Court also significantly enhanced women's legal rights. In I973, the
Supreme Court established a woman's right to abortion in Roe v. Wade and
handed down several decisions under the Equal Protection Clause that invali-
dated sex-discriminatory laws. In the I976 case of Craig v. Boren, the Supreme
Court formulated a new standard of review under the Equal Protection Clause -
intermediate scrutiny: classifications by sex had to serve important governmental
objectives and be substantially related to achievement of those objectives. 13 In
these cases, the court moved toward abandoning the traditional view that
women were primarily homemakers and mothers operating within the private
sphere. I 4 Out of this social, political, and legal context emerged resistance to
workplace sexual harassment.
The earliest activists against sexual harassment framed their resistance
within the rubric of Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of I964, which was the
crowning achievement of the civil rights movement and resulted from an out-
pouring of citizen support in response to the violent treatment of peaceful black
protesters in I963 and I964. Title VII prohibited employment discrimination
Resistance to Sexual Harassment in the Early 1970S
based on race, color, national origin, religion, and sex. African-American acti-
vists had used Title VII in the courts to challenge workplace race discrimina-
tion, including racial harassment. I 5 Title VII began as a race discrimination
statute to which an amendment to prohibit sex discrimination was added on the
floor of the House at the last minute. 16 Representative Howard W. Smith of
Virginia, an 80-year-old former judge who was once described as "one of the
leading reactionaries of the twentieth-century House of Representatives,"1?
introduced the amendment after several weeks of debate, the day before the
final vote was taken, and there were no hearings and little serious discussion of
the amendment. Southern members of Congress generally supported the
amendment in an attempt to defeat the underlying legislation. Norbert Schlei,
a senior official in the Justice Department who was in the House gallery on the
day the sex discrimination amendment was discussed, commented, '''They
thought it was a joke. They didn't think there was any discrimination against
women that mattered. They were laughing down on the floor as they were
talking about it.'"18 Although there was much levity in the brief debate on
the amendment, there was also some serious discussion of the amendment,
largely offered by some of the few female members of Congress at the time. 19
In the House, the combined votes of the Southern legislators opposed to the Act
as a whole and the advocates for women's equality led to the passage of the
amendment to prohibit sex discrimination by 168 to 133.2.0 The Civil Rights
Act, as well as other federal, state, and local laws passed to promote equality,
resulted in a network of equal employment opportunity offices and agencies
throughout the federal government, as well as human rights commissions at the
state and local levels. These new laws and the infrastructure created to imple-
ment them provided the movement against sexual harassment an "existing
organizational space and collective identity" to challenge sexual coercion in
the workplace.2.I
EARLY SEXUAL HARASSMENT CASES
Six cases, filed between 1971 and 1975, led the legal effort against sexual
harassment in the 1970S and set the framework for the movement against
sexual harassment. These cases heavily influenced the development of the
law and of public opinion, as they were widely discussed in the media and
among legal scholars and feminists. 2 2. The women in these cases made the novel
argument that a male employer who fires a woman for refusing his sexual
advances has discriminated against her based on sex and therefore, has violated
her civil rights guaranteed by Title VII. In other words, these cases asked federal
courts to interpret Title VII to prohibit sexual harassment. At the time these
women filed their cases, there were no legal precedents for this interpretation of
Title VII.
A diverse group of women from around the country working for both public
and private employers brought these lawsuits. Plaintiffs in three of the six
cases were young African-American women, two of whom were harassed by
African-American men while working for federal agencies in Washington, D.C.

that addressed race discrimination issues. These women were familiar with
discrimination law and the mechanisms for legal redress because of their un-
derstanding of race discrimination. Two of the African-American women ini-
tially filed their complaints as race and sex discrimination claims. All six cases
involved a male supervisor firing or forcing out a female subordinate employee
after she rejected his sexual advances.
The facts of these cases reveal the sexist atmosphere many women faced in
the workplace in the early 1970s. Diane Williams, who brought the first suc-
cessful sexual harassment lawsuit, Williams v. Saxbe, was a young African-
American woman working as a public information specialist with the Justice
Department's Community Relations Service (CRS), which mediated racial ten-
sion in troubled communities. Williams alleged that her black male supervisor,
Harvey Brinson, who was married with four children, attempted to date her
between January and July of 1972, but that she repeatedly refused. Williams
alleged that there was a great deal of dating going on at CRS between the single
female employees and the married male supervisors, especially Brinson, who
she said had a "notorious reputation for dating his staff members.,,23 According
to Williams, women who acquiesced on such dates received better work assign-
ments and promotions from the male supervisors. Williams alleged that be-
cause she resisted Brinson's attempts he "began a process of fault finding" with
her. He criticized her work habits in general and her attitude toward him in
particular. He subjected her to "oral and written attacks both professional and
personal" and threatened her with transfer or termination. Eventually in Sep-
tember 1972, Brinson fired Williams, allegedly for poor performance. Paulette
Barnes, who brought the precedent-setting case of Barnes v. Train, was
a twenty-eight-year-old African-American mother of three working as an ad-
ministrative assistant in the Office of Equal Opportunity of the Environmental
Protection Agency. Barnes alleged that, within a week of starting her job at the
EPA in July 1971, the African-American male director of her office, Norris
Snydor, "began a campaign to extract sexual favors" from her by repeatedly
inviting her out for social activities after hours, making sexual remarks to her,
and suggesting that he would promote her if she had a sexual affair with him.
Barnes resisted, telling Sydnor that she wanted their relationship to be strictly
professional and her employment status to be based on her work performance.
Barnes alleged that Snydor then began a "conscious campaign" to belittle and
harass her and to strip her of her job duties. Snydor allegedly denied her
a promised promotion, abolished her job, and reassigned her to a position of
lesser responsibility. Her former position was subsequently reinstated and filled
by a white woman at a much higher salary level. The third African-American
plaintiff, Margaret Miller, worked as a proofing machine operator at Bank of
America in California. Miller alleged that her white male supervisor, Kimberly
Taufer, dismissed her when she rebuffed his sexual advances. Miller alleged that
her supervisor appeared uninvited at her home on November 22, 1974 with
a bottle of wine in hand and said, "I've never felt this way about a black chick
before" and that he would get her "off the machines" if she would cooperate
with him sexually. When she refused his advances, he fired her. 24
The plaintiffs in the other three cases were white women harassed by white
men. Jane Corne and Geneva DeVane were technical writers at Bausch and
Lomb's Pima County office in Arizona. They alleged that their white male super-
visor, Leon Price, made repeated verbal and physical sexual advances to them and
to other female employees in the office and that he favored women who agreed to
his sexual demands. Corne and DeVane, who did not, eventually found working
for Price so onerous that they left their jobs. Darla Jeanne Garber, a twenty-five-
year-old white female secretary working at Saxon Business Products, Inc., in
Fairfax, VA, alleged that Saxon's white male branch manager, John Johnson, fired
her after she rebuffed his sexual advances. According to Garber, Johnson started
showing up at her apartment after hours and then began "hassling and frighten-
ing" her. She told him to stop coming over, that she was not interested in him, but
he persisted. When she started dating another employee, Garber alleged that
Johnson got mad, threatened to fire her, and said that she "would either go out
with him or no one." In the middle of December 1974, about six months after she
started working at Saxon, Garber again refused to have sex with Johnson and he
fired her shortly thereafter. Finally, Adrienne Tomkins, a white female stenogra-
pher working for Public Service Electric and Gas Company in Newark, NJ,
alleged that on October 30, 1973, her white male supervisor, Herbert D. Reppin,
asked her out to lunch, purportedly to discuss her employment prospects with the
firm. At lunch, Tomkins reported, he gave her an "ultimatum to engage in an
affair with him or lose my job." In her complaint, Tomkins alleged that he said to
her: "I want to lay you," "I can't walk around the office with a hard-on all the
time," and "This is the only way we can have a working relationship." When
Tomkins refused, Reppin grabbed her arm and said, "You're not going anywhere.
You're going with me to the 13th floor" of the hotel. He also warned, "Don't go to
anyone for help because 1 have something on all of them, all the way to the top,
and they're not going to do anything to help you." He then forcibly held her and
kissed her, but eventually let her go. Tomkins complained to the company and was
transferred, but to a less desirable position. She alleged that because of her com-
plaints she was subjected to disciplinary layoffs, threats of demotion and salary
cuts, and was ultimately fired on January 7, 1975. 25
With no obvious avenues for recourse, these women reached out to what
seemed their only option - the equal employment offices. Barnes initially con-
tacted an EEO counselor at the EPA, who said that her experience was not sex
discrimination but advised her that she could file a race discrimination claim
because she was replaced by a white woman, which she did in December 1971.
Williams also sought the advice of an EEO counselor and filed a formal charge
of sex discrimination with the Justice Department on September 13, 1972. The
other plaintiffs filed charges with the EEOC, Miller for race and sex discrim-
ination and the others for sex discrimination. Corne and DeVane filed their
charges on October 12, 1973. Tomkins on August 19. 1974, and Garber on
January 8. 1975.
When these early plaintiffs sought counsel, they found civil rights and fem-
inist attorneys in their communities. Both Barnes and Williams found civil rights
attorneys through the Lawyers' Committee for Civil Rights Under Law (LCCRUL),
a private organization in Washington, D.C., that had a well-established reputation
for handling civil rights and employment discrimination cases. Barnes hired
Warwick R. Furr II, a Washington civil rights attorney who shared office space
with a LCCRUL volunteer. Williams hired Michael Hausfeld, a young attorney
in private practice who had experience handling civil rights cases. In two other
cases, the plaintiffs retained explicitly feminist lawyers. Corne and DeVane
retained civil rights attorney Heather Sigworth, and Tomkins retained Nadine
Taub, who was a law professor and the director of the Women's Rights Litiga-
tion Clinic at Rutgers Law School in Newark, NJ. Both Miller and Garber
retained employment discrimination attorneys, Stuart Wein and Elaine Major,
respectively.26 In all cases, the plaintiffs were represented by civil rights attor-
neys and feminist attorneys practicing alone or in small law firms, whereas the
defendants were represented by government attorneys, in-house counsel, and
lawyers from large established law firms, a David and Goliath-like matchup.
The parties' arguments in these cases centered on whether the alleged con-
duct was private behavior, as the defendants contended, harking back to the
early perception of sexual harassment as a moral issue, or an economic issue
that impaired women's participation in the workplace, as the plaintiffs con-
tended. In Barnes, the government argued that Barnes had not made out a case
of sex discrimination because her sex was "merely a natural incident to a desire
for a heterosexual affair." The government's lawyer noted that Barnes did "not
contend that her difficulties were caused by prejudice against women in certain
job positions, or because of stereotypes as to proper sexual roles." He con-
cluded that there was "a clear distinction between discrimination based on sex
and ill-will based on refusal to engage in sexual intercourse.,,2 7 Barnes' attor-
ney, Warwick Furr, responded by pointing out the economic impact on women
of sexual advances in the workplace, which he described as an "invidious and
recurrent problem which causes economic hardship and embarrassment to
many women each day." Furr further argued that the discrimination arose
out of stereotypes as to proper sexual roles, "from preconceived notions that
women are to be regarded as sex objects and that therefore decisions concern-
ing their employment status are routinely made on non-job-related bases." Furr
concluded that Title VII '''intended to strike at the entire spectrum of disparate
treatment of men and women resulting from sex stereotypes'" and to eliminate
'''irrational impediments to job opportunities and enjoyment which have
plagued women in the past.",28
As government lawyers had argued in Barnes, in Williams they argued that
the "plaintiff was allegedly denied employment enhancement not because she
was a woman, but rather because she decided not to furnish the sexual consid-
eration claimed to have been demanded. Therefore, plaintiff is in no different
class from other employees, regardless of their gender or sexual orientation,
who are made subject to such carnal demands. "2.9 The government argued that
there was no employer policy or regulation supporting the alleged discrimina-

tion and that Brinson's conduct was an "isolated personal incident" that should
not be the courts' concern. On behalf of Williams, Michael Hausfeld argued
that the testimony showed that "it was a company-wide practice and policy for
the married male supervisors at CRS to date the unmarried black women" and
reward compliant females with favored treatment. 30
The Organization of Black Activist Women (OBAW), a Washington,
D.C.-based women's group, supported Williams by filing a "friend of the court"
brief on her behalf. 3I Members of the group were outraged that the agency that
was supposed to be defending people's rights was violating them. The brief was
written by Maudine Rice Cooper, who later became President of the Greater
Urban League of Washington, D.C., and Benjamin L. Evans. In a newspaper
article reporting on the brief, Cooper cited statistics and facts that demon-
strated black women were particularly vulnerable to sexual harassment.
Cooper noted that one of every five black families was headed by a woman,
that two of every three poor black families were headed by a woman, that
young minority women were particularly vulnerable to low wages and unem-
ployment, that black women did not have needed child care, and that the un-
employment rate for nonwhite women had traditionally been twice that of
white women. She also argued that "the pecking order for salaries is white
men, first; black men, second; white women, third; and black women, fourth."3 2
The plaintiffs in Corne also received outside support, when the EEOC filed
a strongly worded brief on January 17, 1975 - the EEOC's first appearance in
a sexual harassment case. The defendants' attorneys in the case had argued that
Corne and DeVane did not allege "disparate treatment due to their sex" but
merely alleged "advances from a man to a woman." The EEOC, in a brief
submitted by EEOC attorneys Beatrice Rosenberg, Charles Reischel, and
Josephine A. Trevathan, countered that Price's sexual advances were "obvi-
ously directed toward [the plaintiffs] because they were female. Indeed, more
clearly sexually motivated conduct could not be alleged." The EEOC argued
that Title VII prohibits "irrational impediment to job opportunities" and "no
more irrational, or unwarranted, a condition of employment ... can be imag-
ined." The argument continued, "the choice between frequent unsolicited sex-
ual advances and being unemployed has a significant and clearly unwarranted
effect on employment opportunities. . . . If Title VII does not provide such
elementary protection against sexually motivated conduct, its promise to
women is virtually without meaning." The EEOC concluded that the company
violated Title VII by failing to ensure that its supervisors did not "utilize the
power they are thus granted to discriminate in violation of Title VII."33
The defendants in Tomkins argued that the conduct at issue was not gender-
based, but was personal sexual conduct that Title VII was not intended to
prohibit. In their brief, the defendants meticulously avoided using the phrase
"sex-based," but instead used "gender-based." They argued that "gender" had
no relevance to the dispute: "the fact that Tomkins was a woman was incidental
to the issue,"'" According to the defendants, the dispute had to do with
"personal relationship and sexual desires," not stereotypes limiting women's em-
ployment opportunities. They argued that the class of people affected was not
"women" but "those not willing to furnish sexual consideration." They contin-
ued, "the party making formal demands could have been either male or female
with homosexual, heterosexual, or bisexual tendencies," so "the class allegedly
discriminated against is not defined by gender but rather it includes all those who
were made subject but refused to submit to the carnal demands."3 5 In conclusion,
the defendants argued that the "court should not be concerned with the social life
of the company employees or their personal relationships or encounters" and
should decline to "act as a social arbiter as to all aspects of employee conduct."3 6
In response, Nadine Taub argued on behalf of Tomkins that sexual harass-
ment was sex discrimination because it was based on stereotypes of women as
"sex objects" and that employer tolerance of sexual harassment had a disparate
impact on women. On the issue of employer liability, Taub argued that Public
Service Electric and Gas knew or should have known about the harassment of
Tomkins but did nothing to assist her and in fact retaliated against her. Accord-
ing to Taub, "regardless of the fact that the conduct arises from the personal
proclivity of the offending employee," Public Service Electric and Gas had
a duty to stop the harassment, redress the injury done, punish the harasser,
and prevent future harassment. She also advocated for a subjective test of
harassment, one "depending on the subjective appraisal of the complaining
employee rather than upon the intent of the actor,"37 the first appearance of
an issue that would later make it all the way up to the Supreme Court. 38
In all of the cases except Williams, the judges denied relief, concluding that
the alleged misconduct was a private matter, not employment-related, and not
sex discrimination for which employers should be liable. One judge described
the case as a "controversy underpinned by subtleties of an inharmonious per-
sonal relationship," perhaps "inexcusable" but not "an arbitrary barrier to
continued employment based on sex."39 Another described the harasser's con-
duct as "nothing more than a personal proclivity, peculiarity, or mannerism ...
satisfying a personal urge ... with no relationship to the nature of the employ-
ment. "4 0 A third judge stated, the "attraction of males to females and females to
males is a natural sex phenomenon and it is probable that this attraction plays
at least a subtle part in most personnel decisions." In addition, the court ruled
that the alleged behavior, which he described as "isolated," fell within the
employer's policy prohibiting "moral misconduct."4 1 Another judge stated,
"the abuse of authority by supervisors of either sex for personal purposes is
an unhappy and recurrent feature of our social experience," but that the "sex-
ually motivated assault" amounted to a "physical attack motivated by sexual
desire on the part of a supervisor and which happened to occur in a corporate
corridor rather than a back alley."4 2 The courts characterized the conduct as
purely sexual and motivated only by sexual desire. By portraying the conduct as
natural, personal, sexually motivated behavior, the judges obscured the under-
lying power dynamics of the behavior - the abuse of authority and the eco-
nomic coercion involved.
The judges also argued that the behavior was not motivated by gender. One
judge stated that "in this instance the supervisor was male and the employee was
female. But no immutable principle of psychology compels this alignment of
parties. The gender lines might as easily have been reversed, or not even crossed
at all. Although sexual desire animated the parties, or at least one of them, the
gender of each is incidental to the claim of abuse."43 Completely contrary to the
evidence in the record, the judge suggested that the victim may have been
motivated by sexual desire too. Another judge reasoned that the plaintiff
"was discriminated against not because she was a woman but because she re-
fused to engage in a sexual affair with her supervisor."44 Another judge said that
it would be "ludicrous" to rule that Title VII prohibited "the sort of activity
involved here" because "if the conduct complained of was directed equally to
males, there would be no basis for the suit."45 These courts ignored or denied
the social reality that women were usually the targets of this behavior, not men.
The judges further argued that treating sexual harassment as sex discrimi-
nation would "open the floodgates of litigation," overwhelming the court sys-
tem and inviting a lawsuit for every sexual indiscretion in the workplace. One
judge expressed concern that there "would be a potential federal lawsuit every
time any employee made amorous or sexually oriented advances toward an-
other." According to the judge, "the only sure wayan employer could avoid
liability to such charges would be to have employees who were asexual."4 6
Another judge warned, "it is conceivable under plaintiff's theory that flirtations
of the smallest order would give rise to liability."47 A third judge argued,
"if the plaintiff's view were to prevail, no superior could, prudently, attempt to open
a social dialogue with any subordinate of either sex. An invitation to dinner could
become an invitation to a federal lawsuit if a once-harmonious relationship turned sour
at some later time. And if an inebriated approach by a supervisor to a subordinate at the
office Christmas party could form the basis of a federal lawsuit for sex discrimination if
a promotion or a raise is later denied to the subordinate, we would need 4,000 federal
trial judges instead of 400."48
Tapping into traditional stereotypes, the judges assumed that women would
bring lawsuits in retaliation for affairs gone bad or based on trivial occurrences
and used this assumption to deny relief in clearly egregious cases.
By contrast, in the first successful sexual harassment case decided on April
24, 1976, Williams v. Saxbe, Judge Charles Richey characterized the behavior
of Williams' supervisor as a serious, employment-related, gender-based civil
rights violation. 49 Whereas denials of other claims focused on the plaintiffs'
refusal of sexual advances and only briefly mentioned that the plaintiffs ,lost
their jobs, Judge Richey focused on the harasser's retaliatory actions and their
impact on Williams. Judge Richey described how Williams was harassed and
humiliated by Brinson's "unwarranted reprimands, refusal to inform her of
matters for the performance of her responsibilities, refusal to consider her
proposals and recommendations, and refusal to recognize her as a competent
professional in her field. "SO Judge Richey ruled that Brinson's conduct was not
an isolated personal incident but "created an artificial barrier to employment

which was placed before one gender and not the other, despite the fact that both
genders were similarly situated."51 Judge Richey dismissed the "fear that the
courts will become embroiled in sorting out the social life of the employees of
the numerous federal agencies," arguing that whether the conduct was a policy
or practice of the employer or a non-employment-related personal incident was
a factual question to be determined by the fact-finderY·
Judge Richey also argued that Title VII did not require the allegedly discrim-
inatory practice to be applicable to only one of the genders, based on the
characteristics that were peculiar to that gender. The important factor, accord-
ing to Judge Richey, was whether the conduct was applied to one gender and
not the other, despite the fact that the genders were similarly situated. Judge
Richey analogized the facts of Williams' case to employer policies barring
women with preschool age children or married women, both of which the
Supreme Court had ruled discriminatory. In a footnote, which later received
much critical attention, Judge Richey rejected the argument that whether con-
duct was discriminatory would depend upon the "sexual preference" of the
supervisor, but he did note that a finding of discrimination could not be made
if the supervisor was bisexual and made sexual advances toward both gen-
ders. 53 Judge Richey ruled in favor of Williams and later awarded her damages
in the amount of $16,251.33 in back pay and interest. The government
appealed Judge Richey'S decision to the D.C. Circuit Court of Appeals.
Whereas before this decision the media had paid only minimal attention to
the issue of sexual harassment, including the earlier cases denying relief, the
press extensively covered Judge Richey'S groundbreaking decision in Williams
v. Sax be, often ridiculing and mocking him. Although much of the publicity
about the case was negative, media coverage of this precedent-setting case
served to raise awareness about the issue of sexual harassment. The Associated
Press and United Press International broke the story the day the case was de-
cided, April 20, 1976. On April 21, over fifty newspapers around the country
from over twenty states picked up the story, including major newspapers such
as the New York Times, Wall Street Journal, Washington Post, Atlanta Con-
stitution, Los Angeles Times, and Houston Chronicle. 54 Coverage continued in
the days that followed, and numerous editorials appeared, largely critical of
Judge Richey'S decision. The critical editorials focused on Judge Richey's foot-
note referring to bisexuality.
The most widely reprinted editorial was by Art Buchwald of the Los Angeles
Times. Buchwald's editorial appeared in over forty newspapers around the
country between April 27 and May 3, 1976. 55 The editorial began by sarcas-
tically describing Judge Richey'S decision as one of the most important legal
decisions of the last fifty years because the ruling "sets new guidelines for how
bosses can behave during and after office hours all over the country." Focusing
on the footnote suggesting that harassment by bisexual supervisors would not
violate Title VII, Buckwald recounted a fictional conversation of a boss,
Mr. Novak, a female employee, Miss Roseberry, with whom Mr. Novak seeks
a sexual relationship, and Mr. Callihan, Novak's legal foil. Novak invites
Roseberry on a date but also brings Callihan in order to avoid a lawsuit. When
Novak compliments Roseberry about her sweater, he also compliments
Callihan about his shirt. Novak asks both employees to stay late, takes them
both out to dinner at a small French restaurant, and then takes them both to
Roseberry's apartment afterward. When Callihan objects and says he's tired,
Novak replies,
"'Who isn't tired? You think it's fun having to worry about being sued every time 1 take
someone from the office out to dinner? You can take Miss Roseberry anywhere you want
to. But if 1 take her 1 have to take you, too. 1 don't make that kind of money, Callihan.'
'I guess it does take the fun out of being a boss, Mr. Novak.'
'Oh, forget it. Why don't you get into something more comfortable, Miss Roseberry? ...
You too, Callihan.'
'Why me, Mr. Novak?'
'Because, dammit, it's the law!'''
This editorial, which appeared across the country, often in the style section of
newspapers, trivialized Judge Richey's decision. 56
Editorials also appeared in several other newspapers, such as the Los
Angeles Times, Wall Street Journal, Dallas Times Herald, and Dallas Morning
News. 57 On April 26, an editorial in the Los Angeles Times entitled, "Sex Rears
Its Mixed-Up Head" reflected the recurrent viewpoint that sexual harassment
was simply a matter of bad manners, having no deeper social or economic
causes or implications. Describing Judge Richey's decision as "lively," the ed-
itorial focused on the footnote mentioning bisexuality. Suggesting that the
lawyers "drop their lawbooks momentarily to consider the dispute in a wider
context," the editorial asked, "Why must the clanking machinery of the law
have to be set in motion to resolve problems in human relations that could be
settled by the simplest code of ethical conduct?"5 8 On April 27, the Wall Street
Journal editorial, reprinted in several newspapers, was entitled "The Law and
Threats to Virtue" and criticized Judge Richey for his decision. Focusing in
particular on the issue of bisexual harassment, the editorial chided, "Judge
Richey'S opinion would suggest that there are some situations where a little
discrimination might still be a good thing."59 Condemning Judge Richey's de-
cision as "grotesque," Dick Hitt of the Dallas Times Herald focused almost
entirely on Richey's footnote about bisexuality. Describing the decision as "the
Richey Ruling on how bisexual bosses may be insulated from sex discrimina-
tion suit," Hitt argued that Richey had "carved [bisexuality] in stone" and
suggested that progressive companies "may even now be appointing a' vice
president in charge of Promiscual Equality. ,,60 Jim Wright of the Dallas Morn-
ing News described Judge Richey as "the creative jurist, who recently laid down
the first federal guidelines for office hanky-panky." According to Wright, the
"chief significance" of the decision was that "the so-called Sexual Revolution is
over." He declared, "Judge Richey has done more than any man since Cotton
Mather to detour society off the primrose path." Similar to Hitt, Wright
trivialized the decision by focusing on Richey's footnote on bisexuality, rumi-

nating about how a particularly resourceful boss might engage in nondiscrim-
inatory lechery. He then concluded, "Judge Richey, in brief, did for the conduct
of office hanky-panky what other judges and federal guideline writers have
previously done for the conduct of business: he didn't actually make it a crime;
he just wrapped it in so many miles of ridiculous red tape that it no longer seems
worth the trouble.,,61 Discussion of the case appeared not only in print media
but on television as well. 62 The media coverage of this case was notable for its
volume, reflecting how the issue had hit a nerve, and its negativity toward Judge
Richey's decision, reflecting male editorial writers' resistance to the idea that
sexual harassment was a serious issue. Similar to the district court judges
that ruled against women in all of the other early cases, these writers believed
that sexual harassment was a personal problem, not a discriminatory employ-
ment practice.
The revolutionary ruling in Williams v. Saxbe resulted from the efforts of
two principled and determined individuals - Diane Williams and Judge Charles
Richey. Judge Richey was known for his independence and his "passion for
doing justice.,,6 3 He grew up during the Depression in Delaware, Ohio, the only
child of parents who were Ohio Wesleyan University professors - his mother
taught Latin and his father taught physics and math. He was raised as a Dem-
ocrat, but his maternal grandparents were Republicans, and he switched parties
after law school, when he got a job as legislative counsel for Congresswoman
Frances P. Bolton, a Republican from Ohio, who was later one of the supporters
of the amendment to Title VII to prohibit sex discrimination. A friend of Vice
President Spiro T. Agnew, Judge Richey was appointed to the bench in 1971 by
President Richard Nixon. Judge Richey was known as a judicial maverick, who
throughout his career ruled in favor of individual rights. For example, in 1974,
he ruled that Vietnam Veterans Against the War could demonstrate on the Mall
in Washington. Out of concern for the religious rights of those who came before
him in court, Judge Richey, despite his strict Methodist upbringing, replaced the
2oo-year-old oath that witnesses usually take in federal courts with his own
version, which contained no religious references and dispensed with the Gideon
Bible. He was also known for using sex-neutral terms when discussing statutes
that used exclusively male language, and he served on the Task Force on Gen-
der, Race, and Ethnic Bias for the District of Columbia.
Like Judge Richey, Diane Williams exhibited a passion for justice, but also
a dogged persistence. Williams embarked upon her case without legal prece-
dents and endured years of complicated litigation, which caused her financial
hardships and psychological distress. From the time she first brought her EEO
complaint in September 1973 until the final resolution of her case in June 1981,
Williams pursued her charges of sexual harassment in the face of unlikely odds
and at great personal sacrifice. When testifying about her experience at the first
congressional hearings on sexual harassment in 1979, Williams described sex-
ual harassment as "a very emotional experience, a very degrading experience,
a very humiliating experience." She testified about the "emotional trauma that
Resistance to Sexual Harassment in the Early I970S
has been wreaked upon me in the last seven years we have been litigating the
case." She chastised the Justice Department for "capriciously and vexatiously
pursuing litigation" in the case. In particular, she condemned the department
for bringing her mother into the controversy. The Justice Department had de-
posed her mother as a witness, questioning her as to Williams' social activities.
Williams explained, "she virtually has had to serve as my alibi to attest to the
fact that no, I did not go out two or three times a week; no, I am not the disco
queen of this city; and no, I didn't have a personal relationship or an affair
with" her supervisor. She claimed the government was trying to make her out to
be a "loose woman." She testified she felt as though she were the defendant, like
women who complain of sexual assault. She described the atmosphere at the
agency as a game among the executive level staff, who were all male: "which
one was going to be able to take Diane Williams out first and which one of them
was going to be able to take her to the poshest restaurant in town. ,,64
During the course of the lawsuit, Williams became an advocate against sexual
harassment, discussing her case with the media and testifying at congressional
hearings on sexual harassment. Her case bounced up and down the administra-
tive and judicial systems, all the way up to the United States Circuit Court of
Appeals, for close to eight years before she was vindicated. Her perseverance
finally paid off not only in a personal victory but in establishing an important
legal precedent and raising awareness of the issue of sexual harassment. The case
of Williams v. Saxbe was a significant legal breakthrough for sexual harassment
victims. Judge Richey's April I976 ruling was cited widely and discussed in legal
briefs, law reviews, and feminist literature on sexual harassment. This case gave
feminists attorneys a legal peg on which to hang their hats when appealing the
early cases denying relief to sexual harassment victims.
The early cases denying relief and the media coverage of the Williams case
show that women faced an uphill battle to convince people that sexual harass-
ment was a serious problem. But these early cases laid the groundwork for the
emerging movement against sexual harassment by framing the issue of sexual
harassment as an issue of employment discrimination and a violation of Title
VII of the Civil Rights Act. The individual women around the country who
hrought these early sexual harassment cases tapped into resources developed by
the civil rights and women's movements - the theories and precedents of em-
ployment discrimination law, as well as the networks of attorneys knowledge-
able about and willing to take on these cases. These cases broke new ground by
focusing on the economic consequences of sexual coercion in the workplace
and linking these consequences to discriminatory attitudes of male supervisors.
Even before feminist activists had coined the term "sexual harassment," the
courageous women who brought these suits conceived of sexual coercion in the
workplace as sex discrimination and brought lawsuits, despite terrible odds.
Several of the women who filed the earliest sexual harassment cases were
African-American women whose backgrounds in the civil rights movement
gave them an understanding of discrimination law that they applied to the issue
of sexual harassment. In the Williams case, the Organization for Black Activist
Women framed the issue within an intersectional analysis of racism and sexism
by highlighting black women's economic vulnerability to sexual harassment.
The intersectionality of race and sex manifested most clearly in the interracial
harassment case of Margaret Miller, but also shaped the responses of Paulette
Barnes and Diane Williams to intraracial harassment in federal government
agencies designed to combat race discrimination. The irony of experiencing
sexual harassment in agencies set up to advance civil rights from those com-
missioned to end discrimination added insult to injury that motivated Paulette
Barnes and Diane Williams to fight back. Relying upon racial harassment cases,
they framed the issue of sexual harassment as a civil rights violation.
Echoing the separate spheres ideology, five of the six older white male judges
dismissed these cases because they understood sexual harassment to be private
sexual misconduct that could not rightly be seen as the responsibility of
employers to prevent. 65 They characterized the alleged behavior as natural,
personal, sexually motivated, and gender-neutral, a characterization that ob-
scured the underlying power dynamics of the behavior - the abuse of authority
and the economic coercion involved. Judges "privatized" the harassment by
focusing on individual actors and their intent and ignoring the impact of this
behavior on women's participation in the workplace. But the presence of Judge
Richey on the federal bench was a political opportunity - his concern for and
involvement in furthering individual rights enabled him to understand Diane
Williams' perspective and rule in her favor, creating an important legal pre-
cedent. The women who lost their cases appealed, seeking the aid of feminist
attorneys from public interest law firms, and relying upon the work of feminist
activists, who in the 1970S began to raise public awareness about sexual co-
ercion in the workplace. The next chapter will describe the emergence of two
organizations founded specifically to fight sexual harassment and how the work
of these organizations contributed significantly toward the effort to convince
judges that sexual coercion in the workplace was a serious violation of women's
civil rights, not just a personal problem.
2
Speaking Out: Collective Action against Sexual

Harassment in the Mid- I 970S
Collective action against sexual harassment was rooted in the women's movements,
emerging at the intersection of activism against employment discrimination
and feminist opposition to violence against women. The issue of sexual harassment
brought together two of contemporary women's deepest, most troubling concerns-
their desires for an unbiased workplace and their fears of male sexual aggression.
Activists within the women's movements formed two organizations that focused
primarily on sexual harassment in employment and that were heavily responsible
for generating the movement against sexual harassment in the 1970S - Working
Women United in Ithaca, New York, which later relocated to New York City and
became Working Women's Institute (WWI), and the Alliance Against Sexual Co-
ercion (AASC) in Cambridge, Massachusetts. The founders of these organizations
were influenced by the early lawsuits and, in tum, their success in raising awareness
of sexual harassment buttressed the appeals in these cases. These new organiza-
tions not only relied on existing organizations and networks, but also generated
new networks and framed the issue of sexual harassment as an important feminist
issue. This nascent movement engaged in initial "interpretive processes" that
allowed them "to reject institutionalized routines and taken for granted assump-
tions about the world and fashion new world views and lines of interaction.'"
WORKING WOMEN UNITED
The formation of Working Women United in the spring of 1975 was inspired by
the case of Carmita Wood. Wood, a forty-four-year-old mother of four, had
been denied unemployment compensation after she resigned as an administra-
tive assistant to a Cornell professor because she had become physically ill from
the stress of fending off his sexual advances. 2 Wood had begun working at
Cornell University in 1966, had an outstanding work record, and was pro-
moted to be the first female administrative assistant at Cornell's Laboratory
of Nuclear Studies in 1971. According to Wood, shortly after she began work-
ing in the lab, a well-known physicist named Boyce McDaniel began to sexually
harass her. Wood described McDaniel as a "dirty old man" who did not want
her on the job and who treated women as "second-class citizens, and inferior
beings."3 Wood reported that McDaniel constantly made "palpably sexual
gestures" - he would "lean against her, immobilizing her between his own body
and the chair and desk," he would "never look her in the eye but instead move
his eyes up and down her body below the neck," and he would "stand with his
hands shaking in his pockets and rock against the back of a chair, as if he were
stimulating his genitals."4 The most egregious incident occurred at a Christmas
party in December 1973. McDaniel repeatedly asked Wood to dance with him.
She refused, but he insisted. According to Wood, "he pulled me out on the
dance floor, he took his hand, and pulled up all of my clothes, and exposed
my bare back to everyone." Another time McDaniel put his hand on her bottom
at an office party. Wood explained that McDaniel "never looked at a woman,
except from the neck down." 5
Wood and other women in the lab complained about McDaniel's behavior to
the Executive Officer of the Nuclear Laboratory, Henry Doney, whose re-
sponse, unfortunately, reflected the typical attitude of the times that sexual
harassment was a personal problem. Doney told the women that they were
"capable of taking care of themselves" and suggested that they "try not to get
into those situations.,,6 To escape the harassment, Wood consciously avoided
McDaniel, including using the stairs instead of the elevator, wearing pants so he
could not stare at her legs, telling her secretary she did not want to be alone
with him, and trying to transfer to another job away from him. Shortly after the
Christmas party incident, McDaniel went on leave for a semester, but as his
return drew closer, Wood developed severe neck pain and numbness in her
shoulder and arm caused by anxiety over his impending return. Wood resigned
in June 1974, before McDaniel returned, and her pain subsided.
After unsuccessfully searching for another job, Wood filed for unemploy-
ment compensation in December 1974. Her claim was denied, and she asked
for a hearing. At the February 1975 hearing, she called two witnesses to con-
firm her story, one of whom testified that McDaniel was condescending toward
women and another who testified that he had once made a pass at her in an
elevator and would often stare suggestively at women. Wood also testified that
McDaniel inappropriately touched female employees in the office. Wood's
claim was again denied on March 7, 1975. The hearing officer held that her
reasons for leaving her job did not amount to "good cause" because they were
"personal" and "noncompelling."7
Not willing to give up, Wood sought support from the women's section of
the Human Affairs Program (HAP) at Cornell University, which was staffed by
three committed feminist activists. Established in response to student uprisings
in the late 1960s, HAP offered public-interest-oriented courses that involved
community fieldwork on topics such as prison reform, urban redevelopment,
and money and banking. HAP established a women's section in the fall of 1974
and hired Lin Farley as director. A former Associated Press reporter, Farley was
a longtime activist in radical feminist politics and was a member of the Furies,
Collective Action against Sexual Harassment in the Mid-1970S 29
a radical lesbian collective in Washington, D.C. She had testified at the 1971
New York Radical Feminist Conference on Rape and later moved to New York
City, where she joined Lesbian Feminist Liberation. 8
In January 1975, Farley recruited two friends to work with her at HAP,
Susan Meyer and Karen Sauvigne. Meyer had grown up near New York City
and graduated from the University of Michigan in 1968. An antiwar activist in
college, she worked with Students for a Democratic Society and later partici-
pated with Sauvigne in a Quaker training workshop on community organizing
and nonviolent community dispute resolution. When she moved back to New
York City, Meyer continued to participate in leftist political activity. She taught
English as a second language and did some organizing in the Hispanic commu-
nity in Brooklyn. She also participated in consciousness-raising groups, came
out as a lesbian, and became active in radical feminist politics. Meyer was part
of the Rat collective in New York, an underground radical feminist newspaper,
and worked with Lesbian Feminist Liberation as head of the media committee. 9
Meyer had met Farley in the early 1970s, and they later worked together at
Lesbian Feminist Liberation. Io
Sauvigne also grew up near New York City and, like Meyer, had been an
antiwar activist as a student. She graduated from Montclair College in 1970
and then worked on a master's degree in history at Rutgers. In the early 1970s,
Sauvigne participated in consciousness-raising groups and became active in
radical feminist politics, joining New York Radical Feminists. She worked on
the issues of rape and marriage and became familiar with the analysis of the
role of sexual violence in women's oppression. Sauvigne worked at the Amer-
ican Civil Liberties Union, including the Women's Rights Project while the
future Supreme Court Justice Ruth Bader Ginsburg was there, and for the Law
Students Civil Rights Research Council (LSCRRC), gaining a legal back-
ground, fundraising experience, and contacts that she would later find very
useful in organizing against sexual harassment. Meyer and Sauvigne met
during the summer of 1974 while the Lesbian Feminist Liberation and New
York Radical Feminists were collaborating in political organizing to try to
raise women's visibility at the annual gay pride march in New York City. In
their activism in the early 1970s, Meyer and Sauvigne learned about feminist
theory on rape and domestic violence, which later helped them articulate the
issue of sexual harassment. At HAP, Meyer and Sauvigne shared the job of
Research Director, assisting students with research on community
organizing. I I
When Carmita Wood sought help from HAP, Farley, Meyer, and Sauvigne
immediately offered their support. The issue of sexual coercion on the job had
come up in Farley's class on women and work in the fall of 1974. Because of
a scarcity of analytical literature on women and work, Farley had turned to
consciousness-raising: women in the class talked about their experiences as
women on the job. It soon became apparent to Farley that "each one of us
had already quit or been fired from a job at least once because we had been
made too uncomfortable by the behavior of men,"u According to Sauvigne,
Lin's students had been talking in her seminar about the unwanted sexual advances
they'd encountered on their summer jobs. And then Carmita Wood comes in and tells
Lin her story. We realized that to a person, every one of us - the women on staff,
Carmita, the students - had had an experience like this at some point, you know?
And none of us had ever told anyone before. It was one of those click, aha! moments,
a profound revelation. ')
Sauvigne explained, "We began talking to all the women we knew and pretty
much everyone could recount a story of how they quit or lost a job sometime in
their life because of failing to go along with unwanted sexual advances. It was
beginning to seem to us that it was an incredibly widespread phenomenon. "'4
While she was in graduate school, Sauvigne herself had been fired from a job as
a cocktail waitress when she refused her bosses' sexual advances, and Susan Meyer
was sexually harassed while working as an office manager in New York City.Is
The women quickly recognized that sexual harassment was an "important
issue to develop in the feminist movement," and they attacked the problem
legally and politically.I6 First, they located attorneys for Wood. Sauvigne con-
tacted Karen DeCrow, the President of NOW, who lived in nearby Syracuse,
and whom Sauvigne knew from her work with ACLU and LSCRRC. DeCrow
located two feminist attorneys to represent Wood's appeal- Maurie Heins and
Susan Horn from Syracuse. Although Wood's case did not involve Title VII, the
women at HAP immediately realized the potential of Title VII for combating
sexual harassment. In a March 28, 1975, letter to Heins, Sauvigne argued that
Title VII should protect women from sex-based intimidation on the job. An
April 5, 1975 news article in the Ithaca Journal quoted Farley making the same
point. Sauvigne attempted to find other people working on the issue. Using
mailing lists from ACLU and LSCRRC, she sent a letter to female lawyers
and law students asking them if they had any cases involving sexual harass-
ment, and she surveyed women's organizations about the issue. She did not
receive many responses, but she did receive one from Catharine MacKinnon,
whom Sauvigne knew because MacKinnon had been an LSCRRC intern.
Sauvigne had first met MacKinnon in 1974 when Sauvigne and Meyer were
visiting Farley in Ithaca, and MacKinnon passed through town as a traveling
folk singer. Sauvigne also contacted the EEOC to get information about the
case of Corne v. Bausch and Lomb and subsequently discussed the case with
Heather Sigworth, the attorney for Corne and DeVane in Arizona.
In addition to organizing legal support for Wood, the women at HAP sought
to generate political support by forming a working women's organization,
which they called Working Women United (WWU), and planning a speak-
out in order to break the silence. At the time, Cornell planned to close HAP
in 1976 because the leftist social protests that had led to its opening had sub-
sided. So the HAP Director and Advisory Board fully supported the HAP staff
in building groups in the community that would endure. Sauvigne, Meyer, and
Farley hoped the speak-out would help create such an organization. According
to Sauvigne, the speak-out was a "mechanism for public consciousness raising,"
Collective Action against Sexual Harassment in the Mid-1970S JI
with which she was familiar from her work with New York Radical Feminists.
In her letter to Heins, Sauvigne explained, "we hope to politicize the issue and
begin to ease up women's self-consciousness about speaking about it. I think
that sexual abuse on the job is an issue very much akin to rape and we will need
to do a lot of consciousness-raising to free women up to talk about it."
But, first, "it" would need to be named and defined. In the weeks since
Carmita Wood had approached HAP, the women had used a variety of phrases,
including "sexual abuse," "sexual coercion," "sexual intimidation," and "sexual
harassment." Farley, Sauvigne, Meyer, and several other women agreed to sit
down and decide upon a single term, one that included not only blatant examples
of sexual abuse but also more subtle behaviors. They were primarily focused on
sexual behavior by a male toward a female in the workplace, not on nonsexual
gender-based hostility of the kind blue-collar women were subjected to once they
began to break into traditionally male occupations at the end of the 1970s. At
a meeting at the HAP offices, the women made a collective decision to use the
term sexual harassment because it conveyed the broad array of conduct they
intended to include. 17 They used the term in an April 3, 1975, press release, and
soon thereafter it began appearing in press coverage of the issue.
A broad cross-section of working women in Tomkins County, NY, attended
a meeting on April 2, 1975, launching a campaign to expose the problem of
sexual exploitation of women on the job. Wood and twenty-three-year-old
Janet Oestreich were among those who described their experiences of sexual
harassment. A press release HAP issued the next day quoted Oestreich, who
had been sexually harassed by customers when she was a waitress, as saying, "I
feel very strongly that this subjugation of working women to the power of men
who have economic control over them must be stopped!" In the same press
release, Farley explained the purpose of the upcoming speak-out:
When women came forward to tell their stories about rape and abortion it culminated in
changes in the New York State rape laws and in a landmark Supreme Court decision. It
took women telling the untold truth about our lives to show how widespread and
damaging these problems really are to activate these changes. Sexual exploitation of
working women needs the same exposure. That's the purpose of the speak-out.
Farley, Meyer, and Wood were quoted in numerous local newspapers, including
the Ithaca Journal, Ithaca New Times, and Cornell Daily Sun. I8
In the month before the speak-out, WWU members engaged in several
actions to raise public awareness about sexual harassment and publicize the
event. Carmita Wood published an opinion editorial about sexual harassment
in a local newspaper and wrote a letter to the editor on behalf of WWU,
announcing their campaign and encouraging participation at the speak-out. 19
WWU members appeared on several local television programs discussing sex-
ual harassment, and two local radio stations ran stories about Carmita Wood's
case and the upcoming event.2.0 In hopes of gaining broad community partic-
ipation, WWU members leafleted the town's three big factories, Ithaca Gun,
Morse Chain, and National Cash Register, and distributed flyers at the town's
banks. According to Sauvigne, however, many of the posters were ripped down,
and women working at the factory experienced heightened harassment because
of them. WWU also encouraged NOW's national president, Karen DeCrow, to
visit Ithaca to promote the speak-out. In a news report in the Ithaca Journal,
DeCrow hailed the speak-out, saying, "It's about time. This is one of the few
sexist issues which has been totally in the closet.... As we begin to speak out
about such indignities, we realize that this is not a personal problem, but rather
a class problem, which we as females share."u DeCrow also publicized the
issue around the country in her work for NOW.
WWU promoted the issue beyond Ithaca as well. On April 2I, Farley trav-
eled to New York City to testify about sexual harassment before the New York
City Human Rights Commission, which was chaired by Eleanor Holmes
Norton, who would later playa key role in shaping federal policy on sexual
harassment. Norton was conducting hearings on patterns of discrimination
faced by women in blue-collar and service industry jobs. According to Farley,
Norton "treated the issue with dignity and great seriousness." In response to
Farley's testimony, the commission drafted a standard clause for affirmative
action agreements addressing "unfair abuse of sexual privacy." Enid Nemy,
a reporter covering the hearings for the Family/Style section of the New York
Times, heard Farley's testimony and convinced her editor to send her to Ithaca
to research the issue of sexual harassment. 22
On the afternoon of Sunday, May 4, in the pouring rain, 275 women showed
up at the Greater Ithaca Activities Center for the sexual harassment speak-out
sponsored by WWU, HAP, and the Ithaca chapter of NOW. About twenty
women - young and old, black and white, and from a variety of occupations -
testified passionately about the devastating impact of sexual harassment on their
lives. They included Carmita Wood, Wood's daughter Angela Faust, Wood's co-
worker Connie Korbel, three waitresses, a mailroom clerk, a factory shop steward,
a secretary, an assistant professor, and an apprentice filmmaker. The women
testified about "crude propositions to barter sex for employment, physical over-
tures and masturbatory displays, verbal abuse and hostile threats that appeared
patently designed to intimidate a woman and drive her out of her job."23 They
described their feelings of self-blame, shame, and fear and described sexual
harassment as "dehumanizing." They recognized sexual harassment as an
abuse of power and as a structural condition of the workplace. They expressed
feelings of relief at being able to talk about their experiences, with one of the
women describing her testimony as a "catharsis." No press was allowed, but
the sponsors held a press conference the next day. All the local radio and
television stations and all the local newspapers covered the event. Afterward,
Sauvigne said the speak-out had been "awesome and powerful and well beyond
our wildest expectations."24
Aside from generating publicity, the speak-out also began the process of
developing more detailed information about the extent of sexual harassment.
During the event, Meyer distributed a survey she had developed with Diedre
Collective Action against Sexual Harassment in the Mid-I970S 33
FIGURE 2.1. Sexual Harassment Speak Out Poster, 1975. Courtesy of K.C. Wagner
Silverman, a social scientist at Ithaca College, asking women about their expe-
riences with sexual harassment. 25 The survey defined sexual harassment as
"any repeated and unwanted sexual comments, looks, suggestions, or physical
contact that you find objectionable or offensive and causes you discomfort on
your job." Of the 155 women responding, 7 out of 10 reported experiencing
sexual harassment. Those reporting harassment included teachers, factory
workers, professionals, waitresses, clerical workers, executives, and domestics.

The women reported feeling angry, upset, frightened, and guilty about the
harassment. Only 18% had complained through established channels, and in
half of those cases nothing was done. In a third of the cases where women
complained, the woman experienced negative repercussions such as increased
workload and complaints about the quality of their work. Ninety-two percent
of the women surveyed considered sexual harassment a serious problem.:. 6
Although this survey was not scientific, it was the first of its kind and for years
was widely cited in legal proceedings, law review articles, and mass media
reports as evidence of the serious impact of sexual harassment on women. It
also inspired many other studies of sexual harassment.
After the speak-out, forty women met and officially launched WWU. WWU
members hoped to encourage collective action, including unionization, and
aspired to be like 9-to- 5 in Boston, an organization of female office workers
and part of the burgeoning movement to organize working women. In August
1975, recognizing the need to do research and public education on the issue of
sexual harassment, WWU members created a separate organization, Working
Women United Institute (WWUI), which was incorporated as a 501(C)(3) non-
profit organization "to engage in research, education, and litigation on issues of
concern to working women." According to Sauvigne, they modeled themselves
after the ACLU by creating a nonprofit organization separate from the member-
ship organization that could engage in political activities. Sauvigne's contacts at
the ACLU helped WWUI to become established, including consulting on orga-
nizational development and tax-exempt status, as well as providing office space
and equipment for part of one summer. WWUI sought to assist women both
locally and nationally through a three-part system: a research component,
a legal resource component, and an information/referral and public education
component. Susan Meyer was the Executive Director and Karen Sauvigne was
the Program Director. WWUI's Board of Advisors included Eleanor Holmes
Norton, NOW President Karen DeCrow, author Susan Brownmiller, and New
York Congress member Elizabeth Holtzman. The Board of Advisors also in-
cluded Alice Cook and William Foote Whyte from Cornell's School of Indus-
trial and Labor Relations.
In the summer of 1975, WWU was extremely active. General membership
meetings were held monthly, with attendance ranging from twenty to thirty
women and membership swelling to sixty-five in September 1975. Numerous
committees, concerned with a range of topics from legal grievances to fund-
raising, began to meet regularly. WWU members immediately began researching
targets for political actions and began collecting information about local cor-
porations' treatment of women. They continued to field calls from the media and
produced a film on sexual harassment, "Working Women's Dilemma," which
was aired on local television. They also worked on developing the organization,
including building membership, creating a structure, and obtaining office space.
Their first newsletter, Labor Pains, appeared in August 1975, infused with
a spirit of enthusiastic and inclusive sisterhood. The eleven-page newsletter,
Collective Action against Sexual Harassment in the Mid- I 970S 35
addressed "the problems and concerns of working women," encouraged all

types of women to participate in the activities of WWU and welcomed a "vari-
ety of views." According to one article, "Working Women United includes
women from grandmothers to granddaughters, college professors to factory
workers, radicals to conservatives." In an article on the next page entitled
"Our First Issue," WWU members envisioned the newsletter as "a place where
waitresses, college professors, and factory workers can all learn from one an-
other; we may find that we have more in common than suspected at first.,,2.7
The newsletter attempted to create a sense of community and shared purpose
among women, but also to educate and inform them about the issue of sexual
harassment. It included articles on sex discrimination in the workplace gener-
ally, but focused on sexual harassment. Several articles offered support to
victims by sharing stories of sexual harassment, discussing ways to fight back,
and encouraging victims to contact WWUI. The front-page article, reporting on
the "historic" May 4 Sexual Harassment Speak-Out, recounted the stories of
several of the women who spoke and commended them for their courage.
Carmita Wood wrote a piece entitled "Woman Alone" about her experience
of being a controversial figure because she publicly challenged sexual harass-
ment in the workplace. The newsletter also reported on harassment charges
brought in other parts of the country by a police officer in Los Angeles and
a woman employed at a fire department in Gainesville, Florida. Another article
reported on national support for raising the issue of sexual harassment, citing
the work of New York City Human Rights Commissioner Eleanor Holmes
Norton, Congresswoman Bella Abzug, and Karen DeCrow, President of
NOW, who was reportedly "traveling around the country telling audiences
about the exciting work WWU is doing and the importance of the issue of
sexual harassment on the job."2.8 The newsletter also announced more than
nine membership and committee meetings and a men's support group to discuss
issues of sexual harassment and discrimination.
The activities of WWU led to the first national press coverage of sexual
harassment in August 1975, when the New York Times published Enid Nemy's
story.2.9 The article was syndicated nationally, appearing in more than a dozen
newspapers around the country, including the Philadelphia Bulletin and Chi-
cago Tribune. According to Sauvigne, "Nemy's story put sexual harassment on
the map." The story, despite appearing in the family and style section, provided
a serious, well-researched, and thorough treatment of the issue of sexual ha-
rassment. Nemy quoted feminist activists Farley, DeCrow, and Meyer, govern-
ment officials, including Norton, and several sexually harassed women,
including two WWU members, Oestreich and Korbel. Farley said that work-
place sexual harassment was "extremely widespread," citing the speak-out
survey, but often "treated as a joke." The article described WWU as having
"launched a campaign to expose the problems of sexual exploitation of women
on the job." Nemy discussed potential legal remedies at the local, state, and
federal level. Norton stated that New York was drafting a standard clause for
affirmative action agreements addressing "unfair abuse of sexual privacy."
The Director of the Unemployment Insurance Division of the New York State
Department of Labor was also quoted, saying sexual harassment was good
cause for leaving a job. On the federal level, the article reported that the
EEOC had filed a brief supporting the plaintiffs in the appeal of Corne v.
Bausch and Lomb. The article also discussed the experiences of five sexually
harassed women, three of whom were from Ithaca, one from New York City,
and one from Washington, D.C. They experienced harassment in varied occu-
pations - waitressing, nursing, and real estate. One woman, Jan Crawford,
reported that her supervisor demanded sex "after making it clear he didn't
approve of women working outside the home." The article resulted in a "tidal
wave of response from women across the country."3 0 WWU received "enthu-
siastic letters of support and encouragement, as well as donations from across
the nation."3 I This article led to other media outlets taking up the issue of
sexual harassment.
A Wall Street Journal article on sexual harassment in January 1976, written
by Mary Bralove, also treated the issue with great seriousness. 32 The article
recounted several stories of sexually harassed women, who were "boldly speak-
ing out and seeking protection against unwanted sexual advances by bosses or
clients." The article mentioned United Nations' employees publicly airing ha-
rassment charges, the Los Angeles Screen Actors Guild's recently established
morals complaint bureau, student pressure to include curriculum on harass-
ment at Simmons College's Graduate Program in Management, the work of the
City of New York Commission on Human Rights, and the WWU speak-out and
survey. On the law, the article mentioned the EEOC brief filed in the Corne
appeal and also interviewed Linda Singer, the attorney who represented
Paulette Barnes in the appeal of the district court's dismissal of her case. In
the same month that the Wall Street Journal article appeared, Redbook mag-
azine published a questionnaire on sexual harassment in the workplace. 33
According to the article, the purpose of the survey was "to have a reliable
and factual basis on which to judge the problem" and "to amass a significant
body of information about sexual harassment." Nine thousand women
responded to the survey, 88% of whom reported experiencing sexual harass-
ment. The results were published in the November 1976 issue of Redbook. The
issue also attracted the attention of television producers. In February and
March of 1976, the local affiliate of CBS in New York broadcast a series of
news programs on sexual harassment at work.
The first critical voice to emerge in the popular press was Rhoda Koenig in
the February 1976 issue of Harper's Magazine. 34 Her scathing opinion piece
came in response to Enid Nemy's article in the New York Times. Describing sexual
harassment as "sex in the office" and "flirtation," Koenig trivialized the issue by
commenting that "a lot of women would feel deprived without a reasonable
quota of sexual harassment per week." She condemned feminists for characterizing
women as "helpless victims" and "miserable and weak" and for perpetuating
the "myth of women as oppressed." She argued that feminists, "with jesuitical
ingenuity, ... go about convincing white, middle-class college-educated women
that society has done them wrong, like the snake-oil salesman whose suggest-
ible listeners began to feel all the symptoms of sciatica, dropsy, and the botts."
She added, "for persons who do feel guilt at being dissatisfied, feminism offers
absolution." As opposed to the feminist characterization of men as aggressive,
Koenig argued that men were "more like shy woodland creatures, fawns peep-
ing through the thicket of masculine self-protection." Ironically, she predicted
that "sexual harassment probably won't make its way onto the picket lines or
the evening news," and "anti harassment forces will [never] work up enough
steam to roll over the rest of us." This early media coverage began the process of
raising awareness of sexual harassment.
Despite their successes in bringing the issue to national attention, WWU
disbanded after they published their last newsletter in the Spring of 1976.
According to Sauvigne, Ithaca's demography led to WWU's demise. Most of
the working women in Ithaca either worked in blue-collar jobs at the three big
factories in town - Morse Chain, Ithaca Gun, and National Cash Register - or
they worked in pink-collar jobs at Cornell, the town's biggest employer. At first,
women from both groups were involved in WWU. Carmita Wood was able to
draw in women from Cornell, such as Connie Korbel, but after she lost her
appeal in October of 1975, she was no longer involved. For a while, a local
letter carrier, Jean McPheeters, served as chair of WWU and inspired blue-
collar women to become active. But when McPheeters stepped down to become
head of her union, participation from local blue-collar women waned. WWU
sought to gain a broader base in the community but was dominated by college
students and was closely associated with HAP and Cornell. Students were
very active and enthusiastic in the organization, but everyone knew that
to the extent that Cornell students had blue-collar jobs, they were tempo-
rary. The social distance created by this disparity tended to drive blue-collar
women away.
WWUI, however, continued to work on sexual harassment. In February
1976, Sauvigne obtained funding to hire Drs. Harriet Connolly and Judith
Greenwald from City University of New York to write a grant application to
the National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH) for funding a major research
project on sexual harassment. The application, submitted in the summer of
1976, proposed to study "sexual interaction at work" by interviewing ISO
women and 50 men in order to "generate objective parameters by which sexual
harassment can be differentiated from other forms of social interaction occurring
within the informal structure of the workplace." Many individuals and groups
supported this application, including Eleanor Holmes Norton, Elizabeth
Holtzman, Patricia Schroeder, Susan Brownmiller, Shirley Chisholm, District
65 of the Distributive Workers of America, the National Congress of Neighbor-
hood Women, and the NAACP Legal Defense Fund. NIMH approved the pro-
posal but did not fund it because Connolly and Greenwald decided they wanted
to conduct the study through the City University of New York rather than with
WWUI, leading to a dispute between WWUI and the grant writers about who
owned the project.
In addition to working on the NIMH grant, WWUI assisted attorneys work-

ing on sexual harassment cases. Greg Finger, from the Center for Constitutional
Rights, suggested that WWUI establish a brief bank to "prevent people from
having to reinvent arguments." Sauvigne immediately began to collect plead-
ings, briefs, and opinions in sexual harassment cases, which they provided to
attorneys for the cost of copying and mailing. In the process, WWUI began to
build a network of attorneys knowledgeable about sexual harassment. During
this time, Meyer and Sauvigne also spoke on sexual harassment to a variety of
groups, including students, lawyers, and working women, and they promoted
the results of their survey on sexual harassment.
In mid-1976, Farley had a falling out with Meyer and Sauvigne. Tension had
begun even before the speak-out and escalated in 1976. In early 1976, Farley had
asked WWUI to sign over to her the releases from the speak-out participants so
she could use their testimony in a book. At the May board meeting, the women
came to an agreement whereby Farley could use the testimony but would "make
every effort possible in all publications to cite the existence of the Institute, its
purpose and its projects, its past and its future."35 A contract was apparently
drafted but never signed. Farley also sided with Connolly and Greenwald in their
dispute with WWUI about ownership of the NIMH grant proposal. As a result of
these conflicts, Farley parted ways with the Institute36 and left the Hwnan Affairs
Program at the end of the 1976 school year when Cornell terminated the pro-
gram. After twenty-seven rejections, she published her book on sexual harass-
ment with McGraw-Hill Book Company in 1978. In the book, Farley never
mentioned WWU and only briefly mentioned the work of Sauvigne and Meyer
in her preface, where she described the "origin of the issue."37
In June 1977, in search of a better place to run a national organization,
conduct research, and obtain funding, Meyer and Sauvigne moved WWUI to
New York City, to the basement of Central Presbyterian Church at Park Avenue
and 64th Street, and they decided to focus exclusively on sexual harassment.
The Institute's first grant application to the Ms. Foundation was rejected for not
addressing a "bread-and-butter issue," but the Foundation later gave the In-
stitute its first grant for $3,000. 38 Both Sauvigne and Meyer volunteered their
time. Sauvigne worked part-time at the College for Human Services while
Meyer drove a cab. In its first few years, the Institute worked to raise awareness
of sexual harassment through the media and public speaking, provided infor-
mation and referrals to sexually harassed women, built a resource library and
a legal brief bank, conducted research on sexual harassment, and supported
public policy initiatives. Meyer and Sauvigne also tried to get other feminist
organizations to work on the issue. They experienced resistance at first because
the movement had so many other priorities, but they were soon able to con-
vince others of the importance of the issue.
Just as WWU began with the May 4 speak-out in Ithaca, WWUI's rebirth in
New York City was launched in October 1977 by a speak-out cosponsored
with Ms. magazine, which did a cover story on sexual harassment in the
November issue. About 200 women attended the four-hour event on Saturday,
Collective Action against Sexual Harassment in the Mid-I970S 39
October 22, at the Community Church of New York on the Lower East Side.
Speakers included Meyer and Sauvigne, Gloria Steinem, Jill Goodman of the
ACLU Women's Rights Project, Robin Morgan, and Karen Lindsey, a writer
for Ms. Ten women presented prepared testimony, including Adrienne
Tomkins, Freada Klein, and Farley, and many more women spoke during
an "open mike" period. The speak-out received television and newspaper
coverage. In addition to a November cover story in Ms., which mentioned
the work of the Institute and gave contact information, many other maga-
zines and newspapers ran stories on sexual harassment around this time
and mentioned the work of Meyer and Sauvigne, including a New York Times
article. 39 Meyer and Sauvigne began to appear regularly on television and
radio shows, including Good Morning America, the Phil Donahue Show,
and the Mike Douglas Show. 40 For this ground breaking work, Meyer and
FIGURE ~.~. Ms. Magazine Cover, November 1977. Courtesy of Ms. Magazine
Sauvigne received the Mademoiselle Award in I977. They also began to

attend more speaking engagements, including speak-outs, and conducted
workshops on sexual harassment for harassed women, private corporations,
foundations, unions, the government, and voluntary organizations. Through
these activities, the Institute sought to "alter popular consciousness about
sexual harassment."4 1
Due to this exposure, the Institute began receiving hundreds of letters and
phone calls a week from sexually harassed women seeking advice. In re-
sponse, Meyer and Sauvigne built an extensive network of organizations
and individuals around the country interested in helping sexually harassed
women. Using a large map of the United States and color-coded pushpins to
track resources, they referred sexually harassed women to crisis counselors
and lawyers. In the summer of I978, they established a National Information
and Referral Service with the help of a $6,500 grant from the New York
Foundation. The service provided emotional support, advice on how to han-
dle sexual harassment, information about local laws, and referrals to attor-
neys and crisis counselors. The Institute also established a Legal Project,
which kept track of sexual harassment litigation and maintained a "brief
bank." The project built a network of more than 300 attorneys to which to
refer sexually harassed women. Meyer and Sauvigne began testifying as ex-
pert witnesses in sexual harassment cases and lobbying for legislative changes.
In I977, the Institute helped to develop and promote legislation in New York
that expanded unemployment compensation law to cover sexual harassment
by defining harassment based on age, race, creed, color, national origin, sex,
or disability as "good cause" to leave one's job voluntarily, allowing the victim
to collect unemployment benefits.
The Institute continued to conduct research on sexual harassment. Meyer
and Sauvigne recruited Peggy Crull in late I977 to assist with the NIMH
grant, but when that fell through, she began to conduct other research for
the Institute. At the time, Crull was completing a doctorate in developmental
psychology at Columbia University's Teacher's College and taught psychology
of women at Lehman College. Crull had been active in the women's move-
ment, starting a feminist research group at Columbia, participating in con-
sciousness-raising through New York Radical Feminists and Marxist Feminist
Group 2, and working with the Committee on Abortion Rights and Against
Sterilization Abuse. The Institute's early research included a survey of state
fair employment practice agencies to see how they dealt with sexual harass-
ment and a study of questionnaires sent to women who had contacted the
Institute for helpY- They also contacted hundreds of women's organizations
asking for case studies and other information about sexual harassment. 43 In
I978, the Institute changed its name from WWUI to Working Women's In-
stitute (WWI) because WWU no longer existed. WWI worked for the next
several years to increase public awareness of sexual harassment, to support
victims of harassment emotionally and legally, and to conduct research to
better understand sexual harassment.
Collective Action against Sexual Harassment in the Mid-1970S
ALLIANCE AGAINST SEXUAL COERCION
The Alliance Against Sexual Coercion (AASC) was the other organization
formed in the mid-1970S that made pioneering efforts to help victims of sexual
harassment and raise public awareness of the issue. AASC was a grassroots
service-oriented organization that grew out of the rape crisis movement and
characterized sexual harassment as an issue of violence against women. AASC
members produced some of the first in-depth theoretical analyses of sexual
harassment, locating the roots of sexual harassment not only in sexism, but
also in classism and racism. They also developed a broad range of strategies to
address the problem, calling not only for legal redress, but for collective orga-
nizing and direct action.
AASC was founded in Cambridge, MA, in June 1976 by Freada Klein, Lynn
Wehrli, and Elizabeth Cohn-Stuntz. 44 Each of these women had extensive ex-
perience working on the issue of rape and first became aware of the issue of
sexual harassment while working at the Washington, D.C., Rape Crisis Center.
Klein had worked with the Bay Area Women Against Rape, one of the first rape
crisis centers in the United States, while earning her bachelor's degree in crim-
inology at University of California at Berkeley. In the summer of 1974, she
moved to Washington, D.C., to do national political work and to start graduate
work in women's studies at George Washington University. While in D.C., she
worked with the Washington, D.C., Rape Crisis Center and was a founding
member of the Feminist Alliance Against Rape, a national network of rape
crisis centers that published a bi-monthly newsletter. She also worked with
Prisoners Against Rape in Lorton, VA, a self-help and education group for
prisoners who had raped and been raped. Klein was invited to participate in
making a documentary film of interviews with convicted rapists at the Lorton
prison, called "Rape Culture" and produced by Cambridge Documentary
Films. As a result, Klein began traveling on a regular basis to Cambridge and
also collaborated with the Our Bodies, Our Selves collective on the rape
chapter in a mid-1970S edition. Klein eventually moved to Cambridge.
Wehrli, in addition to volunteering at the Washington, D.C., Rape Crisis
Center, also worked with the Feminist Alliance Against Rape and taught
a course on Rape and U.S. Institutions at the Women's School. Wehrli moved
to Boston to enter MIT's master's program in urban planning. Cohn-Stuntz,
who graduated from Smith College, had written her senior thesis on
the emotional reactions of women to rape. She was a psychiatric social
worker in D.C. and volunteered at the Washington, D.C., Rape Crisis Center.
Cohn-Stuntz moved to Cambridge because her husband was going to Harvard
Business School.
While at the Washington, D.C., Rape Crisis Center, Klein and others on the
hotline shift had received phone calls from women experiencing severe sexual
coercion on the job. Realizing the unique legal and emotional problems of
women sexually assaulted by their bosses and co-workers, Klein knew that
neither rape crisis centers nor working women's organizations provided
services that addressed these women's needs. Once in Cambridge, Klein con-
tacted Cohn-Stuntz and Wehrli, and they established the Alliance Against Sex-
ual Coercion as a collective with the goal of eliminating workplace sexual
harassment. To avoid expending energy applying for grant money to pay their
salaries, the members earned their livelihoods elsewhere but put their major
energies and commitment into AASC. Several Boston-area organizations sup-
ported AASC, including 9-to-5, the Cambridge Rape Crisis Center, and Tran-
sition House (a battered women's shelter).
From its inception in June 1976, AASC provided crisis intervention coun-
seling, but in the first year, members focused mostly on intensive research into
understanding sexual harassment and developing ways to deal with it. In Au-
gust, AASC surveyed more than 200 rape crisis centers and working women's
groups about employment-related sexual assault. Every group that responded
had received these types of calls, but few of them had information on the issue,
and none of them had programs to assist victims. 45 Originally, AASC focused
on developing a sexual harassment protocol for rape crisis centers with the
hope that the centers would take on this issue, but it soon became clear that
rape and sexual harassment were very different issues. In the fall of 1976,
AASC published its first position paper, written by Klein and Wehrli, and
Wehrli completed one of the earliest in-depth theoretical studies of sexual
harassment in the form of a master's thesis at MIT entitled Sexual Harassment
at the Workplace: A Feminist Analysis and Strategy for Social Change, which
documents AASC's early theoretical analysis of the issue. In December 1976,
AASC organized a strategy meeting of women from local feminist organiza-
tions to come together and share their ideas on how to respond to the issue most
effectively. AASC also spread the word by helping to organize and participating
in the first Take Back the Night march in Boston in 1977.
In AASC's first position paper, Klein and Wehrli emphasized employers'
power over women and the serious economic implications of sexual coercion
for women. Like WWUI, AASC conceptualized the issue solely in terms of
sexual conduct and expressions. AASC defined sexual coercion to include "ver-
bal harassment or abuse, subtle forms of pressure for sexual activity, as well as
rape and attempted rape" and noted that co-workers and clients, as well as
employers, could threaten women's jobs. Making parallels to rape, they argued
that silence was often very destructive to women's emotional well-being and
that laws were inadequate. They argued that the issue "provides us a way to
extend the women's movement" and that it stood "at the crossroads of two
important women's organizing trends - workplace and antirape organizing. "4 6
Wehrli's master's thesis developed what she called a "dominance" theory of
sexual harassment. She argued that sexual harassment in the workplace was
both an expression of and a means of perpetuating the unequal power relation-
ships between men and women and between employers and employees. Wehrli
argued that the extent to which dominance is exercised through sexual harass-
ment depended on social conditions, personal choice, and threats to domi-
nance. Social conditions included differences in socialization of males and
females, males' greater access to instruments of power, the absence of sanctions,

high unemployment, and women's historically marginal position in the labor
market. Threats to dominance included an active feminist movement and the
entrance of women into traditionally male fields. In the face of these threats,
argued Wehrli, men were more likely to actively reassert their dominance by
sexually harassing women. Wehrli argued that dominance took a sexual form
because of the predominant view of women as sexual objects and the strong
cultural associations between dominance, masculinity, and sexual prowess.
Wehrli rejected alternative explanations of sexual harassment as a deviant
act, as biologically determined, as fun or bribery, or as a transitional phenom-
enon. Arguing that the root of sexual harassment was unequal power relation-
ships based on racism, sexism, classism, and other forms of dominance, Wehrli
concluded by proposing strategies for social change, suggesting eliminating the
cultural and social supports of dominance - hierarchy in the workplace and
socialization of men to dominate and women to submit. More concretely, she
suggested the development of sanctions against perpetrators of sexual harass-
ment, support systems for its victims, educational programs on sexual harass-
ment, and further research on the problem. 47
In June 1977, AASC began providing a broad range of services to victims of
sexual harassment, including emotional support, legal information and refer-
rals, unemployment eligibility information, vocational and educational coun-
seling referrals, and rap groups. AASC operated a telephone hotline for sexually
harassed women. 48 AASC focused on workplace sexual harassment but also
was concerned about other forms of harassment and later became very involved
with sexual harassment in education. In addition to offering assistance to indi-
viduals, AASC assisted women's groups in other communities to develop sim-
ilar services and conducted educational programs, seminars, and workshops on
sexual harassment. AASC sought to serve as a clearinghouse for cases and
additional information involving sexual harassment. Klein described AASC's
goal in the November 1977 Ms. cover story on sexual harassment: "I hope this
becomes a large movement -like rape, like battered women - because it's also
an issue of violence against women. To have services, resources, and options
available in every community throughout the country would be the greatest
thing that could happen."49 The Ms. cover story led to an explosion of calls to
AASC from sexually harassed women and from the press, as it had for WWUI.
Many other magazines and newspapers then discussed the work of AASC. By
1979, AASC could support itself from fees collected from literature, speaking,
and training. 50
Despite their decision not to become a research-focused organization, AASC
members published prolifically on sexual harassment, including both resource
materials and theoretical analyses. Their informational brochures, myth and
fact sheets, and other informational resources significantly increased public
awareness of the issue. By informing and educating women about sexual
harassment, these publications contributed toward creating a sense of commu-
nity among women who were opposing sexual harassment. In 1977, AASC
produced a well-researched and theoretically sophisticated twenty-three-page

informational brochure on sexual harassment written by Rags Brophy, Mary
Bularzik, Martha Hooven, Freada Klein, Liz Cohn-Stuntz, and Lynn Wehrli
and printed with a grant from Wellesley College's Center for Research on
Women in Higher Education and the Professions. AASC sent this brochure
out as part of an informational packet that included a flyer for outreach pur-
poses, a small information card designed for leaving with women who were
harassed, AASC's first position paper, and sample letters to send to harassers in
both educational and workplace contexts. 51 The brochure included both prac-
tical advice for sexually harassed women and a far-reaching critique of U.S.
culture and the capitalist economic system. AASC argued that sexual harass-
ment was a form of violence against women that reflected and reinforced
women's subordinate status in society. Described as a "highly effective tool
of social control," violence against women resulted from "our country's history
of relying upon violence as a method of problem solving" and from the fact that
"men are socialized to dominate women through the use and threat of violent
behavior."52 They argued that men sexually harass women whom they see as
threats to their masculinity, power, or economic status. Furthermore, both the
unequal status of workers and employers as well as the unequal status of men
and women reinforced each other in cases of sexual harassment: "Sexist atti-
tudes, along with racist and classist beliefs, are vital parts of the U.S. economic
system. Not until an egalitarian and democratic work structure is established
will sexual harassment be eradicated."53 The brochure described women's eco-
nomic vulnerability in the labor force, their long history of sexual harassment in
the United States, and the psychological effects of sexual harassment. On the
practical side, the brochure contained a section on "myths and facts" about
sexual harassment and a section on legal options, including a discussion of Title
VII, state human rights laws, occupational safety and health codes, rape stat-
utes, and unemployment insurance. Finally, the brochure ended with a descrip-
tion of the work of AASC. The illustrations in the brochure showed women in
clerical, construction, and janitorial jobs.
In addition to developing resource materials, AASC members regularly pub-
lished articles on sexual harassment, which developed the themes that appeared
in the 1977 brochure. These publications often appeared in a newsletter pub-
lished by the Feminist Alliance Against Rape, for which Freada Klein continued
to serve as staff. In mid-1978, Feminist Alliance Against Rape joined with
AASC and the National Communication Network, a grassroots organization
focusing on battered women, to publish Aegis, A Magazine on Ending Violence
Against Women. Reflecting their roots in the rape crisis movement, AASC
members often characterized sexual harassment as an issue of violence against
women. 54 They drew upon the feminist critique of rape in developing their
critique of sexual harassment, regularly making parallels between sexual ha-
rassment and rape, and also "wife-beating." For example, they argued that
sexual harassment was not a sexually motivated act but was an "assertion of
power expressed in a sexual manner."ss In 1978, Freada Klein noted that the
responses to the issue of sexual harassment in 1978 were the same as those to
rape in 1972 - "'How do you know it's a problem?' or 'women only file com-
plaints when an affair has gone bad' or 'women make false charges of sexual
harassment.'" According to Klein, "the repetition of these old myths reflects the
depths of sexism's stronghold on our culture and the inability of most people to
extend the information that challenges rape myths to the myths about sexual
harassment."5 6
Many of the publications of AASC members placed sexual harassment
within a broader critique of capitalism, patriarchy, and racism. AASC member
Martha Hooven and Nancy McDonald, who worked at the Washington, D.C.,
Rape Crisis Center, argued in a 1978 article in Aegis that capitalism contributed
to the proliferation of sexual harassment because the conditions of work under
capitalism made women vulnerable to sexual harassment. They argued, "cap-
italism feeds on sexism and racism." They suggested that ending sexual harass-
ment might require abolishing capitalism. 57 In late 1978, Martha Hooven and
Freada Klein published an article in Aegis entitled, "Is Sexual Harassment
Legal?", which was deeply pessimistic about the ability of government and
the legal system to treat women and people of color fairly. Hooven and Klein
explained that AASC did not seek to pass new laws against sexual harassment
because they believed that the legal system oppressed women and was racist
and classist. They argued, "it is doubtful that enforcement of [a new law] will
differ greatly from usual enforcement practices - i.e., a married middle-class
white woman, if harassed by a man with less societal status, will probably
receive benefits; while a poor, Third World, or lesbian woman, particularly if
harassed by a 'respectable' man, may find compensation under this new law
difficult to obtain."5 8 Also, they noted that legal remedies only addressed ha-
rassment after the fact, and they sought to prevent harassment before it oc-
curred. Instead, they sought to use existing laws and provide public education
and support services for victims of sexual harassment. According to Hooven
and Klein, the primary benefit of a new law would be as a form of public
education, rather than for its deterrent effect: "more women will be encouraged
to speak out about their victimization and the chances for finding workplace
support are increased."59
Although Hooven and Klein did seek to redefine and enforce existing laws to
protect women from sexual harassment, they hesitated to rely exclusively on
the legal system because they feared co-optation: "winning reforms may grad-
ually take the place of working for the ultimate goal of eliminating sexual
harassment. ,,60 They did not believe legal victories alone would eradicate the
causes of sexual harassment. Instead, they supported tactics such as public
education to change attitudes about women and the inequality of power be-
tween women and men. They also advocated "extralegal" activities, like pick-
eting harassers' places of employment, surveying workplaces for prevalence of
harassment, leafleting women's bathrooms at work as a warning to other
women, and negotiating with personnel departments, unions, or workplace
associations for policies against harassment and for grievance procedures.
Insofar as Hooven and Klein sought to redefine existing laws, they sought civil
institutional liability rather than individual criminal liability against the ha-
rasser because they believed that working at the institutional level was more
effective than working at the individual level. Furthermore, they opposed using
criminal laws because they believed that the criminal justice system discrimi-
nated on the basis of race and class and those criminal penalties were more
destructive than helpful. They argued, "prison dehumanizes people; it does not
'rehabilitate.'" 61 Finally, they argued that workplace harassment should be
viewed as an occupational hazard and regulated by the Occupational Safety
and Health Administration.
WWUI and AASC first learned of each other around the time that Ms.
magazine made sexual harassment their cover story. The article described
WWUI as "A National Resource" and AASC as "the first grassroots group
devoted to offering services to victims of sexual harassment at work."62. Rep-
resentatives from the organizations met in April 1978 and discussed working
together on several projects, including a film on sexual harassment, an anno-
tated bibliography on sexual harassment, joint fundraising efforts, speak-outs,
and starting other groups. The organizations agreed not to compete for grants,
and they agreed to mention each other when talking to the media "so that the
media wouldn't zero in on one person and encourage a hierarchical order that
we are working against.',6 3 Although the organizations shared ideas and podi-
ums, they did little else together. The film was never made, and each organiza-
tion published its own bibliography.6 4 According to Sauvigne, not only was it
difficult to collaborate long distance, but the organizations were very different,
and there was some competitive tension between them. AASC grew out of rape
crisis work, was direct-service-oriented, and made a significant contribution to
feminist theory on sexual harassment. WWUI, on the other hand, grew out of
working women's activism and was focused on developing legal remedies for
sexual harassment and on educating the public about the issue.
In addition to WWUI and AASC, which focused exclusively on sexual ha-
rassment, other groups began to work on the issue of sexual harassment in the
mid-1970S. Inspired by the WWU survey, several surveys on sexual harassment
began to appear. A New York City group called Women Office Workers (WOW),
formed in the summer of 1975, surveyed fifteen thousand women later that year
about their working conditions, including sexual harassment. One-third of the
respondents said that they had been the object of "direct sexual harassment."65 In
October of 1975, WOW held a hearing and speak-out at the YWCNs Central
Branch to address major issues affecting female office workers. Several speakers
testified about their experiences of sexual harassment. In September of 1976,
WOW organized a protest of a sexy secretary joke told on New York Telephone's
Dial-a-Joke. The same year, the Redbook survey appeared and was followed by
several others showing high rates of sexual harassment. A naval officer in Mon-
terey, California used the Redbook survey to poll women on his base about
sexual harassment and found that 81% experienced some form of sexual harass-
ment. Also in 1976, the United Nations Ad Hoc Group on Equal Rights for
Women surveyed 875 men and women and found that half of the women sur-
veyed reported sexual harassment. 66 These were the first of many surveys on
sexual harassment conducted by advocacy groups, governments, and social sci-
entists in the years following. Although these early surveys did not use scientific
sampling, they showed that many women were experiencing sexual harassment.
The WWU and Redbook surveys in particular were widely cited through the end
of the decade to prove the prevalence of sexual harassment. The feminist press
regularly began to cover the issue of sexual harassment in 1975 and 1976,
particularly Sister Courage, Majority Report, Womanpower, and Quest: A Fem-
inist Quarterly. These early publications and studies began the process of refram-
ing the issue of sexual coercion in the workplace as a violation of women's civil
rights.
The groundbreaking efforts ofWWU and AASC spurred a movement that by
the end of the 1970S would proliferate around the country and would challenge
sexual exploitation in the workplace. Feminist activism in the mid-1970S cre-
ated physical and intellectual spaces for women to speak out about sexual
coercion on the job. Similar to abortion, rape, and domestic violence, speaking
out about sexual harassment legitimized women's feelings of violation. Naming
"sexual harassment" created a cognitive category that made the conduct visible,
enabling women to share their pain and express their outrage. 67 Activists drew
upon theory of the various social movements of the day to analyze sexual
coercion in the workplace and to articulate the phenomena as an important
feminist issue. Using feminist theories on rape, legal theories of race and sex
discrimination in employment, as well as feminist critiques of patriarchy, rac-
ism, and capitalism, they argued that sexual harassment was a form of male
domination and amounted to sex discrimination in the workplace. They also
drew upon feminist theory advocating women's sexual autonomy and right to
control their bodies.
The issue resonated with women because it spoke to the changing reality of
women's lives. Women were more likely to find themselves in the workplace
and more likely to be dependent on their income for survival because of the
changing economic and demographic landscape. The country was shifting from
a manufacturing economy that could provide jobs paying a family wage to
a service economy with many lower-paying jobs and opportunities for women.
Demographic factors also contributed to women's increasing participation in
the workplace - older age at first marriage, fewer children, increasing likeli-
hood of divorce, and higher rates of single parenthood. These factors, paired
with an increasing standard of living and greater consumption expectations,
meant that women were more likely to be in the workplace and were more
likely to depend on their income from their labor force participation. This new
reality of women's lives came into direct conflict with traditional attitudes to-
ward women in the workplace - that they were working for pin money and not
supporting a family, as well as attitudes that sexualized women. In the context
of the civil rights and women's movements of the day, which advocated justice
and equal opportunities for all, as well as the sexual revolution that affirmed
individuals' rights to sexual autonomy, the issue of sexual harassment in the

workplace resonated deeply with women. For women of color, whose experi-
ences of racism had often been sexualized, the new civil rights framework
became an opportunity to resist both racism and sexism in the workplace.
The strength of this emerging movement grew from its diversity, which pro-
vided a range of resources to the effort. Women working in different parts of the
women's movements participated - feminists with backgrounds in radical fem-
inism and the lesbian rights movement, the more liberal NOW, the antirape
movement and socialist feminism, as well as the civil rights movement. Bringing
to the issue a rich mix of backgrounds, perspectives, skills, and resources, these
activists crafted a solid foundation for the movement against sexual harass-
ment. Activists used the resources of the women's movements, publishing
articles in feminist newsletters and magazines and using the growing network
of rape crisis centers to spread the word. They used women's movement strat-
egies, such as speak-outs, surveys, myth/fact sheets, and media work. They also
used the fruits of the civil rights movement, testifying before the New York
Civil Rights Commission and drawing on the resources of the ACLU and the
LSCRRC. This combination of efforts proved to be a very effective means of
legitimating the issue, motivating collective action, and raising awareness about
sexual harassment. Increased awareness of the issue began to change public
attitudes, and the attitudes of judges, about sexual coercion in the workplace.
In the appeals of the early sexual harassment cases, feminist attorneys would
build upon this increased awareness as they would attempt to convince judges
that sexual harassment was illegal sex discrimination.
3
A Winning Strategy: Early Legal Victories against

Sexual Harassment
By the late 1970s, when federal circuit courts were hearing the appeals of the
early cases denying sexual harassment claims, the climate was right for a change
in court opinion. By then, feminists had succeeded in raising awareness of
sexual harassment, developing stronger networks, and generating influential
research and analysis of the issue, all of which contributed significantly to
convincing courts that sexual harassment was a serious violation of women's
civil rights. Feminists' efforts, growing media coverage of the issue, and the
more progressive makeup of the appellate courts ultimately led to victory for
each of the plaintiffs of the early sexual harassment cases. In overturning every
case that denied relief and ruling in favor of the sexually harassed women,
appellate courts agreed that Title VII prohibited quid pro quo sexual harass-
ment, where a supervisor fires a subordinate employee for refusing to comply
with sexual advances. In addition to the workplace cases, a district court ruled
for the first time in Alexander v. Yale that federal law prohibited quid pro quo
sexual harassment at educational institutions. These landmark rulings resulted
from the joint efforts of individual women filing suits and the collective activ-
ism against sexual harassment.
Feminist attorneys and activists had developed a network that could now
support the women appealing their cases. The plaintiffs turned to feminist
attorneys to represent them on appeal. In Barnes v. Train, Linda Singer, a fem-
inist lawyer well connected with other feminist attorneys, represented Paulette
Barnes on appeal before the D.C. Circuit. I Singer, a 1968 graduate of George
Washington University Law School, practiced civil rights law with the firm of
Kurzman and Goldfarb in Washington, D.C., where she became a partner in
1972. In the early 1970s, she volunteered at the Women's Legal Defense Fund
(WLDF), which referred the Barnes case to her. In Miller v. Bank of America,
Mary Dunlap, a 1971 graduate of the University of California's Boalt Law
School in Berkeley, represented Margaret Miller on appeal. Dunlap was
co-founder of Equal Rights Advocates (ERA) in San Francisco, a public interest
law firm engaged in litigation and education to further equal rights for women.
49
In Tomkins and Corne, the feminist attorneys - Nadine Taub and Heather
Sigworth, respectively - who had represented the plaintiffs before the district
court represented them on appeal as well. Like Singer, Taub had extensive
connections with other feminist lawyers, contacts she used to recruit amicus
curiae support for Tomkins. In Corne, Jane Corne and Geneva DeVane's attor-
ney, Sigworth, was a feminist civil rights attorney and a founding member of
the local chapter of NOW in Tucson, Arizona.2. Other feminist attorneys filed
supporting briefs on behalf of sexual harassment plaintiffs in Miller v. Bank of
America and in Tomkins v. Public Service Electric and Gas. In Miller, Vilma S.
Martinez and Linda Hanten of the Mexican-American Legal Defense and Ed-
ucation Fund (MALDEF) submitted a brief on December 20, 1976, in sup-
port of Margaret Miller's appeal to the Ninth Circuit. MALDEF took a
particular interest in this case because it addressed the intersection of race
and sex discrimination. In Tomkins, MALDEF and ERA joined forces to file
a brief in September 1977 in support of Adrienne Tomkins' appeal to the Third
Circuit.
Feminist attorneys working on these early cases and activists against sexual
harassment shared information, discussed strategy, exchanged briefs, and gave
each other moral support. In 1975, Karen Sauvigne of WWU talked with Sig-
worth about the Corne case. When Taub began working on the Tomkins case,
she contacted WWUI for information and assistance. Through this contact,
Taub found out about other sexual harassment cases elsewhere in the country.
Taub collaborated with Dunlap of ERA and Martinez and Hanton of MALDEF
on the Tomkins appeal and discussed the Alexander appeal with Freada Klein
of AASC. Dunlap and Taub cited the WWU survey of sexual harassment in
their appellate briefs in Miller and Tomkins, and the plaintiff's attorneys in
Alexander cited later WWI studies. 3 In this way, feminist activists made ground-
breaking progress in the fight against sexual harassment in the workplace and
at educational institutions.
SEXUAL HARASSMENT IN THE WORKPLACE
The challenge for this informal network of feminist attorneys and activists was
to convince courts that sexual harassment was not a personal problem but
a serious barrier to women's equal employment opportunity. To do so, feminists
made not only legal arguments but also economic, sociological, and historical
arguments in their appellate briefs. Their arguments drew upon feminist re-
search and theory showing that sexual harassment was a widespread and dev-
astating phenomenon that denied women equal employment opportunity. A
primary argument of the plaintiffs was that sexual harassment was based on sex
and therefore constituted sex discrimination. Several argued that sexual harass-
ment was based on the stereotype of women as sex objects. For example, in
Barnes, the plaintiff's attorney, Linda Singer, argued that sexual harassment
assumed that women workers were "sexual fair game, and passive, willing
recipients of the sexual advances of their male supervisors,"4 Singer argued
A Winning Strategy: Early Legal Victories against Sexual Harassment 5I
that coercive sexual advances in the workplace had a disparate impact on

women because the vast majority of supervisors in the federal government were
male and the majority of lower-level employees were female. Therefore, women
were more likely to be subject to the sexual demands of their supervisors than
men. Similarly, Nadine Taub argued in Tomkins that women were statistically
more likely to be subject to harassment because they were more likely to be
subordinate to male bosses than men were to be subordinate to female bosses.
Finally, Taub contended that women were more emotionally and psychologi-
cally vulnerable to sexual harassment than men because women had a long
history of sexual abuse.
Another important strategy that plaintiffs used to frame sexual harassment
as sex discrimination was to analogize sexual harassment to racial harassment.
They argued that if Title VII prohibited harassment based on race, national
origin, and religion, it should also prevent harassment based on sex. These
plaintiffs cited EEOC v. Rogers and other cases and EEOC decisions confirm-
ing that employers had a duty to maintain an atmosphere free of racial in-
timidation and insult. In Corne, Sigworth argued that denying her clients'
claim would mean "women would be a less protected class than the parallel
protected classes based on race, national origin, and reiigion."5 In Nadine
Taub's comparison of race and sex discrimination in Tomkins, she argued that
"a supervisor's sexual advances coupled with threats of job reprisals give rise to
a far more debilitating and intimidating work environment than does a super-
visor's use of racial epithets or derogatory ethnic jokes.,,6 MALDEF argued in
Miller that Title VII covered not only isolated and distinguishable events such
as hiring, firing, and promotion but also "inherently demeaning behavior" di-
rected against members of a protected class.
Taub's brief in Tomkins was the first to provide a detailed discussion of
analogous racial harassment cases. Taub cited Judge Irving Loeb Goldberg's
ruling on racial harassment in EEOC v. Rogers, noting that Congress intended
to define discrimination in the "broadest possible terms" to include the psycho-
logical as well as economic benefits of employment. Quoting Rogers, she ar-
gued that Title VII covered not only the bread-and-butter issues but more subtle
"nuances and subtleties of discrimination," which could "so debilitate a minor-
ity employee's psychological and emotional well-being as to result in a barrier
to employment." She then cited another racial harassment case, Gray v. Grey-
hound Lines, to argue that Title VII guarantees a work environment free from
an atmosphere of discrimination, including psychological harm resulting from
isolation on the job. Finally, she discussed the 1972 EEOC ruling that an
employer's referring to his adult African-American female employees as "girls"
constituted both racial and gender discrimination because of the "repellant
historical images the term understandably evokes."7
The Tomkins case is also significant because it was the first time public
interest organizations officially filed supporting briefs in a sexual harassment
case and the first time explicitly sociological arguments were made in the briefs
filed in such a case. Taub recruited a joint amicus curiae brief from ERA and
MALDEF. The EEOC also filed an amicus brief. At oral argument, according to
Taub, "we packed the courtroom with students."s In the appellate brief, filed on
March 24, 1977, Taub used a wide range of sources, including Kate Millett's
Sexual Politics and the Statistical Abstract of the U.S. Census Bureau, to argue
that the socialization of men and women as well as women's history of sexual
abuse made women more vulnerable to sexual harassment than men. Taub
noted that men in society have the exclusive social right to initiate sexual in-
teraction with others. Citing Amy Vanderbilt's Etiquette, Taub noted that in
areas such as dancing and dating, males do the asking and females do the
refusing. She added, "[it] is relatively 'normal' for males to seek sexual access
to females who are their subordinates."9 This gendered socialization, she ar-
gued, made women more likely than men to be the target of sexual harassment.
She also argued that sexual harassment was a "reminder, a badge or indicia, of
the servile status women have suffered in former societies and from which they
are now trying to free themselves."Io Citing Susan Brownmiller's Against Our
Will, she recounted men's sexual dominance over women in "primitive socie-
ties" based on physical force and in the industrial era based on economic wealth
and power. Although the twentieth century had brought tremendous change,
she argued, "to make a woman's advancement on the job depend on her sexual
acquiescence is to resurrect her former status as man's property or plaything." I I
Taub argued that allusions to sexual availability have an especially pejorative
meaning for women, noting the tremendous number of sexually derogatory
words in the English language. She argued that sexual harassment "strikes a
particularly painful chord for women," citing and discussing the Redbook and
the WWI surveys on sexual harassment.
ERA and MALDEF also made sociological arguments in Tomkins in an
amicus curiae brief filed on September I, 1977. They contended that women
historically had to "submit their bodies to sexual use in order to keep their jobs,
or advance in their work." They quoted socialist Emma Goldman from her
1917 book The Traffic in Women, in which she said, "Nowhere is woman
treated according to the merit of her work, but rather as a sex. It is therefore
almost inevitable that she should pay for her right ... to keep a position in
whatever line, with sex favors."11. They argued female employees were treated
as a "possession of the 'boss,' ... reminiscent of the plight of the black female
slave," citing Gerda Lerner's Black Women in White America, and Patricia Hill
Collins' article "A Conflict Theory of Sexual Stratification." Noting that both
racial and sex-based discrimination shaped the experiences of minority female
employees, they quoted historian Eleanor Flexner on how female slaves faced
"hazards peculiar to her sex" because they had "no defenses against the sexual
advances of the white man." They concluded by condemning the "foul history
of economic exploitation of women of all races."I}
While plaintiffs significantly broadened their original arguments before the
appellate courts, defendants essentially repeated the same assertions they had
made before the lower courts. First and foremost, defendants argued that the
alleged conduct was not based on sex because the women were terminated
A Winning Strategy: Early Legal Victories against Sexual Harassment 53
for rejecting the advances of their supervisors, not because they were women.
They argued that the conduct was personal and had nothing to do with
employer policies or practices. Despite their arguments that the conduct at
issue was an isolated, personal indiscretion, defendants also argued that
courts would be flooded with cases if they were to allow such claims, warn-
ing that opening the "floodgates" to litigation would make federal courts
a "social arbiter" in the workplace. Echoing the traditional distrust toward
rape victims, this argument assumed that women would lie about sexual
harassment, or that they would assert "subjective" claims based on trivial
occurrences in the workplace. By characterizing women's grievances as per-
sonal and trivial, defendants sought to relegate sexual harassment to the
private sphere, as simply a matter of "bad manners," not worthy of judicial
attention.
At the appellate level, as in the lower courts, the identities of the judges in
these early cases were telling. Whereas the district court judges had been mostly
older white male Nixon appointees, the appellate judges were more diverse and
more liberal. In the substantive rulings in favor of sexual harassment plaintiffs,
the judges writing the decisions were appointed by President Johnson and, in
one case, President Kennedy. Only four of the twelve appellate court judges
were Nixon appointees. Of the remaining judges, five were appointed by Pres-
ident Johnson and the other three were appointed by presidents Eisenhower,
Kennedy, and Truman. 14 The appellate court judges were also more religiously
and racially diverse than the lower court judges. Whereas all of the district
court judges were Protestant, two of the appellate court judges were from other
religious traditions - one was Jewish and one was Catholic. Judge Robinson,
who wrote Barnes, the first case to establish an appellate-level precedent in
favor of a sexual harassment plaintiff, was African-American. The more liberal
appellate court judges provided a political opportunity for activists against
sexual harassment.
The plaintiffs' arguments prevailed in the appellate courts, but only two
courts provided their reasoning in written opinions. In June 1977, the Circuit
Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia provided the first extensive
appellate-level analysis of the issue of sexual harassment in the case of Barnes
v. Castle. As fate would have it, the appellate panel hearing Barnes' appeal
consisted of Judge Spottswood W. Robinson III, a long-time civil rights attorney
and activist, Judge David Bazelon, known as an activist liberal judge, and Judge
George E. MacKinnon, a moderate Republican and father of Catharine
MacKinnon, who at the time the Barnes case was under consideration was
working on the issue of sexual harassment as a law student at Yale. I5 In Judge
Robinson's strongly worded opinion, the court ruled that sexual harassment
was sex discrimination in violation of Title VII. On the pivotal issue of whether
the alleged discrimination was based on sex, Judge Robinson wrote that it was
"plainly based on appellant's gender" because the supervisor would not have
sought sex from any male employee, noting that there was no indication that
he was "other than heterosexual." Judge Robinson then continued,
But for her womanhood ... her participation in sexual activity would never have
been solicited. To say, then, that she was victimized in her employment simply be-
cause she declined the invitation is to ignore the asserted fact that she was invited
only because she was a woman subordinate to the inviter in the hierarchy of agency
personnel ... no male employee was susceptible to such an approach by appellant's
supervisor. 16
For the first time, a court acknowledged the power dynamics that shaped
women's experience of sexual harassment in the workplace. In addressing the
district court's statement that the controversy was merely an "inharmonious
personal relationship," Judge Robinson noted that employers were liable for
discriminatory practices of supervisory personnel, even when the conduct was
a "personal escapade rather than an agency project," and that Title VII pro-
hibited discrimination against individuals, even though less than all the employ-
ees of the claimant's gender were affected. In conclusion, Judge Robinson noted
that Congress intended to outlaw "any and all sex-based discrimination," and
that Title VII must be construed liberally and given an "interpretation animated
by the broad humanitarian and remedial purposes" of the Act. Finally, he
quoted Judge Goldberg from EEOC v. Rogers that '''seemingly reasonable
practices of the present can easily become the injustices of the morrow.'"
The Barnes case was highly influential in the development of sexual harass-
ment law. Over the years, this decision has been cited by many courts and
discussed in hundreds of law review articles and legal treatises. 17 The case
was significant for several reasons. First, it was the first thorough treatment
of the issue by a federal appellate court. Second, the Circuit Court of Appeals
for the District of Columbia was the most influential federal intermediate ap-
pellate court in the country at the time. Finally, Judge Robinson's forceful
language left no room for doubt that sexual harassment was sex discrimination
that was prohibited by Title VII. Barnes was covered extensively in the press,
inspiring sarcastic editorials. One commentary appearing in the Washington
Star and reprinted in William F. Buckley'S National Review, asked "how are we
going to breed more little bureaucrats if the court rules that a he-bureaucrat
cannot make time with a she-bureaucrat?"18 The Barnes case eventually settled
for $18,000 in back pay and attorney fees. Barnes remained with the EPA for a
while, never advancing in salary, but later became a federal air traffic controller. 19
The Third Circuit Court of Appeals in Philadelphia was the other appellate
court to issue a detailed written opinion upholding a sexual harassment claim
under Title VII. The appellate panel hearing Tomkins v. Public Service and Gas
Co. included Judge Ruggero John Aldisert, Judge Max Rosenn, and Judge
Leonard I. Garth. Judge Aldisert, a Roman Catholic of Italian descent, was
appointed to the court of appeals in 1968 by President Lyndon Johnson. Judge
Rosenn, a Nixon appointee, was Jewish and in the 195 os served as the Chair of
the Board of Directors of the Anti-Defamation League. Judge Garth was
appointed to the federal district court in 1970 and then elevated to the appellate
court in 1973 by President Richard Nixon. On November 13, 1977, these
judges reversed Judge Stern's dismissal of Tomkins' sexual harassment suit. The
Court first reasoned that the alleged facts "clearly demonstrate an incident with
employment ramifications," pointing to Tomkins' allegation that her employer
either knowingly or constructively made acquiescence in her supervisor's sexual
demands a necessary prerequisite to the continuation of, or advancement in,
her job. The Court then ruled that the conduct was based on sex, citing the
reasoning of Williams v. Saxbe that the discriminatory practice need not be
peculiar to one gender or directed at all members of a sex. Finally, the Court
rejected Judge Stern's concern about opening the "floodgates of litigation" by
arguing that the plaintiff still had the burden to prove her case and that the
traditional judicial mechanisms would separate the valid from the invalid com-
plaints. Issued one month after the highly-publicized WWUIlMs. speak-out in
New York City, the judges' decision to rule in favor of Tomkins likely was
influenced by the resulting media coverage of sexual harassment generated by
feminist activism. The Tomkins case eventually settled out-of-court for $20,000
plus attorney's fees and court costs. In addition to paying monetary damages,
Public Service Gas and Electric agreed to notify every nonunion employee in
writing of their rights under Title VII, to set up a review panel to hear all sexual
harassment charges, to show a film explaining Title VII to all employees, to
distribute a pamphlet on how to file a complaint, and to reinstate Tomkins'
personnel file to what it was prior to the initial incident. Tomkins was widely
cited by courts over time and was extensively discussed in law review and in the
media. 20 The first successful district court case, Williams v. Sax be, was also
affirmed on appeal in 1978, but the case was remanded to the district court for
a new trial. At trial, Judge Richey issued a decision in favor of Williams and
awarded her $14,821.65 in damages as well as over $70,000 in attorney's fees
and costs. The government appealed the amount of the attorney's fees and the
parties eventually settled this issue out of court. Williams later went to law
school and became a lawyer. 21
Garber, Barnes, Tomkins, and Williams established a strong precedent for
the legal principle that sexual harassment was sex discrimination prohibited by
Title VII. Feminist arguments convinced the courts to take the issue seriously
and treat workplace sexual harassment as employment discrimination. The
courts did not discuss the plaintiff's sociological arguments supporting the
claim that sexual harassment had a disparate impact on women, but Barnes
acknowledged that sexual harassment was rooted in a workplace hierarchy that
subordinated women. With four federal circuit courts of appeals having af-
firmed the basic principle that sexual harassment was sex discrimination, no
further courts ruled against sexual harassment plaintiffs on this basic principle,
although they often disallowed less clear-cut claims. In just a few years, femi-
nists had overcome significant negative precedent on the issue of sexual harass-
ment. By representing plaintiffs and participating as amicus curiae, feminists
made a broad range of arguments to convince appellate courts to overturn the
lower court cases dismissing claims of sexual harassment plaintiffs and to rule
that sexual harassment was sex discrimination in violation of Title VII.
In the late 1970S, several other lower courts around the country ruled that
Title VII prohibited sexual harassment. On September 9, 1977, before the
Tomkins appellate decision but after the Barnes and Corne appellate decisions,
a federal district court in Michigan ruled in Munford v. James T. Barnes and
Company that quid pro quo sexual harassment was sex discrimination in vio-
lation of Title VII. In that case, Maxine Munford, a young black woman
working as an assistant collections manager, alleged that her white male super-
visor discharged her after she refused to engage in sexual relations with him.
Munford, represented by a friend of a friend, Thomas H. Oehmke, who had
just started a private law practice, filed suit on October 27,1976, stating claims
for sex and race discrimination under Title VII and several state law claims. The
trial court allowed Munford's sex discrimination claim to go to trial, but it
dismissed her race discrimination claim before trial, stating that "nothing pre-
sented to this Court even faintly suggests racial overtones to this incident."22 At
trial, Munford lost her sex discrimination claim. 23 On appeal to the Sixth
Circuit, Jan Leventer of the Women's Justice Center represented Munford,
and two amicus curiae briefs were filed by the Metropolitan Detroit Branch
of the American Civil Liberties Union and the Women Lawyers Association of
Michigan.
Before both the trial court and appellate courts, Munford's attorneys pre-
sented to the courts race-based sociological arguments in a way that had never
before been done in sexual harassment cases. At oral arguments before trial,
Oehmke contended that statistical sociological studies showed that Munford
was more likely to be a victim of sexual harassment because she was black. The
court rejected this legal theory on the ground that statistical evidence was
admissible in individual actions only where the statistics were evidence of the
intent or motive of the specific employer, which the court said was not so in this
case. For similar reasons, the court subsequently barred two expert witnesses
from testifying at trial. The two experts, a sociologist and a socioanthropolo-
gist, were prepared to testify as to the historical interaction between white
males and black females, particularly where the white male was in a position
of authority over the black female. The Sixth Circuit Court of Appeals also
rejected these arguments. Despite this eventual defeat, Maxine Munford raised
public awareness about the issue of sexual harassment in Michigan by testifying
at public hearings on sexual harassment and by making several appearances on
Michigan radio and television talk shows, thereby inspiring the first statewide
movement against sexual harassment. 24
By the end of the 1970s, while the Supreme Court had yet to rule on the
issue, district courts across the country, including Maryland, Alaska, and
Colorado, had established the basic principle that Title VII held employers respon-
sible if they tolerated sexual demands made by supervisory employees of their
subordinates who then suffered tangible harm, such as termination or denial of
a promotion. Beyond this narrow scenario, however, courts were reluctant to
go. For example, courts applied a very narrow standard of employer liability. In
the 1979 case of Ludington v. Sambo's Restaurants, Inc" a Wisconsin district
court dismissed a sexual harassment claim on the grounds that the plaintiffs
failed to allege that their employer sanctioned the harassment by supervisory
employees, despite the fact that the plaintiffs complained to the home office and
were then fired. The court stated, "Title VII is directed at acts of employment
discrimination and not at individual acts of discrimination."2 5
In addition to a narrow interpretation of employer liability, courts denied
relief under Title VII for those who suffered sexual harassment without tangible
harm. This type of harassment, later called hostile environment sexual harass-
ment, involved women subjected to a hostile working environment but who did
not suffer any tangible adverse employment consequences such as termination
or demotion. In the 1978 case of Neely v. American Fidelity Assurance Com-
pany, an Oklahoma district court ruled that, despite a supervisor's continuous
sexual conduct toward his subordinate employees, Title VII had not been vio-
lated because the employer "had a strictly-enforced policy against sexual ha-
rassment," it did not know of the alleged harassment, and the plaintiff did not
suffer any tangible employment consequences. The court's factual findings in-
dicated its narrow understanding of sexual harassment liability under Title VII.
The court found that between 1969 and 1974 the supervisor made sexual
remarks, told dirty jokes, exhibited pictures of sex activity, and "affectionately"
touched the shoulders of several female employees, including the plaintiff. The
court put "dirty" in quotations but not "affectionately," and the employer pol-
icy that the court described as "strictly-enforced" was unwritten. Despite these
findings, the court concluded that the supervisor's acts were "personal acts,"
not "conditions of employment" to which the plaintiff was required to submit
in order to maintain her job. The court did not describe how the plaintiff might
have escaped the conduct. The court repeatedly emphasized that the supervisor
never intended to be offensive or abuse female employees. Furthermore, after
describing in detail the plaintiff's "mental breakdowns, depression, and attemp-
ted suicides" and a failed relationship she had with another man, the court
concluded without explanation that there was "no credible evidence that [the
supervisor's] conduct in any way caused plaintiff's breakdowns and depres-
sion."26 On even more egregious facts, a District of Columbia court in 1979
denied a hostile environment sexual harassment claim in the case of Bundy v.
Jackson, where a young black woman working at the D.C. Department of
Corrections was continuously pressured to have sex with her supervisors but
did not suffer any tangible employment harm. 27 Not until the 1980s would
courts begin to hold that Title VII prohibited sexual harassment without tan-
gible job consequences.
The EEOC, however, was moving more quickly toward prohibiting this kind
of harassment. In August 1977, the commission issued its first ruling on a ha-
rassment case involving sexual behavior other than sexual propositioning by an
employer. In that case, a woman employed as a "lobby hostess" was required to
wear a sexually revealing costume and act in a sexually provocative manner,
which made her the target of lewd comments and sexual propositions from
men. In her initial interview, she was ordered to remove her slacks so her
employer could see her legs. When she reported the harassment, her employer
laughed and suggested the uniform be made more revealing. When she refused
to wear the costume, she was discharged. Defining "sexual harassment" as
"conduct which injects sexual stereotypes into the work environment,,28 and
citing the Williams case, the EEOC ruled that the employer had discriminated
against the woman on the basis of her sex in the terms and conditions of
employment in violation of Title VII. The decision noted that the costume
was not necessary for the performance of the employer's business and that
the costume, in fact, inhibited rather than facilitated the woman's performance
of her duties. This decision was an indication of the future direction the EEOC
and the courts would take on the issue of sexual harassment.
SEXUAL HARASSMENT IN EDUCATION
Women sought legal relief from sexual harassment not only in the workplace,
but also at educational institutions. In 1977, in what turned out to be only
a preliminary victory, a Connecticut district court in the case of Alexander v.
Yale became the first court in the country to rule that sexual harassment of
a student by a teacher was sex discrimination in violation of Title IX of the
Education Amendments of 1972, a federal law amending the Civil Rights Act to
prohibit sex discrimination in educational institutions receiving federal
money.29 This case, a class-action suit brought by students and a professor
who alleged that they were directly and indirectly victimized by sexual harass-
ment, galvanized students around the country, stimulating widespread concern
about sexual harassment of students by professors. 30
The case grew from efforts of the Yale Undergraduate Women's Caucus to
raise awareness about the problem of sexual harassment of women students by
male professors. The purpose of the caucus, formed in September 1974 shortly
after Yale began admitting women, was to promote the position of women at
Yale through educational, cultural, and political actions. Caucus members
formed a Grievance Committee in March 1977 to investigate sexual harass-
ment of students at Yale and to petition the school to establish an official griev-
ance procedure specifically for sexual harassment. One of the students leading
the investigation, Ann Olivarius, contacted the New Haven Law Collective,
a feminist community-based law practice, in the spring of 1977 because she
feared she might become the target of a defamation lawsuit by one of the ac-
cused professors. A university administrator had told Olivarius that she was
courting litigation and that the university would not support her if she were
sued. Feminist attorney Anne Simon, a 1976 Yale Law School graduate, had
opened the New Haven Law Collective in the fall of 1976 with several recent
graduates of Yale Law School, including Judith Burton, Kent Harvey,
Rosemary Johnson, and Catharine MacKinnon. Indicating that it would be
better to be a plaintiff than a defendant, Simon and others at the collective
suggested that Olivarius file a sex discrimination lawsuit. Olivarius brought the
idea back to the women in the caucus, who then talked to other undergraduates
who had experienced sexual harassment. Several women and one male faculty
member eventually decided to file a sexual harassment case against Yale. 31
The case, Alexander v. Yale, was filed as a class action suit on July 7,1977 by
three students and one faculty member - Ronnie Alexander, Lisa Stone, Ann
Olivarius, and John Winkler. Two other students, Margery Reifler and Pamela
Price, were added later, on December 7, 1977. Ronnie Alexander alleged that
her teacher made sexual demands of her, leading her to leave his field of study.
Lisa Stone alleged that she suffered "great emotional distress" by learning that
another woman student was the "subject of sexual pressures and attentions
from" a male university employee. John Winkler, a male faculty member, al-
leged that an "atmosphere of distrust" of male professors had hampered his
teaching efforts. Ann Olivarius alleged that as a member of the Undergraduate
Women's Caucus she was rebuffed by Yale when she attempted to press the
sexual harassment complaints of several other students. Margery Reifler al-
leged she was humiliated, distracted from her studies, and denied "recognition"
by a coach who harassed her when she was manager of an athletic team. Reifler
did not report this incident to Yale. Pamela Price, who was black, alleged that
one of her white male professors, Raymond Duvall, offered to give her an "A"
in his International Relations class in exchange for sexual compliance. Price
alleged she received a "C" when she refused her professor's sexual demands.
Price complained to Yale officials but nothing was done.
The Caucus Grievance Committee worked to generate financial, political,
and moral support for the lawsuit by sponsoring discussion sessions, distribut-
ing fact sheets, conducting a collegewide petition drive, organizing a faculty
support committee, and soliciting support from campus organizations. Mem-
bers of the committee wrote articles and editorials for university and commu-
nity newspapers, appeared on radio and television talk shows, and spoke to
groups in the community and at other colleges. The committee, along with the
New Haven Law Collective, issued numerous press releases during the course
of the lawsuit and distributed personal statements by the plaintiffs in the case.
To raise funds, the committee sold T-shirts, sponsored benefit performances and
speeches with speakers such as Robin Morgan and Marge Piercy, and solicited
funds from foundations and individuals. In addition to the caucus, the Council
of Third World Women at Yale became very involved, especially as the trial
approached and the students began negotiating with the university about
adopting sexual harassment grievance procedures.32 In Alexander v. Yale, the
plaintiffs alleged that Yale discriminated against them on the basis of sex by
refusing to adopt procedures to handle complaints of sexual harassment. Mag-
istrate Arthur H. Latimer, who issued a written opinion on December 21,1977,
dismissed most of the claims because the alleged harm was too "tenuous,"
but he allowed Price's claim to go forward to trial. Citing Barnes v. Costle,
Judge Latimer held that conditioning academic advancement upon submission
to sexual demands constituted sex discrimination in education and that
a university may be held responsible for condoning or ratifying the discrimina-
tory conduct by refusing to investigate. 33
Later, Judge Ellen Bree Burns tried Price's case and ruled in favor of Yale on
July 2, 1979. Judge Burns, who had been appointed to the federal bench by
President Jimmy Carter in 1978, found that "the alleged incident of sexual
proposition did not occur" and that Price's grade of "c" did not reflect consid-
eration of any factor other than academic achievement. 34 Judge Burns agreed
that Yale's procedures for handling complaints of sexual harassment were in-
adequate but refused to enjoin Yale to establish a different procedure because
Price was no longer at Yale so the relief was moot.
On appeal, Taub, Simon, and Elizabeth Schneider of the Center for Consti-
tutional Rights, represented the plaintiffs, who were also supported by several
women's advocacygroups.35 The Second Circuit panel hearing the case con-
sisted of Judge Joseph Edward Lumbard, a former prosecutor appointed to the
Second Circuit by President Dwight D. Eisenhower in 1955, Judge William
Hughes Mulligan, an Irish Catholic Republican appointed to the Second Cir-
cuit by President Richard Nixon in 1971, and Judge Adrian Anthony Spears,
appointed to the United States District Court for the Western District of
Texas by President John F. Kennedy in 1961 and sitting on the Second Cir-
cuit by designation. On September 22, 1980, the Second Circuit affirmed
both Judge Burns' decision and Magistrate Latimer's dismissal of the other
plaintiffs. 36
Reflecting the fact that sexual harassment was now a topic of public concern,
Alexander v. Yale received national press coverage in newspapers and maga-
zines. 37 The coverage, however, often trivialized sexual harassment. For exam-
ple, the New York Times published an editorial by Russell Baker on July 26,
1977, shortly after the case was filed, entitled "The Courts of First Resort," in
which Russell criticized the Yale women for bringing the suit. Russell charac-
terized the alleged harassment as a "nuisance" and a matter of bad manners.
Rather than resorting to the "ponderous and expensive machinery of the court-
house," Russell suggested "quicker and cheaper ways of making professors
mind their manners," like calling on the services of a "robust father ... carrying
a shotgun," "a large brother or boyfriend," or simply by using a "hat pin" or "a
few simple words thrust neatly into his vulnerable asininity."3 8 A similar sen-
timent was expressed by a Yale University official quoted in a New York Times
article reporting on the case: "if women students aren't smart enough too know
how to outwit some obnoxious professor, they shouldn't be here in the first
place."39 A few weeks after the Russell editorial appeared, Time Magazine ran
a short article entitled, "Bod and Man at Yale," describing the lawsuit and
reporting statements by the attorneys on both sides. In the article, Yale attorney,
Jose Cabranes, denounced the suit as "reckless and obviously designed to at-
tract maximum publicity for groundless charges."4 o
Not all of the press coverage was negative, however. On January 14, 1978,
The Nation ran an extensive article written by Anne Nelson on sexual harass-
ment at Yale. Nelson provided a detailed and relatively sympathetic description
of the case, placing the issue of sexual harassment in the larger context of
coeducation at Yale. Nelson described the resistance to coeducation at Yale
and the resulting tension for women entering that "bastion of male supremacy."
Noting that "political ardor of any kind is considered a little old-fashioned
these days," she described Yale students as tending to regard the plaintiffs as
"agitators and publicity seekers." She criticized the plaintiffs for rushing into
the legal process and for releasing the names of the faculty members cited in the
complaint. However, Nelson was also critical of Yale for hiding behind a fa-;ade
of procedure in its legal defense and for not dealing with the clearly existing
problem of sexual harassment at Yale: "it's puzzling that Yale, with its mam-
moth administrative system for dealing with every other aspect of university
life, doesn't take the simple action of setting up [a sexual harassment] pro-
cedure."4 1 A couple of months later, another magazine, the Yale Graduate
Professional, published an even more in-depth account of the lawsuit against
Yale. This article traced the issue of sexual harassment at Yale from 1971 to
1977, quoting Yale students, faculty, and administratorsY' The feminist press,
as well, covered the case. 43
Although the issue of race was largely ignored in the reported decisions and
in the press, this issue permeated the students' discussions of sexual harass-
ment. 44 Pamela Price and other women spoke out about the racial overtones of
the case. In a press release issued in December 1977, Price wrote, "Black women
have always been sexually harassed, have often protested it, and have been
ignored even more thoroughly than white women." Abbe Smith, head of the
Yale Undergraduate Caucus Grievance Committee, commented, "We hope the
courage of this black woman will encourage others, who may feel that women's
issues have been defined in terms of the experiences of white women, to join the
fight."45 In a statement issued after Magistrate Latimer's December 21, 1977
decision, Price characterized her experience of sexual harassment as "racist
sexual discrimination." She argued that the poor grade she received was based
on a "historical conception of the relationship between my racial heritage and
my sexuality."4 6 In a statement issued in January 1978, Alexander, Price, and
Linda Hoaglund of the Yale Undergraduate Women's Caucus protested the
court's focus on "legal technicalities" instead of the humiliation and anguish
women suffer in their experiences of sexual harassment. Asserting their right to
control their lives, the women noted that for black women "this struggle is
compounded by the realities of racism in America today."47 In a March 1978
letter soliciting support for the case, Phyllis Crocker said of Price, "because she
is a black woman, her complaints were not only viewed as inconsequential, but
were ignored more blatantly than complaints of white women." This argument
was also made in one of the "fact sheets" distributed by the caucus. 48 Later
Crocker argued that the case "unites black and white women against a common
expression of their subordination."49 In a press release issued inJuly 1978, after
Judge Burns ruled against Price, Simon stated, "By focusing on the individuals
rather than on Title IX, the judge reduced the case to a black woman's accu-
sation and a white man's denial of improper sexual conduct, with all too pre-
dictable results." According to Simon, racism "had something to do with how
Yale treated not only Price but the case."5 0
62. The Women's Movement against Sexual Harassment
Alexander v. Yale was significant in several regards. First, despite Price's

eventual defeat, the December 1977 lower court decision in Alexander v. Yale
established a precedent that sexual harassment of students by professors vio-
lated Title IX's prohibition of sex discrimination in educational institutions.
This legal precedent, however, did not have much impact until 1994 when the
Supreme Court ruled that victims of sexual harassment could sue schools for
monetary damages under Title IX.5 1 Second, the case inspired a movement
against sexual harassment in education. According to Simon, in contrast to
the failure of the press to understand sexual harassment as sex discrimination,
the notion "just spread like wildfire" among students. The women involved in
the lawsuits, both the students and their attorneys, worked to raise awareness
of the issue by speaking to student groups on other campuses, speaking at
conferences on the issue, and sharing materials relating to the case. This led
to a huge push for sexual harassment grievance procedures all over the country.
Students around the country formed organizations to combat sexual harass-
ment, surveyed students on sexual harassment, and brought lawsuits against col-
leges and universitiesY· Soon schools around the country began to develop and
adopt policies and procedures to address sexual harassment on campus. Finally,
the extensive press coverage of the case increased public awareness of sexual
harassment in educational institutions and stimulated discussion of the issue.
By the mid-1970S, the civil rights and women's movements had generated
a network of attorneys skilled at using Title VII to combat employment dis-
crimination. The WLDF, Equal Rights Advocates, the Women's Rights Litiga-
tion Clinic at Rutgers Law School, the Mexican American Legal Defense Fund,
the Women's Justice Center, the New Haven Law Collective, the Center for
Constitutional Rights, and others provided resources to which sexual harass-
ment activists and early plaintiffs turned for support in appealing the early
cases. Activists and attorneys created networks and collaborations that gener-
ated an effective strategy to convince courts to rule in favor of sexual harass-
ment plaintiffs. The activists proved the seriousness of the problem through
surveys, which the attorneys then presented to the appellate court judges. Mak-
ing sociological and historical arguments, and relying on racial harassment law
under Title VII, the attorneys were able to reframe the issue of sexual coercion
in the workplace. These activists also took advantage of the political opportu-
nity presented by a more diverse and progressive appellate court bench.
As a result, sexual harassment jurisprudence underwent a shift that employ-
ment discrimination law had made a few years earlier. In the late 1960s, the Civil
Rights Act had brought about a new realization of the extent of job discrimi-
nation. This realization was explained in a 1970 Senate Committee report:
In 1964, employment discrimination tended to be viewed as a series of isolated and

distinguishable events, for the most part due to ill will on the part of some identifiable
individual or organization .... This view has not been borne out by experience. Em-
ployment discrimination, as viewed today, is a far more complex and pervasive
phenomenon. Experts familiar with the subject generally describe the problem in terms
of "systems" and "effects" rather than simply intentional wrongs. 53
Judges initially viewed sexual harassment as merely a personal problem, an "iso-

lated and distinguishable event," the result of an individual actor, a bad egg, the
office wolf. With time, however, courts began to recognize that employer tol-
erance of sexual harassment affected women as a class, creating barriers to
equal employment opportunity. Feminist advocacy on sexual harassment to-
gether with larger cultural and legal shifts occurring in the 1970s, including
Supreme Court jurisprudence and congressional actions expanding equal rights
for women, provided fertile grounds for the development of this recognition.
Courts had come a long way by accepting the basic principle that sexual ha-
rassment was sex discrimination.
These early sexual harassment cases were also significant in that they doc-
ument the changing perceptions of women in the 1970s. Defendants' argu-
ments that prevailed in the lower courts characterized sexual harassment as
an insignificant, personal problem. These arguments assigned a low value to
female participation in the workforce and assumed both the propriety of male
sexual initiative and the untrustworthiness of female complainants. The power
of defendants' arguments lay in the traditional association of women with the
private sphere and the concomitant notion that women entered the public
sphere at their own risk. Plaintiffs and their feminist attorneys, on the other
hand, argued for the women's right to full and equal participation in the work-
force. They were able to convince courts that sexual harassment was not just
a personal problem but had a devastating impact on women in the workplace,
sufficient to warrant judicial intervention. These early cases were revolutionary
in that they affirmed women's right to participate in the public sphere as equal
to men's. But the movement's framing of the issue was fundamentally shaped by
the external context and drew upon both oppositional and dominant beliefs. 54
The movement chose strategies and arguments that were most likely to con-
vince judges to rule in their favor. The Title VII framework that required the
claimant to prove that they were a member of a protected class encouraged
movement participants to frame the issue of sexual harassment as a gender-
based harm - a violation of women by men. Activists characterized women as
the victims - particularly vulnerable because of social, economic, and cultural
factors - and men as perpetrators, a dichotomy the movement would later
abandon when the issue of same-sex harassment arose in the 1990S.55 This gen-
dered framing of the issue, however, was critical to the successful articulation of
sexual harassment as a Title VII violation in the late 1970s.
The scope of the early sexual harassment decisions, however, was narrow.
They covered only quid pro quo sexual harassment - where a supervisor fires
a subordinate employee who has refused his sexual advances. Several courts
held that harassment resulting in intangible harm, such as a hostile working
atmosphere, was not sex discrimination. This narrow definition of sexual
harassment was soon challenged by women working in nontraditional and
blue-collar fields. As women began to break into these fields as a result of anti-
discrimination and affirmative action laws, they encountered harassment
designed to push them out of male-dominated working environments. Women
working in construction, mining, and other traditionally male occupations
began to raise concerns about what came to be known as hostile environmental
sexual harassment, the new frontier of sexual harassment activism.
PART II
GROWTH OF A MOVEMENT AGAINST

SEXUAL HARASSMENT
4
Blue-Collar Workers and Hostile Environment

Sexual Harassment
In the late I970s, while feminist activism was raising public awareness of
sexual harassment and appellate courts were ruling in favor of victims, women
were breaking down occupational barriers. Antidiscrimination laws and the
resulting affirmative action programs encouraged more women to enter tradi-
tionally male-dominated workplaces and occupations. As women began break-
ing into these masculine domains, they experienced a range of harassing
behavior. Much of the harassment consisted of sexual graffiti, dirty jokes, re-
peated propositioning, and even sexual assault. Marian Swerdlow, a subway
conductor in New York City in the late I970S, described, "the first few months
on the job, I got propositioned so consistently that I finally joked about giving
a civil service exam for the position, with a filing fee and a physical.'" Judy
Jarvela, who worked at Eveleth Mines in Minnesota, repeatedly found semen
on the clothes in her locker, and co-worker Diane Hodge reported that her
foreman came up from behind her and grabbed both her breasts in front of
her co-workers. 2-
But often the harassment experienced by women in nontraditional occupa-
tions had nothing to do with sex, but was an attempt to discourage women
from staying in the trades because they were taking a "man's" job. Women were
subject to isolation, work sabotage, severe verbal abuse, and physical violence.
Rose Melendez, a police officer in San Francisco, had male co-workers who
would not speak with her and ignored her like she wasn't there. One day a co-
worker drove Melendez to a secluded area, pulled a gun on her, pointed it
directly at her, and said "I just want to see how fast you women cops can
run." Sometimes women experienced dangerous work sabotage. Pat Crull,
a carpenter in California, described how "my [co-workers] gave me the hardest
tasks they could find and then sat back to watch me struggle. Once I was
assigned to carry four-hundred-pound steel beams with a guy who was about
six feet tall and weighed about three hundred pounds. I was five-foot-two and
weighed about a hundred and twenty-five pounds." Crull explained, "because I
was older, I was rarely seen as a sex object in the way that the younger women
were. They had to deal with the 'come fuck me' kind of harassment while I had
to deal with the 'she can't do it' kind of harassment." Mary Ruggiero, an
aircraft welder in New Jersey, reported that a male co-worker "cut the chain
holding up a big motor mount I was welding. It fell down on me and burned my
arm to the bone." Sue Doro, a machinist in Milwaukee, described how a co-
worker sabotaged her machine: "Dick would loosen stuff on it, which could kill
you. Like, he would loosen a big drill, a huge part. If it's not right, and it hits, it
will shatter in your face. Safety glasses wouldn't help; you'd be real cut up. He
did stuff like that."3
In response, women working in construction, coal mining, fire fighting, law
enforcement, and other nontraditional occupations across the country organized
against sexual harassment. As with the African-American women who brought
many of the first sexual harassment cases, the working environments, back-
grounds, and identities of blue-collar women in male-dominated fields shaped
their experiences of sexual harassment and their strategies and resources for
addressing the problem. Through unions and employee associations, blue-collar
women urged courts and policy-makers to broaden their definitions of sexual
harassment to include not just sexual demands by a supervisor of a subordinate
employee, but also hostile environment harassment - when supervisors or co-
workers create a hostile working environment through sexual or nonsexual
behavior aimed at creating an intimidating or offensive environment for women.
This activism occurred simultaneously but usually independently from other
antisexual harassment activism until at the very end of the 1970S when activists
converged in Washington to testify about sexual harassment before Congress.
Blue-collar women working in male-dominated fields influenced the devel-
opment of public policy on sexual harassment. Their activism led to the first
federal regulations on sexual harassment. Blue-collar women won several pre-
cedent-setting hostile environment sexual harassment lawsuits, thereby estab-
lishing legal prohibitions against this conduct. By sharing stories that clearly
demonstrated the fundamentally abusive nature of sexual harassment, blue-
collar women significantly enhanced public understanding of sexual harass-
ment - that it was motivated not by sexual desire but by men's desire to keep
women subordinate in the workplace and that it, therefore, was a serious prob-
lem that harmed women on the job.
WOMEN IN CONSTRUCTION
Women breaking into the construction trades won the first federal regulations
to limit harassment on the job. Seeking access to jobs in the industry, they
turned to federal Executive Orders II246 and II375, which prohibited federal
contractors from discriminating on the basis of sex. In response to two lawsuits
brought by female construction workers protesting hiring practices and harass-
ment of women in the industry, the Department of Labor (DOL) proposed
regulations requiring federal construction contractors to hire more women
and to ensure a workplace free of "harassment, intimidation, and coercion."4
Blue-Collar Workers and Hostile Environment Sexual Harassment 69
The first lawsuit originated at a May 1975 nationwide meeting of women work-
ing in the construction industry in Washington, D.C. Katherine Mazzaferri,
who was the Director of Litigation at the League of Women Voters Education
Fund, and Joan Graff, a founder of Equal Rights Advocates (ERA), Inc., in San
Francisco, convened the meeting, which was sponsored by the Education
Fund's Litigation Division and funded by a grant from the Ford Foundation. 5
At the meeting, the women discussed problems of hiring, retention, and harass-
ment in the construction industry, and they decided to bring a lawsuit under
federal affirmative action law to gain access to the construction trade. After the
meeting, Mazzaferri and Graff traveled around the country interviewing po-
tential plaintiffs. According to Mazzaferri, "they were just incredible women.
The stuff they had to go through was just awful and they were real pioneers.,,6
A year later, Mazzaferri, Graff, and Trudy Levy of the League of Women
Voters Education Fund filed a lawsuit on behalf of several women's organiza-
tions and individual plaintiffs against the DOL to enforce Executive Orders
11246 and 11375.7 The plaintiffs included Advocates for Women in San Francisco,
Women in Trades in Seattle, and United Trade Workers Association in Tacoma,
Washington, all of which helped women get jobs in the construction industry.
The individual plaintiffs were from San Francisco, Seattle, Tacoma, and Fair-
banks, Alabama. In addition to Mazzaferri, Graff, and Levy, Judith Lichtman
of the WLDF and Lois Schiffer of the Center for Law and Social Policy provided
legal assistance. Around the same time, a similar case arose challenging the
Washington, D.C., affirmative action plan. 8 The plaintiffs included several
individuals and two organizations, Women Working in Construction and
Wider Opportunities for Women, both Washington, D.C.-based nonprofit
organizations, working to expand employment opportunities for women, es-
pecially in skilled nontraditional employment, and focusing on federal employ-
ment policy. D.C. attorneys Lynn Cunningham and Susan Shapiro represented
the plaintiffs at first, but the League took over the case in June 1977, and the
two cases were joined. When Mazzaferri and Levy left the League in 1978,
attorneys Marcia Greenberger and Margaret Kohn of the Center for Law and
Social Policy took over the cases.
The plaintiffs in these cases sought to rectify the near total exclusion of
women from the construction industry, and the issue of harassment was
a key component of their argument. The complaint asked the DOL to set hiring
goals and timetables for women in the industry, arguing that the scarcity of
women on job sites fostered harassment against women and caused them psy-
chological injury. The plaintiffs' affidavits testified that their male co-workers
ostracized and scrutinized them. The women described experiencing "verbal
assaults by hostile male co-workers," including sexist jokes and sexual allu-
sions, which alienated and isolated them on the job. The plaintiffs' attorneys
also filed a petition with the DOL seeking affirmative action in federally funded
apprenticeship programs. 9
The plaintiffs began to make headway in 1976 after a meeting with DOL
Secretary Ray Marshall, a Carter appointee. Carin Clauss, the Solicitor of
Labor, set up the meeting at Mazzaferri and Graff's request and also brought in
Alexis Herman, who was Director of the Women's Bureau and was committed
to helping women gain access to nontraditional jobs. On April 21, 1977,
Marshall met with several plaintiffs, their attorneys, and representatives from
several activist organizations. 10 At the meeting, the plaintiffs described the ordeals
they experienced working on federal construction sites. One woman, Libby
Howard, described the obscene graffiti campaign waged against her for more
than five years while she worked as one of just a few women on a work crew of
2,000. Marshall was moved by what he heard, and from then on he, the
plaintiffs, and their attorneys had discussions on how to create a meaningful
resolution to the problem.
Later in 1977, Marshall held DOL hearings on women in construction in
Baltimore and heard testimony of many egregious examples of physical vio-
lence, threats, and sexual harassment against female construction workers. A
representative from Women Working in Construction testified that she was
badly hurt when working as an apprentice after her foreman forced her to
ascend a rickety scaffold, in spite of her protests, and the scaffolding collapsed.
Anna Ramos of the Chicana Service Action Center in Los Angeles told DOL
officials of three cases involving violence against female construction workers
in California, including one woman whose thumbs were smashed after she
refused to quit a job. Women also testified that male co-workers made crude
remarks, gestures, and pranks and used pornography to drive women from the
workplace. I I
The primary opposition to the plaintiffs' demands came from the contractors
and administrators in the Department of Labor's Bureau of Apprenticeship and
Training, which was the "voice" of unions and apprenticeship programs. They
argued that women could not do the work, that they were not interested in
doing the work, and that they would not stay on the job. The plaintiffs found
a male witness to counter these arguments. John Heneghan, Director of the
Office of Civil Rights Maritime Administration of the u.S. Department of
Commerce, enforced Executive Orders II246 and II375 in regard to women
construction workers at shipyards. Heneghan gave an affidavit saying that
female construction workers at the shipyards were incredibly reliable, compe-
tent, and committed to their jobs. According to Mazzaferri, this testimony was
a turning point in the case.
In August and September 1977, in response to the lawsuit, the DOL pro-
posed regulations setting goals and timetables for federal construction contrac-
tors and apprenticeship programs. Many women's groups submitted comments
on the proposed regulations, including from the plaintiffs in the two lawsuits.
Marshall met with the plaintiffs and their attorneys again on October 4, 1977.
On April 7, 1978, the DOL adopted the final regulations on women in con-
struction and shortly thereafter published the final regulations on women in
apprenticeships. I2. In addition to setting hiring goals and timetables for women
in construction and in apprenticeship programs, the regulations required em-
ployers to ensure and maintain a working environment free of harassment,
Blue-Collar Workers and Hostile Environment Sexual Harassment 7I
intimidation, and coercion and required contractors to assign two or more

women to each construction project if possible. The guidelines also required
contractors to ensure that all foremen, superintendents, and other on-site su-
pervisory personnel were aware of and carried out the contractor's obligation
to maintain a harassment-free working environment, "with specific attention to
minority or female individuals."'3 An employer violating these regulations
could be forced to give the victim back pay, vacation time, seniority, medical
and psychiatric expenses, and other damages. Companies with significant gov-
ernment business, $ 50,000 or more annually, were required to prepare written
procedures addressing harassment, and this information had to be given to the
workers. Companies not adhering to these rules could be permanently forbid-
den from holding federal contracts. The lawsuits were finally settled in Decem-
ber 1978. The DOL agreed to conduct outreach programs for women, to
establish a monitoring committee to measure the implementations and effec-
tiveness of the regulations, and to maintain records of compliance reviews and
complaints against federal construction contractors. '4
The regulations were not enforced, however. In I979, Women's Work Force,
a national network of women's employment programs established by Wider
Opportunities for Women, formed a national, industry-wide task force to mon-
itor and assess construction contract compliance. In 1980, the group received
grants from the Edna McConnell Clark and Robert Sterling Clark Foundation
to conduct a monitoring project in conjunction with the Center for National
Policy Review. The report, published in 1982, found that noncompliance with
federal regulations was common and that sexual harassment was pervasive and
often used to discourage women from construction trades employment. The
Office of Federal Contract Compliance Programs defended itself by saying it
had limited staff and that contractors were resistant. The head of DOL's Office
of Federal Contract Compliance during the Carter Administration, Weldon
Rougeau, reported after leaving office that companies "would promise any-
thing to get us off their backs but never actually do anything."'5 The problem
of slack compliance monitoring was compounded by the fact that few women
filed complaints for fear of retaliation and increased harassment. The Wider
Opportunities for Women report concluded, "Women are not welcome in con-
struction trades. Women do not belong in the construction trades.",6 Despite
the high level of noncompliance, Joan Graff believes that the regulations had
a significant impact because they were "the first in a long series of steps that
legitimized [nontraditional] jobs for women." The regulations were an "impor-
tant public pronouncement" that women could do the work; they "shifted
public opinion and expectation about who could and should be able to do
[nontraditional] jobs.'>I7
DOL later adopted regulations specifically addressing coercive sexual
advances by employees of federal construction contractors. On December
28, 1979, DOL proposed regulations prohibiting sexual advances by persons
who are in a position to affect the employment opportunities of those targeted,
as well as prohibiting employment decisions based on sexual favors. I8 During
the public comment period, DOL received twenty-eight comments from

women's groups and contractors on this proposal. Women's groups, includ-
ing ERA, argued that the regulation should address harassment by co-workers,
clients, and customers and that contractors should be required to have policies
against harassment. Contractors opposed the proposed liability standard
that an employer would be liable if it knew or should have known of the
harassment. Some contractors thought the DOL should not get into this
area at all. DOL redrafted the regulations to make them consistent with
the EEOC guidelines on sexual harassment and issued the final rule on Decem-
ber 30, 1980.'9 The regulations were supposed to take effect January 30,1981,
but the Reagan administration took office and froze the implementation
of new regulations. The regulations were proposed again in largely the
same form on August 25, 1981, but they have never been adopted as a final
rule. 20
WOMEN COAL MINERS
Women working in the coal mining industry also went to courts in the late
1970S to get federal relief from discrimination and harassment. In May 1978,
women coal miners represented by the Coal Employment Project (CEP), an
Oak Ridge, Tennessee-based grassroots group of women organized in I977
to help women break into coal mining, filed a complaint with the Department
of Labor against Consolidated Coal Company of Pittsburgh (CONSOL), the
largest coal company in the United States. The plaintiffs, employed at Shoemaker
coal mine in Benwood, West Virginia, alleged that they suffered sex discrimi-
nation and harassment in the mines. In response, the Department of Labor
initiated a federal investigation of the entire coal mining industry. In 1978,
a settlement in the case provided for hiring quotas, back pay, and affirmative
action programs to protect women miners from discrimination and harassment
underground. This lawsuit increased the number of female coal miners.
According to federal statistics, the number of women miners jumped from
none in 1972 to 992 in 1977 to 2,940 in 1979, at which time 11.4%of all
entry-level miners hired as underground coal miners were women. As women
began to enter mining toward the end of the decade, sexual harassment became
a pressing issue and a priority for CEP. 2I
Female coal miners experienced pervasive, and often violent, sexual harass-
ment. Coal mining had a strongly fraternal culture, with men closely bonded
because of the danger of the work and families of men - fathers, sons, and
brothers - working together. On the other hand, women coal miners were often
hesitant to report harassment because they lived in small towns where they
knew their fellow miners and they felt isolated from supportive social net-
works. When women began to enter the mines, male miners revived a tradi-
tional initiation rite, which had more or less been discontinued by the 1970s, of
stripping and greasing new miners. In a I977 case before the Kentucky Com-
mission on Human Rights, miner Frieda Myers won a $2,000 conciliation
agreement from Peabody Coal Company, the largest coal company in the coun-
try, for humiliation and embarrassment because she was stripped and greased
by her male co-workers. Peabody agreed to issue a policy statement to "adopt
safe working conditions for all employees and particularly to insure that female
employees shall not be subjected to abuse, insult, or injury related to their
sex.":!.:!. A second form of harassment women miners experienced occurred
during what were otherwise routine searches for cigarettes or other smoking
materials as workers entered the mines. Women complained that they were
searched "differently" from men and that they were touched inappropriately.
A third form of harassment occurred when men drilled holes in women's bath-
houses on company grounds to peep at the women showering and dressing.
In response, female coal miners used some of the same techniques used by
women in other parts of the country to combat sexual harassment - they met at
conferences and shared their stories through newsletters, which enabled them
to create a sense of a shared community suffering from a systemic problem. As
did activists in Ithaca and Cambridge, New York City, and Washington, D.C.,
female coal miners gathered together or used newsletters to share their stories.
CEP reported hearing isolated stories about sexual harassment in 1978. At the
first National Conference of Women Coal Miners in June 1979, sexual harass-
ment was only mentioned "in whispers, in corners here and there." Women
were too embarrassed, ashamed, and isolated to report sexual harassment,
feeling that they had somehow provoked the behavior. Shortly after the con-
ference, however, an anonymous woman's first person story about sexual ha-
rassment appeared in the newsletters of the United Mine Workers of America
and the CEP. More women began to contact CEP with their stories of harass-
ment, expressing relief that the subject was out in the open. At a November
1979 conference of women miners sponsored by the United Mine Workers of
America in Charleston, West Virginia, women miners for the first time spoke
openly about sexual harassment.
The Second National Conference of Women Coal Miners in May 1980 was
a "major turning point, when 'things really came out of the woodwork."':!.3
Sexual harassment emerged as a major theme of the conference. CEP offered
a sexual harassment workshop, which was packed to capacity both times it was
offered. In the workshops, women told their stories of sexual harassment in
coal mines, describing their fear, guilt, and hesitance to tell others. One woman
exclaimed, "At last! Somebody else has been going through all this! I thought it
was just me!":!.4 The women miners passed several resolutions on sexual ha-
rassment. They asked CEP to conduct a study of sexual harassment in coal
mines and to produce a brochure about women's legal rights. They resolved to
ask unions and employers to adopt policies against sexual harassment and
incorporate information about the issue into training sessions. They also asked
CEP to produce information to send to new miners about the issue, to post on
bulletin boards, and to distribute through newsletters.
Similar to activists in other areas of the country, CEP researched women's
experiences using surveys and interviews and developed statistical information
to support their sexual harassment complaints and educate themselves and the
public. CEP surveyed women miners in ten states 25 about their experiences of
sexual harassment and published the results in 1981 showing rampant and
violent sexual harassment in coal mines. Fifty-four percent of women miners
were propositioned by bosses at least once, seventy-six percent were proposi-
tioned by co-workers, and seventeen percent had been attacked physically.26 To
assist women miners, CEP provided counseling and support, including writing
letters to employers on behalf of sexually harassed women. CEP published
a brochure and a booklet on sexual harassment in coal mining. CEP also es-
tablished support services for women in rural and mountain communities, who
were particularly vulnerable because of their isolation. CEP formed a "buddy
system" to connect women miners with women in nearby communities who
were considering a career in mining. This program became known as the Coal
Mining Women's Support Team. 27 These organizations not only supported
female coal miners directly but also worked to advance policy on sexual ha-
rassment. In June 1980, Pat Baldwin, a miner and head of the Western
Kentucky Women's Support Team, testified before the Kentucky Commission
on Human Rights at a hearing on sexual harassment. In April 1981, Baldwin
and CEP's Director Betty Jean Hall, an attorney, testified at hearings on sexual
harassment before the Senate Committee on Labor and Human Resources in
Washington, D.C. At these hearings, Baldwin and Hall worked to raise aware-
ness about hostile environment harassment experienced by female coal miners.
UNION WOMEN
Unionized women in other industries also worked to combat sexual harass-

ment, though their efforts were complicated by the collective nature of the
unions. In the late 1970s, when only about II% of female workers belonged
to unions and another 5% were in employee associations, labor unions gener-
ally showed little interest in sexual harassment when female union members
raised the issue. According to an early publication, unions worried that the
issue might "divide the working class."28 In particular, unions discouraged
women from filing grievances against other union members. Sometimes har-
assed women would file grievances with employers, and unions would come to
the defense of men disciplined by employers for sexual harassment. A 1981
study of arbitration and sexual harassment found twenty-four reported sexual
harassment arbitration cases between 1965 and 1981, most of which were
initiated by unions representing men disciplined by employers for harass-
ment. 29 Despite this resistance, women associated with labor unions began to
work on the issue of sexual harassment and, in some cases, were able to get
unions to act on charges of sexual harassment. Female union members fought
sexual harassment by supporting victims, surveying union members, distribut-
ing information about sexual harassment, and providing educational programs.
The American Federation of State, County, and Municipal Employees formed
a Women's Rights Committee in 1978 that trained Itewlrds and union
leadership in techniques for responding to sexual harassment complaints. In

1981, the Federation published a handbook on sexual harassment, which in-
cluded sample contract language and policy statements. 30
The American Federation of Government Employees supported victims of
sexual harassment at Fort Wainwright in Fairbanks, AK, at the Johnson Space
Center in Houston, TX, and at a Social Security Administration Office in San
Francisco, and conducted workshops on sexual harassment. In Massachusetts,
the Women's Committee of Local 201 of the International Union of Electrical
Workers began working on the issue of sexual harassment after a black woman
was raped by a white man in a bathroom at a General Electric plant. 3I The
union surveyed women workers about sexual harassment and assault in the
workplace and incorporated workshops on sexual harassment into its regularly
scheduled business meetings. Several female union members published articles
on sexual harassment in union publications. 3 2. Other female union members
participated in shaping public policy on sexual harassment by testifying on
sexual harassment at federal hearings, including representatives of the United
Auto Workers, the Industrial Union of Electrical, Radio and Machine Workers,
the Coalition of Labor Union Women, the American Federation of Government
Employees, and Federally Employed Women.
In some cases, unions took a firm stand against sexual harassment. In June of
1979, representatives from several unions testified about sexual harassment before
the National Commission on Unemployment Compensation in Washington,
D.C., including Michigan United Auto Workers (UAW) member Tamara Bavar,
Assistant General Counsel of the International Union of Electrical, Radio
and Machine Workers (lUE), Barbara Somson on behalf of IUE and the Coa-
lition of Labor Union Women, and Vincent R. Sombrotto, President of the
National Association of Letter Carriers, AFL-CIO. In 1979, the President of
the Michigan State AFL-CIO testified at public hearings on sexual harassment in
the workplace in Grand Rapids, Michigan. The UAW were particularly active
on the issue of sexual harassment. In 1979, UAW won specific clauses on sexual
harassment in contracts with Ford and Chrysler. The Ford contract confirmed
that sexual harassment charges were subject to grievance procedures and com-
mitted the union and the company to investigate sexual harassment through the
Fair Employment Practices Committees. Chrysler agreed to issue a policy state-
ment to its management informing them that sexual harassment would not be
tolerated. In 198 I, under the leadership of Douglas Fraser, UAW issued a strong
and clear policy statement against sexual harassment, deploring harassment as
"a serious obstacle to the achievement of full employment opportunity for
workers of both sexes." UAWaiso supported an individual woman in a land-
mark sexual harassment case in Michigan, where Fayette Nale, a member of
Local 400 in Utica, MI, won $187,032 from Ford Motor Company for sexual
harassment in 1981. The UAW committeeperson at the plant, Jerry Sudderth,
supported Nale when he first learned about the harassment in 1974, meeting
with the plant superintendent and labor-relations personnel to tell them to stop
harassing Nale and subsequently protesting Ford's firing of Nale. Sudderth later
provided decisive testimony at the trial of Nale. In another case, a union sup-
ported female auto workers in Massachusetts. 33
In 1979, female UAW members in Michigan surveyed workers about sexual
harassment and testified on sexual harassment at federal hearings about unem-
ployment compensation. Three UAW members, Elissa Clarke, Jane Slaughter,
and Enid Eckstein, contributed to a handbook on sexual harassment for the
Labor Education and Research Project in Detroit, MI, published in June 1980.
The pamphlet was cowritten with Connye Harper, an attorney and founder of
the Women's Justice Center, and Rita Drapkin, who was a member of the
Teamsters and founder of Cleveland, Ohio-based Hard Hatted Women, which
supported women in skilled trades and nontraditional jobs. 34 The handbook
gave practical advice on how to combat sexual harassment on the job, within
unions, and at educational institutions.
Sexual harassment was a key issue in several strikes in the late 1970s. For
example, in October 1979, fourteen hundred workers walked out at Simpson
Plywood in Washington State to protest sexual harassment of female members
of the International Woodworkers of America. Supervisors had asked female
job applicants if they wore bras, asked them to take off their blouses, and asked
them if they were willing to have sex with their supervisors. The strike was
called because one woman was fired after filing sex discrimination charges with
the Washington Human Rights Commission and the EEOC. The strike spread
to Simpson plants in California and eventually involved more than three thou-
sand workers. In Mississippi, members of the International Chemical Workers
Union struck against Sanderson Farms, a chicken processing plant, over low
pay, unsafe working conditions, racism, and sexual harassment. 35
Women fought hard to get unions to address their concerns about sexual
harassment. By the early 1980s, some unions and employee associations began
to respond to women's demands for change by issuing policy statements against
sexual harassment, advocating for sexual harassment clauses in union con-
tracts, and educating workers about sexual harassment and sexism as a pre-
ventative measure. Union women, however, continued to encounter resistance
within unions and expressed concern themselves that management would se-
lectively enforce prohibitions of sexual harassment against workers they dis-
liked because of their race or class, union activity, or political views. 36
HOSTILE ENVIRONMENT LAWSUITS
In the late 1970S and early 1980s, women working in a broad range of non-
traditional fields, including janitors, security guards, police officers, and assem-
bly-line workers, began to build the case for broadening the definition of sexual
harassment beyond quid pro quo sexual harassment to cover the conditions of
the workplace. The EEOC ruled on several hostile environment cases in the
early 1970s, but the federal courts did not begin to entertain these suits until the
late 1970S.37 Only a couple of courts in the 1970S ruled in favor of plaintiffs
bringing cases involving allegations of hostile environment sexual harassment.
In the 1977 case of Macey v. World Airways, a federal trial court in California
allowed a Title VII case in a hostile environment harassment case that did not
involve sexual conduct. The plaintiff, who was the first female electrician ever
hired by Wodd Airways, met resistance from male co-workers who resented her
intrusion and responded with disparaging remarks and refusal to help her learn
her job. 3 8 In 1978, in the case of Kyriazi v. Western Electric Company, a female
engineer won a co-worker harassment case brought under section 1985 of the
1871 Civil Rights Act and state tort law. In that case, Kyriaki Cleo Kyriazi, who
was a Greek immigrant, was an engineer at a Western Electric plant in Kearny,
NJ. Kyriazi's male co-workers ridiculed and harassed her, speculating about her
virginity and circulating an obscene cartoon of her. She complained to her super-
visors, but they refused to stop the harassment and required her to seek psychi-
atric help. When she formally complained of discrimination, they fired her. The
court ruled in favor of Kyriazi, becoming the first court to recognize that a sex-
ually hostile working environment was discriminatory sexual harassment. 39
An African-American factory worker from Minnesota won another impor-
tant eady co-worker harassment case brought under state law. In 1980, the
Minnesota Supreme Court ruled that an employer was liable under the state
Human Rights Act for tolerating co-worker sexual harassment in the case of
Continental Can Company v. Minnesota. Willie Ruth Hawkins was one of two
women working at the Eagan, MN, plant of Continental Can Company. Start-
ing in December 1974, three of Hawkins's white male co-workers repeatedly
made explicit sexually derogatory remarks and verbal sexual advances to
Hawkins and touched her sexually. One of her co-workers, Cliff Wading, said
to Hawkins that he "wished slavery days would return so that he could sexually
train her and she would be his bitch," making reference to the movie Man-
dingo. 40 Wading and other male co-workers told her that "a female has no
business in a factory" and "if a female would work [in] a factory, she has to be
a tramp."4 1 Hawkins repeatedly complained to her supervisor, but Continental
took no action. One supervisor told Hawkins that there was nothing he could
do and that she had to expect that kind of behavior when working with men.
In October 1975, the harassment escalated to physical violence. Wading
approached Hawkins from behind while she was bending over and grabbed
her between the legs. Hawkins complained immediately, but again Continental
took no action. A few days later, Hawkins' husband came to the plant and
confronted Wading, who denied the incident. When Mr. Hawkins returned
later that evening to escort his wife home, they discovered that her car head-
lights were broken. Relations between Hawkins and her co-workers deterio-
rated further, culminating in a co-worker threatening Willie Ruth Hawkins
with a gun in front of her children. The Hawkinses solicited the support of
New Way Community Center and the Urban League, who threatened boycotts
and adverse publicity if Continental did not take action. At that point, Conti-
nental suspended two of the harassers and held a plant meeting and informed
all employees that Continental would not tolerate verbal or physical sexual
harassment and discrimination. Fearing for her safety, Hawkins did not return
to work after October 16 and was terminated from employment on December

5, 1975·
Hawkins filed a sex discrimination charge with the Minnesota Department
of Human Rights on October 20,1975. After she won before a hearing exam-
iner, Continental appealed to a Minnesota district court, which reversed and
dismissed Hawkins' complaint. Hawkins appealed to the Minnesota Supreme
Court. NOWLDEF and WWI filed an amicus brief in this case. The Supreme
Court ruled that verbal and physical sexual harassment by fellow employees
was sex discrimination prohibited by the Minnesota Human Rights Act. The
Court discussed Title VII sexual harassment jurisprudence but found these
cases distinguishable because they all involved quid pro quo supervisory
harassment. The Court then turned to racial harassment cases, finding
them factually more similar to Hawkins' case. The Court also relied on the
EEOC interim guidelines. The Court held that Minnesota's prohibition on sex
discrimination included hostile environment sexual harassment by co-workers
affecting the conditions of employment and that employers were liable when
they knew or should have known of the employees' conduct and failed to take
timely and appropriate action. The Court awarded Hawkins $5,000 in back
pay and ordered Continental Can to stop discriminating on the basis of sex and
to take prompt and appropriate action to address future instances of workplace
sexual harassment.
Although plaintiffs won relief for co-worker sexual harassment in these early
cases brought under state law, they were less successful invoking Title VII
protection in federal lawsuits. Two decisions in the late 1970S denied relief
under Title VII for sexual harassment by a co-worker. In the 1978 case of
Pantchenco v. C. B. Dolge Company, a federal district court in Connecticut
held that sexual harassment by a co-worker was not sex discrimination. 42
Similarly, in the 1978 case of Smith v. Rust Engineering Company, a federal
district court in Alabama dismissed the sexual harassment claim of a woman
subjected to repeated sexual demands by a co-worker on the grounds that
compliance with these advances was not an expressed or implied requirement
for keeping her job. 43
Federal courts also denied Title VII relief for hostile environment harassment
by supervisors in the case of Bundy v. Jackson. Sandra Bundy was a Vocational
Rehabilitation Specialist with the District of Columbia Department of Correc-
tions, responsible for finding jobs for former criminal offenders. Bundy alleged
that her rejection of unsolicited and offensive sexual advances from several
supervisors in her agency caused them to delay or block promotions to which
she was entitled. Bundy was a young black woman who had participated in the
civil rights movement in the 1960s. She attended marches and demonstrations
and helped to organize a union whose demands included an end to racial
segregation of the work force. When Bundy complained of sexual harassment
in her workplace, her black co-workers disapproved and criticized her for
bringing her lawsuit. Black women in her office avoided her. Bundy was hurt,
but she continued with her lawsuit because, as she said at the time, "I wouldn't
FIGURE 4.1. Sandra Bundy, 1979. Photo by Gerald MartineauIWashington Post
be able to make a living, if I didn't. I wouldn't be able to protect my children. I

wouldn't be able to keep my sanity."44 The trial judge, United States District
Court Judge George Hart Jr., who was appointed by President Dwight D.
Eisenhower in 1958, ruled against Bundy, despite his finding that "improper
sexual advances to female employees [was] standard operating procedure, a fact
of life, a normal condition of employment" at the Department of Corrections. 45
In particular, Judge Hart found that four of Bundy's supervisors, all of whom
were black men, routinely and graphically demanded sexual favors in calls to
her home as well as in office confrontations. Bundy complained repeatedly to
her supervisors, but they merely harassed her further. One supervisor to whom
she reported harassment responded "I want to take you to bed myself" and
"any man in his right mind would want to rape yoU."4 6
However, because Bundy did not complain until two years after the sexual
advances began, Judge Hart found that she "did not appear to consider [the
sexual advances] unusual or highly improper and insulting" and that she did
not appear to take such actions seriously. He suggested that Bundy made a for-
mal complaint not because the sexual advances bothered her but "primarily as
a means of obtaining advancement." Similarly, he found that Bundy's super-
visors did not take her rejections seriously and that they "did not consider
plaintiff's rejection of their improper sexual advances as a reason or justifica-
tion for harassing the plaintiff or of otherwise taking adverse action against her.
It was a game played by the male superiors - you won some and you lost some.
It was not a matter to be taken seriously." Judge Hart found Bundy's super-
visors had independent, legitimate reasons for delaying and denying the pro-
motions, so he denied relief. Judge Hart held that sexual harassment did not in
itself represent discrimination absent any tangible economic effects. Bundy
appealed, but it wouldn't be until the early 1980s, after the EEOC issued guide-
lines defining sexual harassment to include hostile environmental sexual ha-
rassment under Title VII, that federal courts would begin to offer relief for
hostile environment sexual harassment.
In the late 1970s, blue-collar women joined the growing chorus of voices
speaking out against sexual harassment, but they spoke with a distinct voice
and made a distinct contribution to the growing movement against sexual
harassment. Building on feminist understandings of sexual harassment, blue-
collar women articulated their experiences of harassment - co-workers' misog-
ynist, often violent, behavior designed to push women out of traditionally male
fields. They reframed this behavior as a form of sexual harassment and argued
that this behavior violated women's civil rights. Blue-collar women urged
courts and federal policy-makers to broaden their understandings of sexual
harassment to include hostile environment sexual harassment. They also urged
feminist activists to include the issue of hostile environment harassment in their
advocacy work. Working individually, or in local and regional groups such as
Women in Trades, Women Working in Construction, CEP, Chicana Service
Action Center, and in unions, grassroots activists collaborated with feminist
attorneys in national organizations, such as the League of Women Voters, ERA,
and NOW Legal Defense and Education Fund. While working-class women
often did not share the same concerns as middle-class feminists, sexual harass-
ment was an issue of cross-class concern that generated collaborative activism
among women. 47
To combat sexual harassment, blue-collar women engaged in many of the
same strategies used by activists in Ithaca, Cambridge, and Washington, D.C.-
such as surveys, newsletters, speak-outs, and support groups. But working-class
women were able to draw upon other resources available to them as a result of
their status as members of unions and employee associations, and they used the
resources of these organizations to advance their agendas. They also took
advantage of the political opportunities provided by newly formed governmen-
tal agencies to protect civil rights, like the Kentucky Human Rights Commis-
sion, or progressive Carter appointees in the Department of Labor who were
committed to advancing affirmative action and sympathetic individuals in the
Blue-Collar Workers and Hostile Environment Sexual Harassment 8I
federal government, like Alexis Herman of the Women's Bureau. By raising the
issue in new contexts and pushing to broaden the scope of sexual harassment,
blue-collar women made a significant contribution to building a persuasive
argument that sexual harassment was a serious civil rights issue that govern-
ment policy-makers should address. This broader articulation of the issue also
contributed toward expanding participation in the movement. By the end of the
1970s, more and more women around the country were working on the issue of
sexual harassment.
5
Expansion of the Movement against Sexual Harassment

in the Late I970S
By the late 1970s, the idea that sexual harassment was a serious problem took
root. As the federal government and the courts were beginning to affirm wom-
en's complaints that sexual harassment was a legitimate, systemic, and serious
workplace problem, an activist movement was growing to include women and
organizations from around the country. WWI and the AASC entered their heyday
and were joined by a broad array of organizations representing diverse constit-
uencies, including public interest law firms, public policy groups, political organ-
izations, working women's organizations, unions, government-sponsored
women's commissions, and student groups. These varied organizations became
aware of each other, influenced each other, and began to work together to achieve
social change. Thousands of women began to turn to these organizations for
support, sharing their stories, ideas, and resources and receiving information,
counseling, referrals, and legal advice and representation. Some organizations
lobbied governments to pass legal prohibitions and encouraged employers to
adopt policies and procedures and to offer training on the issue. Others engaged
in outreach and public education to raise awareness of sexual harassment, in-
cluding publishing brochures and handbooks on the issue and stimulating press
coverage. Several organizations offered sexual harassment training to women's
organizations, community groups, government agencies, and private employers.
These activities were all part of a growing movement against sexual harassment.
This movement developed theories about the meanings, origins, and func-
tions of sexual harassment and disseminated their views by influencing media
coverage of the issue. Articles about sexual harassment proliferated in feminist,
academic, and legal journals. In addition to studies and analysis produced by
members of AASC and WWI, three books appeared on the issue in the late
1970s, all written by feminist activists. These works, which argued that sexual
harassment was a serious, widespread, and devastating phenomenon for women,
contributed significantly to the development of feminist understanding and
analysis of sexual harassment. Through this work, feminist activists placed
the issue of sexual harassment squarely within the larger feminist struggle to
Expansion of the Movement against Sexual Harassment in the Late 1970S 83
eliminate sexism throughout society. As the growing movement gained media at-
tention for the issue of sexual harassment, this coverage often incorporated fem-
inist understandings of the issue. Particularly due to their influence on the media,
feminists fueled and fundamentally shaped this public discussion of the issue. Their
characterization of sexual harassment as a serious abuse of power with a disparate
and devastating impact on women permeated the discourse, which would eventu-
ally influence the development of public policy on sexual harassment.
PROLIFERATION OF FEMINIST ACTIVISM
WWI in New York City continued to playa central role in fighting sexual
harassment. I The Institute grew significantly in the late 1970S and early
1980s, funded by several large grants from the New York Foundation, Exxon,
and the Ford Foundation, and a large number of medium-sized grants, several
from church organizations. The Institute's operating budget grew from $20,000
in 1978 to $75,000 in 1979 to $105,000 in 1980 to $131,000 in 1981. At its
peak in the early 1980s, the Institute had a staff of five full-time employees and
several part-time employees and a budget of more than $I 50,000. In the late
1970s, the Institute expanded its Board of Directors to include many powerful
women, including Elizabeth Ladu of Banque Nationale de Paris, Venetia Hands
of the New York advertising firm of Ogilvy & Mather, Mary Gay Harm, who
also served on the National Board of the YWCA, and Melvin Robins of Bell
Telephone Labs. WWI provided crisis counseling to sexually harassed women
in the New York area and across the nation. Supported by grants from the New
York Foundation and the United Church of Christ, the Institute set up a model
crisis counseling service in 1979, serving approximately 550 women that year.
In early 1980, the Institute created a Metropolitan Sexual Harassment Project
and hired a director, K.c. Wagner, who had worked with battered women
before coming to the Institute. The Institute sponsored television spots in the
New York area, urging victims of sexual harassment to phone the project for
support and counseling. In 1980, the Institute received close to 100 letters and
calls a week from women requesting help with sexual harassment. The Project
offered individual and group counseling to these women and, beginning in
January 1981, sponsored a Monthly Educational Series, which provided pro-
grams on issues related to sexual harassment for women who had been through
the counseling service, their friends, and family members. The Project also
conducted training for a broad range of local service organizations. 2 The Insti-
tute's National Information and Referral Network offered information to
women and organizations across the country, providing referrals from their
network of more than 500 organizations and 200 attorneys in 198 localities.
The Institute conducted educational outreach at the national level, speaking
to corporations, unions, educational institutions, and working women's organ-
izations. 3 Institute representatives participated in many conferences, gave press
interviews, and appeared on television and radio programs, including the
McNeil-Lehrer Report, the Phil Donahue Show, and National Public Radio."
To inform their advocacy, the Institute significantly expanded their research

on sexual harassment in the late 1970S and early 1980s, led by the Institute's
Research Director, Dr. Peggy Crull. In 1978, Dr. Crull published a report on the
Institute's survey of state fair employment practice agencies' handling of sexual
harassment complaints. In 1979, she published a study on the impact of sexual
harassment on working women, based on questionnaires sent to women who
sought help from the Institute, and she conducted a comprehensive program
evaluation of the crisis counseling service with a grant from the United Meth-
odist Women. Dr. Crull conducted and published many studies on sexual ha-
rassment in the 1980s and presented her research at several conferences. She
focused in particular on the impact of sexual harassment on women, including
the health and psychological effects, and on the causes of sexual harassment,
including the motivations for different types of sexual harassment. Based on
this research, Dr. Crull began to testify as an expert witness in sexual harass-
ment cases in the 1980s. The Institute catalogued their resource collection in
the spring of 1981 in an annotated list of theoretical research, policy/service
research, and media studies on sexual harassment and made these resources
available for purchase. 5
In addition to direct services, education, and research, the Institute worked
to shape public policy on sexual harassment by assisting lawyers litigating
sexual harassment cases. In February 1980, the Institute established a National
Sexual Harassment Legal Back-Up Center and hired Joan Vermeulen as Legal
Director. 6 The Center had a Legal Advisory Panel composed of attorneys ex-
perienced in sexual harassment and employment discrimination litigation. 7
Financial support for the Center came primarily from the Public Interest Law
Foundation, but also from the Council on Women of the United Presbyterian
Church, the Boehm Foundation, and the John Hay Whitney Foundation. The
Center expanded the Institute's legal brief bank, produced a pamphlet for
attorneys on litigating Title VII cases, and maintained a referral network of
over 200 attorneys familiar with legal issues concerning sexual harassment. The
Center compiled information on institutional policies, union policies, and con-
tract clauses on sexual harassment and maintained a Legislative Checklist,
which catalogued legislative initiatives on sexual harassment throughout the
country. In addition, Institute representatives participated in several state and
federal hearings on sexual harassment, worked to enact and support the EEOC
guidelines on sexual harassment, and filed friend-of-the-court briefs in several
precedent-setting sexual harassment cases.
Over time, the Institute broadened their understanding of sexual harassment
and their advocacy by working with women from different backgrounds, in-
cluding blue-collar women and students. Although they initially focused
on sexual advances of a male boss toward a subordinate female employee,
they soon began to address co-worker harassment, nonsexual, gender-based
harassment of women, and harassment of students. The Institute came to un-
derstand in their work with blue-collar women, including firefighters, coal
miners, and construction workers, that sexual harassment was not only sexual
FIGURE 5. I. Women's Rights March, New York City, 1980. Courtesy of Karen Sauvigne
conduct, but also hostile conduct aimed at women to drive them out of male-
dominated workplaces. One Institute volunteer in particular helped broaden
the Institute's conception of sexual harassment in this way - Brenda Berkman,
who sued the New York City Fire Department for refusing to hire her because
she was a woman. Working with Berkman, Betty Jean Hall and Pat Baldwin of
the Western Kentucky Coalmining Women's Support Team, Joyce Miller of the
United Auto Workers, the Coalition of Labor Union Women, and other blue-
collar women made the staff at the Institute realized that sexual conduct was
"one of many tools that men use to create a hostile working environment when
they want to keep women out."s As a national clearinghouse for information
about sexual harassment, the Institute brought together the insights of the di-
verse array of women around the country working on sexual harassment.
Like WWI, AASC in Cambridge also expanded their activities in the late
1970S.9 The Alliance was supported by literature sales, fees from training and
consulting, and a few small grants. Lynn Wehrli and Liz Cohn-Stuntz left the
organization early on, but many others joined AASC, some of whom initially
came to the organization as clients. 'o By 1980, AASC had two paid staff
members, Lynn Rubinett and Denise Wells, who were funded through a Com-
prehensive Employment Training Act grant. Lynn Rubinett had graduated from
Stanford University in 1979, where she had been involved in feminist and leftist
political activism. In Boston, she worked in the women's section for the socialist
bookstore, Redbook. Rubinett, who identified herself as a Marxist feminist and
focused on labor issues, focused on the intersections between sex and econom-
ics, which drew her to the issue of sexual harassment. Denise Wells came from
a working class background and was very concerned with issues of violence
against women.
In the late 1970S, to reach a larger number of women, the Alliance decided to
change its focus from providing direct services to women to promoting the
incorporation of sexual harassment services into existing agencies, community
centers, and working women's groups. I I The Alliance began to provide sexual
harassment training and information to social service workers, community
mental health workers, job counselors, union personnel, and women's groups.
For example, AASC helped form the Committee Against Sexual Harassment in
Columbus, Ohio, as well as sexual harassment groups in Montreal and in Con-
necticut, and spoke frequently to NOW chapters and at NOW conferences
about sexual harassment. When K.c. Wagner was starting WWl's counseling
program in 1980, she traveled to Boston to train with Freada Klein. Alliance
members sought to train social service workers to recognize when women
seeking their assistance were experiencing sexual harassment and to provide
some guidelines on how to handle the issue. To accomplish this goal, the Alli-
ance published a training manual in 1979 for organizations providing services
to sexual harassment victims, called Fighting Sexual Harassment: An Advocacy
Handbook. This seventy-six-page handbook defined sexual harassment, pro-
vided strategies for outreach, offered staff training suggestions, explained how
to counsel victims of harassment, and described victims' legal options. In ad-
dition to working with public interest and service organizations, the Alliance
provided training and consultation on sexual harassment policies and grievance
procedures to employers, schools, unions, and regulatory agencies. A 1979
Business Week article on sexual harassment quoting Freada Klein led to AASC's
first corporate client, the State Street Bank in Boston. 12 In 1980, Klein served as
an advisor to the first comprehensive scientific study of sexual harassment in the
workplace, conducted by the United States Merit Systems Protection Board.
Klein helped develop the questionnaire and the methodology. This led to a con-
sulting contract with General Motors. Klein also testified several times before
the Massachusetts legislature on bills relating to sexual harassment.
After the EEOC issued proposed sexual harassment guidelines in April
1980, the Alliance was flooded by requests for information about sexual ha-
rassment. Whereas before the EEOC guidelines requests had come primarily
from sexually harassed women, feminists activists, and social change-oriented
groups, after April 1980, the Alliance began receiving numerous requests for
information and training materials from employers, consulting firms who
wanted to conduct training for employers, and equal employment opportunity
officers in the public sector, as well as requests for information from television
and radio stations, magazines, and newspapers. AASC also worked to help
unionize women concerned about sexual harassment. In 1979, AASC was in-
volved in a successful campaign to organize secretaries at Boston University. In
the campaign, sexual harassment was a key organizing issue, and AASC
worked with the union members to obtain a sexual harassment clause in their
union contract, one of the first in the nation. AASC was also involved in a
campaign to organize clerical workers at Harvard. AASC's involvement in these
two university organizing campaigns indicates that women workers considered
sexual harassment to be an important issue, integral to workplace equity. This
involvement also reflects AASC's broad class-based orientation to the empow-
erment of women. I3
In the late 1970S and early 1980s, the Alliance produced many publications
on sexual harassment, focusing on both theoretical analyses of sexual harass-
ment and practical strategies to combat harassment. In 1979, in addition to
publishing their advocacy handbook, the Alliance published several articles on
sexual harassment in Aegis, including one on myths and facts about sexual
harassment, one on how widespread sexual harassment was, and one on how
to combat sexual harassment. Canadian Connie Backhouse, who worked with
the Alliance during 1977 and 1978 while she was studying at Harvard Law
School, published one of the first books on sexual harassment with fellow
Canadian Leah Cohen, The Secret Oppression: Sexual Harassment of Working
Women, focusing on sexual harassment in Canada. Also in 1979, the Alliance
published a study of why men harass. In 1980, the Alliance published an
annotated bibliography on sexual harassment and a handbook on how to
establish grievance procedures for sexual harassment on college campuses. In
1981, the Alliance turned to sexual harassment in secondary schools, publish-
ing a report on sexual harassment in Massachusetts's schools written by Alli-
ance members Freada Klein and Nancy Wilber. Also in 1981, the Alliance
published two handbooks on sexual harassment, one on the law of sexual
harassment written by Alliance member Laurie Dubrow, and one on strategies
to combat sexual harassment, which was republished in a condensed form in
the journal Radical America and in Aegis. Alliance members continued to serve
on the staff of the magazine Aegis, which consistently published news and
analysis on sexual harassment by the Alliance and others throughout 1981.
The Alliance also published two brochures on sexual harassment in Spanish.
Sexual harassment activism expanded beyond WWI and AASC in the late
1970S and early 1980s, with a broad array of organizations addressing the issue
in new ways and in new contexts. The most active and influential public interest
law firms working on the issue at the time were the WLDF in Washington,
D.C., and ERA in San Francisco. WLDF was an early leader on sexual harass-
ment. A WLDF volunteer, Linda Singer, represented Paulette Barnes in Barnes v.
Costle, the first successful sexual harassment case in the federal appellate
courts. WLDF litigated three other sexual harassment cases in the late 1970S
and filed a friend-of-the-court brief in the first successful hostile environment
sexual harassment case in the federal appellate courts. Attorney Donna Lenhoff
became a spokeswoman for WLDF on the issue. Lenhoff, a graduate of Uni-
versity of Chicago and University of Pennsylvania Law School, worked from
1976 to 1978 as the Justice Department attorney in the Antitrust Division
before becoming the first WLDF staff attorney. Lenhoff testified about sexual
harassment at several government hearings and before the District of Columbia

Commission on Women, where she recommended that "sexual activity
obtained by threats against economic interests" be made a third degree sexual
assault under the D.C. Criminal Code. WLDF and NOWLDEF teamed up to
submit comments on the EEOC's proposed sexual harassment guidelines on
behalf of several organizations. WLDF also worked to educate the public on the
issue. Lenhoff often spoke to the press, including participating in a National
Public Radio program on sexual harassment, and WLDF published a handbook
on sexual harassment. 14
Equal Rights Advocates also took a leadership role on sexual harassment. In
addition to representing Margaret Miller in her appeal in Miller v. Bank of
America and filing a friend-of-the-court brief in Tomkins v. Public Service
Electric and Gas, ERA filed friend-of-the-court briefs in Alexander v. Yale
and in the first Supreme Court case on sexual harassment, Meritor Savings
Bank v. Vinson. In the early 1980s, ERA submitted comments on the EEOC's
1980 sexual harassment guidelines and litigated several sexual harassment
cases. ERA regularly addressed sexual harassment in their newsletter, Equal
Rights Advocate. In early 1981, ERA established a sexual harassment project,
consisting of three components: legal advice and counseling, community edu-
cation and outreach, and advocacy and legal representation!5 Other public
interest law firms active in the fight against sexual harassment were the Wom-
en's Justice Center in Detroit, MI, the Center Against Sexual Harrassment
of the Women's Legal Clinic in Los Angeles, Women Employed Institute in
Chicago, the National Organization for Women Legal Advocacy and Educa-
tion Fund, ACLU's Women's Rights Project, and the National Employment
Law Project, all located in New York City. In addition, many women's groups
began to provide counseling and referral services to sexually harassed women
and published guides about sexual harassment. 16
Many women's political and workplace organizations worked on sexual
harassment in the late 1970s. New Responses, a nonprofit public policy group
in Washington, D.C., focused on violence against women and children, con-
ducting research and training on sexual harassment. In 1978, New Responses
published a fact sheet on sexual harassment and, in 1979, published a report on
sexual harassment in federal employment based on a sample survey of 198
federal employees within the Department of Health, Education and Welfare,
the Department of Justice, and the General Services Administration. The report
revealed significant levels of harassment. New Responses' Director, Mary Ann
Largen, testified about this survey in 1979 at congressional hearings on sexual
harassment in the federal government. In 1980, New Responses published
a guide for sexually harassed women and a counselor's guide to sexual harass-
ment.17 Other organizations working on sexual harassment included the Na-
tional Women's Political Caucus, the Center for Women's Policy Studies, the
National Council of Jewish Women, and the Cleveland-based Working Women
Organizing Project, and Working Women, National Association of Office
Workers, which supported the making of the popular 1980 movie addressing
sexual harassment, Nine to Five, with Jane Fonda, Dolly Parton, and Lily
Tomlin.
One of the most prominent political organizations to work on sexual harass-
ment was NOW. At NOW's 1979 annual conference, the membership adopted
a resolution stating that NOW would support litigation to establish a clear cut
precedent that sexual harassment was sex discrimination under Title VII, that
they would "evaluate the feasibility" of introducing legislation in Congress to
explicitly prohibit sexual harassment under Title VII, and that they would de-
velop projects for local NOW groups to publicize the issue and aid victims.
This resolution supported the advocacy activities of NOW's Legal Defense and
Education Fund, which filed a friend-of-the-court brief in one of the first suc-
cessful co-worker hostile environment cases, Continental Can Co. v. Minnesota,
in 1980, and litigated several other sexual harassment cases. NOWLDEF
conducted a media campaign to raise awareness about sexual harassment
and, in 1981, established a sexual harassment education project, headed by
Anne Simon, which provided information and resources on sexual harass-
ment. I8 At the local level, NOW chapters became active on the issue. In Read-
ing, Pennsylvania, a local NOW chapter provided legal assistance in the sexual
harassment case of Kristi Fey Napoleon, who was denied unemployment com-
pensation after leaving her job when her boss sexually harassed her. In Fresno,
California, the local NOW chapter teamed up with the Fresno City-County
Commission on the Status of Women to conduct a survey of sexual harassment
in city and county government. The Brooklyn Chapter of NOW submitted com-
ments on the EEOC's proposed sexual harassment guidelines. The Big Sandy
Chapter of NOW in Paintsville, Kentucky, sponsored a conference on sexual
harassment, with representatives from the Kentucky Commission on Human
Rights, the Coal Employment Project, and the Commission on Women. I9
Many local groups around the country worked on sexual harassment in the
late 1970s, including the Task Force on Sexual Harassment in Harrisburg,
PA,20 Action Against Sexual Harassment in Employment and Education in
Madison, Wisconsin, and Women Organized for Employment in San Fran-
cisco. 2I In New York City, Women for Racial & Economic Equality (WREE)
focused on sexual harassment of blue-collar women. WREE's Clearinghouse on
Blue Collar Women surveyed blue-collar women about sexual harassment in
1978 and advocated for a broad understanding of affirmative action that in-
corporated retention and harassment.2.2 In Columbus, Ohio, the Committee
Against Sexual Harassment (CASH), affiliated with the Columbus YWCA,
worked on sexual harassment in the workplace and in academic settings.
Run by volunteers, CASH provided advice and support to victims of sexual
harassment, consulted with employers and other organizations to develop pol-
icies and procedures, conducted informational seminars and workshops, and
published a pamphlet on sexual harassment in 1981.23 In New York City,
Women Office Workers continued to work on sexual harassment. At
a WOW conference in the spring of 1978, the sexual harassment workshop
was the most popular of all the workshops.2 4 In addition, several state
FIGURE 5.2. Sexual Harassment Protest, New York City, 1979. Photo by Bettye Lane
commissions on women worked on sexual harassment, including in Michigan,

Washington, D.C., California, Kentucky, Illinois, and Pennsylvania. In Kentucky,
the Commission on Women published a handbook on sexual harassment and the
Kentucky Commission on Human Rights published a brochure and a technical
assistance guide on sexual harassment for employers and women.2. 5
One of the most expansive local efforts to combat sexual harassment oc-
curred in Philadelphia. In 1977, a group of working women in the Delaware
Valley formed the Interfaith Project on Working Women, later called Women's
Alliance for Job Equity (WAJE), to study and improve the conditions of work-
ing women. In 1979, the Executive Director of WAJE, Robin Robinowitz,
created a Sexual Harassment Prevention Program. The Program provided group
and individual counseling, offered information and support to people filing
FIGURE 5.3. Sexual Harassment Protest, New York City, 1980. Photo by Bettye Lane
sexual harassment cases, conducted educational seminars on sexual harassment

for workers, employers, and students, and publicized particular cases of sexual
harassment. The group used humorous publicity stunts to gain media attention
for their cases, like presenting an Equal Opportunity Stupidity Award - a frilly
four-foot "Susie Sexpot" doll- to men who discriminated against and sexually
harassed their female employees. In May of 1980, WAlE's Pamela Chilton
trained the entire staff of the Philadelphia Commission on Human Relations
on how to recognize sexual harassment and investigate complaints under fed-
erallaw. WAlE, along with the Women's Law Project in Philadelphia, helped
establish and participated on the City of Philadelphia's Task Force on Sexual
Harassment, which persuaded the city to adopt the EEOC's sexual harass-
ment guidelines for employers in the city. Then WAlE conducted a public rela-
tions campaign to educate women and businesses in the city about the new
92. The Women's Movement against Sexual Harassment
legislation. With the District Attorney's office, WAJE set up a referral system for
women who were assaulted on their jobs and won a highly publicized lawsuit
against a local chiropractor. 26
In addition to the activism of organizations, several of the early plaintiffs in
sexual harassment cases spoke out publicly, which gave the issue a human face
and further increased the movement's visibility. These women told their stories
to the print media, on television and radio, and at government hearings in-
vestigating sexual harassment. For example, Diane Williams appeared in
a I976 television documentary on sexual harassment. In I977, one of the early
sexual harassment plaintiffs, Adrienne Tomkins, testified at the Ms. speak-out
and appeared on the Phil Donahue Show with Susan Meyer and Karen
Sauvigne. On that show she explained, "I'm here because I think it's very
important to speak out .... We do have rights. We are human beings." In
I979, Newsweek published a story on Adrienne Tomkins. In I98I, Tomkins
and Diane Williams appeared on a National Public Radio program on sexual
harassment. Both women also testified at congressional hearings on sexual
harassment. Other sexual harassment plaintiffs also spoke out. In I978 in
Michigan, sexual harassment plaintiff Maxine Munford sparked a statewide
movement against sexual harassment by speaking out about her experiences of
harassment. She made appearances on Michigan radio and television talk
shows and later testified at public hearings on sexual harassment. Sandra
Bundy, who won the first hostile environment sexual harassment case, testified
at congressional hearings on sexual harassment, spoke to the media about her
case, and inspired D.C. Mayor Marion Barry to act on the issue. These early
sexual harassment plaintiffs who spoke out about the issue contributed signif-
icantly toward the increased awareness of sexual harassment. 27
Following the lead of the women at Yale, women on college campuses
around the country also began to address sexual harassment. The issue aroused
great controversy in I979 on the campus of University of California at Berkeley
when thirteen female students accused assistant professor of sociology Elbaki
Hermassi of sexual harassment. In response to this case, students formed
Women Organized Against Sexual Harassment (WOASH), which generated
publicity for the case by holding public forums and press conferences and
leafleting the campus to find more victims. WOASH, with the help of the
Bay Area Women Against Rape hotLine and legal assistance from Equal Rights
Advocates provided counseling and advice to sexual harassment victims. In
I979, WOASH filed a Title IX complaint with the Department of Health,
Education, and Welfare on behalf of six sexually harassed students against
Professor Hermassi. In the same year, WOASH and ERA jointly filed a
friend-of-the-court brief in I979 in the appeal of Alexander v. Yale. WOASH
also published a pamphlet on sexual harassment and developed model griev-
ance procedures for sexual harassment at educational institutions. 28
Antisexual harassment groups began to appear at schools around the
country, including the Coalition Against Sexual Harassment at the University
of Minnesota,2 9 Women Against Campus Harassment at the University of
Expansion of the Movement against Sexual Harassment in the Late I970S 93
Wisconsin, Students Against Sexual Harassment at the University of Massa-

chusetts, the Sexual Harassment Committee at the University of Rhode Island,
Women Against Sexual Harassment at Arizona State University in Mesa,
Arizona,3 0 and the Sexual Harassment Task Force at California State Univer-
sity in Sacramento. In New York City, acting students sexually abused by Paul
Mann formed Artists for Responsible Theater and held a speak-out on teacher!
student violence and sexual harassment in June of I9 80.3I Surveys conducted at
several universities in the late I970S revealed high rates of sexual harassment of
students and employees.32 Other universities faced sexual harassment com-
plaints, including San Jose State University and Harvard University.
Groups opposing sexual harassment began to work in elementary and sec-
ondary schools as well. As early as I978, a group called Stop Sexual Abuse of
Students, part of the Chicago Public Education Project of the American Friends
Service Committee in Chicago, IL, focused on sexual harassment and abuse in
elementary and secondary schools, gathering data on the incidence and scope of
the problem and operating two 24-hour hodines for crisis counseling and
referrals. In Massachusetts, the State Department of Education commissioned
AASC members Freada Klein and Nancy Wilbur to study sexual harassment in
Massachusetts schools. Nan Stein developed the first curriculum on sexual
harassment in schools in I979 and also conducted the first survey in the country
on peer-to-peer sexual harassment in schools in I980.33
Several national educational organizations began to work on sexual harass-
ment, putting pressure on government and institutions to address the issue.
These groups conducted studies, published reports and advice books, and held
seminars on sexual harassment in education. The National Advisory Council
on Women's Educational Programs, a presidentially appointed body estab-
lished by Congress to advise and report on attaining sex equity in education,
published a paper in I978 on university liability for sexual harassment. In
I979, the Council issued a call for information on the sexual harassment of
students. The Council advertised in National NOW Times, requesting infor-
mation from former and present victims about their experiences and from any
others who may have knowledge of harassment. In August I980, the Council
published a report, which was the first attempt to examine the problem on
a large scale. The report made policy recommendations for how the federal
government could assist in protecting students from being sexually harassed by
faculty, staff, or other employees of secondary education institutions. In the
early I980s, the Council and many other organizations urged the Department
of Education's Office for Civil Rights to issue guidelines on sexual harassment,
but to no avail. 34
Another significant national organization working on sexual harassment at
educational institutions was the Association of American Colleges' Project on
the Status and Education of Women, directed by Bernice Resnick Sandler.
In I978, the Project published a paper defining sexual harassment, explaining
the law, offering advice to educational institutions on how to deal with sexual
harassment, and providing a list of organizations working on the issue. In I980,
the Project published a paper on the legal aspects of sexual harassment. The
Project also regularly addressed sexual harassment in its newsletter, On Cam-
pus with Women. 35 Other groups working on the issue were the Office of
Women for the American Council on Education, which held a series of seminars
across the country on sexual harassment policy in 1979, the Modern Language
Association of America's Commission on the Status of Women in the Profes-
sion, which published a guide on sexual and gender harassment in the academy,
and the American Psychological Association's Division of Psychology of
Women, which established a task force to investigate the problem of sexual
harassment of students and to make recommendations to address the issue. In
1980, the American Association of University Professors adopted a resolution
urging each local chapter to work with its institution to develop and strengthen
policies prohibiting sexual harassment on campus. 36 The movement against
sexual harassment was able to mobilize through existing women's movement
organizations.
These efforts to combat sexual harassment in education pressured school
administrators around the country to address the issue of sexual harassment.
Many schools began to conduct studies of sexual harassment on their cam-
puses, publish these studies, and adopt policies and procedures to address the
problem. Rutgers University was one of the first schools to prohibit sexual
harassment. On February 5, 1979, President Edward J. Bloustein issued a mem-
orandum to all university personnel stating that the school "deplores" sexual
harassment as an abuse of authority. He defined sexual harassment to be a su-
pervisor or faculty member imposing a requirement of sexual cooperation as
a condition of employment or academic advancement. In July of 1980, Rutgers
issued procedures for handling sexual harassment complaints, in which the
University broadened its definition of sexual harassment to include hostile
environment sexual harassment. The Rutgers policy was widely circulated as
an example of administrative leadership on the issue. Brown University, Uni-
versity of Washington, University of Louisville, Tulane University, and Stanford
were also at the forefront in adopting policies against sexual harassment. 37
FEMINIST THEORY ON SEXUAL HARASSMENT
This growing movement generated a body of theory about sexual harassment,

which drew primarily upon radical feminist analysis of patriarchy and violence
against women, but also on the civil rights movement's analysis of racial dis-
crimination and harassment and a leftist analysis of exploitative labor relations
of capitalism. Many feminists argued that sexual harassment was an issue of
violence against women. They borrowed from antirape theory the idea that
rape was a matter of power, not sex, and applied this perspective to sexual
harassment, arguing that sexual harassment was primarily motivated by men's
desire to control women. AASC member Mary Bularzik argued that sexual
harassment was like rape and wife-beating because it was "consistent, systemic,
and pervasive, not a set of random isolated acts.» Bularzik described violence
against women, including sexual harassment, as a "mechanism of social con-

trol" central to male oppression of women and as a social phenomenon, not an
individual interaction. She argued, "the license to harass women workers,
which many men feel they have, stems from notions that there is a 'woman's
place; which women in the labor force have left, thus leaving behind their
personal integrity." The purpose of harassment, she argued, was to preserve
male dominance and patriarchyY AASC argued that sexual harassment must
be understood within the broader climate of violence in American culture,
especially against women, including forcible rape, wife abuse, unwanted ster-
ilization, abusive advertising, pornography, and the institutionalization of
women. They argued that harassers, rapists, and batterers were not "psycho-
logically aberrant misfits" but were "responding 'logically' to cultural forces,
which encourage their violence," like the media and male peer groups. They
explained, "men are socialized to dominate women through the use and threat
of violent behavior."39 They argued that men engage in workplace harassment
in order to assert power over women who are economically threatening and
that they marginalized women in the workplace through the threat of
violence. 40
Feminists often analogized sexual harassment to rape, an issue that had
already galvanized women around the country. In a 1975 article in Sister Cour-
age, feminist activist Rochelle Leftkowitz commented that "like rape, sexual
harassment is an abuse of male power ... like rape, all women are its potential
victims."4 1 In 1977, WWUI stated, "the parallels between rape and sexual
harassment are many. WWUI sees sexual harassment on the job as economic
rape because it relies on economic force to extract sexual 'cooperation.' "4 2 In
the first government hearings on sexual harassment in 1979, several women
testifying made parallels between rape and sexual harassment. Mary Largen of
New Responses, Inc., argued that women who complain of sexual harassment
find themselves in the same position as women who report rape: they are dis-
believed and ignored, their credibility is challenged, or their complaints triv-
ialized. 43 Catharine MacKinnon argued, "economic power is to sexual
harassment as physical force is to rape."44
Feminists differed, however, in their analysis of the causes of sexual harass-
ment. Some focused primarily on patriarchy and male dominance as the cause.
For example, in the first book published on sexual harassment, the 1978 book
Sexual Shakedown, Lin Farley argued that sexual harassment originated with
patriarchal relations. She argued that "sexual harassment of women at work
arose out of man's need to maintain his control of female labor."45 Like Farley,
Working Women's Institute publications argued that inequality between
women and men in the workplace and in society was the basic cause of sexual
harassment. 46 The Institute maintained that sexual harassment was rooted in
the social subordination of women to men manifested by sex segregation in the
labor force, unequal pay, and limited opportunities for advancement for
women. In addition, they argued that men harass women because of cultural
stereotypes about proper sex roles, and this led men to treat women workers as
"sexual beings first and as breadwinners second."47 Peggy Crull expanded this
analysis by suggesting that men harass not only because they have the power
and can but also because they do not have power or fear losing it. Noting high
rates of sexual harassment in nontraditional jobs where women have obtained
similar status to men, Crull argued that men in these jobs feel that their power
at work is threatened, so they use sexual harassment as a way of "subduing
women" or driving them out altogether. As opposed to an "overflow" of power,
this is an "attempt to regain waning power" and "restore women to traditional
roles through the use of sexual intimidation."4 8
By contrast, other early theorists offered an explicitly intersectional analysis
of sexual harassment. AASC publications, in particular, criticized the "struc-
tures of power" that perpetuated sexual harassment - capitalism, sexism, rac-
ism, heterosexism, and ageism. 49 They argued that male power and class power
mutually reinforced each other to create a situation in which men were socially
and psychologically dominant. In the NovemberlDecember I978 issue of Aegis
magazine, Alliance members Martha Hooven and Nancy McDonald argued
that the conditions of work under capitalism, which gave women little auton-
omy or control, were a factor in women's vulnerability to sexual harassment.
They argued that capitalism "feeds" on sexism and racism. In the May/June
I979 issue of Aegis, an article reprinted from Hammer House, the newspaper
of the International Association of Machinists in Wichita, Kansas, attacked
capitalism, calling on all workers to fight harassment and pointing out the class
interests of employers in women's oppression. To charges that issues such as
sexual harassment divide the working class, the Alliance responded that male
workers did not ultimately benefit from harassing their female counterparts
because sexual harassment kept female wages low, thereby creating a cheap
and expendable labor force that threatened the bargaining power and strength
of male workers. 50 In another early book published on sexual harassment, The
Secret Oppression: Sexual Harassment of Working Women, AASC members
Connie Backhouse and Leah Cohen located the roots of this behavior in both
patriarchy and capitalism. They criticized both the sexual objectification of
women and the traditional, hierarchical structure of the workplace, calling
for sexual equality and "industrial democracy."51
These different feminist perspectives openly clashed in a I979 exchange
between Freada Klein and Lin Farley in the magazine Aegis when Klein criti-
cized Farley for focusing exclusively on patriarchy as the cause of sexual ha-
rassment and ignoring class and race. According to Klein, Farley ignored the
"complexities of sexual harassment" by identifying patriarchy as the "ultimate
source of sexual harassment" and failing to "sort out under what conditions
sex, race, or class each become the most conspicuous form of oppression."52.
Klein argued that patriarchy and capitalism reinforced each other in the phe-
nomena of workplace harassment and that racism had a major role in the
origins of working women's problems. In the next issue of Aegis, Farley de-
fended her emphasis on patriarchal relations as the source of sexual harass-
ment, noting that "the idea that capitalism itself somehow came up with the idea
of sexual harassment is absurd." 53 She argued that capitalism had in fact threat-
ened male control of women by creating a free labor market in which women
competed with men. In response, male trade unions gained control of the
majority of occupations by systematically denying women training and isolat-
ing them into a few occupations. Men then used sexual harassment to maintain
job segregation. According to Farley, this "periodic push-pull between capi-
talism and the patriarchy" had frequently happened and was happening in
197 8 .
Feminists also differed as to their views on how most effectively to combat
sexual harassment. Feminists generally looked to legal solutions to the prob-
lem. WWI, in particular, supported the development of legal avenues of relief
by their attorney referral network and brief bank. AASC also advocated legal
solutions, but was much more skeptical about what might be achieved through
the law. The Alliance emphasized that women should not rely exclusively on
grievance procedures and legal remedies developed by employers and govern-
ments but should act collectively to combat sexual harassment. As governments
and employers became involved on the issue of sexual harassment in the early
1980s, the Alliance expressed skepticism about government solutions and
employers' motivations. The Alliance argued that government solutions did
not serve women well because they were bureaucratic and legalistic. Employer
concern with sexual harassment, they suggested, stemmed not from a desire to
help women but rather was an attempt to avoid lawsuits, lowered productivity,
and unionization of workers. 54 The Alliance warned that government and
management initiatives against sexual harassment might co-opt women's col-
lective action to challenge the "root cause of sexual harassment - sexism."55
The Alliance sought not only to combat sexual harassment but also to help
women take "positive steps toward gaining more control over other aspects of
their lives." They emphasized the importance that women become "active par-
ticipants" by "learning to join together and speak out against the exploitative
aspects of their lives."5 6 They encouraged women to take the situation into
their own hands and make choices about their tactics, not give up control of the
situation to an outside investigator or agency, or rely on employers to solve the
problem. 57 They suggested tactics such as talking to other women in the work-
place, placing leaflets in bathrooms, publicizing the name of the harasser,
surveying the workplace, forming a workplace safety committee, sending a
warning letter to the harasser or the employer, or conducting an educational
picket in front of a workplace. 58 The Alliance also warned that employers
might use sexual harassment as a tool for selective punishment of certain
employees, such as members of unions or racial minorities. 59 The Alliance
did not completely reject legal strategies to combat sexual harassment but
argued that these strategies should "exist alongside other strategies that focus
on education and organization of women to take power in their homes and
their jobs." 60
Activists often theorized about the role of race in sexual harassment. When
African-American women spoke out about sexual harassment, they frequently
emphasized the importance of their race to their experiences of harassment. In

a May I976 newspaper article on Diane Williams' successful sexual harassment
case, Maudine Rice Cooper argued that African-American women were par-
ticularly vulnerable to sexual harassment. Citing statistics showing the eco-
nomic vulnerability of African-American women, Cooper stated that sexual
harassment was an issue of unique importance to African-American women:
"Historically, Black women, who were slaves in their master's homes, have
been slaves in their own homes and, in many instances, in their work environ-
ment as well [and they] have more often been subjected to sexual harassment
than have white women dating to the time of slavery in this country." She also
criticized African-American men for "turning the other cheek to the plight of
Black women, or even becoming willing participants in the humiliation, deg-
radation, and harassment of Black women," referring to the fact that the ha-
rasser in the Williams case was an African-American man. 61
In the Yale case, Pamela Price emphasized the importance of both her race
and gender to her experiences of harassment. In a statement issued in December
I977, she argued that "I was subjected to the assumption of my inferiority as
a black person as well as the assumption of my lack of seriousness as a
woman. ,,6~ She argued that the poor grade she received after rejecting her
professor's sexual advances was a "concrete expression of his racist and sexist
appraisal of me as a person.,,6 3 In a press release after the trial court ruled
against her, Price expressed her belief that race was critical to the disposition of
the case:
It's the same old story. Where sex is concerned, black women's accusations are consid-
ered lies and white men's denials are believed. Unfortunately, the trial, which was pre-
sided over by a [white) woman, was merely another manifestation of the racism and
sexism pervasive in society and reflected in its laws. It is symbolic that I entered this case
primarily because I am a woman and lost it primarily because I am a black woman. But
that is all the more reason for us to continue to fight back against all forms of
oppression. 64
Price argued that her race and sex were inextricably linked and shaped the legal
system's treatment of her claims.
The first scholarly treatment of race and sexual harassment was a I981
article by EEOC attorney Judy Trent Ellis, who later became the first African-
American Professor of Law at SUNY Buffalo. The article, entitled "Sexual
Harassment and Race: A Legal Analysis of Discrimination," appeared in the
Journal of Legislation. Ellis argued that racial and sexual harassment have the
same underpinnings insofar as they are "both an expression of dominance and
control by one group over another and a process of intimidation to maintain
a certain social structure.,,65 But Ellis argued for an analytical distinction be-
tween sexual harassment based on sexual exploitation and generalized sex-
based harassment, which parallels racial harassment. The former involved
pressure upon a woman for sexual favors with an implicit or explicit statement
that noncompliance will jeopardize her employment. The latter involved ridi-
cule, intimidation, or degradation, and often involved open hostility based on
the victim's racial or sexual identity. Ellis argued that while racial harassment is
easy to understand, sexually exploitative harassment lacked a ready framework
for analysis and was often difficult to distinguish from flirtation. She noted that
the "normalcy of male-female sexual interaction and the 'normalcy' of male
aggression and dominance cloud the issue. "66 According to Ellis, this distinc-
tion was useful because some principles developed in racial harassment cases,
although helpful in resolving generalized sex-based harassment complaints,
may be inappropriate when applied to sexual exploitation harassment. For
example, the rule that the plaintiff's case is weakened if several people do not
complain of harassment should not apply to sexually exploitative harassment
because this form of harassment was often directed at just one victim, as op-
posed to generalized harassment, which was often directed at a group. Finally,
Ellis argued that African-American women were often harassed due to both
race and sex, "either implicitly, so that the woman is unsure whether the ha-
rassment is racially or sexually motivated, or explicitly, where the harasser ex-
pressed his sexual interest in terms of her race," and therefore they should
not be foreclosed from defining harassment in terms of race and sex
discrimination. 67
The most in-depth theoretical and legal analysis of sexual harassment was
published in 1979 - Catharine MacKinnon's Sexual Harassment of Working
Women. MacKinnon's book, drafts of which she circulated among feminists
working on sexual harassment, had a significant influence on the development
of legal thinking about sexual harassment. MacKinnon created terms to de-
scribe two "categories" of behavior - quid pro quo and condition of work
sexual harassment, and suggested differing legal standards for each category.
Quid pro quo harassment she defined as a situation where "the woman must
comply sexually or forfeit an employment benefit." The second category, con-
dition of work sexual harassment (later called hostile environment harass-
ment), included less direct sexual behavior where the woman was "never
promised or denied anything explicitly connected with her job" but which
made her work environment unbearable. 68 In her analysis, MacKinnon fre-
quently compared race and sex discrimination and analogized sexual harass-
ment and racial harassment.
MacKinnon's primary argument was that sexual harassment was sex dis-
crimination. She distinguished two prevailing theories of sex discrimination:
the differences approach and the inequality approach. The differences ap-
proach sought to achieve equality by applying "the formula that 'similarly
situated' persons should be treated the same, meaning that persons in relevantly
similar circumstances should be treated relevantly similarly." The less com-
monly applied sex inequality theory, based on the understanding that
sex discrimination was the systematic domination of women by men, asked
"whether the policy or practice in question integrally contributes to the main-
tenance of an underdass or a deprived position because of gender status."
MacKinnon argued that sexual harassment was sex discrimination under both
theories, but that the differences theory was inadequate. Under the differences
approach, sexual harassment was sex discrimination because men and women
were comparable with regard to sexual harassment (both sexes can be sexually
harassed) but the sexes were not treated the same (women were harassed more).
MacKinnon argued that this approach was inadequate because it presumed
equality to measure disparity, and it ignored the fact that the sexes were in fact
substantially unequal. On the other hand, under the inequality approach, sex-
ual harassment was sex discrimination because sexual harassment expressed
and reinforced women's social inequality to men. 69 MacKinnon argued that
sexual harassment was not merely an individual injury but group-based dis-
crimination that harmed all women by reinforcing women's subordinate status
in the workplace. She argued that sex segregation in the workplace and male
control of hiring and firing made women systematically vulnerable to sexual
harassment. Like Farley, MacKinnon focused on patriarchal gender relations to
explain sexual harassment, but she also discussed the significance of race and
class to women's experience of harassment. 70
In the late 1970s, activists drew upon analytical developments in the wom-
en's movement, particularly the antirape movement, black feminist thought,
and socialist feminism, to frame sexual harassment as a gendered abuse of
power and, in a preliminary way, to analyze how gender, race, and class inter-
sected in women's experiences-of sexual harassment'?! Feminists then attemp-
ted to shape public discussions of this issue using this framework.
MEDIA COVERAGE OF SEXUAL HARASSMENT
In the early 1970s, when feminist organizations were some of the only sources
on sexual harassment, the media regularly turned to them for help in under-
standing the issue, which they covered with increasing frequency. Media cov-
erage reflected a broad range of attitudes toward sexual harassment, from
trivializing the issue to treating it as a matter of serious concern. The move-
ment's gendered framing of the issue, including the feminist understandings of
sexual harassment as a form of male dominance and abuse of women, appeared
in many early media reports of sexual harassment. The press even covered
sexual harassment of blue-collar women. Feminists were often quoted promi-
nently and feminist surveys cited. The movement aggressively pursued press
coverage in order to spread the word and recruit new members. And indeed,
press coverage raised public awareness of sexual harassment, leading more
women to resist sexually harassing behavior. While Enid Nemy's August
1975 article in the New York Times and the January 1976 article on sexual
harassment in the Wall Street Journal broke the ice in mainstream news report-
ing of sexual harassment, by the end of the 1970S, the issue had appeared
in a broad array of national and local newspapers and magazines. 72 The
issue appeared most often in women's magazines such as Harper's Bazaar,
Redbook, Ladies Home Journal, Ms., Essence, McCall's, Good Housekeeping,
Mademoiselle, Working Women, and Glamour. But the issue also appeared
frequently in news periodicals such as the New York Times, the Washington
Post, Business Week, Newsweek, Time Magazine, and the Nation. 73 Periodical
indexes reflect the growing media coverage. The Reader's Guide established
a "Sex in Business" category beginning in 1976-1977 and created an additional
category, "Sexual Harassment," in 1979-1980. Several newspaper indexes
listed articles on sexual harassment under the heading of "Sexism" until they
created a heading on "Sexual Harassment," which the Washington Post Index
did in 1979, the Chicago Tribune, Los Angeles Times, and New York Times
indexes did in 1980, and the Atlanta Constitution index did in 1982. The Wall
Street Journal listed sexual harassment articles under "Sexuality" through the
mid- 1980s,74
Unsympathetic media outlets often characterized sexual harassment as
a matter of oversensitive women or busybody bureaucrats, such as Russell
Baker's editorial on Alexander v. Yale in the New York Times, the scathingly
critical editorial on sexual harassment in William F. Buckley's National Review,
or the slew of editorials criticizing Judge Richey's decision in Williams v. Saxbe.
Sexual harassment was also often characterized as a matter of office flirtation,
as in a Time Magazine article called "Executive Sweet: Many Office Romeos
Are Really Juliets," which described a study by Barbara Gutek and Charles
Nakamura finding that many men reported being victims of sexual harassment.
From the cartoon showing a man being chased around a desk by a woman with
hearts floating around her head, to the concluding sentence that "as more
women rise to supervisory positions, it will become harder to tell who is chasing
who around the desk," the article trivialized the issue of sexual harassment by
ignoring power differentials based on sex and the differential impact of work-
place harassment on men and women,75 A Washington Post op-ed expressed
sarcastic confusion as to what was sexual harassment and questioned whether
sexual harassment was really sex discrimination. 76 Several magazines pub-
lished articles on "office romance," with little or no discussion of the potentially
coercive nature of relationships between male bosses and female subordi-
nates. 77 Often articles on sexual harassment appeared in the family, style, or
social issues sections of newspapers and magazines. 78
Even women's magazines sometimes lacked a critical perspective on the is-
sue of sexual harassment, such as a 1976 article in Harper's Bazaar, which
described sexual harassers as "office Romeos" and harassment as "office sex"
or a "pass." The article's suggested solutions focused on female behavior:
women were encouraged to dress modestly and be more assertive, including
making eye contact, using authoritative body language, speaking with convic-
tion, and not diluting the message by smiling,79 As late as July 1979, Working
Woman published an article that similarly assumed that assertiveness was an
adequate solution to the problem of sexual harassment and discouraged legal
solutions. 80 Several articles discussed sexual relations in the workplace or ed-
ucational setting without addressing the underlying power dynamics. 81 In
March 1980, an article in the Ladies Home Journal called "Love on the Job"
102 The Women's Movement against Sexual. Harassment
discussed sexual relations between male bosses and female subordinates with-
out explicitly discussing the issue of sexual harassment.82. Similarly, an August
1976 Ms. article on allegations of sexual advances toward students by the
women's track coach at UCLA did not discuss the situation as sexual harass-
ment, nor did it mention the women's movement activism on the issue. 83
Although some articles in women's magazines lacked a critical perspective
on the problem of sexual harassment, most of their coverage in the late 1970S
characterized the issue as a serious one that affected women working in a broad
range of occupations. In the November 1976 issue of Redbook, an article by
Claire Safran quoted extensively from a broad cross-section of women who had
answered the magazine's January 1976 survey, including a legal secretary, a
factory worker, and a college professor. Safran described the problem as "pan-
demic," occurring "in the executive suite, in the steno pool [and] on the assem-
bly line." She reported that changing one's behavior or dress rarely worked and
that women resented the implication that they were to blame. She argued,
"Both sexes arrive at work lugging the emotional baggage of a lifetime, all
the childhood teachings about what's masculine and what's feminine, the cul-
tural myths and social reflexes that make men and women behave as they do
toward each other. We've just begun to unpack that baggage, to look at it and
try to replace the worn-out, obsolete bits and pieces.,,8 4 Safran then suggested
ways to handle sexual harassment, including legal avenues of relief. In April
1978, Redbook published a follow-up report on judicial and legislative devel-
opments on sexual harassment and described WWI, providing contact
information. 85
Many women's magazines challenged traditional gender roles in the context
of discussions of sexual harassment. For example, the April 1978 issue of Red-
book published an article by anthropologist Margaret Mead called "A Pro-
posal: We Need Taboos on Sex at Work."s6 Mead recognized the power
dynamics underlying sexual harassment, noting that "so many men use sex in
so many ways as a weapon to keep down the women with whom they work."
Locating the roots of sexual harassment in socialization, she noted, "at home
and at school we still bring up boys to respond to the presence of women in
outmoded ways." Mead argued that the law is not enough to change behavior,
but that we must create a taboo against sex at work, similar to incest taboos,
in order to root out sexual harassment in the workplace. Other women's
magazines also published articles that condemned the gendered power dynam-
ics underlying sexual harassment. In the June 1977 issue of Ladies Home
Journal, feminist and Ms. editor Letty Cottin Pogrebin wrote an article analo-
gizing rape and sexual harassment, which she described as "a virulent form of
economic coercion practiced by men who have the power to hire or fire, pro-
mote or demote, give raises or deny them." She reported on the activities
of WWUI, quoting Susan Meyer and Karen Sauvigne. She also quoted sev-
eral women about their experiences of harassment, and then explained legal
developments on the issue, noting that often "personal solutions count for
nothing. ,,87
Expansion of the Movement against Sexual Harassment in the Late 1970S 10 3
Ms., the nation's premier feminist magazine of the day, gave the issue prom-
inent and sympathetic treatment in its November 1977 cover story. Much of the
issue, in fact, was dedicated to sexual harassment. In an in-depth story, Karen
Lindsey told stories of sexual harassment from women in a broad range of jobs -
an executive secretary, an advertising agent, an assembly-line worker, a medical
administrator, a waitress, congressional aides, and a student, often quoting these
women. She argued that those hardest hit by harassment were waitresses, clerical
workers, and factory workers because they were economically vulnerable. Lindsey
also explained the work of AASC and WWUI, discussed surveys of sexual
harassment, reviewed legal developments on the issue, described the effects of
harassment, and provided suggestions for how to deal with harassment. Lindsey
criticized articles suggesting that women can control sexual harassment through
their behavior. She concluded with a quotation from Freada Klein saying that
sexual harassment was an issue of violence against women. The same issue of Ms.
also had three other articles on sexual harassment, one on WWUI, one on AASC,
and one on sexual harassment at the United Nations. The July 1978 issue of Ms.
published numerous letters responding to the Lindsey article, in addition to an
article on the sexual harassment lawsuit against Yale University. In November
1979, an article in Ms. on the first National Conference of Women Coal Miners
discussed the pervasive sexual harassment suffered by women coal miners. Ms.
continued to cover the issue in the 1980s.88 This consistent coverage solidified
sexual harassment as an important issue for the women's movement and con-
tributed toward connecting women working on the issue, thereby creating the
sense of a larger community concerned about the issue.
Even women's magazines that did not specifically address the abuse of power
underlying sexual harassment still addressed the issue seriously, often drawing
on the expertise of WWUI. The March 1977 issue of McCall's ran an article
discussing the work of these organizations, quoting Freada Klein and Karen
Sauvigne. The April 1978 issue of Good Housekeeping contained an article
written by a secretary who described how she successfully confronted her boss
after speaking with an EEOC counselor. An article in the April 1978 issue of
Family Circle described the WWI survey and discussed legal avenues for relief
from sexual harassment. In the fall of 1979 Mademoiselle and Working Women
both had articles on how to deal with sexual harassment, quoting Karen
Sauvigne and an ACLU attorney and describing the work of AASC and
WWI. Even Harper's Bazaar had corne around by August 1979 to the realiza-
tion of the seriousness of sexual harassment when they ran an article about how
sexual harassment was the number one biggest problem of working women. 89
Newspapers and magazines geared toward a general audience often
addressed sexual harassment seriously. The New York Times repeatedly re-
ported on sexual harassment, particularly on the activities of WWUI. In Octo-
ber of 1977, the New York Times covered the speak-out on sexual harassment
in New York City sponsored by Ms. and WWUI. In 1979, the Times published
an article about Karen Sauvigne and Susan Meyer, describing their work with
WWI. In %980, the Times ran an article on the opening of WWI's National
Sexual Harassment Legal Backup Center. Many other newspapers around the
country began to cover sexual harassment and discuss the work of WWUI as
well. In March of 1980, USA Today and Newsweek published in-depth and
relatively sympathetic articles on sexual harassment, extensively quoting fem-
inist activists. In June of 1980, the Richmond Times-Dispatch published a four-
part series on sexual harassment. The local magazine Pittsburgh ran a long
anicle on sexual harassment in May of 1978, offering several suggestions for
how to deal with it, including "organize and speak out [or] form a local chapter
of the Alliance Against Sexual Coercion."9 0 In particular, newspapers and
magazines targeted at African-American communities closely covered develop-
ments on sexual harassment, including the New York Amsterdam News, Jet,
and Essence. 91 A 1981 article in Essence emphasized how black women were in
the forefront of the movement against sexual harassment. 92.
Often the press coverage focused on legal developments. In June 1978,
Mother Jones published an article on workplace sexual harassment called "Sex-
ual Harassment: The Executive's Alternative to Rape," focusing on Diane
Williams' case. 93 In April 1979, Newsweek reported on Adrienne Tomkins'
case. 94 In 1979, the Washington Post had extensive coverage of legal develop-
ments related to sexual harassment, especially the events leading up to the first
Congressional hearings on sexual harassment in the fall of 1979. Several news-
papers and magazines ran stories on cases of sexual harassment of students at
educational institutions. 95 The New York Times published several articles on
developments in Alexander v. Yale, which Time Magazine covered as well, and
the Nation published an in-depth article on the Yale case in January of 1978.96
Magazines targeting business audiences tended to focus on the legal aspects
of sexual harassment, particularly on how to avoid corporate liability, but they
also discussed resources for dealing with the problem, often mentioning WWI
and AASC. One business periodical, Across the Board, provided one of the
earliest in-depth discussions of the issue in April 1977. The article argued that
the real issue behind sexual harassment was not sex itself, but power in which
sexual abuse and coercion were means by which men socially and economically
exploited women in the work force. In October 1979, Business Week had two
articles on sexual harassment, one discussing legal cases and one discussing
how to handle harassment, mentioning WWI, AASC, and several other groups
that helped women troubled by sexual harassment. 97
Sexual harassment of blue-collar women received attention not only in
women's magazines but also in mainstream newspapers and magazines, espe-
cially toward the end of the decade when women were first breaking into non-
traditional blue-collar occupations in significant numbers. In August 1977, the
New York Times reported on new Labor Department regulations designed to
facilitate women's entrance into the construction industry, including a require-
ment that contractors "ensure and maintain a working environment free of
harassment, intimidation and coercion." In 1978, the Los Angeles Times re-
poned on sexual harassment of women in the construction industry. An August
1979 article appearing in the magazine Coal Age provided the first in-depth
article addressing sexual harassment of female coal miners. Soon many other
newspapers were covering sexual harassment of women coal miners, including
the New York Times, Washington Post, and Baltimore Sun. In 1981, the Village
Voice ran a long article on sexual harassment of women coal miners. In 1980,
the Richmond Times reported about sexual harassment of women in several
nontraditional jobs, including mining, manufacturing, carpentry, and construc-
tion. Sexual harassment in the military also received much media attention. 98
Despite this coverage, the press tended to focus primarily on "sexual" harassment
by supervisors rather than on hostile sex-based harassment by co-workers -
a tendency, which neglected experiences arguably mor;e characteristic of blue-
collar women, especially those in nontraditional fields. Furthermore, there was
rarely any discussion of the significance of race in the media coverage of sexual
harassment, and the media illustrations generally portrayed victims to be young,
attractive, white females in office settings, reflecting the race and class biases of
the media.
In addition to appearing in print media, coverage of the issue of sexual
harassment began to appear on radio and television programming. As early
as 1976, documentaries about sexual harassment appeared on television. In the
late 1970s, the Phil Donahue Show and McNeil-Lehrer Report did shows on
sexual harassment. In 1979, Lin Farley and Gloria Steinem together made a film
about sexual harassment. In 1980, Ed Asner teamed up with Lin Farley to
create a documentary film about sexual harassment, which addressed a variety
of work settings including clerical, construction, and service. Asner described
sexual harassment as an abuse of power, commenting that "men have used their
gender and their sexuality as symbols of their power in society" and that
"women want to separate sexuality and work to improve both." The documen-
tary won awards at both the San Francisco and New York Film Festivals. In
1981, National Public Radio produced a program on sexual harassment called
Beware of the Boss: Sexual Harassment on the Job by Katherine Davis. Davis
interviewed activists against sexual harassment, including WWI's Susan Meyer,
WLDF's Donna Lenhoff, and NOW's Beatrice Dome, as well as sexual harass-
ment plaintiffs Adrienne Tomkins and Diane Williams. Davis also interviewed
a broad range of sexual harassment victims, including a construction worker, a
doctor, a domestic worker, a clerical worker, and an electrician. The program
highlighted how men used sexual harassment as a weapon to discourage
women and force them to quit. According to one woman interviewed, men
use sexual harassment to keep women from "invading the boys' club."99
This issue of sexual harassment even appeared in movies and television
sitcoms, contributing to a broader awareness of the issue and reinforcing fem-
inist views on the issue. The 1980 hit movie Nine to Five, produced by Jane
Fonda's IPC Films and starring Dolly Parton, Lily Tomlin, and Fonda, brought
sexual harassment before a popular audience. In this zany comedy, Parton
played an attractive secretary who had to fend off a lecherous boss. Her co-
workers, played by Tomlin and Fonda, at first believed that Parton was using
her sex appeal to get ahead but soon realized that she was tormented by her
boss's advances. The three women, sharing their fantasies of revenge, conspired
to kidnap the boss. In his absence, they ran the company so effectively that he
was fired and the women were all promoted. The movie was inspired by Karen
Nussbaum, a clerk-typist in Cleveland who was an old friend of Fonda's from
the antiwar movement. Nussbaum was involved in organizing women office
workers through a national network called Working Women, The National
Association of Office Workers. The movie's theme song Nine to Five, sung by
Dolly Parton, was nominated for an Academy Award for best original song and
won a People's Choice Award for favorite motion picture song in 1981. The
movie was nominated for several Golden Globe awards and a Writers Guild of
America Screen Award. The movie was immensely popular, and even twenty-
five years later is one of the all-time best grossing movies at United States box
offices. 100 It was even made into a television series. In 1982, CBS produced
a television movie, starring Cheryl Ladd and Ned Beatty, about a woman who
was harassed and humiliated when she sought employment as a coal miner in
order to support her young son and ailing father. 101 The issue of sexual harass-
ment was also incorporated into the television situation comedy "One Day at
a Time." By the early 1980s, media coverage had significantly raised public
awareness of sexual harassment.
Media coverage of sexual harassment in the 1970S reflected feminist under-
standings of sexual harassment as a widespread and serious problem for
women, with significant physical, emotional, and financial repercussions. Fem-
inists' gendered framing of the issue influenced media coverage, which often
focused on power imbalances between men and women and how sexual ha-
rassment both reflected and reinforced male dominance in the workplace and in
society generally. Although some of the more radical feminist arguments never
appeared in mainstream discussions of sexual harassment, such as the Alli-
ance's analysis of the roots of sexual harassment in capitalism and racism,
media coverage nevertheless raised awareness of sexual harassment and pro-
vided a powerful medium for feminists to influence public discussions of sexual
harassment and recruit new participants to the movement. Through the media,
feminist theory on sexual harassment was able to significantly shape popular
discussions on sexual harassment and helped to propel the issue onto the public
agenda.
By the end of the 1970s, the issue of sexual harassment was firmly on the
mainstream feminist agenda. The movement was not only expanding, with
a plethora of new and established women's organizations addressing harass-
ment in employment and educational contexts, but the movement was matur-
ing. Whereas in the early and mid-1970S activists were working in relative
isolation, by the end of the 1970s, they became aware of each other's work
and began to influence each other and in some cases work together. This was
a time of information generation and dissemination, as well as a time of net-
working and collaboration across race, class, and institutional setting. The
strength of the movement lay in the ways that activism interrelated at different
levels and across different constituencies. The identity of the movement was
diverse, geographically, institutionally, racially, and economically. The women
who raised the issue were from all over the country, from a range of occupa-
tions, both traditional and nontraditional, white-collar, blue-collar, and pink-
collar, as well as students. This diversity benefited the movement because it
mobilized a wider population by providing multiple avenues of entry into the
movement, as well as allowing the movement to draw on resources from a va-
riety of existing social movements, including the civil rights movement, the
women's movement, and the labor movement. Analyzing sexual harassment
through a gendered framework, and characterizing the issue as one of both sex
discrimination as well as violence against women, and emphasizing the eco-
nomic repercussions, feminists were able to develop a shared understanding of
the importance of the issue, which legitimated and motivated collective action.
Activists effectively disseminated this understanding of sexual harassment
through media coverage of the issue, which then brought new people and
organizations to the movement. By the end of the decade, this groundswell of
concern caught the attention of Congressman James Hanley, Chairman of the
Subcommittee on Investigations of the House Post Office and Civil Service
Committee, who called the first congressional hearings on sexual harassment
in the federal workplace, hearings that would lead to several powerful govern-
ment initiatives that would fundamentally shape the development of sexual
harassment law in the following two decades but also change the nature of
sexual harassment activism.
PART III
THE MOVEMENT'S INFLUENCE ON

PUBLIC POLICY
6
Government Policy Develops
"We've talked openly about battered wives and battered children. The next thing
is battered office workers."
Representative Patricia Schroeder, I979 1
In response to the growing movement against sexual harassment, federal, state,

and local governments began to take action to combat sexual harassment. The
first congressional hearings on sexual harassment in 1979 generated major
press coverage and resulted in three important federal initiatives. A broad array
of women's organizations, including feminist groups, labor unions, and organ-
izations representing women of color and blue-collar women, participated in
public hearings and submitted comments on policy proposals. These activists
helped shaped the public discussion and the developing government policy
on sexual harassment. Government officials usually took the issue seriously,
expressing strong disapproval and developing remedies for victims of sexual
harassment. The resulting federal guidelines on sexual harassment had a signif-
icant impact on subsequent court decisions. But perhaps most significantly,
government initiatives against sexual harassment legitimized the issue and fur-
ther raised public awareness of the problem.
FEDERAL POLICY
Federal initiatives to study and prevent sexual harassment in the late 1970S
were inspired by publicity generated from several high-profile sexual harass-
ment scandals in the District of Columbia government. In the spring of 1979,
the Organization of Black Activist Women, which had earlier filed an amicus
brief in the Williams case, encouraged women working for the city to speak up
about sexual harassment.2. After several city employees filed complaints, D.C.
Mayor Marion Barry appointed a Sexual Harassment Task Force, which was
part of the D.C. Commission on Women. The Task Force sponsored several
meetings and forums to raise awareness and develop strategies to address the
problem, including conducting extensive surveys to document the incidence of
III
sexual harassment. On April 4, 1979, shortly after the Task Force was formed,
a D.C grand jury indicted George R. Harrod, director of the D.C Office of Per-
sonnel, for allegedly assaulting a female staff aide who was seeking to end
a sexual relationship with him. Three weeks later, Judge Hart issued his de-
cision in the case of Sandra Bundy. Although he declined to offer her any legal
relief, Judge Hart found that D.C Corrections Director Delbert Jackson and
three other corrections officials regularly made improper sexual advances to-
ward Bundy. After the Bundy decision, Mayor Barry publicly announced that
his administration would not tolerate the sexual harassment and abuse of
employees. Around the same time, federal investigators from the DOL were
probing reported allegations that employees in the District's federally funded
Comprehensive Employment and Training Act (CETA) program had been sex-
ually harassed. Based on his Task Force's recommendations, Mayor Barry is-
sued an executive order in May 1979 prohibiting sexual harassment and
establishing procedures to address the problem. 3
The publicity surrounding these events caught the attention of Al Louis
Ripskis, a mid-level official at the federal Department of Housing and Urban
Development (HUD) and editor of Impact Journal, a "gadfly" newsletter pub-
lished for workers at HUD. In the May/June issue of Impact, Ripskis published
a sexual harassment survey, inviting readers to respond anonymously. Ripskis
received 63 completed questionnaires and 103 telephone calls from women
reporting widespread sexual harassment at HUD.4 This survey, released on July
27, 1979, received extensive publicity and soon caught the attention of Con-
gressman James M. Hanley, a Democrat from New York and Chair of the
House Subcommittee on Investigations of the Post Office and Civil Service
Committee. In response, Representative Hanley initiated an investigation
of sexual harassment in the federal government. As part of the investigation,
he asked the heads of three federal agencies to address the issue of sexual harass-
ment. He asked Alan K. Campbell, Director of the Office of Personnel Man-
agement (OPM), to develop a model policy and procedures addressing sexual
harassment to be used throughout the federal workplace and to serve as a model
program for state and local governments, as well as private employers. 5 Second,
he asked Eleanor Holmes Norton, Chair of the EEOC, to develop sexual ha-
rassment guidelines to facilitate the processing of complaints within the EEOC
and to provide guidance to private employers covered by Title VII. Finally, he
asked Ruth T. Prokop, Chair of the Merit Systems Protection Board (MSPB), to
conduct a survey of sexual harassment in the federal workplace.
In addition to these initiatives, Representative Hanley held congressional
hearings to investigate sexual harassment. 6 The record of these hearings pro-
vides a glimpse into early articulations of the issue of sexual harassment. Hanley's
subcommittee heard testimony from representatives of eleven organizations,
including women's rights advocates, union representatives, and heads of gov-
ernment agencies. Hanley opened the hearings on October 23, 1979, by stating
that sexual harassment was a "serious issue, which cannot be ignored" and a
"serious abuse of power." He described sexual harassment as "not only
Government Policy Develops II3
epidemic, it is pandemic, an everyday, everywhere occurrence," citing studies

by HUD, New Responses, and Redbook, and noting that the subcommittee had
received approximately one hundred complaints since the start of the investi-
gation. He declared that sexual harassment would not be tolerated in the
federal government, that a "boys will be boys" atmosphere would not be con-
doned, and that "any person guilty of sexual harassment can expect to be dealt
with severely."? However, he defined sexual harassment very narrowly to be
"sexual intimidation by a male supervisor of a subordinate female employee"
who then suffered adverse employment consequences or threats of such action
when she rejected the supervisor's advances.
At the hearings, feminist activists offered powerful testimony about the
seriousness of sexual harassment and its effect on women. Donna Lenhoff,
a staff attorney at WLDF, urged the committee to address not just supervisors
pressuring subordinates for sex, but also environmental harassment by super-
visors and co-workers. Lenhoff vigorously criticized the lower court decision in
Bundy v. Jackson, emphasizing that "sexual harassment has been a historic
burden on women's ability, as a class, to attain full participation in our society,"
especially in nontraditional jobs. Lenhoff also criticized the difficult and ex-
tended process required to pursue discrimination charges. Mary A. Largen,
Director of New Responses, Inc., suggested that Congress amend Title VII
specifically to include sexual harassment as a form of sex discrimination but
also expressed reservations about the ability of laws to eliminate sexual harass-
ment. Largen argued, "laws and courts alone, however, cannot eradicate sexual
harassment or the imbalance of power, which fosters the behavior. It is a cul-
tural phenomenon and will be eliminated only through resocialization and
reeducation ... a change in attitudes as well as behaviors."s Largen reported a
great deal of management resistance to her educational programs and surveys of
sexual harassment. Helen Lewis of the D.C. Commission on Women's Sexual
Harassment Task Force reported that several surveys conducted by the Com-
mission revealed high rates of sexual harassment and then called for the adop-
tion of criminal penalties against sexual harassment. Diane Williams, the
plaintiff in Williams v. Sax be, described her experiences of sexual harassment
and her extended and ongoing litigation against the Department of Justice,
offering many suggestions of ways to improve the processing of EEO com-
plaints. Lenhoff, Largen, and Williams all made parallels between the experi-
ences and treatment of victims of rape and sexual harassment. In response
to committee members' expressions of concern about character assassination and
false accusations, the witnesses discussed women's hesitancy to reveal harass-
ment, their shame, and their fear of being blamed and accused of lying.
In addition to oral testimony, the subcommittee received written testimony
from several women's organizations. Representative Mary Rose Oakar sub-
mitted the statements of several women who had testified at an unemployment
compensation hearing earlier in June of the same year. The women, including
Jane Pinsky of Working Women - National Association of Office Workers, Jan
Leventer of the Women's Justice Center in Detroit, and Isabelle Katz Pinzler,
Director of the ACLU's Women's Right's Project, described the severity of

sexual harassment and the need to allow unemployment compensation for
women who quit because of harassment. NOW submitted a copy of a policy di-
rective on sexual harassment issued by the Department of Commerce and
a table of cases that had been part of a legal brief prepared by NOW Legal
Defense and Education Fund, which set forth the legal arguments for including
peer harassment within the definition of sexual harassment.
The subcommittee also received oral and written testimony from several
unions. Louise Smothers, Director of the Department of Women's Affairs for
the American Federation of Government Employees, testified that sexual ha-
rassment was "one of the most serious occupational hazards faced by working
women" around the country. She advocated for a broad definition of harass-
ment, including co-worker and hostile environment harassment and advocated
for statutory changes to facilitate complaint processing with the Merit System
Protection Board. Dorothy Nelms, National President of Federally Employed
Women, a union for women in federal employment, testified that, based on
a survey of their membership and complaints received from members, sexual
harassment was a severe problem, especially for women employed in nontra-
ditional jobs such as construction and engineering. She emphasized the eco-
nomic underpinnings of sexual harassment, namely, male economic power and
female powerlessness because of economic deprivation. The subcommittee re-
ceived written testimony from representatives of three other unions, all stating
that sexual harassment was a severe and pervasive problem for working women:
Tamara Bavar of the United Auto Workers in Michigan; Barbara Somson,
Assistant General Counsel for the International Union of Electrical, Radio,
and Machine Workers, also speaking for the Coalition of Labor Union Women;
and Vincent R. Sombrotto, President of the National Association of Letter
Carriers, AFL-CIO.
The dramatic highlight of the hearings was the subcommittee's intense ques-
tioning of William A. Medina, Assistant Secretary of Administration at the
Department of Housing and Urban Development, and Joseph A. Sanchez, Di-
rector of the Equal Employment Programs of the Justice Department. Hanley
had invited Medina and Sanchez to testify so they could respond to the Ripskis
survey of HUD employees and Diane Williams' testimony respectively. Both
Medina and Sanchez became very defensive in response to close questioning by
the subcommittee. Despite Ripskis' survey showing rampant sexual harassment
at HUD, Medina testified that HUD had received few formal complaints, but
that he had notified employees about complaint procedures and planned to
provide sexual harassment training courses for managers. Under critical ques-
tioning from the subcommittee, Medina stated that he had not spoken to
Ripskis, nor had he tried to verify Ripskis' findings. Of conversations he had with
HUD's Women's Caucus, he said "there were perceptions of sexual harassment
that I don't think any of us in this room would really think of as being any kind
of sexual harassment."9 Then he criticized the women for failing to provide
specific details about harassment. Sanchez, in his opening statement, described
Government Policy Develops 115
the Justice Department's EEO program and complaint procedures, without

mentioning sexual harassment specifically. The subcommittee questioned
Sanchez in detail about Williams' case, focusing, in particular, on how long
the case had been pending. Sanchez stated that he had not read Williams' testi-
mony before the committee. Surprisingly, he testified that he was unaware
that the Justice Department had ever taken the position that sexual harassment
was not sex discrimination. In exasperation, Representative John Cavanaugh,
a Democrat from Nebraska, exclaimed that the Justice Department's testi-
mony was "the most inadequate that I have experienced since I have been
a Member of Congress," that it "reflects sadly on our Department of Justice,"
and that there was a "serious problem" in the Department of Justice. Hanley
agreed. IO
Finally, the committee heard from the officials that Hanley had charged with
addressing the issue. EEOC Chair Norton testified that sexual harassment was
"deeply rooted in male perceptions of women" and that "the Federal Govern-
ment should set the tone for other employers in trying to rid the workplace of
this manifestation of the culture's bias against women." Noting that "until quite
recently it was thought to be unacceptable for women to engage in employment
outside the home," she argued that sexual harassment was associated with the
subordination of women and often intimidated women so as to circumscribe
their career movements. Norton advocated preventative policies and empha-
sized that the burden should be on the employer, not the victim, to act "aff-
irmatively and aggressively" to eliminate sexual harassment. Norton also
testified a bout EEOC experience with sexual harassment claims and training. I I
Campbell testified that the Office of Personnel and Management was develop-
ing a policy, procedures, and training on sexual harassment for uniform use
through the federal government, in response to Hanley's request. Prokop, the
Chair of the Merit System Protection Board, testified about the survey she was
developing on sexual harassment in the federal government and about avenues
of relief for sexual harassment before the board.
The subcommittee's report, "Sexual Harassment in the Federal Govern-
ment," issued on April 30, 1980, concluded that sexual harassment was an "ex-
tremely serious matter" and a widespread occurrence throughout the federal
government that would not be tolerated. The subcommittee made twenty-one
recommendations to federal agencies, state and local governments, organized
labor, and the private sector, encouraging policies, training, and grievance pro-
cedures to address sexual harassment. I 2 The report included an extensive bib-
liography on sexual harassment, including works of AASC, WWI, Lin Farley,
Catharine MacKinnon, Adrienne Rich, and other feminists. This report repre-
sented a significant step toward recognition of the seriousness of this issue and
in many ways vindicated years of hard work by feminists around the country.
The Ranking Minority Member of the Subcommittee on Investigations, Re-
publican Representative Gene Taylor, disapproved of the report. Criticizing the
report for "jumping to conclusions" and characterizing sexual harassment as an
"imagined personnel problem," Taylor stated that he did not believe that the
II6 The Women's Movement against Sexual Harassment
evidence received by the committee supported a finding that sexual harassment

was a widespread problem in the federal workplace. In addition, he criticized
the subcommittee for failing to address the prevalence of "unfounded and friv-
olous complaints of sexual harassment." Finally, he expressed concern about
the "right of an individual accused of sexual harassment to a presumption of
innocence" and how those accused will be assured of protection of their rights
under the law!3
Shortly before Hanley's subcommittee released its report, the EEOC pro-
posed sweeping guidelines on sexual harassment. 14 Going beyond what any
court had held at the time, the proposed guidelines made employers, public and
private, liable for both coercive sexual demands made by supervisors and en-
vironmental harassment by supervisors and co-workers. No doubt Norton's
background as a civil rights activist, a black feminist, and a lawyer informed
her progressive approach to the problem of sexual harassment. In her early
years, Norton was active with the NAACP and the Student Nonviolent
Coordinating Committee and worked with Pauli Murray, Marian Wright
Edelman, and Fannie Lou Hamer. Norton was a founder of the National Black
Feminist Organization in the early 1970s. After graduating from Yale Law
School in 1964, Norton clerked for Federal District Court Judge A. Leon
Higginbotham and then worked for the American Civil Liberties Union. From
1970 until 1977, Norton chaired New York City's Commission on Human
Rights, where she addressed the issue of sexual harassment in government
contracts at the urging of Lin Farley. She later served on the board of WWUI.
Her work on the Human Rights Commission brought her to the attention of
President Jimmy Carter, who appointed her to chair the EEOC in 1977, a po-
sition she held until 1981. The year before Norton assumed leadership of the
EEOC, the agency had a reputation as the "government's worst bureaucratic
mess.,,15 The Washington Post described the agency as "deeply troubled" and
"demonstrably ineffective," with low morale and a "scandalous backlog" of as
many as 150,000 cases. Allegations against the agency included falsification of
records and "reports by female personnel of coercion by their bosses to engage
in sexual games.,,16 As Chair of the EEOC, Norton turned the agency around,
dramatically increasing its efficiency. Within Norton's first two years, the
agency cut its backlog nearly in half and increased productivity by as much
as 65%, settling the average case in just seventy-two days.
The EEOC's proposed guidelines broadly prohibited sexual harassment and
declared that sexual harassment was sex discrimination, in violation of Title VII
of the Civil Rights Acts. The guidelines defined sexual harassment as "unwel-
come sexual advances, requests for sexual favors, and other verbal or physical
conduct of a sexual nature" that included both explicit sexual demands linked
to job benefits and conduct that had "the purpose or effect of substantially inter-
fering with an individual's work performance or creating an intimidating, hos-
tile, or offensive working environment." The guidelines held employers strictly
liable for the acts of their supervisory employees (liable without regard to
whether the employer knew or even forbade harassment) and liable for the acts
Government Policy Develops II?
FIGURE 6.1. Eleanor Holmes Norton, 1981. Courtesy of EEOC
of others if the employer knew or should have known of the harassment and
failed to take immediate and appropriate corrective action. The guidelines also
recommended that employers take preventative steps to eliminate sexual ha-
rassment from the workplace. 17
When the EEOC issued a call for public comment on the proposed guide-
lines, the agency received a groundswell of responses, most of which was
strongly supportive. 18 Women's organizations praised the proposed guidelines,
especially the basic principle that sexual harassment was sex discrimination
and the broad definition of sexual harassment. The comments discussed the
prevalence and effects of sexual harassment on working women and empha-
sized the economic basis of sexual harassment. WWI argued that women's
vulnerability to sexual harassment was based on their subordinate position in
IIS The Women's Movement against Sexual Harassment
the "economic hierarchy." They described sexual harassment as the "quintes-

sential expression of the stereotypic role expectations of both sexes.,,19 Sexual
harassment, they argued, denied women a role as a "contributing member of
the workforce." NOW and WLDF cited many studies of sexual harassment,
including the Redbook survey, WWI studies, and Lin Farley's book. They ar-
gued that sexual harassment was "an expression of power by men over women
in the employment context.,,2.0 Other groups, however, criticized the EEOC's
exclusive focus on sexual behavior and failure to address nonsexual gender-
based harassment. They also pushed for a more stringent standard of employer
liability. AASC and Women in the Trades argued that the guidelines should
acknowledge that sexual harassment was used by men to discriminate against
women based on their race and age.
While women's organizations sought to broaden the guidelines and raise
standards of liability, employers and their representatives criticized the guide-
lines as too expansive. They generally acknowledged that sexual harassment
was a serious problem in the workplace, but they argued that liability should
arise only when an employer had actual knowledge of sexual harassment and
failed to act to eliminate it. Employers also strongly opposed the inclusion of
"intimidating, hostile, or offensive" work atmosphere within the definition of
sexual harassment, arguing that work environment did not have an adverse
impact on employment. They also expressed concern that the definition of
harassment was too subjective and that the guidelines would lead to many
frivolous charges. The u.S. Chamber of Commerce argued against requiring
employers to "police" the personal lives of supervisors and suggested that it was
better to deal with these situations voluntarily. 2.1
After several modifications, the EEOC adopted the final guidelines on Sep-
tember 23, 1980, and they were published on November la, 1980, shortly after
Ronald Reagan's landslide victory.2.2 The commission changed the definition of
hostile environment harassment from conduct "substantially interfering with
an individual's work performance" to conduct "unreasonably interfering with
an individual's work performance," a change Jan Leventer of the in Detroit
criticized because of the implication that there could be "reasonable" interfer-
ence with a woman's work performance. The EEOC defended this change by
arguing that this was the standard used in harassment cases based on national
origin, race, and religion, and that sexual harassment cases should be treated
similarly. Also, the commission expressed its concern with "framing a specific
definition, which does not include behavior which is perfectly acceptable social
behavior. "2.3 The EEOC in large part maintained the proposed liability stand-
ards. In response to several written comments and a "large number of members
of the public who telephoned the Commission," the revised guidelines also
provided that those employees who were deprived of employment opportuni-
ties because a sexually submissive co-worker had gained an advantage through
sexual compliance had a claim under Title VII. The commission noted, how-
ever, that it "does not consider this to be an issue of sexual harassment in the
strict sense." Leventer criticized this change, arguing that the EEOC had
Government Policy Develops II9
codified and lent credence to the sexist stereotypes that female workers "sleep
their way to the top.">'4
The debate over the guidelines was a struggle between feminist arguments
that sexual harassment significantly impaired women's full participation in the
workforce and employers' arguments that sexual harassment was a personal
problem for which employers should not be responsible. Similar to the argu-
ments feminist activists and employers had made before the federal appellate
courts, the debate over the EEOC guidelines at its core was about power
relations between men and women in the workplace. Conservatives won some
concessions, namely the requirement that interference with the working envi-
ronment had to be "unreasonable" and the provision of a cause of action for
those disadvantaged by a sexually submissive co-worker. Feminists, on the other
hand, were able to preserve the broad standards proposed, but they gained little
new ground. In particular, the proposed definition of harassment was not
broadened, and the guidelines did not explicitly mention nonsexual gender-
based harassment. However, under Norton's leadership, the EEOC preserved
the progressive liability standards it had set out in the proposed guidelines.
The EEOC's guidelines increased public awareness of the issue of sexual
harassment and significantly influenced the development of the law. The media
and law review commentary discussed the actions of the EEOC extensively, if
often critically. For example, "Guideline-Happy at the EEOC?" in the Wall
Street Journal described the EEOC as an "imperial bureaucracy," criticizing
the EEOC for issuing "vague and sweeping guidelines that go far beyond the
intent of courts and Congress." The article described the guidelines as calling
for companies to "police innocent flirtation" and inviting an "avalanche of
questionable charges.">'5 "EEOC Gets Slapped on Sex Harassment Regs" in
the National Law Journal quoted several employer defense attorneys saying
that the EEOC's view of liability "flies in the face of basic legal principles. ,,>.6 An
article in Industry Week quoted an attorney charging that the guidelines "con-
fuse rather than clarify" the obligation of employers, and another saying that
the guidelines "offend his sense of fairness."2? A column in Fortune magazine
described the guidelines as "less than satisfactory" and attributed the new
attention to sexual harassment to "job possibilities for the equal opportunity
bureaucracy, which had gone maybe six weeks without finding a new form of
discrimination to outlaw.,,28 One law review commentator described the EEOC
guidelines as "enveloped in a storm of controversy" and criticized the guidelines
as confusing, idealistic, unrealistic, and unfair, saying that "not all wrongs are
amenable to judicial correction" and that "a balance must often be struck be-
tween what is desirable and what is possible."29 Many other law review arti-
cles, however, responded favorably to the guidelines. 30 Media coverage of the
EEOC's guidelines increased public awareness of the issue of sexual harass-
ment. As a result, both WWI and AASC reported that they were flooded by
requests for information about the problem from a wide range of individuals
and organizations, including the media, management personnel, consulting
firms, and EEO officers.
The EEOC guidelines have been very influential on expanding the definition
of sexual harassment to include hostile environment harassment. In May 1980,
a federal district court in Oklahoma cited the proposed guidelines in issuing the
first federal court ruling that hostile environment sexual harassment violated
Title VII in the case of Brown v. City of Guthrie. 31 Just two months after the
EEOC adopted the final guidelines, they were explicitly approved in the case of
Bundy v. Jackson, where the District of Columbia Circuit Court of Appeals
became the first federal appellate court to hold that Title VII prohibited hostile
environment sexual harassment. 32 Three progressive judges - Chief Judge J.
Skelly Wright, Judges Luther Merritt Swygert and Spottswood Robinson -
issued the ground breaking decision that Title VII prohibited sexual harassment
that had no tangible job consequences but affected only the psychological and
emotional work environment. Noting that '''the nuances and subtleties of dis-
criminatory employment practices are no longer confined to bread-and-butter
issues,'" Judge Swygert argued that hostile environment sexual harassment
"injects the most demeaning sexual stereotypes into the general work environ-
ment and always represents an intentional assault on an individual's innermost
privacy."H Perhaps most significantly, Judge Swygert explicitly acknowledged
the gendered power dynamics underlying sexual harassment when he stated,
"so long as women remain inferiors in the employment hierarchy, they may
have little recourse against harassment beyond the legal recourse Bundy seeks
in this case." The case of Bundy v. Jackson set an important, influential legal
precedent and became a focal point for public discussion of sexual harassment
and a rallying point for feminists in the early 1980s. Bundy'S case was discussed
widely in law reviews and covered extensively in the press, generating sympathy
for the victims of sexual harassment. 34 In addition to influencing courts, the
EEOC guidelines influenced the development of sexual harassment policy at
other federal agencies and in the states. For example, the Office of Federal
Contract Compliance Programs modified guidelines they had proposed before
the EEOC guidelines were issued to comply with the EEOC standards. 3 5 On the
state level, the Connecticut legislature and several state human rights commis-
sions adopting prohibitions of sexual harassment incorporated the EEOC
guidelines verbatim. 36 Perhaps most importantly, the guidelines encouraged
employers to adopt preventative policies and influenced the definition of sexual
harassment in those policies. 37
The EEOC continued to work on the issue of sexual harassment and, in
1980, began to keep statistics on the number of sexual harassment cases filed.
The EEOC received approximately one thousand sexual harassment com-
plaints in the first year after the guidelines were issued and quickly began to
issue decisions providing additional guidance. 38 In 1981, there were six re-
ported EEOC decisions on sexual harassment. 39 The EEOC placed sexual
harassment cases into a rapid-charge processing system, whereby sexual ha-
rassment claims that were not settled were sent to headquarters in Washington,
D.C. for final resolution after regional offices completed their investigations.
This system ensured serious consideration and consistent rulings. To facilitate
fast and fair resolution of sexual harassment cases within the federal gov-
ernment, the EEOC instituted a pilot program with five agencies where the
commission extended its oversight at the agency level. The EEOC also contin-
ued to participate in sexual harassment litigation, gaining preliminary injunc-
tions in several cases in the year after issuing the guidelines. In addition to
adopting federal guidelines on sexual harassment, the EEOC directed all fed-
eral agencies to develop plans to educate employees about their rights, respon-
sibilities, and remedies under the sexual harassment guidelines and to take
other steps to eliminate sexual harassment. The EEOC began training its staff
on sexual harassment, including regional attorneys, field managers, and super-
visors, and worked with the Office of Personnel Management (OPM) to in-
tegrate the EEOC guidelines into a unified training program for all federal EEO
personnel in the various agencies. Finally, EEOC Commissioners and staff
made themselves available to employer and employee groups to discuss the
guidelines and methods of sexual harassment prevention. 40
The second federal initiative to emerge from the Hanley hearings was the
OPM's model policy and training materials. On December 12, 1979, OPM
Director Campbell issued a policy statement and definition of sexual harass-
ment, which he sent to all heads of departments and independent agencies of
the executive branch of the federal government. 4I At the time, few federal
agencies had policy statements on sexual harassment, and the few that did
had differing definitions, leading to confusion. OPM was the logical choice
for standardizing this definition because it was the agency responsible for ad-
ministering the federal merit system, including personnel policy development
and employee training for the executive branch of the federal government.
Campbell defined sexual harassment as "deliberate or repeated unsolicited
verbal comments, gestures, or physical contact of a sexual nature which are
unwelcome." The policy continued,
A supervisor who uses implicit or explicit coercive sexual behavior to control, influence,
or affect the career, salary, or job of an employee is engaging in sexual harassment.
Similarly, an employee of an agency who behaves in this manner in the process of
conducting agency business is engaging in sexual harassment. Finally, any employee
who participates in deliberate or repeated unsolicited verbal comments, gestures, or
physical contact of a sexual nature, which are unwelcome and interfere in work pro-
ductivity is also engaging in sexual harassment. 42
The policy statement declared that "It is the policy of the Office of Personnel
Management (OPM) that sexual harassment is unacceptable conduct in the
workplace and will not be condoned.... At the same time it is not the intent
of the OPM to regulate the social interaction or relationships freely entered
into by Federal employees."43 Campbell's model policy strongly opposed sex-
ual harassment but was weaker than the EEOC guidelines. While clearly pro-
hibiting coercive sexual demands by supervisors, the policy was ambiguous
about whether it prohibited environmental harassment and harassment by
co-workers. In addition, Campbell's policy was weak because it declined to
[11 The Women's Movement against Sexual Harassment
provide penalties for sexual harassment. In testimony before the subcommittee,

Campbell defended this lack of sanctions on the grounds that there was not
sufficient experience with the application of specific penalties to specific actions
in cases of sexual harassment. He also stated that the Merit System Protection
Board was the agency responsible for deciding appropriate remedies for a partic-
ular action. 44
An OPM survey of federal offices revealed that in response to Campbell's
directive and as of September I, 1980, sixty-two of seventy-three departments
and independent agencies had issued policy statements on sexual harassment,
nine were in the process of drafting statements, and two had done nothing. 45
All the policies clearly defined sexual harassment, prohibited it as a form of
employment discrimination, and warned employees that disciplinary actions
would be taken if the policy was violated. Most agencies informed employees
that complaints of sexual harassment would be filed under EEO complaint
procedures. All four defense agencies issued policy directives applicable to both
civilian and military personnel. OPM also worked with state and local govern-
ments to encourage them to adopt sexual harassment policies. 46
In addition to issuing a policy statement against sexual harassment, OPM
developed a model training workshop. The objectives of the workshop were to
inform employees of the federal policy and definition of sexual harassment and
the course of action to be taken if sexual harassment were experienced or
observed, to explain the differing perceptions of behavior that constituted sex-
ual harassment, and to describe the impact of sexual harassment on employee
morale and productivity. 47 OPM recommended training both supervisory and
nonsupervisory employees. The trainer's manual contained the congressional
statements of Alan Campbell, Ruth Prokop, Eleanor Holmes Norton, and
James Hanley. The manual also included the OPM policy on sexual harass-
ment, related federal personnel policies, the EEOC proposed guidelines, and
procedures for processing individual complaints. Finally, the manual included
a three-hour lesson plan, two handouts, notes for the trainer about the psycho-
logical effects of sexual harassment, a discussion of options open to victims of
sexual harassment and the responsibilities of supervisors, and a reading list.
The training materials incorporated feminist perspectives on sexual harass-
ment. For example, the introductory section of the trainer's manual described
harassment as "evidence of the need to feel powerful, dominant, and manipu-
lative, and sometimes the result of years of conditioning in stereotyped ways of
thinking about the roles of both men and women."4 8 The suggested reading list
included Farley's Sexual Shakedown, MacKinnon's Sexual Harassment
of Working Women, AASC's Sexual Harassment at the Workplace, Betty
Friedan's The Feminist Mystique, and Sexual Harassment: A Hidden Issue by
the Association of American Colleges' Project on the Status of Women. The sug-
gested training program began with ten questions that attempted to get partic-
ipants to think about the causes and effects of sexual harassment. One question
asked, "If you consider that many people (including women) think of women as
sex objects, can you name some influences that have led to this attitude? (for
Government Policy Develops 12 3
example, songs, commercials, advertisements, etc.)." Another question asked,

"Do you think that sexual humiliation and possession are ways to shore up
a threatened self-image?" Another asked participants to think about how sex
segregation and women's subordinate status in the workplace related to sexual
harassment on the job. 49 Following the questions, participants were asked to
discuss ten quotations about sexual harassment, most of which came from fem-
inist sources such as WWI, AASC, and the congressional testimony of Eleanor
Holmes Norton. These quotations incorporated feminist ideas that sexual ha-
rassment was a serious issue that had an extremely debilitating effect on women
and was rooted in cultural stereotypes of women as sex objects. One quotation
from Ms. magazine described sexual harassment as "a symbol of superiority,
dominance, and ownership." 50 The trainer's manual also included information
about the effect of sexual harassment on workforce morale and productivity,
quoting extensively from AASC's 1977 brochure "Sexual Harassment in the
Workplace." OPM distributed the training materials to seventy agencies and to
each of OPM's regions on January 7,1980. By September 1980, most agencies
were using the OPM training materials or were developing their own training
materials, and many agencies had already commenced training. OPM esti-
mated that by this time approximately 8,800 federal employees had received
training on sexual harassment. OPM also began monitoring the penalties im-
posed on perpetrators of sexual harassment in the federal workplace.
The third federal initiative that developed out of the hearings was the Merit
System Protection Board survey of sexual harassment in the federal govern-
ment. Noting the lack of scientific surveys on the nature and magnitude of
sexual harassment in the workplace, Hanley'S subcommittee asked Ruth
Prokop of the Merit System Protection Board, the grievance arbitration board for
federal employees, to conduct a comprehensive survey to determine the extent
of sexual harassment in the federal workplace. Several feminists, including
AASC's Freada Klein, served as consultants on this survey. MSPB surveyed
a random sample of 23,000 female and male federal employees, 85% of whom
responded. The MSPB survey, reported in September 1980, found that 42 % of
the females and 15% of the males responding said they had been sexually ha-
rassed in the two years before the survey. According to the survey, victims of
harassment tended to be young, unmarried, college-educated women. Most
harassers were older married men acting alone. The survey revealed that most
harassers were co-workers, but many were supervisors. Male victims of harass-
ment were more likely to be members of a minority racial or ethnic group and in
a trainee position or office/clerical position. Generally, employees were more
likely to be harassed if they worked in a nontraditional position, such as female
law enforcement or male secretaries, if they had an immediate supervisor of the
opposite sex, and if they had an immediate work group composed predomi-
nantly of the opposite sex. The study also showed that black and white women
in the federal government suffered sexual harassment to approximately the
same degree, but that white women's harassers were white males 75% of the
time and black women's harassers were white males 53% of the time. Most
female respondents said they did not file a complaint because they lacked
confidence in the effectiveness of the available formal procedures. Respondents
also believed that the problem was no worse in the federal government than in
the private sector. MSPB conservatively estimated the cost of sexual harassment
to the federal government between May 1978 and May 1980 to be $189 mil-
lion. 5 I MSPB also began reviewing sexual harassment cases involving federal
employees. In one case, the MSPB held that a male supervisory employee was
properly demoted to a nonsupervisory position for making sexual advances to
three female subordinates. Another case held that a male employee was prop-
erly discharged for indecent conduct toward a female co-worker, abusive lan-
guage, and a threatening attitude toward another female co-worker, and repeated
physical abuse of a male co-worker. A third case held that a male foreman was
properly discharged for making sexually suggestive remarks to and about female
employees and touching them. 52 All three cases were decided in the first half of 1980.
These three federal initiatives had a tremendous influence both on the de-
veloping law of sexual harassment and on public discussion of the issue. Most
importantly, the EEOC's guidelines established an expansive and influential
definition of sexual harassment and broad standards of employer liability that
applied not only to the federal workplace but also to private employers. The
Merit System Protection Board survey, as the first large-scale scientific study of
sexual harassment, proved that sexual harassment was a serious problem in the
federal workplace. By providing an objective measure of the problem, the study
was influential in convincing courts that sexual harassment was a pervasive
problem in the workplace. Finally, the wide distribution and adoption of
OPM's policy set an example for employers seeking to establish sexual harass-
ment policies and procedures and created a high expectation that employers
should address the issue. Press coverage of the hearings and the resulting federal
initiatives was extensive. 53 Business periodicals began to cover the issue of sex-
ual harassment intensively, expressing concern about employer liability for
sexual harassment. Radio and television coverage of the issue also proliferated,
and several films about sexual harassment appeared. 54
These federal initiatives inspired employers, unions, and other organizations
to act. General Motors sponsored a meeting of activists to discuss how they
should deal with sexual harassment in their workforce. 5 5 Many employers
began to offer sexual harassment training in the workplace. Whereas sexual
harassment training in the late 1970S was primarily offered by feminist organ-
izations like WWI, AASC, and New Responses, by the early 1980S, manage-
ment training consultants began publishing training manuals and offering
programs on sexual harassment in the workplace and in educational institu-
tions. In response to this growing interest in the issue, a broad array of activist
organizations published guides on sexual harassment in the early 1980s, inclu-
ding women's groups, unions, and educational organizations. The Center for
Women Policy Studies sponsored a meeting of researchers and public policy
specialists on sexual harassment, including Freada Klein, Karen Sauvigne,
Catharine MacKinnon, Barbara Gutek, and Mary Rowe at the Wingspread
Conference Center in Racine, Wisconsin. The conference participants addressed

questions of how to define sexual harassment, what direction research should take,
and how public policy on the issue should develop.5 6 This proliferation of atten-
tion to the issue of sexual harassment was a direct result of the Hanley hearings.
Hanley's 1979 hearings were the most influential and widely publicized
federal response to the issue of sexual harassment, but several other important
federal investigations and initiatives were under way in the late 1970S and early
1980S in the areas of unemployment compensation, the military, the post office,
and at educational institutions. 57 On December 16 and 17, 1979, the Baltimore
Sun published several articles on allegations of widespread harassment at the
military base in Fort Meade, Maryland. In response to these allegations, on Feb-
ruary II, 1980, the Military Personnel Subcommittee of the House Committee
on Armed Services heard testimony on sexual harassment in the military, focus-
ing on the allegations about Fort Meade. Five women serving at Fort Meade
testified about their experiences of sexual harassment, and Colonel Thomas
Fitzpatrick, Post Commander at Fort Meade, testified as to how he was han-
dling the allegations. 58 One woman testified that her male superiors and peers
talked "extremely dirty and nasty" and pushed her into a corner and exposed
themselves to her. Others reported being sexually assaulted. In questioning
Colonel Fitzpatrick about ways to address sexual harassment, Representative
Patricia Schroeder suggested that he eliminate topless dancers and go-go danc-
ers from the clubs on the base because such behavior was "an inducement to
treating women a little differently, as a chattel, shall we say, and not an equal."59
The post office was another arena where the issue of sexual harassment
arose. The Subcommittee on Postal Personnel and Modernization of the Com-
mittee on Post Office and Civil Service held two hearings in Houston, Texas, on
October 27, 1980 and on July I, 1981.60 The hearings addressed equal em-
ployment opportunity, racial discrimination, and sexual harassment in the
Texas Postal Service. The subcommittee chair, Texas Democrat Mickey Leland,
explained that he was conducting the hearings because of an "inordinate"
number of sexual harassment complaints from women and unions. Although
the hearings focused on Texas, Leland stated that he intended to examine dis-
crimination and sexual harassment problems in the postal service nationwide.
Leland opened the July 1981 hearings with a strong statement against sexual
harassment, echoing feminist rhetoric and sentiment:
There is absolutely no excuse whatsoever for women to be relegated to the role of sex
objects, to be used or abused because they are considered to be culturally the weaker sex.
In my opinion, this misconception is not based on fact, but rather due to cultural biases.
We have, in many instances, relegated or subjugated women to lesser roles, for one
reason or another, and primarily targeted them in many instances to be the object of
the personal advances by supervisors, managers, and even other co-workers. 6 '
Several women testified before the subcommittee about their experiences of

sexual harassment in the postal service, and several male union representatives
testified about sexual harassment of their female members. Although none of
these hearings received the sort of media attention given the Hanley hearings,
they contributed to the growing public consciousness of sexual harassment.
Furthermore, the broad participation of feminist organizations, unions, and
others reflected the widespread concern developing about the issue of sexual
harassment at the turn of the decade.
The federal government also acted on sexual harassment in education. In
August of 1981, the Office of Civil Rights of the United States Department of
Education issued guidance under Title IX on sexual harassment at educational
institutions. In a memorandum to regional civil rights directors, Antonio J.
Califa, who was Director for Litigation, Enforcement, and Policy Service,
stated that Title IX prohibited sexual harassment and provided procedures
for investigating and processing sexual harassment complaints. The memoran-
dum defined sexual harassment broadly as "verbal or physical conduct of a sex-
ual nature, imposed on the basis of sex ... that denies, limits, provides different,
or conditions the provision of aid, benefits, services, or treatment protected
under Title IX. ,,62 Califa relied on the EEOC guidelines and Title VII case-
law on sexual harassment in developing his guidance on sexual harassment
at educational institutions. All of these federal initiatives reflected a new atti-
tude that sexual harassment was a serious problem warranting government
action.
STATE AND LOCAL POLICY
In the late 1970s, while federal law against sexual harassment was developing
in the courts and the federal government was beginning to act on sexual ha-
rassment, state governments also turned to the issue. Wisconsin was the first
state to pass a statute explicitly prohibiting sexual harassment in employment
in 1978.63 The Wisconsin legislature amended its Fair Employment Act to pro-
hibit employers from making employment benefits contingent on consent to
"sexual contact or sexual intercourse." This law, however, reached only the
most severe forms of harassment because "sexual contact or sexual intercourse"
was defined very narrowly by the state criminal code. Michigan, on the other
hand, passed a broad prohibition of sexual harassment in 1980, inspired by
publicity from the September 1977 ruling in the case of Munford v. James T.
Barnes and Co. This case became widely known in Michigan because the
plaintiff, Maxine Munford, testified at public hearings on sexual harassment
and made several appearances on Michigan television and radio talk shows. In
the spring of 1978, the Michigan Department of Labor's Office of Women and
Work and the University of Michigan's Institute of Labor and Industrial Rela-
tions convened a meeting of representatives from labor organizations, aca-
demic institutions, state government, and women's organizations to discuss
sexual harassment in the workplace and in education. This meeting led to the
formation of the Michigan Taskforce on Sexual Harassment in the Workplace,
a statewide group of Michigan citizens concerned with sexual harassment.
Members of the task force included representatives of labor unions, which were
Government Policy Develops 12 7
particularly strong in Michigan, state and local government, private sector

employers, educational institutions, and women's organizations, including
the Michigan Women's Commission, the Coalition of Labor Union Women,
Women Are Watching, Union MinoritiesIWomen Leadership Project, the Wom-
en's Justice Center, the Michigan Nurses Association, and NOW. 6 4
The goals of the task force were to increase public awareness and sensitivity
to the issue of sexual harassment and to seek increased protection for Michigan
workers through changes in public policy and legislation. To achieve these
goals, the task force first held public hearings around the state in April and
May of 1979 to collect and disseminate information on the nature and extent of
sexual harassment in Michigan. The public testimony included reports from
seventy-three individuals and statements from twenty-three organizations. In
1979, the task force sponsored the first statewide conference on sexual harass-
ment. The conference objectives were to develop both individual and collective
solutions to the problem of sexual harassment. The task force published edu-
cational and informational materials for labor organizations, employers, and
the general public and conducted educational seminars around the state. The
task force produced a brochure, Sexual Harassment on the Job, which they
distributed to thousands of Michigan citizens. 6 5
Due to the activism of the task force, the Michigan legislature passed one of
the first and most progressive state laws against sexual harassment. 66 In 1979,
legislators introduced a wide range of proposals to prohibit sexual harassment.
The House Committee on Constitutional Revision and Women's Rights pro-
posed amending the Michigan Civil Rights Act to include sexual harassment.
The House Committee on Judiciary made two proposals: to amend the Michigan
Penal Code to include sexual harassment as criminal sexual conduct and to
amend the Michigan School Code to prohibit sexual harassment of school
employees, teachers, or pupils. The House Committee on Labor also made
two proposals: to amend the Michigan Employment Security Act to include
"voluntary quits" due to sexual harassment as "good cause" for terminating
employment, thus enabling victims to secure unemployment benefits, and to
amend the Michigan Occupational Safety and Health Act, making it a violation
for employees or employers to sexually harass other employees. The Michigan
legislature decided to pass one statute with broad applicability: they amended
the Michigan Civil Rights Act to prohibit sexual harassment in employment, pub-
lic accommodations, public services, education, and housing. 67 The Michigan
governor signed the bill into law on July 18, 1980.
The Michigan law was patterned after, but more comprehensive than, federal
Title VII law and EEOC guidelines on sexual harassment. First, the Michigan
law prohibited not only verbal and physical conduct of a sexual nature, but
also communication of a sexual nature, thereby prohibiting pictures, por-
nography, and other forms of nonverbal sexual communication. Second, the
Michigan law applied not only to employment discrimination but also to dis-
crimination in public accommodations, public services, education, and hous-
ing. Third, unlike Title VII, which applied only to employers of fifteen or more
employees, the Michigan law applied to employers with one or more employee.
Finally, the Michigan Act provided for a broader range of relief than Title VII,
including compensatory damages, a remedy not available under Title VII until
passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1991.
Perhaps due in part to the efforts of the task force, Michigan judicial tribunals
from early on heard a large number of sexual harassment complaints and often
ruled in favor of plaintiffs. The Michigan Department of Civil Rights' sexual
harassment caseload grew from 12 in 1977, to 35 in 1978, to 73 in 1979, and
to 125 in 1980. 68 Even before the 1980 legislation prohibiting sexual harassment,
the Michigan Civil Rights Commission interpreted the Michigan Civil Rights Act
to prohibit sexual harassment in the case of Tyamie Hanson v. Hasper's Sav-Mor
Market. 69 A few months later in the case of Augustine Petro v. United Trucking
Company, the Commission ordered the defendant to pay the plaintiff $7,500 in
damages along with reinstatement and back pay for sexual harassment. 70 The
Michigan Employment Security Commission heard numerous early sexual harass-
ment complaints and consistently ruled that sexual harassment was good cause to
leave a job. On February 29, 1979, the Director of the Michigan Employment
Security Commission published a field release to Commission personnel defining
sexual harassment and directing examiners specifically to question claimants about
this issue?' Finally, the Michigan state courts adjudicated many sexual harassment
complaints based on a wide range of state law theories and Michigan federal courts
heard several sexual harassment cases around this time.
Public policy on sexual harassment was advanced in Michigan and at the
national level by activists from the Detroit-based Women's Justice Center, a le-
gal aid organization founded by Jan Leventer, a white female attorney, and
Connye Harper, a black female attorney. Leventer, who graduated from Bar-
nard College and Capital University Law School, was legal director of the center
from 1978 to 1980 and later became a trial attorney with the Detroit regional
office of the EEOC. Harper, who graduated from University of Michigan
undergraduate and law school, was a civil rights attorney and later became
associate general counsel for the United Auto Workers.77. The center litigated
several sexual harassment cases in Michigan, including Munford v. James T.
Barnes and Company on appeal and Marentette v. Michigan Host Inc., in
which an employer required a woman to wear a sexually revealing costume
that led to harassment by customers. 73 The center also participated in the de-
velopment of public policy on sexual harassment both in Michigan and at the
national level. Harper helped to organize the statewide conference in 1979 and
later contributed to a handbook on sexual harassment written from a union
perspective published in 1980 by the Labor and Education Research Project?4
In June 1979, Leventer testified about sexual harassment in Washington, D.C.,
before the National Commission on Unemployment Compensation. In 1980,
the Women's Justice Center joined WWI's comments on EEOC's proposed
sexual harassment guidelines. In 1981, Leventer participated in the first
legal symposium on sexual harassment at Capital University Law School in
Washington, D.C. 75
Though Michigan had the most aggressive statewide campaign to combat

sexual harassment, other state and local governments were also acting against
harassment. In Illinois, several women's groups and other organizations con-
cerned with the issue formed the Illinois Task Force on Sexual Harassment in
the Workplace. In 1979, the task force conducted a survey of 1,495 Illinois state
employees finding that more than half of the women surveyed had experienced
sexual harassment. 76 The Illinois survey was one of the first scientifically con-
ducted studies of sexual harassment.?7 On January 24, 1980, the Governor of
Illinois issued an executive order prohibiting sexual harassment of state
employees. The order also provided for a training program for all state EEO
officers and required each state agency to disseminate information about sexual
harassment, including contact information for organizations that could provide
assistance. 78 In March 1980, the Illinois House Judiciary subcommittee con-
ducted a hearing on sexual harassment, at which a member of the task force
testified about their survey. However, the bill pending before the legislature
never passed.
Many other state and local governments prohibited sexual harassment in the
early I980s by legislative act, executive order, and regulatory action. On Oc-
tober I, 1980, the Connecticut legislature adopted a law against sexual harass-
ment, the Act Concerning Harassment as an Unfair Employment Practice,
modeled after the EEOC guidelines. 79 The state of Maryland passed a criminal
law that made coercive demands for sex a fourth-degree sex offense. The law
was designed to prevent landlords, employers, and others in powerful positions
from abusing that power. 80 Several other states at this time considered but did
not pass legislation against sexual harassment. 81 However, nine governors
issued executive orders prohibiting sexual harassment in the early 1980s. The
governors of Rhode Island and Utah issued executive orders in 1980 prohibit-
ing sexual harassment in state employment, similar to the Illinois executive
order. The Rhode Island order defined sexual harassment broadly to include
"unsolicited, deliberate or repeated sexually explicit derogatory statements,
gestures or physical contacts, which are objectionable to the recipient and
which cause discomfort or humiliation." The order applied not only to male/
female harassment but also to same-sex harassment and required each depart-
ment head to disseminate information about sexual harassment. In 1981, the
governors of Florida, Oregon, and South Dakota issued executive orders pro-
hibiting sexual harassment. In 1982, the governors of Indiana, Kansas, and
Montana issued executive orders prohibiting sexual harassment, and the gov-
ernor of Massachusetts did so in 1984.8>.
Instead of prohibiting sexual harassment by legislation and executive order,
some states' human rights commissions adopted rules against sexual harass-
ment. Washington, Pennsylvania, and Kentucky human rights commissions
adopted the EEOC guidelines verbatim. 83 The California Fair Employment
and Housing Commission broadly prohibited sexual harassment by regulations
adopted on May I, 1980. The regulations defined sexual harassment to include
verbal, physical, and visual harassment, as well as soliciting sexual favors.
13 0 The Women's Movement against Sexual Harassment
Examples of visual harassment were "derogatory posters, cartoons, or draw-

ings." The regulations also established stringent liability standards. 84 The Col-
orado Civil Rights Commission adopted rules prohibiting sexual harassment
that, while not explicitly prohibiting hostile environment harassment, were
very broad in that they applied to discrimination in employment, housing,
public accommodations, or advertising, just as the Michigan Act did. 85 Some
states addressed the issue by distributing information kits and employer's
guides on sexual harassment. 86 In Minnesota, the Equal Employment Division
of the Department of Personnel published an annotated bibliography of resour-
ces related to sexual harassment in the workplace. 87 The Kentucky Commis-
sion on Human Rights published a brochure and a technical assistance guide on
sexual harassment and held hearings on sexual harassment in 1980. 88 After the
EEOC issued its proposed guidelines on sexual harassment, the Kentucky Com-
mission on Human Rights held hearings around the state on sexual harassment
and later adopted identical guidelines. 89
Cities also began to address the issue. As early as 1975, in response to Lin
Farley's testimony, the New York City Human Rights Commission, chaired by
Eleanor Holmes Norton, drafted a standard clause for affirmative action agree-
ments prohibiting "unfair abuse of sexual privacy."9 0 In 1980, New York's
mayor issued a mayoral directive requiring all city agencies to establish sexual
harassment complaint procedures. In addition to New York City, the Provi-
dence Human Relations Commission in Rhode Island passed regulations pro-
hibiting sexual harassment on October 15, 1980. In Fresno, CA, the Fresno
City-County Commission on the Status of Women conducted studies on sexual
harassment in the public and private sectors in 1980 and 1981, respectively.9 1
Several state and local women's commissions engaged in ongoing efforts to
combat sexual harassment. The D.C. Commission on Women's Sexual Harass-
ment Task Force conducted extensive surveys of city employees, Andrews Air
Force Base personnel, and policewomen in the city to document the incidence
of sexual harassment. To remedy what they found to be a widespread problem,
the Commission developed a program calling for city and private employers to
offer training materials, workshops, and employee counseling. The Commis-
sion criticized Mayor Barry's executive order prohibiting harassment because it
was limited to city employees and did not apply to private employers. The
Commission also supported sexual assault legislation that made criminal sexual
conduct obtained by force or coercion, including "threats to retaliate by a per-
son in authority, against a victim who believes that person in authority has the
ability to execute the threat, and the threat relates to employment."9:z. Finally,
Commission members worked to raise public awareness of the issue by testi-
fying before Congress and conducting their own hearings on sexual harassment
in 1981. 93 The California Commission on Women established a special sexual
harassment education program, supported by Mary Lobrato, who donated
money she won in a sexual harassment lawsuit. 94 The Pennsylvania Com-
mission for Women published a handbook on sexual harassment, and the
Pennsylvania Task Force Against Sexual Harassment offered workshops and
counseling on sexual harassment. 9 5 In Kentucky, the Commission on Women

surveyed over two thousand women, most in state government, and found that
56% had experienced sexual harassment. The commission also conducted
hearings around the state and published a handbook on sexual harassment. 96
Government initiatives against sexual harassment legitimized the issue as
a serious social problem. Over the course of just a few years, governments
had significantly broadened their definitions and standards for sexual harass-
ment, a tendency noted in the National Law Journal. 97 Government involve-
ment raised public awareness in several ways: public hearings and government
initiatives stimulated media coverage of the issue and generated public discus-
sion; these initiatives included government funded training sessions that sensi-
tized workers to sexual harassment; and EEOC guidelines pressured private
employers to enact preventative measures, including policies, procedures, and
training. Finally, federal involvement led to more accessible and expedient
remedies for sexual harassment. The EEOC's broad definition of sexual harass-
ment, including both supervisory sexual demands and hostile environment
harassment, by both supervisors and co-workers, and its establishment of
a stringent standard of employer liability fundamentally shaped the develop-
ment of sexual harassment law. These guidelines influenced federal courts'
interpretations of Title VII, and they served as a model for state laws, local
ordinances, and employer policies.
MOVEMENT RESPONSES TO GOVERNMENT POLICY
Some feminists, however, remained skeptical of the benefits of government

involvement. AASC, in particular, criticized the federal government's key role
in defining the issue, arguing that the government did not share a feminist
perspective and analysis of the problem but instead was primarily concerned
with management and personnel solutions. The Alliance noted, for example,
that the government did not provide any direct services or counseling for
women being harassed and that government guidelines on harassment "failed
to recognize the feelings of shame, fear, and powerlessness that inhibit women
from reporting."9 8 According to the Alliance, federal involvement also meant
that it became harder to pose alternative ideas or solutions. Government in-
volvement on sexual harassment took some control of the issue from the orig-
inal organizations that had raised it. While in the 1970s, AASC and WWI had
fundamentally shaped public discussions of sexual harassment, by the early
1980s, government officials and professionals came to dominate discussions
on developing public policy.99 In some cases, government officials, such as
Norton, shared feminist concerns. Other government officials, however, such
as Joseph Sanchez, Director of the Equal Employment Programs of the Justice
Department, did not. But AASC members were skeptical even of Norton's
guidelines, arguing that the "appearance and reassurance that adequate solu-
tions for sexual harassment now exist" was false because the question of imple-
mentation Itill remained. In particular, they noted that the guidelines did not
require employers to adopt policies and procedures and had no mechanism to

monitor the effectiveness of procedures that did exist. They also noted that the
procedures were often complicated and detailed, thus discouraging women
from filing complaints.
Most importantly, AASC objected to government involvement on the
grounds that government solutions were bureaucratic and legalistic, an ap-
proach that was flawed for several reasons. First, it concentrated on the in-
dividual case rather than group action, failing to address the general social
behavior reinforcing sexual harassment. Second, it focused on procedural issues
rather than the harassment, which often proved very frustrating for harassed
women. In particular, bureaucrats were not equipped to handle the victims'
intense emotions. Third, legal bureaucracies tended to treat poor people and
people of color unfairly because "it takes certain kinds of skills, unconscious in
people of privileged background, to manipulate the bureaucracies in our fa-
vor."IOO Also, black harassers tended to be targeted more often because "the
legal system works most effectively against defendants who are the most vul-
nerable." Finally, the legaUbureaucratic system was economically discrimina-
tory because a lawyer was critical to success. AASC sought to refocus attention
away from the federal government and onto other groups working on sexual
harassment. loI In fact, despite increased awareness of sexual harassment and
the broad EEOC guidelines, the "floodgates" never opened. Women did not file
suits in large numbers because, according to Eleanor Holmes Norton, "there is
so much risk in stepping forward, plus most women did not understand it to be
a violation of federallaw."I02.
AASC was skeptical not only of government involvement with the issue of
sexual harassment but also of employers' interest in the issue. They argued that
management cared about sexual harassment only because of concerns about
lawsuits, lowered productivity, and the possibility that women workers would
organize around the issue. AASC argued, "It is much safer, from management's
perspective, to take control of sexual harassment into their own hands rather
than find themselves with a strongly organized union."loJ AASC expressed
dismay about the decreasing influence of feminist organizations on sexual ha-
rassment training. Whereas in the I970S feminist organizations conducted most
sexual harassment training, by the early I980s, feminists had to compete with
management consulting firms and government officials to train and sensitize
people about the issue. 104
Feminists supported the proliferation of sexual harassment training, but they
were also concerned that nonfeminist professional trainers were not approach-
ing the issue with the same fervor and sophisticated analysis of women's roles
and female oppression that feminists had. l05 Whereas early government-
developed training programs, like the Office of Planning and Management's
model training program, had incorporated a feminist analysis of sexual harass-
ment, management consulting firms that were beginning to develop programs
on sexual harassment did not. For example, Mary Coeli Meyer and Jeanenne
Oestreich, authors of the I98I book Sexual Harassment, developed a training
video and manual called The Power Pinch, which presented sexual harassment
as a gender-neutral phenomenon. I06 The consulting firms that began doing
sexual harassment training had neither a background in the issue nor a feminist
orientation so the training did not address broader issues of sexism, power
relations, and women's integration into the workplace that had been central
to the training workshops of feminist activists. By contrast, AASC argued, "we
have to continue to discuss sexual harassment in the context of its origins in
a sexist society and a society with a rigid workplace hierarchy, and not settle for
policies and procedures that aim to protect management from 'trouble.,"IO?
Feminists other than AASC criticized government policy on sexual harass-
ment. Feminist socialist historian Linda Gordon argued against "separating
sexual harassment from the larger political struggle against male supremacy"
and from the "overall feminist perspective on changing the world." She warned
against those who "will want to take control out of our hands, and to transform
the issue into a bureaucratized, mechanistic set of procedures for disallowing
certain very narrowly defined behavior." She argued that "the only reliable pro-
tection for women will be the power of the women's movement, not the threat
of official punishment." She continued, "It is vital for the women's movement to
retain a primary commitment to nonlegal non bureaucratic means of struggle,
means that we can control ourselves." 108 Therefore, despite the fact that gov-
ernment involvement legitimized the issue of sexual harassment, raising public
awareness and providing new tools for combating and preventing sexual ha-
rassment, feminists were ambivalent about this involvement. 109
This chapter demonstrates the movement's diversity as reflected in the range

of activists and organizations that participated in the development of public
policy on sexual harassment. The importance of grassroots activists is apparent
in the influence of individuals who spoke out about their personal experiences
of sexual harassment, thereby contributing to a compelling demand that re-
sulted in federal government action on the issue. Organizations worked to
generate media attention to the issue, publicizing high-profile cases involving
government employees. Using survey data showing high rates of harassment
among city and federal employees, activists framed sexual harassment as a
widespread problem of abuse of female employees in government, which gen-
erated pressure for official action. Through the D.C. Commission on Women,
activists were able to pressure the Mayor to act, which then put pressure on
Congress to act. Using a range of evidence, from survey data to personal tes-
timony, activists were able to make a compelling case for federal intervention.
The movement was then able to take advantage of political opportunities
available in the waning days of the Carter administration to convince govern-
ment officials to address the issue of sexual harassment. In particular, Eleanor
Holmes Norton's presence at the helm of the EEOC provided an invaluable ally
to movement activists. 110 Norton's background working on the issue made her
knowledgeable and sympa~hetic to advocates, and she knew that she could
receive strong support from women in the movement who cared passionately
about the issue. In this manner, she was able to propose and pass sweeping
guidelines prohibiting both quid pro quo and hostile environment sexual ha-
rassment, setting a high standard by which the issue would be framed in the
coming years. In addition, the movement was able to mobilize the resources of
the Merit System Protection Board and the Office of Personnel and Manage-
ment to conduct the first large-scale scientific study of sexual harassment as well
as develop and disseminate model sexual harassment policies and training
curriculum to public and private employers around the country. Activists were
also able to persuade state and local governmental bodies to act on the issue.
With the EEOC guidelines in place, the movement's framing of the issue as
a civil rights violation and issue of sex discrimination solidified, but not without
controversy. Within the movement against sexual harassment, there was an
intramovement contest over whether to frame sexual harassment primarily as
a legal violation to be addressed through lawsuits, or as a problem for women
to address collectively in the workplace. AASC warned against framing the
problem entirely within the legaVbureaucratic context, and they focused their
efforts on empowering workers to act collectively within the workplace. WWI,
on the other hand, focused on advancing women's legal rights to combat sexual
harassment. I I I But the creation of the powerful new EEOC guidelines created
a presumption in favor of legal action.
Although many condemned sexual harassment, commentators continued to
trivialize the issue, echoing traditional views of sexual harassment as a personal
moral issue. Walter Berns, a resident scholar at the American Enterprise Insti-
tute, argued in an article condemning the EEOC guidelines that "contrary to the
assumption in sexual harassment literature, it is women, not men, who are
ultimately responsible for what might be called the moral tone of any place
where men and women are assembled, even, I think, the workplace. . .. In
general, men will be what women want them to be." Citing Rousseau, Berns
argued, "according to the order of nature, resistance belongs to them."">'
Many commentators blamed women for sexual harassment and distrusted
women's accusations. In 1981, Phyllis Schlafly testified to Congress that the
EEOC guidelines allowed "unscrupulous persons to file mischievous claims,"
that "virtuous" women were rarely victims of sexual harassment, and that
"men hardly ever ask sexual favors of women from whom the certain answer
is 'no."'"3 These voices of opposition were an undercurrent that would become
a full-fledged backlash in the 1980s, buoyed by the ascendancy of the conser-
vative Reagan administration and the emerging political constraints that would
challenge the movement to defend its gains.
7
Fighting the Backlash: Feminist Activism in the 1980s
"The entire issue is a perfect example of a minor special interest group's ability to
blow up an 'issue' to a level of importance which in no way relates to the reality of
the world in which we live and work."
-38-year old plant manager for a manufacturer of industrial
goods quoted in Harvard Business Review'
By 1981, feminist activists had made significant advances in convincing

the public that sexual harassment was a real and serious problem. Courts in
twenty-one states and the District of Columbia had recognized that sexual ha-
rassment could give rise to a federal or state cause of action against an employer,
and many states had adopted legislation, executive orders, and regulations pro-
hibiting sexual harassment. But the newly-installed Reagan administration im-
mediately attempted to weaken sexual harassment prohibitions and reduce the
effectiveness of the EEOC. Hostile reactions arose from other quarters as well,
amounting to a backlash against the anti-sexual harassment movement. While
in the 1970s, most resistance to the movement came from employers defending
sexual harassment suits, in the early 1980s, hostile reactions to new sexual
harassment laws emerged from individuals accused of sexual harassment, con-
servative advocacy organizations, and even men on the left. Individuals accused
of sexual harassment began to fight back more aggressively by bringing lawsuits
against their accusers for defamation or their employers for wrongful termina-
tion, breach of contract, and other claims. They also filed union grievances
challenging employers' disciplinary measures imposed for sexual harassment.
Employers and their advocates became even more active in resisting sexual
harassment prohibitions than they had been in the 1970s. Ironically, the most
outspoken critic of sexual harassment prohibitions was a woman, Phyllis Schla-
fly, who testified before Congress on behalf of the antifeminist group Eagle
Forum. The movement that had fought for sexual harassment prohibitions
now worked to diffuse this backlash, drawing on the networks they had de-
veloped in the 1970S as well as new organizations addressing the issue. The
135
changing political and legal context, however, changed the character of the
movement as the I980s progressed.
BATTLE TO PRESERVE THE EEOC GUIDELINES
Upon taking office, the Reagan administration aggressively acted to curtail affir-
mative action and equal employment opportunity programs. Included within
this agenda was an attempt to weaken and even abolish the EEOC sexual ha-
rassment guidelines. The first attempt to overturn the EEOC guidelines came
from Utah Republican Senator Orrin Hatch. Shortly after assuming leadership
of the Senate Committee on Labor and Human Resources in January of I98I,
Senator Hatch held a series of hearings on sex discrimination in the workplace,
including a hearing on sexual harassment. The committee was considering
amending Title VII to add language specifically addressing sexual harassment.
The proposed bill, drafted by Senator Hatch, was weaker than the EEOC
guidelines, providing that employers would be liable only when they "know-
ingly" condoned sexual harassment.2. This standard would have eliminated the
stringent liability standards set out by the EEOC guidelines, which made em-
ployers strictly liable for supervisory harassment.
Feminists resisted by testifying before congressional committees, writing let-
ters, and orchestrating a national letter-writing campaign. A broad range of peo-
ple testified at a hearing on the proposed amendment on April 2I, I981. The
hearing focused not only on sexual harassment, but also on the Reagan admin-
istration initiatives to eliminate affirmative action and cut the budgets of the
EEOC and the Office of Federal Contract Compliance Programs (OFCCP), the
two federal agencies primarily responsible for enforcing antidiscrimination
laws. At the start of the hearing, Senator Edward Kennedy expressed concern
that Reagan administration budget cuts, especially a twenty percent budget cut
for the EEOC, threatened to impede the advancement of women in the work-
place, and he suggested that the sexual harassment guidelines might have in
part motivated the budget cut. The Acting Chair of the EEOC, Clay Smith, then
testified about the sexual harassment guidelines, EEOC decisions on sexual ha-
rassment, and EEOC involvement in sexual harassment litigation. In response to
questions by Senator Edward Kennedy, Smith described sexual harassment as a se-
rious problem and the cases filed before the EEOC as just the "tip of the iceberg."3
The Committee then heard testimony from Phyllis Schlafly, President of
Eagle Forum, an antifeminist organization that spearheaded the movement
against the ERA.4 Schlafly argued that the EEOC guidelines were "unjust be-
cause they penalize an innocent bystander, the employer, for acts over which he
has no control." Schlafly harshly criticized feminists for making "a Federal case
out of the problem of bosses pinching their secretaries." She blamed women for
sexual harassment, testifying that sexual harassment on the job was not a prob-
lem for "the virtuous woman except in the rarest of cases. When a woman walks
across the room, she speaks with a universal body language that most men intui-
tively understand. Men hardly ever ask sexual favors of women from whom the
Fighting the Backlash: Feminist Activism in the 1980s 137
certain answer is 'no.'" She continued, "virtuous women are seldom accosted by
unwelcome sexual propositions or familiarities, obscene talk, or profane language."5
A panel of feminist women rebutted this testimony, including Eleanor
Holmes Norton, Betty Jean Hall and Pat Baldwin of the Western Kentucky
Coalmining Women's Support Team, and Karen Sauvigne and Joan Vermeulen
of WWI. 6 These women supported the EEOC guidelines and spoke against
Hatch's proposed amendment to weaken them. Norton's testimony was partic-
ularly powerful. She represented forty-eight women's organizations, with
a combined membership of over 700,000 women and men, and described her
testimony as "the largest and most diverse grouping of women's organizations
ever to offer a single piece of congressional testimony."7 They included all of the
major women's organizations, six mining organizations, six religious organi-
zations, eight minority women's organizations, several organizations focused
on violence against women, several working women's organizations and unions,
and several bar associations. Norton confronted Senator Hatch and the Repub-
lican members of the committee about their attempts to roll back affirmative
action and antidiscrimination laws and programs. She criticized them for tar-
geting budget cuts at the two primary agencies responsible for enforcing anti-
discrimination laws: the EEOC and OFCCP. In particular, she noted that the
committee recommended reductions in the budget of the EEOC's Office of
Policy Implementation, which had produced the sexual harassment guidelines.
Betty Jean Hall and Pat Baldwin of the Western Kentucky Coalmining Wom-
en's Support Team testified that sexual harassment was a serious problem,
especially for women coalminers, and that the EEOC guidelines had helped
tremendously in alleviating this problem. They testified that "when employers
claim that they cannot control the men, we simply send them a warning letter ...
and enclose a copy of the EEOC sexual harassment guidelines .... It is amazing
how quickly the problem seems to take care of itself once the company is
aware of the guidelines," thereby avoiding "lengthy and costly litigation." They
opposed the proposed amendment, emphasizing the importance of affirmative
action for women and urged the committee to support the EEOC and OFCCP,
which they described as "the only agency that was able to respond to an
industrywide pattern of blatant sex discrimination."s
Similarly, Karen Sauvigne and Joan Vermeulen ofWWI opposed the amend-
ment and spoke in favor of affirmative action. They described sexual harass-
ment as an "abuse of male power and authority" and "sexual blackmail."9
Furthermore, they explained how sexual harassment contributed to women's
higher rate of unemployment and lower rate of continuous employment than
men, operating to confine women to traditionally female jobs and keep them
out of nontraditional jobs. They warned against a lesser degree of liability that
would enable employers to hide behind the shield of individual employee action
and leave women without any effective remedy for sexual harassment. The com-
mittee received written statements, studies, and articles from several groups
and individuals, including Sandra Bundy and Adrienne Tomkins, who submit-
ted testimony describing their experiences of sexual harassment and their
precedent-setting cases. 10 Activist Virginia Kelson submitted a statement on behalf

of the Phoenix Institute in Salt Lake City, UT, a community-based employment
and training contractor focused on placing low-income women in blue-collar
jobs. Kelson stated that "sex harassment is a primary obstacle preventing U.S.
women from taking" blue-collar jobs. I I She described the isolation and often
violent harassment that women experienced in blue-collar jobs and recommen-
ded that the Committee conduct a study of sex harassment in blue-collar job
sites. The National Advisory Council on Women's Educational Programs sub-
mitted a statement on sexual harassment of students, which they described as
"prevalent, illegal, and a problem serious enough to compel Federal involve-
ment, as well as action by academic institutions." a At a January 28, I98I hear-
ing, the committee received testimony from Wider Opportunities for Women
about sexual harassment of women in nontraditional occupations, which the
group argued was "commonplace." In addition to outright sexual advances,
men sabotaged women's work, asked them to do more "risk-taking" activities
to frighten and discourage them, and kept them from doing substantive tasks
that would improve their skills. 13
Feminists succeeded in preserving the guidelines, but they failed in that the
Reagan administration significantly cut the EEOC budget and eliminated the
EEOC Office of Policy Implementation, which had drafted the sexual harass-
ment guidelines. In addition, Reagan appointed commissioners who lacked
a commitment to equal employment opportunity. Budget cuts and poor leader-
ship led to decreased efficiency in processing complaints and increased back-
logs. In particular, Reagan appointed Clarence Thomas to chair the EEOC in
I982 - a man who had expressly opposed affirmative action. During his eight-
year tenure, Thomas sharply cut the agency's reliance on goals and timetables in
affirmative action cases and ended public service announcements to combat
discrimination. Many Carter-era staff members who had been activists against
discrimination left the EEOC, and the overall numbers of staff shrank from
3,777 in I980 to 2,853 in I990. Budget cuts significantly reduced EEOC's
spending on training, investigation, and travel. As a result, the EEOC's backlog
of unresolved cases doubled during the I980s, and fewer charges were inves-
tigated and litigated. Not surprisingly, the number of charges found to have "no
cause" increased. 14 EEOC's decisions as well as their participation as amicus
curiae in lawsuits began to reflect the commission's more conservative perspec-
tive. For example, in I982, the EEOC held that if a victim was sexually har-
assed without a corroborating witness, proof was inadequate as a matter of
law.'5 In the first Supreme Court case on sexual harassment in I986, the EEOC
filed a friend-of-the-court brief on behalf of the employer, arguing that strict
employer liability for supervisory hostile environment sexual harassment was
"erroneous as a matter of statutory construction and common sense," an argu-
ment directly contrary to the I980 guidelines. I6
The Reagan administration also attempted to rescind the EEOC guidelines
on sexual harassment. On February I7, I98I, shortly after taking office, Reagan
issued an executive order imposing a strict cost-benefit test on government
regulations and giving the Office of Management and Budget broad powers of
intervention and review. The order also established the Presidential Task Force
on Regulatory Relief, composed of cabinet members and chaired by Vice President
George Bush, with the goal of reducing the burden of regulations on business. 17
In August of 1981, Vice President George Bush announced at a press conference
that the Presidential Task Force on Regulatory Relief would review the EEOC
guidelines on sexual harassment. IS
In response, WWI spearheaded a campaign to convince the Reagan admin-
istration not to change the guidelines. First, Karen Sauvigne wrote a letter on
behalf of WWI to Vice President Bush and to David Stockman of the Office of
Management and Budget imploring them not the rescind or change the guide-
lines. Appealing to the Reagan administration's concern about "getting the econ-
omy moving," Sauvigne argued that sexual harassment harmed not only
women targeted by such behavior but employers as well. She described the eco-
nomic, physical, and psychological harm sexual harassment caused its victims.
She then explained that sexual harassment was "bad for business" because it led
to low morale, high turnover, lost productivity, increased medical bills and sick
leave, and costly litigation. She praised the guidelines' focus on preventative
measures and argued that they had increased employer responsiveness to sexual
harassment complaints. According to Sauvigne, before the guidelines, employ-
ers tolerated sexual harassment or "laughed off complaints," not taking the
problem seriously. After the guidelines, however, employers around the country
changed their "ostrich-like approach" to sexual harassment by instituting pol-
icies and sexual harassment training. She argued that these preventative meas-
ures helped reduce litigation. She concluded that the guidelines were widely
supported, that they were working, and that they should not be changed. I9
WWI then forwarded Sauvigne's letter to numerous organizations and indi-
viduals, urging them to express opposition to the Reagan administration's ef-
forts to rescind or weaken the guidelines. Executive Director Susan Meyer
wrote a letter to the Institute donors and Counseling Director K. C. Wagner
wrote a letter to the Institute clients.2.0 WWI also contacted a broad range of
women's organizations and unions urging them to endorse the Institute's state-
ment or make their own protests and to mobilize their constituents to write
Bush and Stockman, which they did.
In the fall of 1981, Bush received a large number of letters from organiza-
tions and individuals opposing any changes to the guidelines. Some of those
who wrote letters were New York City Council Member Ruth Messinger,
Madison Teacher's, Inc., in Madison, WI, Columbia University's Victim Treat-
ment and Research Clinic, the Association of Western Pulp and Paper Workers
in Portland, Oregon, the Sexual Harassment Committee of the Greater Harrisburg
Area YWCA Rape Crisis Services Division, the Columbus Committee Against
Sexual Harassment, the National Urban League's National Committee on
Household Employment, WLDF, and several individuals, including victims
of harassment. Similar to Sauvigne's arguments, these letters emphasized that
sexual harassment not only interfered with women's employment opportunity
but also harmed businesses. One writer warned that to rescind the regula-
tions would send a message that sexual harassment was "all right."21 Two
women wrote of their personal experiences of sexual harassment. 22 In July of
1982, Karen Sauvigne wrote another letter to Vice President Bush and to EEOC
Chair Clarence Thomas, urging them to retain the EEOC guidelines as writ-
ten. 23 On March 8, 1983, the EEOC voted not to review the guidelines on
sexual harassment because of their public support and the deference given them
by the courts. 24
In addition to cutting the EEOC budget and attempting to abolish the EEOC
sexual harassment guidelines, the Reagan administration targeted the OFCCP,
the other federal agency primarily responsible for enforcing equal employment
opportunity initiatives. First, the administration blocked the implementation of
OFCCP sexual harassment guidelines and, more generally, relaxed regulatory
control of federal contractors. Upon taking office, Reagan issued an executive
order freezing the implementation of all new regulations. 25 OFCCP had pre-
viously adopted federal guidelines prohibiting sexual harassment by federal
construction contractors. Reagan's regulatory freeze blocked the enactment
of these guidelines before their effective date. In addition, OFCCP was forced
to consider proposals by employers and their advocates to limit the effective-
ness of the office's ability to combat sexual harassment. These proposals in-
cluded doing away with back pay and other monetary remedies for sexual
harassment, no longer requiring employers to publicize sexual harassment griev-
ance procedures, and raising from $50,000 to $1 million the contract threshold
at which employers must draw up written antiharassment programs. The ad-
ministration also cut the budget of the OFCCP. In November 1981, all of the
1,181 OFCCP staffers were notified that they might be laid off as part of the
Reagan cutback in government. 26 These actions by the Reagan administration
slowed down efforts to combat sexual harassment. With the support of employ-
ers and their advocates, the Reagan administration was able to block new sex-
ual harassment regulations and limit enforcement of equal employment laws,
but it was not immediately able to weaken the EEOC guidelines. However,
Reagan began to appoint conservative judges to the bench, which had a
long-term negative impact on the development of civil rights issues, including
sexual harassment jurisprudence. 27 These judges, including Clarence Thomas
as a Supreme Court jurist, would later overrule the guidelines' broad liability
standards.
DEFENDANTS RESIST: THE RESPONSE OF ACCUSED

MEN AND THEIR EMPLOYERS
In the early 1980s, accused men began to fight back against women alleging
sexual harassment by filing civil lawsuits for defamation and slander against
their accusers. For example, in 1980, a Virginia man accused of sexual harass-
ment and assault won $95,000 in a slander suit against his accusers. 28 In the
1981 case of Barnes v. Oody, two male employees of the Tennessee Valley
Authority brought a defamation lawsuit against two women who accused them
of sexual harassment. The women had prevailed in an internal investigation by
1VA's Equal Employment Opportunity office and in arbitration of grievances
filed by the men under a collective bargaining agreement. Although the court
dismissed the suit, the women nonetheless spent close to a year in court defend-
ing themselves. 2.9
Many of the early cases against women alleging sexual harassment arose at
educational institutions. At Clark University, a sociology professor sued two
professors, one graduate student, one undergraduate student, and a secretary
for $23.7 million for injury to his "good name and reputation" because they
had accused him of sexual harassment. At the University of Massachusetts,
a program director filed a countersuit against eight students who had accused
him of sexual harassment. At Carleton University School of Journalism in
Ottawa, Ontario, three professors brought libel and slander suits against three
students for $100,000 because the students, acting for a group of about twenty-
five fellow students, staged a press conference in March of 1980 charging
members of their department with sexual harassment. They did not name
specific men, but three male professors felt that they were unfairly implicated. 30
These publicized lawsuits by individuals accused of sexual harassment did not
succeed but probably intimidated some women from complaining of sexual
harassment. Nevertheless, women continued to file charges of sexual harass-
ment and at an increasing rate as the decade progressed.
Men accused of sexual harassment sued not only their accusers but their
employers as well, alleging a wide range of tort and contract claims, as well as
federal statutory and constitutional claims.31 The professor at Clark University
filed a claim before the National Labor Relations Board and threatened to file
suit against the university. In 1978, a male faculty member sued New York Law
School for one million dollars claiming he was forced to resign because of
rumors that he made sexual advances toward his female students. He denied
any misconduct and claimed that he was not allowed to be heard or confront
witnesses during the school's investigation. The same year a professor accused
of sexually harassing a female employee sued Texas A&M University for
making him resign under duress. Professors also sued educational institutions
for violating their constitutional rights to due process and equal protection. 3 2.
These cases were usually dismissed for lack of evidence or settled out of court.
Defamation suits against employers were particularly common in the early
1980s. In one case, a man filed a suit for defamation, interference with employ-
ment contract, and violation of his first amendment rights against a fellow male
employee, who he alleged imposed an unwarranted sexual harassment hearing
on him. In another case, a black man sued his employer for race discrimination
after he was discharged for sexual harassment. Another avenue of defense was
to file grievances under collective bargaining agreements. A 1981 study found
twenty-four reported sexual harassment arbitration cases between 1965 and
1981. Twenty of the twenty-four cases were disciplinary actions appealed to
arbitration by a union on behalf of a male grievant who had been disciplined for
engaging in some form of sexual harassment. In fourteen of nineteen cases, the

arbitration boards sustained the employers' disciplinary actions against the ha-
rassers. The I980S brought an explosion of lawsuits by male union members
challenging their employers' disciplinary actions for sexual harassment. In one
case, a man discharged for sexual harassment sued his employer for wrongful
discharge and his union for breach of its duty of fair representation by refusing
to press his grievance beyond an initial hearing. 33 Arbitrators routinely sup-
ported employers' disciplinary actions for sexual harassment.
Disciplined men also sued local, state, and federal governments and govern-
ment officials. In the case of Huff v. County of Butler, a county employee
accused of sexual harassment sued his employer under the Due Process Clause,
alleging that his forced resignation was damaging to his character and reputa-
tion and that he was entitled to notice and a hearing before being compelled to
resign. In the federal government, men accused of sexual harassment appealed
disciplinary measures taken by the Merit System Protection Board to the federal
courts. In one case, a civilian employee of the Air Force successfully sued for
reinstatement after he was discharged for sexual harassment. Two high-profile
cases from the early I980s involved state politicians accused of sexual harass-
ment. Both alleged that the investigations of those charges were politically
motivated. In I98I, the Kentucky Agriculture Secretary, who was being in-
vestigated for sexual harassment, sued the governor and his administration
for illegally using governmental resources to investigate civil matters, suggest-
ing a political conspiracy against him. A member of the Florida House of
Representatives, Gene Flinn, lost his I980 bid for reelection after he was rep-
rimanded by the State House for sexual harassment. In I984, Flinn sued the
two legislative aides who had accused him of sexual harassment, another leg-
islative employee, Representative Elaine Gordon who had chaired the commit-
tee that investigated Flinn, and the candidate who defeated him in the I980
election. He alleged that Gordon had abrogated her duty as chair of the House
committee and that all of the defendants had conspired to release slanderous
accusations of sexual misconduct by Flinn to the news media. The case was
dismissed by the Eleventh Circuit for failure to state a cause of action against
Gordon. 34
Resistance to sexual harassment laws came not only from individuals ac-
cused of harassment but also from employers and their advocates. In the I980s,
employers became politically active in resisting sexual harassment laws. Many
employers filed comments on the EEOC guidelines and the OFCCP guidelines
on sexual harassment, suggesting narrowing these guidelines or eliminating
them altogether. Employers pressured the Reagan administration to deregulate
the economy and limit the reach of equal employment opportunity laws, in-
cluding laws against sexual harassment. Employers' advocates filed amicus
curiae briefs in sexual harassment cases in the I980s, including the first Su-
preme Court case on sexual harassment, in which the Equal Employment
Advisory Council, the United States Chamber of Commerce, and the Trust-
ees of Boston University filed amicus briefs on behalf of the employers.
Conservative publications on sexual harassment also began to appear in the

1980s. In 1981, business management professionals Mary Coeli Meyer, Inge
M. Berchtold, Jeanenne L. Oestreich, and Frederick J. Collins Published a book
titled Sexual Harassment. Described by one reviewer as "antifeminist,"35 this
book explicitly denied the underlying gendered power dynamics of sexual ha-
rassment, characterizing the problem in individual rather than social terms. The
authors argued that every individual was responsible for where they fall on the
"continuum" between "authentic romantic behavior" and "harassing behav-
ior."3 6 The authors implied that women were responsible for sexual harassment
because of how they dressed, behaved, and related to men. Men, on the other
hand, were assumed to be innocent, merely "confused and disoriented" by
women's increasing presence in the workplace. The authors also argued that
sexual harassment was not a woman's issue but an employment and economic
issue. They suggested that men and women experienced comparable amounts
of sexual harassment in the workplace, giving examples of women harassing
men as often as men harassing women. Finally, the authors explicitly contested
feminist analysis of the origins of sexual harassment by saying that "the situ-
ation is considerably more complex than that of subjugation and power."37
After providing a simplistic description of white, middle-class female and male
socialization, the authors concluded that sexual harassment resulted from re-
cent role changes, ignoring the manifestations of sexual harassment in prior
times. These antifeminist arguments were only some of many that began
appearing with increasing frequency as the 1980s progressed.
DEBATES ON SEXUAL HARASSMENT POLICY
Those who opposed developing antisexual harassment policies in the 1970S

and early 1980s offered a range of reasons, including that sexual harassment
was not really a problem, that women brought sexual harassment on them-
selves by their dress and behavior, that women made false charges and accusa-
tions when an affair went bad, and that it was a moral problem, not a legal
problem. These themes were often advanced in opposition to laws and policies
prohibiting sexual harassment as society continued to struggle with sex roles
and the place of women in the workplace.
The argument that sexual harassment was not a problem appeared in many
forms. Some suggested that the incidence of sexual harassment was greatly
exaggerated. They questioned early studies conducted by feminists showing
high rates of sexual harassment among working women, such as the WWI
1975 survey and the Redbook 1976 survey.3 8 Others argued that sexual ha-
rassment was not serious enough to warrant legal intervention. Similar to the
early courts' arguments that sexual harassment was an individual personal
problem, Mary Coeli Meyer and her coauthors in their 1981 book on sexual
harassment denied the significance of the problem by characterizing sexual
harassment as an individual problem rather than a social problem particularly
affecting women. By arguing that sexual harassment was a gender-neutral
phenomenon that happened not only to women, but to men also, this book
attempted to divorce sexual harassment from the feminist critique of patriarchy
by ignoring the underlying power dynamics of sexual harassment. Many simply
did not take the issue seriously, considering it a "frivolous concern at work
compared to weighty matters of commerce, government, and education."39
The notion that sexual harassment was not a serious problem became less
and less persuasive as studies appeared throughout the 1980s showing its wide-
spread and serious impact particularly on women. Beginning with the Merit
System Protection Board's 1980 survey of sexual harassment in the federal
workplace, governments, academics, and advocacy groups conducted many
studies of sexual harassment in the workplace and in educational institutions
throughout the 1980s.40 Several of these studies were large-scale scientific
studies. For example, Harvard Business Review and Redbook magazine pub-
lished a joint study in 1981 surveying over 1,800 business executives on their
experiences and attitudes about sexual harassment, and the Merit System Pro-
tection Board conducted a follow-up survey of federal workers in 1987. These
studies showed that approximately one out of every two women would be
harassed at some point during her academic or working life. 41
Another theme that pervaded the public discussion of sexual harassment in
the 1980s was that women caused sexual harassment by their dress and behav-
ior. Phyllis Schlafly's comments before the Senate Committee on Labor and
Human Resources exemplified this sort of argument. In Harper's magazine,
Walter Berns of the American Enterprise Institute argued that harassment
was caused and could be controlled by women's behavior, especially their dress.
He suggested that the best way to solve the problem would be dress codes for
women. Similar to Schlafly, Berns held women responsible for sexual harass-
ment. 42 The tendency to blame women was vividly manifested in an illustration
accompanying an article on sexual harassment appearing in a March 1980 issue
of USA Today. The woman in the illustration was portrayed very alluringly, wear-
ing a revealing dress, with a short hemline and a very low neckline, and stiletto
heels. Her fatherly, benign-looking boss was leaning over her with his arms wrap-
ped around her.43 This illustration implied that women asked for sexual harass-
ment by their dress and behavior in the workplace. Before courts, sexual
harassment victims were often treated like rape victims: defense attorneys delved
into their sexual past and questioned their behavior, their dress, and their speech.
A related theme that dominated the public discussion of sexual harassment
in the 1980s was the claim that women lied about sexual harassment and made
false accusations when an affair went bad. Throughout the Hanley hearings,
subcommittee members repeatedly questioned the witnesses about the possibil-
ity of frivolous charges. In protesting the subcommittee's report, Representative
Gene Taylor, the Ranking Minority Member, criticized the report for not
addressing the issue of "unfounded and frivolous complaints of sexual harass-
ment."44 In the 1980 congressional hearings about sexual harassment in the
Texas postal service, Postmaster William Jennings testified that "allegations of
sexual harassment are easily fabricated and can be as devastating to the
Fighting the Backlash: Feminist Activism in the 19805 145
innocent as to the guilty, if accepted at face value." He described reports of

harassment he had received which were "greatly exaggerated - if not false -
reports."45 Phyllis Schlafly testified before Congress that sexual harassment
laws allowed "unscrupulous persons to file mischievous claims. "4 6 The stereo-
type that women lie about sex also repeatedly appeared in Mary Coeli Meyer's
book. For example, the foreword to the book was the story of Potiphar's wife
found in Genesis 39 of the Bible. In this story, Potiphar's wife tried to seduce
Joseph and then cried rape when he refused her advances. 47 The stereotypes
that women caused sexual harassment by their dress and behavior and were
likely to make false charges persisted throughout the 1980s and into the 1990S.
Anita Hill, for example, was accused of lying about her charges that Clarence
Thomas sexually harassed her and also accused her of being a nymphomaniac
and a lesbian. 48 These stereotypes blamed women for sexual harassment, heark-
ening back to the nineteenth-century moral condemnation of women.
Indeed, the nineteenth-century understanding of sexual harassment as a
moral issue sometimes emerged in the treatment of the issue, despite the efforts
of activists in the 1970S to characterize sexual harassment as sex discrimina-
tion. For example, in Miller v. Bank of America, the district court ruled that the
alleged conduct fell under the company's policy against "moral misconduct."49
In another example, the Screen Actor's Guild in Los Angeles set up a "morals
complaints bureau" designed to arbitrate sexual harassment charges. 50 In her
198 I testimony before Congress, Phyllis Schlafly characterized sexual harass-
ment as a matter of morality when she argued that "virtuous women are seldom
accosted by unwelcome sexual propositions or familiarities, obscene talk, or
profane language."SI Mary Coeli Meyer and her coauthors argued that "sexual
harassment is basically a moral issue and therefore the overall responsibility for
its elimination lies within the individual rather than the law."52. American Enter-
prise Institute's Walter Berns argued, "it is women, not men, who are ultimately
responsible for what might be called the moral tone of any place where men and
women are assembled, even, I think, the workplace. In general, men will be
what women want them to be."53 This characterization obscured the role that
gender-based abuse of power and sexual coercion played in preventing women
from fully participating in the workplace.
The underlying power dynamics, in particular the issue of women's right to
enter the workplace, explicitly arose in public discussions of sexual harassment.
Phyllis Schlafly testified before Congress that she opposed "inducements to
wives to enter the labor force or to mothers to assign care of their children to
institutions," and she condemned any government action "designed to elimi-
nate or to blur the separate identity of different sex roles for men and women."S4
Linda Gordon, on the other hand, argued that sexual harassment forced
women to accept "the image of themselves as fair game in any public space"
and that this maintained and reinforced "women's sense of belonging at home
in the family, and hence of the most basic sexual division of labor, one of the
biggest sources of sexual inequality." 55 She continued, "sexual harassment
functions to keep women domestic, to reinforce the tradition that public spaces
belong to men."5 6 Similarly, AASC argued that women workers were not taken
seriously because many people still believed that "a woman's place was in the
home." They argued, "sexual harassment comes out of this lack of respect for
women as workers, it's a way of saying, 'you don't belong here."'57 The early
literature of Working Women's Institute acknowledged this issue, noting that
attitudes that trivialize sexual harassment "stem from traditional societal and
institutional definitions which portray women as sexual beings, not to be taken
seriously as workers."5 8 Sexually harassed women themselves sometimes ac-
knowledged the relationship of sexual harassment to their participation in the
workplace. In a I98I survey of women coal miners, many of the respondents
who had experienced sexual harassment reported that their male co-workers
and supervisors did not want women working in the mines. 59 One of the
women testifying at the 1975 speak-out in Ithaca lamented, "maybe I should've
stayed home and had babies, like my mother said.,,6o These comments reflected
how sexual harassment was closely linked to the question of women's right to
participate in the workplace.
Although feminists sought to characterize sexual harassment as an issue of
power, not sex, some feminists expressed concerns about the "antisexual atti-
tudes" and "moralism" that frequently invaded discussions of sexual harass-
ment. 61 In a 1979 Washington Post article, Catharine MacKinnon emphasized,
"objection to sexual harassment is not a neopuritan protest against signs of
attraction, displays of affection, compliments, flirtation, or touching on the job.
It is a protest against sex that is one-sided, unwelcome, or comes with strings
attached ... coming from someone with the economic power to hire or fire, help
or hinder, reward or punish.,,62 In 1981, MacKinnon noted, "the law against
sexual harassment often seems to turn women's demand to control our own
sexuality into a request for paternal protection, leaving the impression that it is
more traditional morality and less women's power that is vindicated.,,63 The
Alliance warned against the "desexualization of the workplace," contending
that "when antisex attitudes prevail then the liberation we seek is undermined
by a limited vision of who we are as people and a view of sexuality, which is
ultimately antiwoman." They called instead for a close examination of "sexu-
ality, roles, and power. ,,64 Socialist feminist Linda Gordon, writing in the early
1980s after the Reagan administration had taken office, argued, "when a right-
wing antifeminist backlash is attempting to reinstitute prudish and repressive
limits on sexual freedom, it is more important than ever that feminists not
project antisexual attitudes.,,65 Others expressed concern that "sexual harass-
ment might become a stalking horse for a new wave of repressive prudery."66
These concerns were part of a larger feminist debate about sexuality, female
agency, and victimization, especially in the context of pornography and pros-
titution. Nevertheless, while these latter issues created deep divisions among
feminists, sexual harassment did not, perhaps because the EEOC guidelines had
defined sexual harassment as unwelcome and economically coercive. Whereas
pornography had no clear broad-based economic effect on women, workplace
sexual harassment clearly did.
BACKLASH FROM LEFTISTS: THE CASE OF XIMENA BUNSTER
Resistance to sexual harassment prohibitions came not only from the right but
sometimes also from people identified with the left. Many unions, in particular,
were slow to act on claims of sexual harassment made against union members
out of concern that the issue might divide the working class or be used by
management against union leaders.67 Division within the left on the issue man-
ifested itself most clearly in a high-profile case that arose at Clark University in
Worcester, Massachusetts. 68 In June 1980, Ximena Bunster, a visiting associate
professor of Anthropology and Women's Studies at Clark University, filed a for-
mal sexual harassment complaint with the university against Sidney M. Peck,
Chair of the Sociology/Anthropology Department. Bunster made this formal
complaint after unsuccessfully trying informal channels to address the problem,
including talking to tenured men in the department, a dean, and the Provost.
Bunster was a forty-eight-year-old Chilean political exile and noted scholar
who came to the United States in 1975 under the sponsorship of Margaret
Mead. Peck was a well-connected leftist activist. In a ten-page, single-spaced,
typewritten complaint, Bunster alleged that Peck had tried to kiss her, had made
repeated demeaning sexual innuendoes and characterizations, frequently in the
presence of students and department colleagues, and had told her he would help
her stay at the university only if she acceded to his sexual demands. According
to the complaint, when Bunster told Peck that his behavior was inappropriate
and unwanted, Peck used his power as department chair to interfere with her
teaching and research activities.
Within three weeks after Peck received notice of Bunster's complaint, sup-
porters of Peck formed the "Committee to Support Sid Peck," which defended
Peck by attempting to discredit Bunster and by accusing the university admin-
istration of targeting him because of his political activism. Peck, with over
twenty years of labor and antiwar organizing, was able to form an extensive
network of support across the country and raise significant financial support
to defend himself. The committee established fundraising branches in San
Francisco, Chicago, Los Angeles, New York, Washington, D.C., Milwaukee,
and Cleveland. Peck's supporters argued that the dispute was motivated by
"administrative enmity at Clark" toward Peck. In particular, Peck had chaired
a committee on faculty compensation that had resulted in one million dollars in
salary increases for faculty over a four-year period. Peck had also founded an
affirmative action committee at the university and had fought to reverse a neg-
ative tenure decision against a radical colleague in the sociology department.
The Committee to Support Sid Peck deluged the area with their material. In
August of 1980, Peck's supporters sent out a fundraising letter focusing on
Peck's long-term activism in "movements for peace and justice," "his unwaver-
ing commitment to principle," and "his acute political and sociological in-
sight." The letter implied Bunster was a puppet of the administration. The
letter characterized the complaint as part of a "national pattern of assault upon
progressive academics," which "can only have a chilling effect upon everyone's
right to engage in advocacy and social activism." Peck's supporters called for
a resolution of the dispute outside of the university, within "our own
community. ,,69
Peck's supporters also attacked Bunster's character and motivations. At the
1980 meeting of the American Sociological Association and the Society for the
Study of Social Problems in New York, at least one of Peck's supporters char-
acterized Bunster as "crazy, childless, lonely, and unstable." Feminists at the
meeting were so outraged that they convinced the Steering Committee of Soci-
ologists for Women in Society to pass a unanimous resolution condemning the
practice of attacking women who have charged sexual harassment by attacking
their moral, political, or personal character and by using "psychiatric vocabu-
laries of motives to discredit her."7 0 Bunster supporters characterized the attack
on Bunster as racist and anti immigrant because Peck supporters implied that
"she did not understand American culture, that her 'Latin style' invited sexual
overtures, that her rights and motives were inferior because she was not a per-
manent resident; she was just a 'visitor' or, as one of Peck's supporters' leaflets
said, 'an ordinary foreign worker."'7!
Peck's efforts to vindicate himself and discredit Bunster continued into the
1980 fall semester. Peck and his wife, Louise, hosted several wine-and-cheese
parties for students and faculty to present his side of the story. Peck also gave
interviews to the Clark student newspaper and to Worcester Magazine. Finally,
he circulated a 104-page document denying that he had attempted to coerce her
into sleeping with him or that he had attempted any reprisals. He questioned
the credibility of Bunster and several students he thought might testify against
him in hearings on the charges. Peck's supporters argued that Bunster was
trying to help the university get rid of Peck in exchange for extension of her
contract. His support committee continued to send out fundraising letters, in-
cluding to students taking courses in his department at the time. Peck received
support not only from the left, but also from feminists. On October 15, 1980,
thirty-five women circulated a letter in the Boston/Cambridge feminist commu-
nity, stating that they were "deeply troubled" by the allegations against Peck
and that they had questioned Peck and decided that he was innocent. They
apparently did not talk to Bunster before coming to this conclusion.
Support also formed for Bunster and grew steadily with time. In October of
1980, Clark Professor Cynthia Enloe organized a group of supporters, who
formed the Committee for Fairness to Ximena Bunster, known as the Fairness
Committee. The committee included Gilda Bruckman, Estelle Disch, and Rita
Arditti. Arditti, who was co-owner of New Words bookstore in Boston, was
from Argentina, and was particularly offended by Peck's supporters' use of
racist stereotypes in their campaign against Bunster. 72 Bunster's supporters
raised funds through a film benefit in May 1981 and, in October 1981, Adrienne
Rich and Andrea Dworkin did a benefit reading in Boston to an audience of
over 500. In addition, Persephone Press donated several cartons of books to be
sold on behalf of the women, and hundreds of individuals sent contributions
and notes of support. Finally, Members of Sociologists for Women in Society
supported Bunster by raising funds for her early on, and two feminist lawyers
worked for Bunster for reduced fees.
The Fairness Committee circulated a letter in November of 1980 testifying
to Bunster's high standards as a scholar, to the un acceptability of racist char-
acterizations of her, and to the necessity of taking sexual harassment seriously
as an issue. The committee explained feminists' opposition to Bunster as often
based on inaccurate information, but in some cases as growing from a "pro-
found uneasiness about sexual harassment as an issue." According to the Fair-
ness Committee, some women feared that making sexual harassment an issue
could be equated with an antisex attitude. They feared that "sexual harassment
might become a stalking horse for a new wave of repressive prudery."73 The
committee attacked Peck's argument that a conservative administration was
using naive women to rid the campus of "radical" professors, noting that "the
bumbling way in which the administration proceeded testifies not to political
vengeance against Peck but bureaucratic indifference to sexual harassment."74
The committee also criticized the concern expressed by Peck's supporters of
"splitting the left" because of the assumption that "the complaints of the
women took second place to the alleged necessity of maintaining a solid front
in the current political climate." They explained, "some leftist men [have] been
sheltered from accusations of sexual harassment by virtue of their status as
worthy political allies."75
After receiving Bunster's formal complaint, the university handed the matter
over to the Committee on Personnel, consisting of six faculty members, four
men and two women. The committee conducted a preliminary investigation,
including a confidential hearing with witnesses for both Bunster and Peck.
Several women testified that Peck had made unwanted sexual advances to
them, including Professor Betsy Stanko, an untenured sociologist and the only
other full-time female member of the Sociology/Anthropology Department,
a graduate student, an undergraduate student, and a department secretary. On
November 10, 1980, the Personnel Committee concluded that there was sub-
stantial evidence to support some of the charges. On November 19, 1980,
Bunster and Stanko filed discrimination charges against Clark University with
the EEOC, protesting both the sexual harassment and the university's failure to
address the charges appropriately and to prevent retaliation against them for
complaining. They asked the EEOC to force Clark to "seriously, thoroughly,
and promptly address these complaints of sexual harassment." On December 8,
1980, the President of Clark issued formal charges against Peck for "lack of
fitness as a faculty member," naming several women who had testified during
the preliminary investigation. On January 5, 1981, the university proposed a
format for a hearing on the charges, which according to the Fairness Committee
"would have violated the civil rights of all involved."7 6 The university also filed
a motion with the EEOC to dismiss the complaints against it filed by Bunster
and Stanko.
In January 1981, Peck filed a complaint against Clark with the National
Labor Relations Board, claiming that Clark was investigating him not because
of its concern for women, but because of his leftist political activity. Peck and
the school then entered into a process of negotiation to settle the dispute. On
March 23, 1981, the lawyer representing Bunster and Stanko told the university
that they would not participate in another proceeding scheduled by the insti-
tution to consider the charges against Peck because the institution was not fairly
addressing the issues of sex discrimination and sexual harassment. In particular,
they objected to the fact that Bunster and Stanko could not call witnesses on
their own behalf, that they had no right to receive a copy of the decision, and
that they were not allowed to comment on the composition of the hearing
board. The next day, March 24,1981, the university and Peck signed an agree-
ment dropping the charges. Under the agreement, the university agreed that no
further action would be taken on the charges drawn up against Peck, and Peck
agreed to drop his NLRB claim against the university and his plans to sue the
university. The agreement also prohibited Peck from serving as chair of any
department at Clark in the future and prohibited him from participating in any
employment decisions concerning Bunster or Stanko. Finally, the agreement
provided that, because of "tensions within the university as a result of the
matters in dispute which need time to abate," Peck would take a leave of
absence to begin March 31 and in September begin a half-year sabbatical at
full pay, during which he would not be present on the campus.
Supporters of Bunster wrote to the president, protesting the settlement and
the university's failure to address the sexual harassment charges. They argued
that, "the consequences of this false resolution are disturbing and far-reaching,"
and that those who testified before the Committee on Personnel "participated in
good faith in the university's grievance procedure and are now being penalized
because the university truncated this procedure in return for a settlement that
provides legal protection for some parties but not for others."?? The day after
signing the settlement with the university, Peck sued Bunster, Stanko, and the
other women who accused him of sexual harassment for $23.7 million in state
court for defamation and injury to his "good name and reputation." The women
learned of the suit when Peck supporters distributed a broadsheet across
Clark campus including articles titled, "Mutual Charges Dropped," "Peck to
Lead Peace Drive," stating that Peck had requested a leave of absence to do
peace work, and "Peck Files Suit." Peck lost much of his support after filing this
suit. By April 1981, a variety of organizations and individuals had written
private and public letters to Peck asking him to drop the suit, including the
editorial staffs of Radical America and Socialist Review; George Wald, a
Harvard University biologist and Nobel Prize winner; Howard Zinn, a political
scientist at Boston University and a longtime political activist, and AASC. At
Clark, petitions were circulated among students, faculty, and staff calling on
the university administration to take action to protect the women from this
further intimidation. Local Worcester feminists picketed Clark's graduation
ceremony and feminist Adrienne Rich refused to accept an honorary degree
from Clark, saying she did not want "to be used as a token feminist, and as
a screen for the realities of women's status within the university." All five
women had to hire attorneys to respond to Peck's suit. In spring of 1982, Peck
dropped the defamation suit against the women who accused him of sexual ha-
rassment. Peck signed a public statement admitting that his suit was an act of
intimidation and advising other men that such suits were not effective techniques
when used against women who filed sexual harassment complaints against them.
On October 13, 1981, Bunster and Shanko filed suit against Clark and its
administrators, alleging that they had violated both federal and Massachusetts
civil rights law because they had no procedures for protecting women from
sexual harassment. 78 The case was settled in May 1982, on commencement
day. The Clark University Board of Trustees agreed to award Bunster and
Stanko $95,000 in attorney's fees and damages and agreed to establish effective
grievance procedures, including employing a full-time sexual harassment griev-
ance officer. After her initial two-year appointment in sociology from 1978 to
1980, Bunster received a one-year appointment from 1980 to 1981 as visiting
associate professor of women's studies but was not rehired after that.
This controversy at Clark University grew out of the political landscape of
the 1980s. Men in the left had often resisted feminist concerns. But in the
atmosphere of conservative backlash of the 1980s, some became concerned
about the possibility that the issue of sexual harassment could become a con-
servative tool to repress progressives, men of color, and immigrant men. Peck
was not alone, in the early 1980s, in claiming that conservative university
administrations targeted leftists with sexual harassment charges. In a high-
profile case at the University of California at Berkeley, sociology professor Elbaki
Hermassi, who was suspended without pay for one quarter for sexual harass-
ment of students, contended, "These people are looking for a cause, and I got in
the way. I am not an American citizen, and because of my origins they regard
me as easy to victimize."79 A 1980 article in the Chronicle for Higher Educa-
tion characterized sexual harassment charges as "mean little cases" that threat-
ened academic freedom. 80
Progressives' fears of the issue were sometimes fueled by sexist assumptions
and an ignorance of the significant deleterious impact that sexual harassment
might have on the lives of women. But in some cases, feminists committed to
the eradication of sexual harassment expressed ambivalence about the issue.
AASC, for example, expressed concerns about employers using sexual harass-
ment as a "union-busting technique." They acknowledged that employers
might use sexual harassment as a tool for selective punishment of certain
employees, such as members of unions or racial minorities. 8I At a public forum
on sexual harassment in Boston in February 198 I, feminist socialist historian
Linda Gordon warned of the "civil liberties dangers" of sexual harassment
investigations. She argued that "the government and institutions are more likely
to act against accused men who are themselves members of vulnerable social
groups - racial minorities, or leftists, for example. ,,8:1. According to Gordon,
sexual harassment procedures could also be used against lesbians and gays as
part of a homophobic campaign, or against heterosexual women, with women
of color, or other oppressed groups, again most vulnerable.
Some of these tensions played themselves out in even more complex forms in
the 1990S in the sexual harassment scandals involving Supreme Court nominee
Clarence Thomas in 1991 and President Bill Clinton in the late 1990S. Thomas
was able to recharacterize Anita Hill's sexual harassment charges against him
as racist political harassment by calling the investigation a "high-tech lynching
for uppity blacks." Clinton was also able to dodge the issue, with feminists'
blessings, by characterizing Pa ula Jones' sexual harassment charges as a partisan
attack. 83 Repeatedly, those accused of sexual harassment have been able to
eclipse these charges by focusing on the perceived political motivations of those
investigating and enforcing the laws against sexual harassment. Whereas sexual
harassment policy could be used for political purposes, especially against mem-
bers of disempowered groups, such claims certainly have been used to escape
responsibility for discriminatory conduct. This politicization of sexual harass-
ment charges has often deflected attention away from the underlying charges.
THE EVOLUTION OF THE ANTISEXUAL HARASSMENT MOVEMENT
Over the course of the 1980s, opposition to sexual harassment became increas-
ingly professionalized. The grassroots feminist activism of AASC found much
less support in the conservative climate of the early 1980s. Tensions developed
within AASC about whether to change the organization to adapt to this new
climate. Whereas some sought to make the organization more professionally
oriented, others expressed ambivalence about working in the mainstream. In
the end, AASC did not change its structure. In 1981, Freada Klein left AASC to
go back to graduate school in social policy and research at the Heller School for
Advanced Studies in Social Welfare at Brandeis University. In 1982, AASC
moved their offices from downtown Boston to the basement of a church in
Cambridge. They finally shut their doors in 1984 due to lack of funds. 84
Several AASC members, however, continued to work on sexual harassment.
Klein wrote her dissertation on sexual harassment in employment, focusing on
factors affecting its incidence, severity, duration, and relationship to produc-
tivity. After graduating, she became the Director of Organizational Develop-
ment at Lotus Development Corporation and later founded a management
consulting firm focused on workplace bias, harassment, and discrimination.
Klein has served extensively as an expert witness on sexual harassment and
was a television commentator during the Anita HilVClarence Thomas hearings.
Lynn Rubinett also continued to work on sexual harassment. After graduating
from Northeastern Law School, Rubinett became a labor lawyer in Texas and
conducted sexual harassment training with unions. In 1986, she published
a law review article on sexual harassment. Later, she worked for the Texas
Commission on Human Rights, where she continued to conduct workplace
training on discrimination. 8 5
WWI survived a few years longer than AASC but also eventually closed its
doors. The conservative backlash of the early 1980s led to decreased founda-
tional support to WWI, which suffered large budget cuts and had to reduce
staff. 86 The Institute shifted to reliance on smaller individual and corporate

donations, as well as self-generated income from fees for speaking engage-
ments, training, consulting, counseling services, and distribution of materials.
In early 1982, Bell Telephone Laboratories hired the Institute to conduct em-
ployee training on sexual harassment. In the summer and fall of 1982, the
Institute conducted nearly one hundred training workshops for management
and staff. The Institute also raised funds by launching a membership campaign
in August of 1982. Julie Goldscheid became membership director for the In-
stitute. As part of their membership drive, the Institute held a monthly forum
series and published a newsletter, On the Job, which appeared twice, in the
summer of 1982 and in early 1983. In addition to encouraging readers to join
and volunteer for the Institute, the newsletter contained stories about the ac-
tivities of the Institute and narratives from sexually harassed women. The In-
stitute raised over $7,500 in membership dues. The Institute also held several
fundraising events and social gatherings. In the summer of 1982, Eleanor
Holmes Norton wrote a fundraising letter for the Institute. As a result, by late
1982, the Institute staff found themselves sandwiched between the demands of
corporate workshops, which required them to be out of the office, and in-
creased demands from membership, clients, and the public. In 1982, Susan
Meyer stepped down as Executive Director of the Institute, and Karen Sauvigne
took over.
In 1983, the Institute conducted many corporate training seminars and be-
gan offering workshops to educational institutions, including University of
Massachusetts, Yale, Fairleigh-Dickenson, and Columbia. Sauvigne, Goldscheid,
Wagner, and Crull conducted these trainings. They raised money from expert
testimony, membership, and fundraising events. Despite these efforts, the
Institute consistently ran at a budget deficit. In June of 1983, the board
decided to begin winding down operations. The board members felt that the
Institute had accomplished its mission of raising public awareness of sexual
harassment, noting that there were now many places for sexually harassed
women to turn for help. The Institute stopped recruiting new members and
no longer published its newsletter. To spin off its counseling project, the In-
stitute trained the Barnard Women's Counseling Project and New York Women
Against Rape on the counseling and legal aspects of sexual harassment and
began to refer women to these organizations. The Institute donated its brief
bank to Rutgers University Women's Rights Law Reporter, which published an
annotated and indexed list of the contents of the brief bank and made these
materials available to the public. 8 ? Karen Sauvigne stepped down as Executive
Director of the Institute in February of 1984 to become the Development Di-
rector at CUNY Law School, but she continued to serve on the board.
Despite these developments, four staff members, including Peggy Crull and
K. C. Wagner, remained at WWI on a part-time basis to wind down the Insti-
tute's activities. Although the Institute did not do policy work or provide direct
services to sexually harassed women as they had in earlier years, the organiza-
tion continued to conduct educational programs on sexual harassment through
the mid-1980s. In 1983, the Institute published four pamphlets entitled "Know
Your Rights," which explained how to file sexual harassment claims at the
federal, state, and local levels. 88 The Institute also surveyed unions on sexual
harassment. 89 In 1984, the Institute staff members conducted corporate work-
shops, including a survey and training program for the Federal Aviation Ad-
ministration, and trained more local groups to take on the Institute's counseling
functions, targeting minority communities, including the Chinatown Planning
Council, the Medgar Evers Women Center, and the Center for Immigration
Rights. In addition, the Institute staff developed a self-help packet to send
out to callers. K. C. Wagner promoted the Institute's "Know Your Rights"
pamphlets on a radio outreach program, and several pamphlets were translated
into Spanish. Finally, the Institute staff members served as expert witnesses in
sexual harassment cases.
In 1985, the Institute staff continued to conduct sexual harassment training
for corporations and educational institutions and continued to testify as expert
witnesses. However, training opportunities had waned by the end of 1985,
when Peggy Crull left the Institute and K.c. Wagner became Executive Direc-
tor. Wagner closed WWI's Park Avenue office in 1985 and moved the Institute
to the Cornell School of Industrial and Labor Relations on 26 th Street, which
provided free office space. In 1986, the Institute participated in filing a friend-
of-the-court brief in the first Supreme Court case on sexual harassment in 1986,
Meritor Savings Bank v. Vinson. The Institute officially folded in 1987.
Despite the demise of the first two organizations formed to work on sexual
harassment, their work of raising awareness of the issue contributed to the birth
of many new organizations around the country that addressed the issue. For
example, in 1982, Dr. Mary Lebrato launched the Sexual Harassment in Em-
ployment Project in Sacramento, California, with money from an out-of-court
settlement of a sexual harassment and sex discrimination case brought by
Dr. Lebrato against the state. In cooperation with the California Commission
on the Status of Women, Dr. Lebrato researched current laws, procedures, and
strategies for dealing with sexual harassment and created a statewide informa-
tion network to assist sexually harassed women. 90 Similarly, in 1988, Cheryl
Gomez-Preston founded the Association for the Sexually Harassed in Philadel-
phia after she successfully sued the Detroit police department for sexual ha-
rassment, winning $675,000. The Association presented seminars, offered
support groups, advised businesses on sexual harassment policies, and con-
ducted statistical research. 91 The feminist effort to influence legal developments
on sexual harassment manifested itself most clearly in a highly coordinated and
extensive campaign to support Mechelle Vinson in Meritor Savings Bank v.
Vinson. Several women's rights groups organized moot courts for Vinson's
attorney, Patricia Barry, to practice her oral argument. Catharine MacKinnon
wrote the appellate brief in the case.
As women in a broad variety of occupations increasingly protested sexual
harassment, this resistance more often centered on legal challenges to the
behavior. For example, law came to dominate the discussions of sexual
harassment among coal mining women. In 1980, the sexual harassment work-
shop at the National Conference of Women Coal Miners was very much like
a speak-out, with women telling their stories of sexual harassment and abuse.
The workshop produced nine resolutions that focused on understanding sexual
harassment, educating miners about the issue, generating discussion about it,
and organizing against it in the workplace and in unions. 92. The 1981 work-
shop, in contrast, had a markedly more legal focus. 93 By 1989, the sexual ha-
rassment workshop was almost entirely legally focused: the panel of speakers
consisted of two lawyers, one male and one female, and a male union admin-
istrator, and the discussion primarily addressed legal remedies under Title VII
sex discrimination law. When one workshop participant suggested that sexual
harassment was a safety issue and that women might approach union safety
committees about the issue, the female attorney said, "I've never thought of it
that way. But then that wouldn't be the lawyer doing the case." The male
attorney on the panel, who seemed equally surprised by the suggestion, was
hesitant and discouraging, saying, "You can do what you can do. You can do
anything you can get away with. If your objective is to stop the harassment,
that's a clever way of doing it. But that's a bold way of doing it. I bet not too
many people would have the wherewithal to get that done. I think that's a major
step. And I tip my hat to that person. I'm not going to say it can't be done."94
Outside of this interchange, there was little discussion of nonlegal solutions to
sexual harassment.
In the early 1980s, women miners filed more and more sexual harassment
cases against coal companies. After the settlement of the 1978 lawsuit against
CONSOL, the female miners at Shoemaker mine continued to experience ha-
rassment. In 1981, they sued for invasion of privacy and sexual harassment,
alleging that CONSOL permitted the operation of a peephole into the women's
shower at Shoemaker for thirteen months. During the trial of the case, the par-
ties settled for an undisclosed amount. This case inspired other women miners
to bring sexual harassment cases. In 1983, women in Sabine, West Virginia,
sued Ranger Fuel Corporation, a subsidiary of the Pittston Company, alleging
that women were given the hardest, dirtiest jobs in the mines because of their
sex or because they refused to have sex with management personnel. In another
case, women miners sued Standard Oil of Ohio and its subsidiary Old Ben Coal
Company for sexual harassment, seeking $26.4 million. Women miners in
Loveridge, West Virginia, sued Consolidation Coal Corporation, alleging that
they were subject to verbal and physical harassment and that their job assign-
ments were threatened. As a direct result of these suits, one major coal company
began to conduct employee training on women in mines. 95
There was extensive media coverage of sexual harassment of women coal
miners. In August and September of 1982, local newspapers in the coal mining
states, especially West Virginia and Kentucky, widely covered a sexual harass-
ment case brought by women coal miners against Consolidation Coal Com-
pany. One editorial was scathingly critical of the women miners, arguing that
"this foolishness doesn't belong in a federal court" and asking, "have our
people lost the ability to enforce common standards of decency without help
from federal judges?" The editorial commended a female miner who testified in
defense of the coal company that the male coal miners were "ornery and con-
trary, but men are basically like that." The editorial noted another defense
witness who testified that the plaintiffs "brought it on themselves."9 6 Sexual
harassment of women miners appeared in the feminist press and on national
television, including on 60 Minutes in October of 1982..97
Women challenged sex discrimination and harassment in other nontradi-
tional occupations as well, including public utilities, law enforcement, road
construction, air traffic control, and the military. In 1983, female utility work-
ers filed a class-action sex discrimination complaint with the city's Human
Rights Department against Seattle's public power utility, City Light, alleging
discrimination and harassment. One plaintiff, Karen Meadows, found human
feces covering the shower floor in the women's locker room, and another, Jody
Olivera, received obscene pamphlets. Much of the harassment was violent and
dangerous. Olivera said she was "set up" to receive electric shocks and was hit
with a hammer and chain saw. Dorris Harris reported she was "constantly
being called names and constantly told how terrible the black race is." Nina
Firey employed by City Light sued the city of Seattle and her co-workers in state
court after she quit a lineman's apprenticeship program three months before
completion because of "humiliating and demeaning sexual harassment." She also
alleged that co-workers endangered her life on at least two occasions. Heidi
Durham fell twenty-five feet from a utility pole and broke her back, which she
attributed to "intense pressure, harassment, and discrimination in the field."9 8
In 1985, a nine-year veteran police officer Louette Columbano, represented
by Equal Rights Advocates, sued the city and county of San Francisco for sexual
harassment. After enduring years of harassment from her co-workers, Columbano
finally reached her limit when officers at a department party hired a pros-
titute to perform sexual acts on a new recruit before the assembled police
officers. Columbano informed police department officials and the media of
what had happened and was then subjected to severe, life-threatening harass-
ment, driving her from her job. Around the same time, police officer Janie
Stewart sued the Sonoma County Sheriff's Department after she left her job
because fellow officers humiliated and degraded her, threatened not to assist her
in the field, and ostracized her within the department. 99 In the late 1980s, an
Ohio road worker, Tracy Burnett, sued the state Department of Transportation
for sexual harassment. NOW, which had their annual meeting in Ohio in the
spring of 1987, sponsored a campaign, "Declaring War on Sexual Harass-
ment," along with the Columbus, Ohio, Committee Against Sexual Harass-
ment to support Burnett. IOO
In the area of education, many organizations were working on sexual ha-
rassment. The Project on the Status and Education of Women continued to
publish papers on the issue and cover the issue in its newsletter, On Campus
With Women. NOW's Legal Defense and Education Fund established a Sexual
Harassment in Education Project in the early 1980s, headed by Anne Simon,
Fighting the Backlash: Feminist Activism in the 19805 157
the attorney who worked on Yale v. Alexander. The project produced a resource
packet on sexual harassment, which was sent to anyone who inquired about the
issue. In 1982, the project published an annotated bibliography on sexual
harassment in education. In 1983, the National Association for Women Deans,
Administrators, & Counselors dedicated an entire issue of their journal to
sexual harassment in education, as did the Center for Sex Equity in Schools
based in Ann Arbor, MI, focusing on sexual harassment in high schools. In the
same year, the American Association of University Professors issued a paper
suggesting policies and procedures for handling complaints of sexual harass-
ment. University of New Hampshire established a Sexual Harassment and Rape
Prevention Program, which created support services for victims and offered
training on sexual harassment and rape. The Program distributed a flyer on
sexual harassment to faculty and students and hung posters on sexual harass-
ment, assault, and rape around campus. In 1984, Billie Wright Dzeich and
Linda Weiner published The Lecherous Professor, Sexual Harassment on Cam-
pus, the first book on sexual harassment in education. The Center for Women
Policy Studies published a guide on sexual harassment for students in 1986.101
Students continued to resist sexual harassment in the 1980s. In the spring of
1980, three female graduate students at Cornell University charged government
Professor Werner J. Dannhauser with sexual harassment. This led Cornell
President Frank H. T. Rhodes to issue an official memorandum on June 20, 1980,
to deans, directors, and department heads that said Cornell would not tolerate
sexual harassment, which he described as a threat to the "basic integrity" of the
university. In response to this statement, two members of the New York Civil
Liberties Union Cornell chapter surveyed students about sexual harassment. In
late 1981, the Cornell Daily Sun published a series of articles taking an in-depth
look at sexual harassment at Cornell, examining the views of students, admin-
istrators, and faculty regarding the extent of the problem and attitudes toward
proposed solutions!02 Within a decade's time, sexual harassment activism had
expanded far beyond the fledgling women's organizations that had first identi-
fied the phenomenon of sexual abuse on the job. But the type of activism on the
issue had evolved too to focus on largely legal solutions.
BUILDING AN UNDERSTANDING OF SEXUAL HARASSMENT
Theory and research on sexual harassment flourished in the 1980s, and aca-
demics and lawyers, rather than feminist activists, came to dominate the dis-
cussion, which appeared most often in academic and legal contexts. This
literature, which peaked after the Supreme Court decision in Meritor Savings
Bank v. Vinson in 1986, was decidedly more legally focused, more academic,
and incorporated a broader range of perspectives than literature on sexual
harassment in the 1970s. Although a few of these publications advocated leg-
islative action on sexual harassment, most were content to work within the
Title VII framework, urging courts to expand the notion of discrimination to
include sexual harassment. Representatives of employers began to publish on
sexual harassment as well, focusing on legal standards under Title VII and how
employers could avoid liability. 10 3
In the early I980s, three different journals dedicated entire issues to sexual
harassment. Capital University Law Review published the proceedings of the
first legal symposium on sexual harassment held in Washington, D.C. in I98r.
Participants included Catharine MacKinnon, EEOC Acting Chair Clay Smith,
Joan Vermeulen ofWWI, Jan Leventer of the EEOC, who was the former Legal
Director of the Women's Justice Center in Detroit Michigan, and Jill Laurie
Goodman of the Department of Education's Office of Civil Rights. The sym-
posium addressed the history of sexual harassment, the EEOC guidelines, and
caselaw on the issue. In the winter of I982, the Journal of Social Issues pub-
lished an entire issue on sexual harassment, containing articles on sexual ha-
rassment in the workplace and at educational institutions. It reported on
studies, including one looking at heterosexual and lesbian women, and dis-
cussed explanations for sexual harassment. In the winter of I983, the Journal
of the National Association for Women Deans, Administrators, and Counse-
lors published an issue on sexual harassment that was pragmatically oriented,
focusing on defining the problem, discussing solutions, and sharing experien-
ces. The articles discussed studies of sexual harassment, coping strategies, ad-
ministrative responses to the issue, and training programs. 104
As theory on sexual harassment appeared mainly in professional and aca-
demic legal publications, research on sexual harassment appeared primarily in
professional and academic social science publications. In the I970s, feminist
activists had conducted most of the surveys on sexual harassment, but in the
I980s, social scientists and academics began to research the issue, although
studies were still conducted primarily by women. Researchers studied sexual
harassment in a variety of contexts, including the public sector, the private
sector, and at educational institutions. Social scientific research in the I980s
focused on two areas: the prevalence of sexual harassment and people's per-
ceptions and attitudes toward sexual harassment. The studies on the prevalence
of sexual harassment found high rates of harassment in the workplace. l05 Two
social scientists reviewing the literature concluded that conservative estimates
suggested that one out of every two women would be harassed at some point
during her academic or working life, from which they concluded that "sexual
harassment is the most widespread of all forms of sexual victimization studied
to date.,,106 Studies of perceptions and attitudes about sexual harassment
showed a perceptual gender gap. Women were far more likely than men to
view such behavior as offensive. Furthermore, men were significantly more
likely to distrust the motivations of those claiming sexual harassment and hold
"victim-blaming" attitudes. For example, men were more likely to believe that
reports of harassment were generally just attempts to cause trouble, that people
who were harassed had usually "asked for it" in some way, and that the issue of
sexual harassment had been greatly exaggerated. Men were also more likely to
believe that sexual harassment was simply normal sexual interaction between
men and women. 107
Fighting the Backlash: Feminist Activism in the I980s I59
Social scientist Barbara Gutek was a leading researcher on sexual harass-

ment. In I979, sponsored by the NIMH, Gutek conducted a study of sexual
harassment of working men and women in Los Angeles county. She later ex-
panded on that study and published a book in I985, called Sex and the Work-
place, in which she reported that 53% of the women in her study had been
harassed at least once. Gutek also found that men and women perceived sexual
harassment differently, in that women were more likely to call sexual conduct
in the workplace harassment than men. Gutek concluded that there was a great
deal of ambiguity surrounding sexuality in the workplace. In another study,
Gutek and Inger Jensen found that those who had traditional versus feminist
sex-role beliefs were more likely to hold women responsible for sexual harass-
ment incidents. The authors concluded that "only by changing people's general
sex-role beliefs can one effect a change in the attitudes toward victims of
harassment." lOS
In addition to Gutek's work, several other important studies showed high
rates of sexual harassment and perceptual and attitudinal differences toward
sexual harassment between men and women. In I980, Redbook and Harvard
Business Review surveyed over 7,000 Harvard Business Review subscribers on
their perceptions of the seriousness of sexual harassment. Most respondents
agreed on what harassment was, but female respondents believed that sexual
harassment occurred much more frequently than male respondents. In I987,
the U.S. Merit System Protection Board conducted a second study of sexual
harassment in the federal workplace, which found rates of harassment similar
to the I98I study. In I988, a large study of sexual harassment in the military
showed extensive harassment. Several studies focused on women in blue-collar
and nontraditional occupations. There was little research on sexual harassment
of ethnic, racial, or sexual minorities, but one study in I982 found that lesbians
were more likely than heterosexual women to identify sexual behavior in the
workplace as sexual harassment. I09
Toward the end of the decade, social scientists began to point out the lim-
itations and gaps in sexual harassment research. Some criticized sexual harass-
ment research for a lack of conceptual clarity and specificity and substantial
differences in research methodology, including sample size, survey response
rate, sample diversity, harassment frame of reference, number of harassment
categories, and types of words or phrases used to elicit responses. Others called
for research into new areas, such as the effectiveness of training interventions
and organizational response patterns to sexual harassment. By the end of the
decade, researchers had moved beyond documenting the existence and percep-
tions of sexual harassment to address other issues, including victim response,
coping behavior, and the impact and consequences of harassment for the vic-
tim, as well as organizational factors leading to sexual harassment such as
gender ratio, workplace norms, and organizational climate. IIO Advocates
and policymakers used these studies to justify laws and policies against sexual
harassment. For example, studies showing that men and women perceived
sexual behavior in the workplace differently were used at the decade's end to
justify the creation of a legal standard for evaluating harassing behavior that
incorporated women's perspectives.
The federal government under Carter had established an aggressive antisex-

ual harassment policy, which had quickly pervaded the federal executive agen-
cies through OPM and EEOC actions. However, with the ascendancy of the
Reagan administration, which was strongly supported by business and employ-
ers, many state actors sought to roll back civil rights protections and enforce-
ment, including the EEOC sexual harassment guidelines, in the spirit of
deregulation. The changing political climate of the early 1980s generated an
episode of "contentious politics" with multiple combatants, including both
institutionalized political groups as well as previously unorganized nonpolitical
actors, who framed the issue in new ways. I I I Opposing the new antisexual
harassment policy were the Reagan administration, employers and probusiness
advocacy groups, the socially conservative Eagle Forum, and men accused of
sexual harassment. These actors articulated a range of arguments against sex-
ual harassment policy - arguments for government deregulation to arguments
that sexual harassment was not a problem or was something women bring on
themselves by inappropriate behavior. Supporting progressive sexual harass-
ment policy were not only a range of established women's organizations, such
as WWI and CEP, but also previously unorganized or nonpolitical challengers,
including individual women who had been plaintiffs or experienced sexual
harassment, like Sandra Bundy and Adrienne Tomkins. These advocates made
the familiar arguments that sexual harassment was widespread and posed a bar-
rier to equal employment opportunity, but they made new arguments to appeal
to the increasingly conservative probusiness environment: they argued that sex-
ual harassment was bad for business, resulting in low morale, absenteeism, and
high turnover, all of which lead to lower productivity. Contention also arose
within the left and the feminist movement, with concerns that conservative elites
would use sexual harassment charges to punish male leftists or that the issue
played into traditional ideas about women as victims or antisexual attitudes.
In the early 1980s, the antisexual harassment movement faced an increas-
ingly conservative environment that decreased political opportunities and
increased political constraints. Ronald Reagan replaced Eleanor Holmes
Norton with Clarence Thomas as chair of the EEOC and his vice president,
George H.W. Bush, began a campaign to rescind the EEOC guidelines. In
addition, resistance to sexual harassment prohibitions by the accused, employ-
ers, and their advocates further contributed toward a hostile climate for sexual
harassment claimants. These developments threatened the movement's achieve-
ments, causing participants to shift to more defensive strategies. Many of the
organizations that worked on sexual harassment in the late 1970S continued
their efforts in the 1980s, but in the face of decreasing political opportunities
and a dwindling resource base, as a result of the conservative climate of the
decade, activists focused more narrowly on legal solutions to the problem
and strategically framed sexual harassment in terms of sex discrimination.
Fighting the Backlash: Feminist Activism in the 19805
Professionals - lawyers, training consultants, and academics - began to dom-

inate public discussions of the issue, and feminist theory on sexual harassment
appeared primarily in academic journals and law reviews. In the 1980s, the
character of the movement shifted, becoming increasingly professionalized and
focused on legal solutions to the problem of sexual harassment. The movement
remained diverse and active and, despite the political climate, was able to
maintain the significant legal gains they had won. Successful lawsuits had the
effect of encouraging others to employ the same tactics, giving the courts ample
opportunity to wrestle with the legal issues relating to sexual harassment. By
1986, sexual harassment jurisprudence had gained so much momentum that
even a Rehnquist Supreme Court could not deny that sexual harassment,
including hostile environment harassment, was sex discrimination in violation
of Title VII.
8
Legal Victory: The Supreme Court and Beyond
Throughout the 1980s, feminist activists were integrally involved in the devel-
opment of sexual harassment jurisprudence, participating in all of the prece-
dent-setting sexual harassment cases. The powerful collaboration of diverse
constituencies working against sexual harassment peaked at two points in the
1980S - in efforts to preserve the EEOC guidelines in 1981 and in broad support
for the plaintiff Mechelle Vinson in the first Supreme Court sexual harassment
case. In 1986, the Supreme Court finally spoke on the issue of sexual harassment
in the case of Meritor Savings Bank v. Vinson. To feminists' delight, the Court
ruled that Title VII prohibited sexual harassment, including both quid pro quo
and hostile environment harassment. The Court, however, erected several
obstacles to obtaining relief, most notably rejecting the lower court's ruling that
employers were strictly liable for sexual harassment by supervisors. As sexual
harassment came to dominate headlines more and more in the 1990S, the courts
continued to struggle with an array of legal questions left open by this decision.
THE SUPREME COURT CASE
Mechelle Vinson began working at Meritor Savings Bank in 1974 under the
supervision of Sidney Taylor, a vice-president of the bank and branch manager
of the bank. Both Vinson and Taylor were African-American. According to
Vinson, Taylor repeatedly forced her to engage in sexual relations, usually at
the bank, both during and after business hours. Vinson estimated that over the
next two years she had sexual intercourse with Taylor forty to fifty times and
that on one occasion in May 1976 he so brutally raped her that it led to serious
vaginal bleeding for which she was required to seek a doctor's care. Vinson also
alleged that Taylor fondled her breasts and buttocks on the job, sometimes in
the presence of co-workers, followed her into the ladies' room when she was
there alone, and exposed himself to her several times.
According to Vinson, sexual intercourse between them ceased in 1977, when
she started regularly dating another man. She testified that when she refused to
continue having sex with him, Taylor retaliated by tampering with her personnel
records, lodging false complaints about her work performance with manage-
ment, denigrating and abusing her in front of other employees, entrapping her
into work errors, and threatening her life when she threatened to report him.
Once she heard him tell another employee that he was trying "to get rid of
her.'" In addition to sexually harassing her, Vinson alleged that Taylor fondled
other female employees at the bank and made suggestive remarks in their pres-
ence. Vinson testified that she had never reported the harassment to any of
Taylor's supervisors and never attempted to use the bank's complaint procedure
because Taylor had threatened to kill her or rape her if she did.
Taylor denied any sexual relations with Vinson but testified that Vinson
made sexual advances to him, which he declined. He contended that Vinson
was accusing him of sexual harassment in retaliation for a business-related
dispute. The bank defended itself by arguing that any sexual harassment by
Taylor was unknown and unauthorized by the bank. Over Vinson's objections,
the defendants introduced evidence that she wore revealing clothes and dis-
cussed her sexual fantasies with co-workers. In particular, one witness testified
that Vinson told her of a dream in which her deceased grandfather appeared to
her as a young man and they had sexual relations. Vinson vehemently denied
this testimony.
Patricia Barry, a young trial lawyer in Washington, D.C., who specialized in
employment discrimination cases, represented Vinson. Barry was a feminist
who had adopted her maternal grandmother'S maiden name when she became
a lawyer. 2 After an eleven-day bench trial in January 1980, Judge John Garrett
Penn, a 1979 Carter appointee, ruled that the bank was not liable for Taylor's
conduct because it had no notice of the harassment and that the sexual relation-
ship was voluntary and had nothing to do with Vinson's continued employment
or her advancement or promotions. In her appeal to the District of Columbia
Circuit Court of Appeals,3 Vinson was again represented by Barry and sup-
ported by Equal Rights Advocates, WWI, and Women Employed in Chicago,
which filed a friend-of-the-court brief on her behalf.
Among other things, Patricia Barry argued that Judge Penn allowed "in-
flammatory and sensational testimony" in order to establish that Vinson was
"lewd, lascivious, given to open discussions of unusual sexual fantasies for
a woman, [and] bent on seducing her boss by throwing her exposed body at
him." Had she not known that the testimony occurred in a twentieth-century
courtroom, Barry said, she would have thought it was from a "medieval tract
on women and the evils they pose for men." She then quoted extensively
from Barbara Tuchman's A Distant Mirror: The Calamitous 14th Century,
describing the depictions of women in Speculum, a medieval treatise by the
Dominican Vincent de Beauvais. She argued that Judge Penn's courtroom was
not a "rational, orderly attempt to get at the truth of what happened to
Mechelle Vinson, but rather a ritualistic psychodrama based on enduring
but extremely hostile, and even possibly subconscious, notions of who a
woman is,""
The District of Columbia Court of Appeals reversed the dismissal on January

25, I98 5. Two veterans of sexual harassment cases were on the appellate panel:
Judges Spottswood Robinson and J. Skelly Wright. The third judge was Judge
Edward Skottowe Northrop, appointed to the federal district court in
Maryland by President John F. Kennedy in I96I and sitting temporarily on
the appellate court for the case. In an opinion written by Judge Robinson, this
panel of judges reversed Judge Penn's dismissal for its failure to make a deter-
mination as to whether Vinson had proven a claim of hostile environment
harassment. Judge Robinson described the two types of sexual harassment that
violated Title VII-"abolition of the job of a female employee because she
spurned her male superior's sexual advances" prohibited in Barnes v. Costle
and "pervasive on-the-job sexual harassment by ... superiors" prohibited in
Bundy v. Jackson. 5 Noting that Judge Penn had issued his decision before
Bundy v. Jackson, he pointed out that Judge Penn had not undertaken a de-
termination of whether a violation of this type had occurred, but had in fact
supported the dismissal in part on a finding that Vinson had not suffered any
tangible employment consequences. Therefore, Judge Robinson directed the
district court to determine whether Vinson had been subjected to "sexually
stereotyped insults" or "demeaning propositions" that illegally poisoned her
"psychological and emotional work environment.,,6 Judge Robinson also ruled
that employers were strictly liable for sexual harassment by supervisors, a ruling
consistent with the EEOC guidelines.
After the court delivered its opinion, Meritor Savings Bank filed a petition
for a rehearing by the entire court, which was denied. 7 Three federal judges
filed a vigorous dissent to the denial of a rehearing: Judges Robert Heron Bork,
Antonin Scalia, and Kenneth Winston Starr, all very conservative Reagan
appointees. Reagan later nominated Judge Bork to the Supreme Court in
I987, but the Senate rejected the nomination because of Bork's extremely
conservative views. President Reagan successfully nominated Judge Scalia to
the Supreme Court in I986, and he has proved to be one of the most conser-
vative jurists on that court. Judge Starr resigned from the Court of Appeals in
I989 and later became the independent counsel in charge of the Whitewater
investigation that led to impeachment proceedings against democratic Presi-
dent William J. Clinton. The judges' dissent strenuously objected to the idea
that Title VII should prohibit hostile environment sexual harassment.
THE BANK APPEALS
The bank appealed the circuit court's decision to the Supreme Court. Robert
Troll, Charles Fleischer, and Randall Smith of the Washington law firm of Ross,
Marsh, & Foster represented the bank. Four amicus curiae briefs were filed in
support of the bank, submitted by the EEOC, the United States Chamber of
Commerce, the Trustees of Boston University, and the Equal Employment Ad-
visory Council, the group that filed a brief on behalf of the defendant in Miller
v. Bank of America. The EEOC, which had once been an ally to sexual
harassment victims, had changed significantly after six years under the Reagan
administration. Conservative Clarence Thomas, later accused of sexual harass-
ment by Professor Anita Hill when he was nominated to the Supreme Court,
was chair of the EEOC at the time the commission entered the case on the side
of the bank. 8
The bank's arguments echoed those made in earlier sexual harassment cases-
that Taylor's behavior was a matter of private morality, that it was natural and
harmless, and that women were likely to lie or act vindictively. The bank
emphasized that sexual harassment was different from racial or religious ha-
rassment because "racially or religiously derogatory workplace activity cannot
reasonably be conceived as occupationally neutral or desirable," whereas sex-
ual activity in the workplace may be "socially acceptable and wholly unrelated
to the job."9 The United States and the EEOC argued that hostile environment
sexual harassment was "special" and "distinct" because of "the naturalness, the
pervasiveness, and what might be called the legal neutrality of sexual attraction
(as contrasted to racial prejudice)." They explained, "[w]hereas racial slurs are
intrinsically offensive and presumptively unwelcome, sexual advances and in-
nuendo are ambiguous."Io Several of the bank's supporters made the related
argument that sexual harassment was unique because of the "personal" nature
of the disputed conduct, echoing the defense tactic used in early sexual harass-
ment cases. The U.S. Chamber of Commerce described the sexual harassment
at issue as "individualized," "private," "purely personal," and as "individual
sexual activity which is essentially unconnected with the employment." I I They
argued that Title VII was not intended to govern "the sexual mores of employ-
ees" or make the federal courts "arbiters of good taste in the workplace."I2
The bank's supporters also argued that employers should not be held strictly
liable for hostile environment by supervisors and that the court should allow
evidence of Vinson's dress and conversations in the workplace to determine the
voluntariness of her sexual interactions with Taylor. The defendants' arguments
were reminiscent of arguments made by defendants in the early sexual harass-
ment cases that assumed women alleging harassment were likely to be dishon-
est. For example, Clarence Thomas' EEOC brief expressed concern that "sexual
harassment charges do not become a tool by which one party to a consensual
sexual relationship may punish the other."I3 Finally, taking a cue from Judge
Bork's dissent in the lower court, the bank also argued that Title VII did not
prohibit hostile environment sexual harassment because Congress did not in-
tend to regulate "purely psychological aspects" of the workplace environment
under Title VII.
The tone of the briefs filed in support of the bank varied considerably. The
Trustees of Boston University condemned sexual harassment but opposed strict
liability because it would not encourage victims to report harassment or em-
ployers to adopt policies and procedures to prevent harassment. The Equal
Employment Advisory Council, on the other hand, was alarmist, repeatedly
quoting Judge Bork's dissent to the denial of a rehearing in the Circuit Court
and arguing that strict liability would subject employers to onerous punitive
damage awards under other laws prohibiting sexual harassment. Similarly, the
U.S. Chamber of Commerce quoted heavily from Judge Bork's dissent, trivial-
izing the effects of sexual harassment on women. The EEOC arguments implied
that women often lie about sexual harassment, and it selectively read the record
to attack Vinson's credibility. All of the bank's supporters expressed concern
about protecting the rights of workers to make sexual advances in the work-
place and to engage in sexual conduct in the workplace.
SUPPORT FOR MECHELLE VINSON
The far-flung strands of the movement against sexual harassment carne together
in support of Mechelle Vinson case before the Supreme Court. Patricia Barry
and Catharine MacKinnon wrote Vinson's appellate brief, and Barry presented
the oral argument. Over forty organizations, eight states, and twenty-nine mem-
bers of Congress filed seven amicus curiae briefs. Vinson's supporters repre-
sented a diverse range of people, including women of color, homemakers,
unions, coal miners, feminists, lawyers, educators, and mothers. 14 Several
organizations that had been active on the issue since the late 1970S participated,
including WWI, ERA, WLDF, Women Employed in Chicago, NOW Legal De-
fense and Education Fund, and Women's Alliance for Job Equity of Philadel-
phia. But many more organizations joined the fight. Seven organizations
representing women of color participated in the lawsuit, including the Organi-
zation of Pan Asian American Women, the National Institute for Women of
Color, the Mexican American Women's National Association, the National
Conference of Black Lawyers, the Asian Pacific American Bar Association of
the Greater Washington, D.C. Area, the Sisterhood of Black Single Mothers,
and the Women's Rights Project of the Instituto Puertorriqueno de Derechos
Civiles. Several organizations representing blue-collar women participated, in-
cluding the CEP, the Coalition of Labor Union Women, Wider Opportunities
for Women, and Non-Traditional Employment for Women.
Many other organizations joined as well, representing a broad spectrum of
interests. They included the National Board of the YWCA of the USA, the
American Association of University Women, NOW, the Connecticut Women's
Educational and Legal Fund, the New York State Committee on Pay Equity,
Women on the Job of Port Washington, New York, Women in Self-Help of the
New York State Displaced Homemaker Program, New York Women Against
Rape, the Women's Counseling Project, the Committee Against Sexual Harass-
ment in Sacramento, California, and the Women's Law Project. Women's bar
associations from around the country participated as well, including from the
Massachusetts, Minnesota, Michigan, Colorado, New York, and D.C. Several
general civil rights organizations participated, including the Employment Law
Center of the Legal Aid Society in San Francisco, National Emergency Civil
Liberties Committee, the Center for Constitutional Rights, the Workers De-
fense League, and the American Federation of Labor and Congress of Industrial
Organizations. Governments who participated were the states of New Jersey,
California, Connecticut, Illinois, Minnesota, New Mexico, New York, Ver-

mont, and the Pennsylvania Human Relations Commission as well as
twenty-nine members of Congress, twenty-seven Democrats and two New
York Republicans, who filed a brief in support of Vinson (no members of
Congress supported the petitioner). The broad participation in the Meritor case
illustrates how diverse and broad-based the movement against sexual harass-
ment had become by the mid-I980s.
ARGUMENTS FOR VINSON
Supporters of Mechelle Vinson made four major arguments on the merits of the
case. First, they argued that the bank used the phrase "sexual activity" to refer
to welcome and forced sex alike, conflating "unwanted forcible sexual initia-
tion with welcome friendly suggestions ... as if the two are properly indistin-
guishable for legal purposes."I5 Barry and MacKinnon argued "sexual abuse is
no more wanted than racial abuse, and friendly discussions of race are no more
inherently offensive than friendly discussions of sex."I6 The WWI brief argued
that "behavior which is intimidating, degrading, and offensive to women
should not be immunized from the purview of Title VII simply because some
men find it socially acceptable any more than derogatory epithets used about
blacks should be immunized because some whites find them 'socially accept-
able,''''7 The WLDF brief, written in part by veteran sexual harassment litiga-
tors Linda Singer, Anne Simon, and Nadine Taub, noted, "[t]he appropriate
comparison is not between sexual 'activity,' which would include both consen-
sual and coerced sex, and racially or religiously 'derogatory workplace activity.'"
The proper comparison, they argued, was between "two forms of unwelcome
harassment: sexually derogatory workplace activity, and racially or religiously
derogatory workplace activity."IB
The second major argument made by supporters of Vinson was that Title VII
prohibited hostile environment sexual harassment. The WWI brief relied on
sociological research to show that sexual harassment was a pervasive practice
that circumscribed women's employment opportunities and impaired their
health. They cited numerous studies, including WWI studies and surveys, the
Merit System Protection Board Study, and the 198 I Harvard Business Review
and Redbook study. They argued that women were especially vulnerable to
sexual harassment due to their lower status in the workforce hierarchy, partic-
ularly in predominately male occupations, citing studies of women in the con-
struction trades and the auto industry. They noted that black women were even
more vulnerable than women generally because of their inferior economic
position and their unique place in American history, including the "legacy of
slavery," which led to the "stereotype of black women as sexually available,
sexually promiscuous, and unprotected by black men."19 Reminiscent of plain-
tiff's arguments in the early sexual harassment cases, WWI argued that women
were also vulnerable to sexual harassment because of socialization: "men are
usually the initiators of purely social interaction and women the recipients."1o
They argued that sexual harassment led to women's higher job turnover, which
substantially contributed to the wage gap between men and women.
Similar to WWI, women's bar associations from Massachusetts, Minnesota,
Michigan, and Colorado submitted a brief relying extensively on empirical
studies to argue sexual harassment had a profound and deleterious impact on
many working women. They argued that, based on the empirical studies, sexual
harassment was not social or courting behavior, but "an assertion of power by
the harasser over the victim," which they called the "power dominance the-
ory."21 WLDF argued that Title VII prohibited quid pro quo and environmental
sexual harassment, citing the 1980 report from Hanley Congressional hearings,
the EEOC guidelines, and case law involving sexual, racial, and religious ha-
rassment, including EEOC v. Rogers. They argued that "sexual harassment of
working women expresses stereotypic role expectations because it emanates
from the view that women employees are sexual objects."22
Other arguments made by Vinson's supporters were that employers should
be strictly liable for hostile environment sexual harassment by supervisory
employees and that the evidence of Vinson's dress and reports of fantasies
was properly excluded on remand. On the latter, they argued that the evidence
was not relevant to whether the advances were welcome because "women
simply do not volunteer to be sexually harassed by their clothing or the pur-
ported content of their voluntary conversations.,,23 The WLDF brief argued
that evidence of a victim's dress and personal fantasies was irrelevant because
"voluntary conversations with co-workers are very different from required
acquiescence in unwelcome assaultive and intrusive behavior by supervisors."
They explained, "a woman's choice of clothing and her private fantasy life are
no more relevant to her claim of sexual harassment than a fraud victim's
generosity or extravagance." They argued that the bank was resurrecting
"the discredited myth that only women who ask for trouble get it" and that a
"sexually active woman would never find sexual advances unwelcome." They
argued that the evidence was an inflammatory attempt to impugn her character,
did not impeach her credibility, could not establish a habit, was an unwarranted
invasion of privacy, and that the prejudice produced by such evidence out-
weighed its probative value.
They also argued that the unwelcome ness standard should be applied to
distinguish consensual sexual activity in the workplace from sexual harass-
ment. They argued that sexual advances by a male supervisor against a female
subordinate is "inherently coercive" because the employee risks retaliation if
she rejects the advances. Therefore, the focus of the court's inquiry should be on
whether the advances were unwelcome, not on whether the employee volun-
tarily acquiesced. Similarly, the women's bar associations argued that unwel-
comeness distinguished "innocent forms of social-sexual conduct which
naturally occur in the workplace" from sexual harassment and that conduct
should be evaluated from the perspective of the reasonable victim. 24
Surprisingly, little discussion of race occurred in the legal discourse. None of
the judicial opinions ever mentioned the race of Vinson or Taylor. At one point,
Barry and MacKinnon suggested how Vinson's race may have affected her
claim: "all too often, it is Black women like Ms. Vinson who have been specif-
ically victimized by the invidious stereotype of being scandalous and lewd
women, perhaps targeting them to would-be perpetrators ... minority race
aggravates one's vulnerability as a woman by reducing one's options and under-
mining one's credibility and social worth.,,25 WWI also mentioned how the
history of slavery shaped stereotypes of black women, which made them more
vulnerable to harassment.2.6
THE COURT'S DECISION
Justice William Rehnquist, appointed to the Supreme Court by President

Richard Nixon in 1971, delivered the opinion of the court, joined by Justices
Burger, White, Powell, Stevens, and O'Conner. Justice Marshall filed an opinion
concurring in the judgment, in which Justices Brennan, Blackmun, and Stevens
joined. The decision of the Supreme Court in the Meritor case was a remarkable
victory for feminists in that the Court held that sexual harassment was sex
discrimination and that Title VII prohibited both quid pro quo sexual harass-
ment and hostile environment sexual harassment. The Court cited the language
of Title VII, prohibiting discrimination in the "terms, conditions, or privileges
of employment," as well as the EEOC guidelines on sexual harassment and
several racial harassment cases, including EEOC v. Rogers.27 Even in cases
where there was no direct economic injury, the Court held that women could
pursue a claim for sexual harassment under Title VII. The Court confirmed
many of the principles that had been developing in the lower courts for the
previous ten years.
The Meritor decision, however, was not a complete victory. The Court
placed several limitations on the ability of plaintiffs to gain relief for sexual
harassment under Title VII. First, the Court created a threshold for actionable
sexual harassment, holding that sexual harassment must be "sufficiently severe
or pervasive 'to alter the conditions of the victim's employment and create an
abusive working environment,'" citing the language of EEOC v. Rogers. 28
Second, on the issue of voluntariness, the Court held that the fact that a com-
plainant was not forced to participate against her will was not a defense to
sexual harassment suit under Title VII. The heart of a sexual harassment claim
was whether the alleged advances were "unwelcome." However, the Court held
that a plaintiff's sexually provocative speech or dress was "obviously relevant"
to the issue of whether the plaintiff found the alleged sexual advances unwel-
come. Third, the Court declined to rule definitively on the issue of employer
liability because of the "rather abstract quality" of the debate "given the state of
the record" in the case. Departing from the EEOC guidelines, the Court held
that the lower court had erred in holding employers automatically liable for
hostile environment harassment, but also held that the mere existence of a griev-
ance procedure and a policy against discrimination, coupled with the plaintiffs
failure to invoke that procedure, did not insulate an employer from liability.
On remand, the case stretched out for another five years. Finally, on August
22,1991, the parties settled the case for an undisclosed amount. 29 After she left
the bank, Vinson experienced severe financial troubles. After being "black-
balled" in the banking industry, she filed for bankruptcy. In 1982, she returned
to live with her parents in Washington, D.C. She later enrolled in nursing school
with the help of a student loan but had to drop out because of finances. 30
Patricia Barry also experienced financial problems, eventually ceasing her em-
ployment discrimination practice because she could not make ends meet. Barry,
who was originally from California and graduated from UCLA law school in
1973, returned there in September of 1982. In 1987, Barry filed for bankruptcy
and moved back to her parents' home. In 1988, after thirteen years as a civil
attorney and having an impressive track record, winning or settling more than
half of the seventy cases she took, she decided she could no longer afford to take
civil rights cases.
THE IMPACT OF LEGAL DEVELOPMENTS ON SEXUAL HARASSMENT
The development of sexual harassment law in the 1980s had a significant in-
fluence on employers' attitudes toward sexual harassment. By the end of the
1980s, businesses began to take sexual harassment more seriously. In 1988,
Working Woman magazine surveyed Fortune 500 companies on whether they
had sexual harassment policies. Of the 160 companies responding, 76% had
written policies banning sexual harassment and an additional 16% had a gen-
eral policy against discrimination that included sexual harassment. 3I In re-
sponse to this concern, feminist groups and management consulting firms
began to produce training materials and videos for employers on sexual ha-
rassment.31 Educational institutions also addressed the issue more seriously.
University communities discussed the issue, and many schools conducted stud-
ies of sexual harassment at their institutions and adopted policies prohibiting
the conduct. The studies and policies covered a broader range of conduct. For
example, in 1983, Massachusetts Institute of Technology conducted a survey
on sexual harassment between students. In November of the same year, Uni-
versity of California adopted a ban on sex between teachers and their students,
stating that even "consenting" relationships can inflict "irreparable" damage to
the educational environment. Hampshire College in Massachusetts adopted
a policy discouraging relationships between faculty and students, pointing
out the "unequal power relationship" between students and teachers. At the
same time, educational institutions began to investigate and censure faculty and
staff members for sexual harassment. Employees at several universities sued for
sexual harassment in the early 1980s. Beginning in the early 1980s, Lloyds of
London began offering insurance policies to colleges and universities to cover
the legal costs of harassment cases. 33
The expanding law encouraged women to file more sexual harassment
claims in a wider variety of contexts. In 1981, the EEOC received 3,661 sexual
harassment complaints. In 1990, they received 5,557 sexual harassment
Legal Victory: The Supreme Court and Beyond 17 1
charges. Some of the top awards in sexual harassment cases in the late 1980s,
all filed under state law, included a $3.1 million settlement in a 1986 Ohio case,
a $2 million settlement in a 1990 case in Los Angeles, a $1.4 million settlement
in a 1988 case in Oregon, a $1.1 million settlement in a case involving an
apprentice asbestos worker in Illinois, and a $900,000 settlement in a 1987
case involving a police officer in Michigan. 34 Sexual harassment plaintiffs in the
1980s also began to file class action suits and bring sexual harassment claims in
new areas. In 1980, the National Labor Relations Board ruled that firing an
employee who helped a co-worker file a harassment complaint violated the
National Labor Relations Act. 35 In 1981, a federal district court in Illinois held
that sexual harassment by a supervisor of the same sex was actionable under
Title VII, but another court in the same district rejected a similar case in 1988.36
In 1984, the Eighth Circuit allowed the first class action sexual harassment
suit. 37 In a 1985 Ohio case, Shellhammer v. Lewallen, the Sixth Circuit upheld
a charge of sexual harassment under the Fair Housing Act against a landlord
who evicted a tenant for refusing to pose nude and have sexual intercourse. 38
Feminists continued to be integrally involved in the development of this law.
The victory in Meritor Savings Bank v. Vinson was the crowning achieve-
ment of the early movement against sexual harassment. Whereas at the begin-
ning of the 1980s only a few lower courts had ruled in women's favor on cases
involving the most extreme factual scenarios, by the end of the 1980s, federal
law had developed significantly, and employers and educational institutions
took the issue very seriously. Courts expanded the definition of sexual harass-
ment to include hostile environment harassment and held employers liable for
tolerating co-worker harassment. Some courts even recognized the gendered
power dynamics underlying sexual harassment. By the end of the 1980s,
women had significantly more legal protection against sexual harassment than
they had had at the beginning of the 1980s and the movement had achieved
victory before the highest court in the land, but there were many unanswered
questions with regard to legal standards.
Sexual Harassment after Meritor

Shaped by the activism and legal developments of the 1970S and 1980s, the
issue of sexual harassment finally landed squarely in the center of the main-
stream public agenda when law professor Anita Hill stepped forward in the fall
of 1991 to describe her experiences of sexual harassment by Supreme Court
nominee Clarence Thomas when she had worked for him at the EEOC a decade
earlier. Hill's story echoed the stories of Paulette Barnes and Diane Williams -
a black woman harassed by her black male supervisor in an agency that had
the purpose of fighting discrimination. The televised Senate hearings riveted
the nation. Anita Hill was one of many powerful women who stepped for-
ward in the 1990S to tell their stories of sexual harassment. Female navy pilot
Lieutenant Paula Coughlin exposed widespread and severe sexual harassment
in the Navy's Tailhook Association. Stanford neurosurgeon and professor,
FIGURE 8.1. Anita Hill, 1991. APlWide World
Dr. Frances Conley resigned her position after 25 years to protest sexual ha-
rassment by her male colleagues, including her department head. Boston
Herald sportswriter Linda Olson sued the New England Patriots football team
because members made obscene comments and gestures to her when she was
interviewing a player in the team's locker room.
As the I990S progressed, women repeatedly accused federal govern-
ment officials of sexual harassment. Several members of Congress faced such
accusations, including Senator Brock Adams (D-WA), who terminated a bid
for reelection as a result, Senator Daniel K. Inouye (D-HI), Senator Dave
Durenberger (R-MN), and Senator Bob Packwood (R-OR), who eventually
resigned in September of 1995. President Bill Clinton was impeached based
Legal Victory: The Supreme Court and Beyond 173
on charges related to allegations of sexual harassment. In the late 1990S, two

high-profile sexual harassment scandals involving the military surfaced, one
involving extensive sexual harassment at the Aberdeen Proving Ground in
Aberdeen, Maryland, and the other involving the Sergeant Major of the Army,
Gene McKinney, the Army's highest-ranking enlisted man. Throughout the
decade, Congress held hearings and investigations into sexual harassment in
a variety of contexts, including the federal workplace, the Veteran's Adminis-
tration, and educational institutions.
As a result of these many high-profile sexual harassment scandals involving all
three branches of the federal government, the military, and the private sector,
media coverage of sexual harassment skyrocketed. Whereas the New York Times
had 85 stories on sexual harassment in 1990, it had 406 in 1991, 372 in 1992,
313 in 1993, and 419 in 1994. 39 Hollywood put a twist on the issue with the
1994 movie Disclosure, in which Demi Moore played a corporate executive who
sexually harassed a male subordinate, played by Michael Douglas. Even a board
game called Harassment was released to favorable reviews in 1992, the same
year Oleanna premiered off-Broadway, a play about a university student accus-
ing her professor of sexual harassment. Reflecting this increased awareness of
sexual harassment, charges filed with the EEOC and state Fair Employment
Practice Agencies surged in the 1990S, growing from about 5,500 complaints
in 1990 to over 15,500 complaints in 1995. The number of complaints stayed
over 15,000 through year 2000, after which it decreased to 12,679 in 2005.40
Courts significantly advanced sexual harassment law in the 1990S. The U.S.
Supreme Court issued seven decisions on sexual harassment, four on sexual
harassment in the workplace under Title VII, and three on sexual harassment of
students under Title IX. The cases on harassment in employment involved
standards for assessing harassing behavior, same-sex harassment, and employer
liability. In 1993, the Court ruled in Harris v. Forklift Systems that a sexual
harassment plaintiff does not have to prove that she suffered serious psycho-
logical damage in order to recover under Title VII but need only show that the
harassment was sufficiently severe or pervasive to create an objectively hostile
or abusive working environment - one that a reasonable person would find
hostile or abusive - and that the plaintiff subjectively perceived the environ-
ment to be abusive. In this decision, the Court rejected a gendered "reasonable
woman" standard advocated by the plaintiffs in the case. In 1998, the Court
ruled in Oncale v. Sundowner Offshore Services that same-sex sexual harass-
ment violates Title VII. The latter two rulings reflected how far the law had
come from the early feminist framing of sexual harassment as a distinctively
women's experience. 41 The issue had become conceptually degendered, no
longer necessarily linked to women's subordination as it had in the early fem-
inist theory on sexual harassment.
In two other cases in 1998, Faragher v. City of Boca Raton and Burlington
Industries v. Ellerth, the Court ruled that employers are strictly liable for ha-
rassment that results in tangible employment action by a supervisor; liable for
harassment by co-worken and nonemployees only if the employer knew or
should have known of the conduct and did not take immediate and appropriate
corrective action; and, when no tangible employment action is taken, liable for
harassment by supervisors unless the employer exercised reasonable care to
prevent and correct promptly any sexually harassing behavior, and the plaintiff
unreasonably failed to take advantage of any preventative or corrective oppor-
tunities provided by the employer or to avoid harm otherwise. 4 :1. In 2004 and
2006 respectively, the Supreme Court again addressed issues related to sexual
harassment: constructive discharge in Pennsylvania State Politice v. Suders and
retaliation in Burlington Northern v. White. 43 The Supreme Court cases on sex-
ual harassment of students allowed private individuals to recover monetary
damages under Title IX for sexual harassment, established that a school board
must demonstrate deliberate indifference to a report of sexual harassment in
order to be liable, and allowed peer harassment cases. 44
Lower courts established important precedents as well, often expanding sex-
ual harassment jurisprudence. For example, in Robinson v. Jacksonville Ship-
yards, a district court in Florida allowed a sexual harassment claim based on
obscenity in the workplace. The Ninth Circuit in Ellison v. Brady ruled that
courts should evaluate harassment from the perspective of a reasonable woman,
although other circuits have disagreed. Feminists advocated for the "reasonable
woman standard" based on social scientific research showing that men and
women perceive sexual behavior in the workplace differently. The Eighth Cir-
cuit in Jenson v. Eveleth Taconite allowed a class action sexual harassment suit,
and the Seventh Circuit in DiCenso v. Cisneros allowed a claim for tenant
harassment. 45 The Jenson case was later turned into a Hollywood movie titled
North Country.4 6 The EEOC and the Office of Civil Rights of the Department
of Education repeatedly issued policy and enforcement guidance on sexual
harassment during the decade. Finally, in 1994, Congress amended the Federal
Rules of Evidence to make evidence of a plaintiff's "other sexual behavior" or
"sexual predisposition" presumptively inadmissible in sexual harassment law-
suits. At the state level, legislatures passed prohibitions against sexual harass-
ment in a variety of contexts. For example, in 1994, California passed an
expansive law prohibiting sexual harassment in any "business, service, or pro-
fessional relationship," including in relationships between a physician and a
patient, an attorney and a client, a landlord and a tenant, and in schools. 47
The 1990S also saw several large monetary awards in sexual harassment
cases, including a jury award of $7. I million against the law firm of Baker &
McKenzie in California and a $34 million settlement in a case against Mitsu-
bishi in 1998.4~
Feminist activists continued to be involved in precedent-setting sexual ha-
rassment lawsuits and public policy debates after Meritor. Feminist organiza-
tions participated in many significant court cases on sexual harassment and in
government hearings on the issue. Hundreds of organizations across the coun-
try provided direct services to victims of sexual harassment. Advocacy groups,
including unions, published guides and handbooks on sexual harassment and
also produce films and workshop materials on sexual harassment. Feminist
Legal Victory: The Supreme Court and Beyond I75
legal theory on sexual harassment expanded significantly and became increas-

ingly complex and fragmented. Outside of feminist circles, discussions of sexual
harassment flourished. Many books appeared on sexual harassment, especially
on harassment of students. Discussions and activism expanded to include sex-
ual harassment in new contexts, such as street harassment, harassment in hous-
ing, harassment on the Internet, and harassment of young girls. 49 Finally,
research on sexual harassment expanded significantly, including many surveys
showing continued high rates of harassment.
While feminist activism expanded, so did criticism of sexual harassment
policies. Some of the critics echoed those of the I980s by claiming that women
provoke harassment, exaggerate, or lie about it. Women alleging sexual harass-
ment were often criticized and the issue trivialized. Critics of feminism, such as
Katie Roiphe, Camille Paglia, and Christina Hoff Summers, attacked the
feminist focus on sexual harassment as an example of "victim feminism" or
"puritan feminism," which they argued portrayed women consistently as pas-
sionless victims. Similarly, University of Massachusetts English Professor
Daphne Patai accused the "sexual harassment industry" of blurring the distinc-
tion between gross offensiveness and a "word or gesture heard by a bystander
as 'uncomfortable.'" 50 In Feminist Accused of Sexual Harassment, Jane Gallop,
who was accused of sexual harassment by two graduate students, argued that
sexual harassment policies threatened civil liberties as well as ordinary social
behavior in the workplace and in colleges. 51 In legal commentary, objections to
sexual harassment policy developed based on First Amendment free speech
challenges, due process challenges, and privacy challenges. Some of these objec-
tions succeeded in the courts. In 1993, English professor J. Donald Silva sued
the University of New Hampshire for violating his First Amendment rights be-
cause the university suspended him for sexual harassment. A New Hampshire
district court ordered the university to reinstate Silva until the court could
resolve the case. In 1994, the case settled out of court, making Silva's reinstate-
ment permanent, removing the charge from his record, and granting him
$60,000 in back pay and $170,000 in legal feesY· In 2.001, the Third Circuit
invalidated a school district's antiharassment policy on free speech grounds in
the case of Saxe v. State College Area School District, an opinion authored by
Circuit Judge Samual Alito, who was elevated to the Supreme Court by Pres-
ident George W. Bush in 2.006. 53
The Supreme Court's decision in Meritor Savings Bank v. Vinson paved the
way for sexual harassment to become the high-profile issue that repeatedly
brandished newspaper headlines in the 1990S. The decision was a turning point
for the movement against sexual harassment. With a Supreme Court stamp of
approval, the movement shifted from localized struggles in a variety of arenas
to a more specialized, legalized, national effort with new women's organiza-
tions and actors joining the movement. Sexual harassment advocacy became
a mainstay of the women's movement, nested into the leading feminist organ-
izations as one of the core issues, and fully integrated into the equal employ-
ment opportunity agencies and offices of federal and state governments, as well
as private employers. The legal framework was a powerful advocacy tool in late
twentieth-century American society, but it depends on receptive judges. The
movement took advantage of the political opportunities created by a diverse
group of circuit court judges who had been influenced by the civil rights move-
ment and the Vietnam era. Women have come a long way in winning the legal
right to enter the workplace without being subjected to sexual harassment.
However, women continue to experience high rates of sexual harassment,
and the legal processes associated with winning relief are often slow and costly,
emotionally and financially. In addition, conservative judicial appointments of
the Reagan and both Bush administrations may stymie the effectiveness of legal
remedies in the future.
Conclusion: Entering the Mainstream
Despite continuing struggles, the history of the movement against sexual ha-
rassment is in many ways an incredible success story. The movement against
sexual harassment emerged at the intersection of multiple social movements
percolating in American society in the 1970S - the women's movements, the
civil rights movement, the labor movement, the gay and lesbian rights move-
ment, and the sexual revolution. The sexual revolution brought about changes
in sexual morality and behavior, ushering in more open and positive attitudes
toward sex. But as the sexual revolution articulated the right to engage in sex,
the antirape movement asserted women's right to say no to sex and, along with
the battered women's movement, asserted women's right to be free from phys-
ical violence. The women's health movement, including the reproductive rights
movement, articulated women's right to control their bodies - for women to
understand their health and be able to make decisions regarding medical care,
including childbearing decisions. The women's movement protested the sexual
objectification and exploitation of women and the lesbian rights movement
supported women's sexual autonomy by asserting the right of women to choose
other women as sexual and life partners. More generally, the women's and civil
rights movements promised equal employment opportunity, without regard to
sex or race. These movements offered women hopes of economic independence
and sexual autonomy.
But the reality of sexual coercion in the workplace cut to the heart of these
hopes. Sexual harassment denied women sexual autonomy, threatened their
physical safety and integrity, deprived them of employment opportunities
and, for women of color, was often a form of racism. At a time when women
heavily populated the lower rungs of the workforce, but many aspired to work
their way up, sexual harassment was a particularly personal and insulting form
of discrimination. Not only were women not taken seriously as workers, but
they were treated as sexual objects. The issue of sexual coercion in the work-
place was first raised by lesbian feminists and African-American women work-
ing in the civil rights movement, but quickly spread to women in a range of
177
contexts, including nontraditional occupations and educational institutions.

The strength of the movement was how this diverse group of women was able
to work in coalition across differences to achieve major social change in Amer-
ican society. With roots in the civil rights movement, the women's movements,
and the labor movement, activists against sexual harassment drew upon the
ideologies, strategies, and constituencies of these movements in varied ways to
articulate their experiences of sexual harassment and combat this behavior in
a broad range of contexts. This diverse and committed group of grassroots
activists succeeded in raising awareness of sexual harassment and shaping laws
that addressed sexual harassment not only in the office, but in coal mines, on
construction sites, in factories, and at educational institutions.
The movement against sexual harassment was shaped by the political op-
portunities, mobilizing structures, and framing processes employed by move-
ment participants. The movement took advantage of the growing institutional
structure created by governments in response to the civil rights and women's
movements, particularly the agencies developed to enforce the equal opportu-
nity laws. As a result of the civil rights and women's movements, the nation had
an expanding system of federal and state equal employment opportunity offi-
ces, civil rights agencies, human rights commissions, and commissions on the
status of women. These agencies and commissions were committed to advanc-
ing civil rights, equality, and employment opportunity in the United States.
Activists against sexual harassment used this new institutional structure to
articulate their grievances about sexual harassment. Women also took advan-
tage of elite allies in government - the progressive judicial and executive agency
appointments of presidents Johnson, Kennedy, and Carter. Judges Richey and
Robinson, Commissioner Norton, and other importantly positioned govern-
ment officials advanced the movement's agenda. Despite these political op-
portunities, the movement was constrained by its limited ability to achieve
legislative change because of its lack of lobbying capacity and influence on
political parties.
The movement also took advantage of the "expanding cultural opportuni-
ties" that increased the likelihood of movement activity. I The movement emerged
out of the glaring contradiction between a "highly salient cultural value" -
equal employment opportunity - and conventional social practices - sexual
coercion and harassment of women in the workplace. In a relatively short
period of time, women across the country were raising grievances about sexual
harassment and these "suddenly imposed grievances" were confirmed as a wide-
spread phenomena through surveys and studies, which dramatized the vulner-
ability or even illegitimacy of the system by calling into question the meritocracy
of the workplace and the court's enforcement of equal employment opportunity
in the American workplace. The movement created an innovative "master
frame" for sexual harassment - the Title VII sexual harassment claim - within
which subsequent challengers could map their own grievances and demands.
The movement was also shaped by the mobilizing structures through which
activists sought to organize. Mobilizing structures are "the collective vehicles,
Conclusion: Entering the Mainstream 179
informal as well as formal, through which people mobilize and engage in

collective action.,,2 The movement drew upon the resources of other social
movements of the day. The civil rights movement, the women's movements,
and the labor movement provided key mobilizing structures and resources
through which activists organized the movement against sexual harassment.
Through formal organizational structures and informal networks of these
broader movements, sexual harassment activists were able to generate collec-
tive action. Multiple locations, including the workplace, employment associa-
tions, unions, and schools were grassroots settings from which the movement
facilitated collective action. They created their own organizations - WWI and
AASC - but also used existing organizations at the national, state, and local
levels to further their cause, such as NOW or the WLDF. They worked through
organizations of the women's movement, but also organizations of other social
movements of the day, such as the Mexican American Legal Defense Fund and
unions. They also applied for grants from organizations such as the Ford Foun-
dation, Ms. Foundation, and federal granting agencies for research grants.
Using this wide range of resources, they were able to mobilize women from
diverse constituencies to work together within the movement against sexual
harassment.
The third important factor that shaped the movement against sexual harass-
ment was the framing processes - "the collective processes of interpretation,
attribution, and social construction that mediate between opportunity and
action."3 Frames help define a problem and suggest actions to remedy the
problem. For a social movement to arise, people must feel "both aggrieved
about some aspect of their lives and optimistic that, acting collectively, they
can redress the problem."4 As chapter five demonstrates, the movement against
sexual harassment drew heavily upon ideas of the women's and civil rights
movements to frame the issue of sexual harassment as a gendered phenomenon
that violated women's civil rights. By highlighting the contradiction between
the principle of sex equality and women's experience of sexual coercion in the
workplace, activists were able to challenge prevailing understandings of sexual
coercion in the workplace as a private problem and recast this behavior as
a barrier to equal opportunity for women. 5 Drawing on the rhetoric of the civil
rights and women's movements, activists invoked the powerful ideology of
human equality and equal opportunity as well as sexual autonomy and bodily
integrity to argue that sexual harassment was a basic violation of women's
economic and physical well-being. By coining the term "sexual harassment"
and characterizing it as a violation of equal employment opportunity, the
movement offered "cognitive liberation,,6 from the indignities women suffered
in the workplace as well as an avenue for action to address these violations.
Movement participants fashioned a shared understanding that sexual coercion
in the workplace was a violation of Title VII, thereby legitimating and moti-
vating collective action. Activists framed the issue of sexual harassment dra-
matically as "economic rape" and as a manifestation of male domination in the
workplace and society at large. Activists invoked radical feminist theory to
argue that sexual harassment was a manifestation of male domination, anti-

racist theory to analyze the racist manifestations and causes of sexual harass-
ment, and socialist analysis to understand the class-based implications of the
behavior. Activists effectively used the media to communicate their understand-
ing of the issue and bring more people into the movement.
The strength of the movement against sexual harassment stemmed from its
racial and economic diversity. Women of color were critical contributors to the
movement against sexual harassment, acting both individually and collectively
to combat sexual coercion on the job and at educational institutions. African-
American women brought most of the early precedent-setting sexual harass-
ment cases, including the first successful Title VII cases in the federal district
court (Diane Williams), the federal courts of appeals (Paulette Barnes), and
the Supreme Court (Mechelle Vinson), and the first successful cases involving
a student (Pamela Price), co-worker harassment (Willie Ruth Hawkins), and
hostile environment harassment at the federal appellate level (Sandra Bundy).
Plaintiffs in three of the first six published sexual harassment cases were young
African-American women (Diane Williams, Paulette Barnes, and Margaret
Miller). The case of another African-American woman (Maxine Munford) in-
spired one of the early statewide campaigns to address the issue of sexual
harassment, leading to the passage in 1980 of one of the first and most pro-
gressive state laws against sexual harassment. The significance of these cases
was that they established the movement's framework by successfully articulat-
ing sexual harassment as discrimination based on sex and as a violation of
women's civil rights under Titles VII and IX. This framework focused liability
on employers rather than harassers - a more systemic approach that had a wider
impact by encouraging institutions to take preventative action against sexual
harassment.
African-American women's identities and backgrounds were significant in
how they experienced sexual harassment, how they articulated the issue, and
the methods they used to seek relief. Several of the women had experience with
race discrimination or had experience in the civil rights movement, and hence
had some knowledge of the mechanisms for relief from discrimination. Two of
the plaintiffs in early precedent-setting sexual harassment cases - Diane
Williams and Paulette Barnes - were African-American women who worked
in government agencies established to combat race discrimination, so they had
an understanding of civil rights concepts and processes. They felt a great sense
of indignation at being sexually harassed by people who were supposed to be
fighting discrimination. Both Williams and Barnes obtained counsel through
LCCRUL, a private organization in Washington, D.C. that provided free coun-
sel in civil rights cases and made referrals to cooperating attorneys who handled
cases on a pro bono or contingency basis. The white male attorneys who
represented Williams and Barnes - Warwick Furr and Michael Hausfeld - both
had backgrounds in civil rights law. Sandra Bundy, who brought the first suc-
cessful hostile environment sexual harassment case in the federal appellate
courts, had a long history of participation in the civil rights movement in the
Conclusion: Entering the Mainstream 181
I960s. She had attended marches and demonstrations and had helped to orga-
nize a union that worked to end racial segregation in the workplace. Both
Williams and Bundy spoke out about the issue in the media and testified at
federal hearings on sexual harassment. Finally, Chilean exile Ximena Bunster's
case at Clark University spurred the growing trend of educational institutions
to adopt sexual harassment policies. Anita Hill brought the issue to the atten-
tion of the mainstream public when she testified against Clarence Thomas
before Congress.
In addition to individual resistance to sexual harassment, women of color
acted collectively to combat sexual harassment. Several organizations repre-
senting women of color were active in the development of public policy on
sexual harassment. The D.C.-based OBAW filed a friend-of-the-court brief in
support of Diane Williams in the 1976 case of Williams v. Saxbe. African-
American attorneys Maudine Rice Cooper and Benjamin L. Evans, both of
whom had backgrounds in the civil rights movement, wrote the brief. A couple
of years later, in response to the case of Sandra Bundy case, OBAW urged female
D.C. city employees to speak up about sexual harassment, leading to Mayor
Barry's executive order prohibiting sexual harassment. They also sponsored
a forum on sexual harassment to kick off a major survey of sexual harassment
sponsored by the D.C. Commission on Women. The Mexican-American Legal
Defense Fund was the most active friend-of-the-court participant in early sex-
ual harassment cases, filing briefs in Miller v. Bank of America and Tomkins v.
Public Service Electric and Gas. Pamela Price, who brought the first successful
sexual harassment case against an educational institution, was supported by the
Afro-American Cultural Center at Yale and the Council of Third World Women
at Yale. When the case reached the United States Court of Appeals for the
Second Circuit, Price and the other plaintiffs received the support of the Na-
tional Conference of Black Lawyers and Black Women Organized for Political
Action, both of which signed onto an amicus brief.
In the I980s, organizations representing women of color continued to par-
ticipate in shaping public policy on sexual harassment. At I98I congressional
hearings on sexual harassment, Eleanor Holmes Norton testified on behalf of
many organizations including the Black Women's Organizing Collective, the
Mexican American Women's National Association, the National Association
of Black Women Attorneys, the National Conference of Puerto Rican Women,
the National Council of Negro Women, the National Hookup of Black Women,
Women for Racial and Economic Equality, and the Women's Division of the
National Conference of Black Lawyers. Several groups representing women of
color participated as amici in Meritor Savings Bank v. Vinson, including the
Sisterhood of Black Single Mothers, the National Conference of Black Lawyers,
the National Institute for Women of Color, the Women's Rights Project of the
Instituto Puertorriqueno de Derechos Civiles, the Mexican American Women's
National Association, the Asian Pacific American Bar Association of the
Greater Washington, D.C. Area, and the Organization of Pan Asian American
Women, Inc.
In addition to the efforts of these activists, two of the most important gov-
ernment officials to shape sexual harassment law were Eleanor Holmes Norton
and Judge Spottswood Robinson, both African-Americans with backgrounds in
the civil rights movement. Norton chaired the EEOC when that agency issued
guidelines on sexual harassment in 1980. These guidelines were the single most
important policy development involving sexual harassment and were extremely
influential on the development of sexual harassment law. Norton also testified
at congressional hearings on sexual harassment in 1979 and 1981 and was
a powerful voice for aggressive laws against sexual harassment. The single most
influential federal judge in the development of sexual harassment law was
Judge Spottswood Robinson, III. Judge Robinson issued ground breaking rul-
ings on sexual harassment in favor of Paulette Barnes, Sandra Bundy, and
Mechelle Vinson, and upheld the legal ruling in favor of Diane Williams. Judge
Robinson had been a long-time civil rights attorney and activist; he had been
one of the attorneys who argued the case of Brown v. Board of Education on
behalf of the NAACP before the Supreme Court.
Public policy on sexual harassment was shaped not only by people with
backgrounds in the civil rights movement but also by the legal legacy of that
movement. Feminist litigators attempting to establish precedent favorable to
sexual harassment victims relied upon race discrimination cases. For example,
the racial harassment case of Rogers v. Equal Employment Opportunity Com-
mission was cited in several early briefs filed by sexual harassment plaintiffs and
in several early decisions on sexual harassment. Catharine MacKinnon, in her
influential 1979 book The Sexual Harassment of Working Women, argued that
sexual harassment was as serious as racial harassment and discussed race dis-
crimination cases in detail. WWI's comments on the 1980 EEOC sexual ha-
rassment guidelines relied on race discrimination cases. In the first Supreme
Court case on sexual harassment, the primary focus of the parties' arguments
before the court was whether the same legal standards should apply to sexual
harassment as applied to racial harassment.
Many have commented on the prominent role African-American women have
played in the development of sexual harassment law. About the prevalence of
African-American women among early sexual harassment plaintiffs, Eleanor
Holmes Norton has said, "With black women's historic understanding of slavery
and rape, it is not surprising to me."7 Judy Trent Ellis, the first African-American
professor of law at SUNY Buffalo, has argued that African-American women's
activism in protecting themselves against sexual harassment was probably due
both to the greater or more severe harassment visited upon them and their long
familiarity with discrimination and willingness to seek redress through the
courts. Ellis has argued that African-American women were extremely vulnera-
ble to sexual harassment because of their unique position in American history
and mythology. First, the history of slavery still marked African-American
women as sexually available, sexually promiscuous, and unprotected by
African-American men. Second, African-American women's history of slavery
and oppression created conditions of extreme economic vulnerability for them. 8
Similarly, law professor Kimberle Crenshaw has argued that the dispropor-
tionate representation of African-American women plaintiffs in early cases was
perhaps due to the "racialization of sexual harassment"-"a merging of racist
myths with their vulnerability as women." Crenshaw argued, "Racism may
well provide the clarity to see that sexual harassment is neither a flattering
gesture nor a misguided social overture but an act of intentional discrimination
that is insulting, threatening, and debilitating."9 Others have argued that
African-American women were less likely than white women to view sexual
harassment as a personal problem "because sexual exploitation had been in-
tegral to racial oppression in this country.'HO The author of a 1981 article in
Essence magazine, Yla Eason, argued that African-American women were
"sensitized to discriminatory acts on the job and thus more aware of and less
conditioned to abiding by them.'HI
Indeed the harassment experienced by several of the early plaintiffs had
racial overtones. Margaret Miller's supervisor appeared uninvited at Miller's
residence, with a bottle of wine in hand, and stated to Miller, "I've never felt this
way about a black chick before" and indicated that he would get her "off the
machines" if she would cooperate with him sexually. He fired her when she
refused.12. Maxine Munford's supervisor asked her the first day of work "if she
would make love to a white man and if she would slap his face if he made a pass
at her." He later fired her for refusing to comply.'3 In the case of Continental
Can v. Minnesota, a co-worker of Willie Ruth Hawkins said that he "wished
slavery days would return so that he could sexually train her and she would be
his bitch," making reference to the movie Mandingo. 14 All three of these cases
involved white men harassing African-American women. The racial overtones
of sexual harassment surely contributed to a heightened consciousness among
African-American women about the discriminatory nature of sexual harass-
ment. And when African-American women spoke out about sexual harassment,
they often emphasized the importance of race to their experiences of harassment.
Yet, most of the precedent-setting sexual harassment cases involved intra-
racial harassment - allegations by Africa-American women that they were
harassed by men of the same race. Diane Williams, Paulette Barnes, Sandra
Bundy, Michelle Vinson, and Anita Hill all alleged that their black male super-
visors sexually harassed them. Speaking out against intra racial sexual harass-
ment has opened African-American women to criticism, such as Harvard
sociologist Orlando Patterson's attack on Anita Hill for oversensitivity to
Thomas' "down-home style of courting." Kimberle Crenshaw has responded
that Patterson's "cultural defense" fails to distinguish between sexual practices
that occur privately and those that occur within the work environment, and
fails to account for the sexual dynamics that shape those sexual practices in the
first place. IS Despite the political intersectionality that leads to criticism of
African-American women for raising claims of sexual harassment, especially
against African-American men, Africa-American women have been willing to
speak up, and their success before the courts has perhaps been due to the same
stereotypes that underlie Patterson's "cultural defense" argument. Nevertheless,
the intersectional nature of sexual harassment has surely contributed to the

prevalence of cases brought by African-American women, who have been eco-
nomically marginal and sexually stereotyped because of racism and sexism.
In addition to the civil rights movement, opposition against sexual harass-
ment had roots in the women's movement. The founders of WWU and AASC
were white middle-class women who had been active in the women's move-
ment. They often worked with women in pink-collar occupations and working-
class white-collar occupations - clerical workers like Carmita Wood, waitresses,
and flight attendants. These women used a feminist analytic framework to
understand sexual coercion, and they drew upon the strategies, tools, and
resources of the women's movement to raise public awareness of sexual harass-
ment. Lin Farley, Karen Sauvigne, and Susan Meyer all had experience working
in radical feminist organizations, such as the Furies collective, New York Rad-
ical Feminists, and Lesbian Feminist Liberation, where they developed their
understanding of feminist theory, including feminist theory on rape and domes-
tic violence. Farley and Meyer had experience working with the media - Farley
as an associated press reporter and Meyer as a member of the Rat Collective,
an underground feminist newspaper. Sauvigne had worked at the ACLU's
Women's Rights Project and for the LSCRRC, where she gained an understand-
ing of civil rights law as well as fundraising experience and contacts in the legal
community. All three used the theory, strategies, skills, and resources developed
in their experience in the women's movement.
The founders of AASC were also active in the women's movement, gaining
experience that they used in their work on sexual harassment. Freada Klein,
Lynn Wehrli, and Elizabeth Cohn-Stuntz had all worked extensively in the rape
crisis movement - Klein with Bay Area Women Against Rape and Prisoners
Against Rape, Klein and Wehrli with Feminist Alliance Against Rape, and all
three with the D.C. Rape Crisis Center. Cohn-Stuntz had written her senior
thesis at Smith on women's emotional reactions to rape, and Klein had worked
on the rape chapter of Our Bodies, Ourselves in the mid-I970S and had helped
produce a documentary film called Rape Culture produced by Cambridge Doc-
umentary Films. Through this work, Klein, Wehrli, and Cohn-Stuntz gained an
understanding of feminist theory on violence against women, as well as tools
and strategies for feminist organizing.
The founders of WWI and AASC used their backgrounds in the women's
movement to understand sexual harassment and organize against it. They ap-
plied feminist theory on rape to understand sexual harassment as a form of
sexual coercion. They applied socialist feminist understandings of the interac-
tion of capitalism, racism, and patriarchy to understand women's vulnerability
to sexual harassment. They applied feminist legal theory to develop remedies
for sexual harassment. In addition to feminist theory, they used strategies and
techniques from the women's movements, such as holding speak-outs, writing
press releases, publishing newsletters, and developing myth/fact sheets. They
used their education to articulate the experience of sexual harassment and
promote public awareness of the issue through the media. They had all attended
college, and several had attended graduate school. With this educational back-
ground, they were able to conduct surveys, develop a theoretical analysis of
sexual harassment, and write and publish articles on the issue. Wehrli wrote her
master's thesis at MIT on sexual harassment, Farley wrote a book on the issue,
and Meyer and Sauvigne applied for grants to conduct studies on sexual ha-
rassment. Later members of these organizations, such as Constance Backhouse,
Leah Cohn, and Peggy Crull, continued this important work.
In addition to the founders and members of WWI and AASC, feminist
attorneys with backgrounds in the women's movement played a critical role
in the fight against sexual harassment. Heather Sigworth was a founding mem-
ber of NOW in Tucson, and Nadine Taub directed Rutgers Law School's
Women's Rights Litigation Clinic. Both had published articles on feminist
issues. Linda Singer had worked with the WLDF, and Mary Dunlap was co-
founder of ERA. These feminist attorneys were part of the growing trend within
the women's movement in the 1970S to use the courts to expand women's
rights. By the mid-1970S, feminists had succeeded in gaining rights for women
to birth control and abortion as well as enhancing constitutional guarantees of
equality. Similarly, feminists attempted to use federal statutory law - Title VII
and Title IX - to protect women from sexual harassment in the workplace and
at educational institutions. As the movement against sexual harassment ma-
tured, feminist attorneys played an increasingly central role in the development
of public policy on sexual harassment.
By the early 1980s, a wide range of feminist organizations were working on
sexual harassment, including public interest law firms, women's political orga-
nizations, and employee associations, and women in pink-collar and working-
class white collar occupations participated actively in these organizations.
Large feminist organizations such as NOW, the National Women's Political
Caucus, and the National Association of Office Workers worked on the issue, as
well as smaller feminist organizations such as New Responses in Washington,
D.C., the Women's Justice Center in Detroit, Working Women Organizing
Project in Cleveland, Women Employed Institute in Chicago, and the Women's
Alliance for Job Equity in Philadelphia. Representatives of these feminist organ-
izations contributed to the movement against sexual harassment in many
ways, including testifying at government hearings, submitting comments
on the EEOC guidelines, conducting research and training on sexual ha-
rassment, publishing pamphlets and guides on sexual harassment, advising
and supporting victims of harassment, and speaking out to the media on the
issue.
The third leg of the movement against sexual harassment was the activism
of women working in male-dominated fields. As women began to break into
nontraditional blue-collar occupations in the late 1970s, many experienced
tremendous hostility from men who resented women's encroachment upon
traditionally masculine spheres of activity. Blue-collar women experienced ha-
rassment not only from supervisors but also from co-workers, in forms some-
times sexual, but also often misogynist and violent, including physical assault
and work sabotage. Drawing upon the resources of unions and working wom-
en's organizations, blue-collar women organized against sexual harassment.
They contributed to the movement by broadening the public understandings
of sexual harassment to include not just quid pro quo harassment but also
hostile environment harassment.
Blue-collar women brought several of the early precedent-setting sexual
harassment cases. Phyllis Brown, a civilian police dispatcher, won the first
successful hostile environment claim under Title VII in May of 1980. Factory
worker Willie Ruth Hawkins won the first successful co-worker harassment
case in July of 1980. Barbara Henson, also a police dispatcher, brought the
precedent-setting hostile environment sexual harassment case, Henson v. City
of Dundee, decided by the Eleventh Circuit in 1982. In the late 1970S and early
1980s, women working in a broad range of blue-collar occupations filed claims
for sexual harassment, including janitors, security guards, police officers, and
assembly-line workers. In addition, women in traditionally male occupations,
such as construction and coal mining, brought sex discrimination lawsuits in-
cluding allegations of sexual harassment. In response to a 1976 lawsuit brought
by female construction workers, the DOL issued the first federal regulations on
harassment in the workplace in 1978. Several organizations representing fe-
male construction workers participated in the lawsuit and in the process lead-
ing to the adoption of the federal regulations, including Advocates for Women
in San Francisco, Women in Trades in Seattle, United Trade Workers Associa-
tion in Tacoma, Washington, Wider Opportunities for Women and Women
Working in Construction, both based in Washington, D.C., and the Coalition
of Labor Union Women. In 1978, women coal miners brought a suit against
Consolidated Coal Company of Pittsburgh, the largest coal company in the
United States, leading to a federal investigation of the entire coal mining in-
dustry and resulting in an out-of-court settlement that called for hiring quotas,
back pay, and affirmative programs to protect female miners from discrimina-
tion and harassment underground.
Blue-collar women and organizations representing them not only brought
lawsuits to protest sexual harassment but also were extensively involved in
raising awareness about sexual harassment. Jean McPheeters, a letter carrier,
served as chair of Working Women United, which included many blue-collar
women. In New York City, the Clearinghouse on Blue Collar Women of Women
for Racial and Economic Equality surveyed blue-collar women about sexual
harassment in 1978, and the CEP later surveyed female coal miners about their
experiences of harassment. Blue-collar women won attention to the issue of
sexual harassment through media coverage of their cases, which often involved
extreme violence and clear discriminatory intent. For example, sexual harass-
ment of female coal miners was covered extensively in the press in the early
1980s. This coverage provided a very sympathetic case to convince people that
men used sexual harassment to keep women out of the workplace.
Female union members also worked on the issue of sexual harassment. In
Michigan, the Coalition of Labor Union Women and the Union Minorities!
Women Leadership Project were members of the Michigan Taskforce on Sexual

Harassment in the Workplace, formed in I978. In Detroit, the Labor Education
and Research Project published a booklet on sexual harassment in I980 written
by four white union women and an African-American female attorney. Women
and men in unions around the country supported victims of sexual harassment
and worked to raise awareness of the issue by surveying union members, pub-
lishing and distributing information on harassment, providing educational pro-
grams, and fighting for clauses against sexual harassment in union contracts.
Women's activism within the United Mine Workers of America led in I979 to
President Arnold Miller making a public commitment to eradicating sexual
harassment in the mines.
Blue-collar women's organizations shaped public policy by presenting testi-
mony at government hearings on sexual harassment and participating in filing
friend-of-the-court briefs in significant sexual harassment lawsuits. In I98I,
representatives of blue-collar women testified at congressional hearings on
sexual harassment, including Betty Jean Hall of the CEP and Pat Baldwin of
the Western Kentucky Coalmining Women's Support Team. Other blue-collar
women's groups supported the testimony of Eleanor Holmes Norton, including
the Association of Illinois Women Coal Miners, the Coalition of Labor Union
Women, the East Tennessee Coalmining Women's Support Team, the Lady
Miners of Utah, Wider Opportunities for Women, and Women Miners of
Wyoming. Several other blue-collar women's groups submitted statements to
the congressional committee, including the Phoenix Institute in Salt Lake City,
Utah, a community-based employment and training contractor focused on
placing low-income women in blue-collar jobs. Pat Baldwin of the Western
Kentucky Coalmining Support Team testified at hearings on sexual harassment
held by the Kentucky Commission on Civil Rights. The Coal Employment
Project later participated in filing a friend-of-the-court brief in Meritor Saving
Bank v. Vinson. Several other organizations representing working-class women
participated as amici in that case as well, including Non-Traditional Employ-
ment for Women, Wider Opportunities for Women, the Workers Defense
League, the American Federation of Labor and Congress of Industrial Organ-
izations, and the Coalition of Labor Union Women.
In addition to the diversity of women involved in the movement against
sexual harassment, several men made significant contributions to the move-
ment. Warwick Furr and Michael Hausfeld represented early sexual harassment
plaintiffs, Judge Charles Richey had the courage to issue his precedent-setting
decision in Williams v. Saxbe, Judges Spottswood Robinson and Skelly Wright
repeatedly ruled in favor of sexually harassed women, Al Ripskis pushed the
issue of sexual harassment in Washington, D.C., leading James Hanley to call
the first congressional hearings on sexual harassment in I979, which had a tre-
mendous impact on the development of a strong public policy against sexual
harassment. The U.S. government, both the courts and the Congress, as well as
state and local governments at the time were very male-gendered institutions,
which were confronted by a very female-gendered social movement about an
issue of male sexual coercion of females in the very institutions of that govern-
ment as well as the broader society. Whether motivated by paternalism or
conservative sexual morality, feminism, social justice concerns, or political
expediency, these male-dominated institutions responded to feminist demands.
The grassroots diversity of the movement against sexual harassment led to
strong, broad-based public policy against sexual harassment. The movement's
diffuse participants - individuals, organizations, and informal groups - arose
from multiple locations, but intersected at critical junctures, before Congress
and the Supreme Court. With the perspectives of differing constituencies rep-
resented in the political discourse around sexual harassment, public policy de-
veloped in such a way as to incorporate the experiences of a diverse array of
women working in a wide range of contexts, including white- and blue-collar
work settings and educational institutions. This activism came together in the
sexual harassment lawsuits filed around the country in the 1970S and early
1980s.
Reflecting the separate spheres ideology that had historically shaped the
law's treatment of women, courts initially denied relief, portraying sexual ha-
rassment as natural, personal, sexually-motivated but gender-neutral conduct
that was not related to the plaintiffs' employment. In describing the facts of the
cases, these courts focused on the sexual advances but not on the employment
ramifications. By emphasizing the sexual aspects of the case, they were able to
personalize the conduct and excuse the employer for tolerating it. In so doing,
the judges in the early cases denying relief obscured the underlying power
dynamics of the behavior - the abuse of authority and the economic coercion
involved. But the women appealed their cases. Feminist attorneys represented
the plaintiffs, and feminist organizations filed friend-of-the-court briefs sup-
porting them. Drawing upon studies and stories, history and sociological data,
and feminist and legal theories, feminists argued that sexual harassment was
not trivial personal conduct, but was a widespread, serious problem that de-
prived women of equal employment opportunities. They also relied on early
racial harassment cases, making parallels between sexual harassment and racial
harassment. The plaintiffs prevailed on appeal before judges who were signif-
icantly more liberal than the judges in the lower courts. Whereas the lower
court judges had largely been older, white, male, Nixon-appointees, the appel-
late court judges were the more liberal and diverse appointees of Kennedy and
Johnson.
By the late 1970s, as women were beginning to break into nontraditional
occupations, they spoke up about a broader range of harassing conduct.
Women filed suits seeking relief for hostile environment harassment, again re-
lying on racial harassment cases. In the early 1980s, courts began to rule that
Title VII prohibited hostile environment harassment as well quid pro quo sexual
harassment. Government initiatives against sexual harassment, including Ele-
anor Holmes Norton's EEOC guidelines, legitimized the issue of sexual harass-
ment and increased public awareness of the problem. In 1986, the U. s.
Supreme Court agreed that Title VII prohibited quid pro quo and hostile
environment sexual harassment in an opinion written by conservative jurist

Justice Rehnquist. This ruling fundamentally undermined traditional sex roles
that required women to stay in the private sphere, but also reinforced traditional
notions of male sexual aggression and female passivity, perhaps the key to why
the Court was willing to adopt this revolutionary jurisprudence. Furthermore,
this outcome was consistent with conservative views of sexual morality, creating
an alignment similar to that between some feminists and social conservatives
against pornography. The fact that the plaintiffs in most of the early precedent-
setting cases were African-Americans may also have contributed to courts'
willingness to set aside the idea that women belonged in the private sphere
because so many African-American women had always been in the workplace.
Prohibitions on sexual harassment led to sexual harassment training in
workplaces across the country, raising the issue with thousands people in a
broad range of occupations. These training workshops provided a forum to
discuss women's status in the workplace, gender roles, and sexual stereotypes.
In this training, women's right to participate in the workplace on an equal
footing with men was assumed, challenging traditional and persisting notions
that women were not serious participants in the workplace. By the 1990S, most
employers had policies against harassment, and many offered training to sen-
sitize workers. Women were challenging sexual harassment across the country
in a broad range of occupations and sometimes even winning large verdicts in
sexual harassment cases. Through these successes, the movement had come
a long way in achieving their goal of claiming the right of women to enter
the public sphere, both political spaces as well as workplaces and schools.
The movement achieved social change not only by achieving legal changes
through court houses and legislatures, but also by achieving cultural changes
in workplaces and educational institutions. The movement raised conscious-
ness about women's right to enter the workplace and function there free from
sexual coercion and molestation. Women are no longer outsiders or interlopers,
but have a central place in these institutions, a shift for which the movement
against sexual harassment deserves significant credit.
This success, however, is tempered by the continuing high rates of sexual
harassment and the persisting stereotypes used against women who resist ha-
rassment. Rates of sexual harassment are similar to what they were twenty-five
years ago when reliable studies of the phenomenon first appeared. 16 The publici
private sphere ideology that historically justified and reinforced male domi-
nance and that undergirded courts' early denials of sexual harassment claims
continues to shape public discussion of sexual harassment. 17 The issue is often
still seen as a matter of private sexual conduct, not abuse of power. Longstand-
ing stereotypes blaming women for sexual harassment or accusing them of
lying about it, existing from the earliest days of this country's history, still
plague women who bring accusations of sexual harassment. According to po-
litical science professor Gwendolyn Mink, women complaining of sexual ha-
rassment face a "regime of disbelief.,,'8 Powerful biases against women
continue to shape public opinion and court opinions on sexual harassment.
Furthermore, the conceptualization of sexual harassment primarily as a legal

claim, in particular a claim of sex discrimination, placed the issue squarely
within a highly contentious adversarial framework that has often not led to
satisfactory solutions to the problem, especially for women who do not have
the resources to use the legal system. The bureaucratic and legalistic procedures
for addressing sexual harassment are often slow, costly, and contentious, and
women have often felt victimized again by these processes. Although employers
are providing training on sexual harassment, many are motivated more out of
concerns for liability rather than integration of women into the workplace.
Workers often resent the threat of lawsuits and the close oversight of employers
seeking to avoid liability. The framing of the issue as a legal question narrowed
the strategic options available to women resisting sexual coercion in the work-
place, leaving many women without recourse.
Early feminist activists did not achieve their larger goal of undermining the
system of dominance that produced sexual harassment. The founders of WWI
and AASC had viewed sexual harassment as part of a larger struggle against
sexism, class ism, and racism and they understood sexual harassment to be
symptomatic of a deeply flawed patriarchal, capitalist, racist system. They
hoped to use the issue to inspire collective action to fight the root causes of
injustice and transform society. In arguing that sexual harassment was sex
discrimination, they conceptualized sexual harassment as a group harm. They
argued that sexual harassment harmed not just individual women but women
as a class by reinforcing sex segregation and subordination of women in the
workforce. By focusing on employer liability for sexual harassment, feminists
attempted to address this harm to women. Despite this approach, individual-
ized solutions to sexual harassment came to dominate the movement's agenda.
As has been true in other areas, the legal remedies were a valuable tool for
individuals seeking relief from sexual harassment, but they undermined collec-
tive efforts that might have led to deeper societal transformation and reached
the root causes of sexual harassment in society. I9 Despite feminist hopes to
challenge broader injustices in America, liberal legal gains eclipsed these radical
hopes in the 1980s. The movement against sexual harassment shifted away
from collective protest and toward individual legal solutions to sexual harass-
ment. Although legal solutions have offered much, and the recent possibility of
class action suits is promising, they have left in place the basic societal structure
that allows sexual harassment to continue. As Joan Hoff has argued, the Su-
preme Court's 1986 decision in Meritor Savings Bank v. Vinson was a "bright
legal light on the gender horizon" but that this decision "did not have any
redistributive or fundamentally unsettling economic or moral impact on Amer-
ican society. " ..0
Nevertheless, the movement was a powerful step toward claiming the right
of women to enter the public sphere, both political spaces as well as work-
places. Women have growing economic power - some have risen from the
lowest rungs of the American workplace - but they rarely achieve the highest
rungs, the workplace is still highly segregated, the wage gap persists, and
women still experience high rates of sexual harassment. And although sexual
harassment law has provided some protection for women in the workplace, the
sexual objectification of women in the broader culture has increased signifi-
cantly and is being increasingly internalized by girls and women. l1 The issue of
sexual harassment is often de-gendered and, in practice, is often disconnected
from the feminist analysis of systems of privilege, domination, and oppression
so that the underlying power relationships remain obscured. 12 The challenge is
to reanalyze sexual harassment in the context of interlocking systems of op-
pression, to regender the issue by analyzing the ways American culture still
embraces hegemonic discourses of male sexual dominance, and to challenge
that discourse collectively both inside and outside the workplace. Remember-
ing the origins of the movement against sexual harassment and understanding
the theories and tactics of the movement's founders will help us to meet this
challenge today.
Appendix A: Time Lines of Significant Events
July 2, I964 Civil Rights Act of 1964 (Title VII) enacted

December 20, I97I Paulette Barnes files race discrimination
complaint with EPA's Equal Opportunity Office
in Washington, D.C.
June 23, 197 2 Education Amendments of I972 (Title IX)
enacted
September I3, I972 Diane Williams files sex discrimination
complaint with Justice Department's Equal
Opportunity Office in Washington, D.C.
October 12, I973 Jane Corne and Geneva DeVane file sex
discrimination complaint with the EEOC
against Bausch & Lomb in Pima County, AZ
August 9, 1974 Barnes v. Train, District of Columbia: district
court dismisses case
August 19, I974 Adrienne Tomkins files sex discrimination
complaint with EEOC against Public Service
Electric & Gas, Inc. in Newark, NJ
December 2, I974 Carmita Wood files unemployment
compensation claim in Ithaca, NY after she
left her job because of sexual harassment
January 8, I975 Darla Jeanne Garber files sex discrimination
complaint with EEOC in Fairfax, VA
January 17, I975 EEOC files friend-of-the-court brief in Corne v.
Bausch & Lomb
March 14, I975 Corne v. Bausch and Lomb, Inc., Tucson, AZ:
district court dismisses case
March 1975 Feminists coin term "sexual harassment"
April 21, 1975 Lin Farley testifies about sexual harassment before
the New York City Human Rights Commission,
chaired by Eleanor Holmes Norton
193
194 Appendix A: Time Lines of Significant Events
May 4, 1975 Speak-out on Sexual Harassment and founding of

Working Women United, Ithaca, NY
August 1975 Working Women United Institute founded,
Ithaca, NY
August 19, 1975 New York Times publishes Enid Nemy's article
on sexual harassment
December 16, 1975 Margaret Miller files race and sex discrimination
complaint with EEOC in San Francisco, CA
January 19, 1976 Wall Street Journal publishes article on sexual
harassment
January 1976 Redbook survey published (results published in
November 1976)
March 18, 1976 Garber v. Saxon Industries, Fairfax, VA: district
court dismisses case
April 1976 New York Review Law Review publishes first
law journal article on sexual harassment
Williams v. Sax be, District of Columbia: Judge
Richey rules in favor of Williams; first successful
Title IX sexual harassment case
June 1976 Alliance Against Sexual Coercion founded,
Cambridge, MA.
August 19, 1976 Miller v. Bank of America, San Francisco,
CA: district court dismisses case
November 22, 1976 Tomkins v. Public Service Electric and Gas, Inc.,
Newark, NJ: district court dismisses case
December 1976 Lynn Wehrli completes master's thesis at MIT:
Sexual Harassment at the Workplace: A Feminist
Analysis and Strategy for Social Change
February 14, 1977 Garber v. Saxon Industries, Fairfax, VA: Fourth
Circuit reverses district court dismissal, becoming
first federal appellate court to rule that sexual
harassment violates Title VII
June 1977 Working Women United Institute moved to New
York City
July 7, 1977 Alexander v. Yale filed in New Haven, CT: first
case to allege sexual harassment in violation of
Title IX,
July 27, 1977 Barnes v. Costle, District of Columbia: D.C.
Circuit reverses district court dismissal, ruling in
a full written opinion that sexual harassment
violates Title VII
July 28, 1977 Corne v. Bausch and Lomb, Inc., Tucson, AZ:
Ninth Circuit vacates district court dismissal and
remands the case
August 16, 1977 In response to a lawsuit by female construction

workers, the Department of Labor proposes
regulations that require federal construction
contractors to provide a workplace free of
"harassment, intimidation, and coercion"
September I, 1977 Equal Rights Advocates and the Mexican
American Legal Defense and Education Fund
file a friend~of-the-court brief in Tomkins
October 22, 1977 Speak-out sponsored by Ms. magazine and
Working Women United Institute in New York
City
November 1977 Ms. cover story on sexual harassment
November 23, 1977 Tomkins v. Public Service Electric and Gas, Inc.,
Newark, Nl: Third Circuit reverses district court
dismissal, ruling that sexual harassment violates
Title VII
December 21, 1977 Alexander v. Yale, New Haven, CT: Magistrate
judge rules that Title IX prohibits sexual
harassment in education; allows claim of
Pamela Price
March 3o-April 20, Munford v. James T. Barnes and Co.: First federal
197 8 jury trial in case alleging sexual harassment;
plaintiff loses.
April 7, 1978 The Department of Labor adopts regulations
that require federal construction contractors to
provide a workplace free of "harassment,
intimidation, and coercion," which are the
first federal regulations against sexual
harassment
Spring 1978 Michigan Task Force on Sexual Harassment
formed
Wisconsin passes first state law prohibiting
prohibit employers from making employment
benefits contingent on consent to "sexual contact
or sexual intercourse"
September 19, 1978 Williams v. Saxbe, District of Columbia: D.C.
Circuit affirms that sexual harassment violates
Title VII but remands case for new trial
October I, 1978 Lin Farley publishes Sexual Shakedown
April 7, 1979 Constance Backhouse and Leah Cohen release
The Secret Oppression: Sexual Harassment of
Working Women (copyright 1978)
May 24,1979 D.C. Mayor Marion Barry issues executive order
prohibiting sexual harassment
June 2B, 1979 Miller v. Bank of America, San Francisco,

California: Ninth Circuit reverses lower court
dismissal, ruling that Title VII prohibits sexual
harassment
July 2, 1979 Alexander v. Yale, New Haven, Connecticut:
After a bench trial, district court rules against the
plaintiff Pamela Price
September 10, 1979 Catharine MacKinnon publishes Sexual
Harassment of Working Women
October 23, Representative James Hanley conducts hearings
November I, & on sexual harassment before the House
November 13, 1979 Subcommittee on Investigations of the
Post Office and Civil Service Committee
December 12, 1979 Office of Personnel Management adopts
model policies and training materials on
sexual harassment
April II, 1980 EEOC Chair Eleanor Holmes Norton proposes
guidelines against sexual harassment
Continental Can Company Co., Inc. v.
Minnesota: Minnesota Supreme Court rules
that co-worker harassment violates Minnesota
Human Rights Act
July IB, 1980 Michigan passes law prohibiting sexual
harassment in employment, public
accommodations, public services, education,
and housing
September 23, I9Bo EEOC adopts final guidelines on sexual
harassment
January 12, 1981 Bundy v. Jackson, District of Columbia: D.C.
Circuit rules that hostile environment harassment
violates Title VII
March 1981 Merit Systems Protection Board issues report
showing high levels of sexual harassment in the
federal government workplace
June 19, 1986 Meritor Savings Bank v. Vinson: Supreme Court
rules that quid pro quo and hostile environment
sexual harassment violate Title VII
Appendix B: Glossary of Select Cases
Alexander v. Yale University, 459 F. Supp. I (D. Conn. I977), affirmed 63I
F.2d I78 (2nd Cir. I98o): Several students and a faculty member alleged
that a male faculty member sexually pressured female students and that
Yale did not respond adequately to student complaints. On December 21,
1977, the lower court dismissed most of the claims but allowed the claim
of Pamela Price, who alleged that a male professor had given her a C
because she refused his sexual advances. On July 2, 1979, the trial court
ruled against Price. On September 22, 1980, the Second Circuit affirmed.
Attorneys of record for the plaintiffs were Anne Simon of the New Haven
Law Collective, Margaret Kohn of the National Women's Law Center, and
on appeal, Nadine Taub, law professor and the Director of the Women's
Rights Litigation Clinic at Rutgers Law School. Catharine MacKinnon
also assisted with the case. Multiple friend-of-the-court briefs were filed
on behalf of the plaintiffs. This case was the first case to rule that sexual
harassment of a student by a teacher was sex discrimination in violation of
Title IX of the Education Amendments of 1972.
Barnes v. Train, I3 Fed. Empl. Prac. Cas. I23 (D.D.G. I974), reversed under
the name of Barnes v. Castle, 56I F. 2d 983 (D.G. Cir. I977): Paulette
Barnes alleged that her employment was terminated after rejecting the
sexual advances of her supervisor, who was the Director of the Office of
Equal Opportunity of the Environmental Protection Agency in Washington,
D.C. On August 9, 1974, a federal district court ruled that sexual harass-
ment did not violate Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964. On July 27,
1977, the Circuit Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia reversed in
an opinion written by Judge Spottswood Robinson, becoming the first
federal appellate court to issue a full written opinion ruling that Title
VII prohibited sexual harassment. Warwick Furr represented Barnes be-
fore the district court, and Linda Singer represented her on appeal. No
friend-of-the court briefs were filed in the case, but Catharine MacKinnon
provided to the court a brief on sexual harassment.
197
Appendix B: Glossary of Select Cases
Bundy v. Jackson, 19 PEP 828 (D.D.C. 1978), reversed, 641 F.2d 934 (D.C.
Cir. 1981): Sandra Bundy alleged that her co-workers and supervisors at
the Department of Corrections in Washington, D.C. subjected her to hos-
tile environment sexual harassment. On April 25, 1979, the federal district
court ruled that this behavior was not sex discrimination under Title VII.
On January 12, 1981, the D.C. Circuit ruled that hostile environment
sexual harassment violates Title VII, becoming the first federal circuit
court to do so. Barry Gottfried represented the plaintiff. The Women's
Legal Defense Fund and the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission
filed friend-of-the-court briefs on Bundy's behalf.
Continental Can Co., Inc. v. Minnesota, 297 N. W. 2d 241 (Minn. 1980):
Factory worker Willie Ruth Hawkins alleged that three white male co-
workers created a hostile environment by sexually harassing her. On July
3, 1980, the Supreme Court of Minnesota ruled that an employer's toler-
ation of co-worker sexual harassment was sex discrimination in violation
of the Minnesota Human Rights Act. The plaintiff was represented by the
state of Minnesota. The National Organization for Women and Working
Women's Institute filed a friend-of-the-court brief. This case was one of the
first successful co-worker hostile environment cases.
Corne v. Bausch and Lomb, 390 F. Supp. 161 (D. Ariz. 1975), vacated and
remanded, 562 F.2d 55 (9th Cir. 1977), cert. denied, 434 U.S. 956 (1977):
Jane Corne and Geneva DeVane alleged that they lost their jobs after
rejecting the sexual advances of their supervisor at Bausch & Lomb in
Pima County, AZ. On March 14, 1975, a federal district court ruled that
Title VII did not prohibit sexual harassment. On July 28, 1977, the Circuit
Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit reversed, ruling that Title VII
prohibited sexual harassment. Corne and DeVane's attorneys were
Heather Sigworth and Mary-Lynne Fisher from the Center for Law in
the Public Interest in Los Angeles. The Equal Employment Opportunity
Commission filed its first friend-of-the-court brief on sexual harassment in
this case.
Garber v. Saxon Industries, Inc., 14 Empl. Prac. Deci. '7586 (E.D. Va.
1976), reversed and remanded, 552 F.2d 1032 (4th Cir. 1977): Darla
Jeanne Garber alleged that her employment was terminated after she
rejected the sexual advances of her supervisor, the Branch Manager of
Saxon Business Products, Inc. in Fairfax, VA. On March 18,1976, a federal
district court ruled that Title VII did not prohibit sexual harassment. On
February 14, 1977, the Circuit Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit
reversed in a brief written opinion, ruling that Title VII prohibited sexual
harassment. Garber's attorney was Elaine Majors. This case was the first
federal court case to rule that sexual harassment violated Title VII.
Kyriazi v. Western Electric Company, 461 F. Supp. 894 (D.N.]. 1978): A
female engineer, Kyriaki Cleo Kyriazi, was ridiculed and harassed by male
co-workers, who speculated about her virginity and circulated an obscene
cartoon of her at Western Electric's Kearny, NJ, plant. After Kyriazi
Appendix B: Glossary of Select Cases 199
complained to her supervisor, she was fired. On October 30, 1978, a fed-
eral district court ruled that the employer and co-workers had conspired to
deprive Kyriazi of her civil rights in violation of § 1985 of the 1871 Civil
Rights Act. Judith Vladeck of Elias, Vladeck, and Lewis represented
Kyriazi. This case was one of the first successful co-worker hostile envi-
ronment cases.
Meritor Savings Bank v. Vinson, 477 U.S. 57 (1986): Mechelle Vinson al-
leged that her supervisor created a hostile environment by pressuring her to
engage in sexual contact. After an eleven-day bench trial in January 1980,
the federal district court ruled in favor of the bank and dismissed the case
on the grounds that the plaintiff had not proved quid pro quo harassment.
On January 25,1985, the D.C. Circuit Court reversed in an opinion writ-
ten by Judge Spottswood Robinson, ruling that the plaintiff had alleged
hostile environment sexual harassment prohibited by Title VII. On June
19, 1986, the Supreme Court ruled that Title VII prohibits quid pro quo
and hostile environment sexual harassment. The plaintiff was represented
by Patricia Barry and Catharine MacKinnon. Multiple friend-of-the-court
briefs were filed on behalf of the plaintiff. This case was the first Supreme
Court ruling on sexual harassment under Title VII.
Miller v. Bank of America, 418 F. Supp. 233 (N.D. Cal. 1976), reversed, 600
F.2d 211 (9th CiT. 1979): Margaret Miller alleged race and sex discrimi-
nation on the grounds that her employment as a proofing machine oper-
ator was terminated after she rejected the sexual advances of her
supervisor at the Bank of America in San Francisco. On August 19,
1976, a federal district court ruled that Title VII did not prohibit sexual
harassment. On June 28, 1979, the Circuit Court of Appeals for the Ninth
Circuit reversed, ruling that Title VII prohibited sexual harassment.
Miller's attorney was Stuart Wein. Equal Rights Advocates and the
Mexican Legal Defense and Education Fund filed a friend-of-the-court
brief before the appellate court.
Munford v. James T. Barnes and Co., 441 F. Supp. 459 (E.D. Mich. 1977):
On October 27,1976, Maxine Munford filed a complaint alleging sex and
race discrimination after she was terminated for rejecting the sexual
advances of her supervisor. On September 9, 1977, a federal district court
ruled that Title VII prohibited quid pro quo sexual harassment, allowing
Munford's case to go to trial but dismissed her race discrimination claim.
After a jury trial from March 30 to April 20, 1978, the district court judge
entered judgment against Munford. This was the first federal jury trial in
a case involving sexual harassment. On appeal, the Sixth Circuit affirmed.
Thomas Oehmke represented Munford at trial, and Jan Leventer of the
Women's Justice Center represented Munford on appeal. Two amicus cu-
riae briefs were filed by the Metropolitan Detroit Branch of the American
Civil Liberties Union and the Women Lawyers Association of Michigan.
Munford helped to start a statewide campaign in Michigan against sexual
harassment.
200 Appendix B: Glossary of Select Cases
Tomkins v. Public Service Electric and Gas Company, 422 F. Supp. 553
(D.N.]. I976), reversed, 568 F.2d I044 (3rd Cir. I977): Adrienne Tomkins
alleged that her employment as a stenographer was terminated after she
rejected the sexual advances of her supervisor at Public Service Electric &
Gas Company in Newark, NJ. On November 22, 1976, a federal dis-
trict court ruled that Title VII did not prohibit sexual harassment. On
November 23, 1977, the Circuit Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit
reversed, ruling that Title VII prohibited sexual harassment. Tomkins'
attorney was Nadine Taub, a law professor and the Director of the
Women's Rights Litigation Clinic at Rutgers Law School in Newark,
New Jersey. Equal Rights Advocates and the Mexican Legal Defense and
Education Fund filed a friend-of-the-court brief before the appellate court,
as did the EEOC. This case was the first federal case to use the term "sexual
harassment. "
Williams v. Saxbe, 4I3 F. Supp. 654 (D.D.C. 1976), reversed in part and
vacated in part, 190 F.2d 343 (D.C. Cir. I978): Diane Williams alleged
that her employment was terminated after she rejected the sexual advances
of her supervisor at the Justice Department's Community Relations Ser-
vice. On April 20, 1976, Judge Richey of the D.C. District Court ruled that
Title VII prohibited sexual harassment - the first federal court to do so.
The Organization of Black Activist Women submitted a friend of the court
brief before the district court. On appeal, the Circuit Court for the District
of Columbia affirmed this ruling on September 19, 1978 in an opinion
written by Judge Spottswood Robinson. Michael Hausfield represented
Williams.
Notes
Introduction: Enter at Your Own Risk

I. Stephen J. Morewitz, Sexual Harassment & Social Change in American Society
(Bethesda: Austin & Winfield, 1996), 23-29, 49; Kerry Segrave, The Sexual Ha-
rassment of Women in the Workplace, 1600 to 1993 (Jefferson, NC: McFarland &
Company, Inc., 1994); Ruth Milkman, Women, Work and Protest-A Century of
u.s. Women's Labor History (Boston: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1985); Philip S.
Foner, Women and the American Labor Movement-From Colonial Times to the
Eve of World War I (New York: Free Press, 1979), 357, 421-22, 462; Mary Bularzik,
"Sexual Harassment at the Workplace: Historical Notes," Radical America 12
(June 1978): 25-43.
2. Harriet Jacobs, Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl, ed. by Jean Fagan Yellin
(Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1987), 27.
3. Louisa May Alcott, "How I Went Out to Service," The Independent, June 4, 1874, I.
4. John D'Emilio and Estelle B. Freedman, Intimate Matters: A History of Sexuality in
America (New York: Harper & ROW,1988), 12-13; see also Julia Cherry Spruill,
Women's Life and Work in the Southern Colonies (New York: Norton, 1972),321-
22 (describing statutes prohibiting masters from benefiting from impregnating their
indentured servants).
5. Spruill, Women's Life and Work, 322.
6. Segrave, The Sexual Harassment of Women, 20-21; Herbert G. Gutman, The Black
Family in Slavery and Freedom, 1750-1925 (New York: Pantheon Books, 1976),
393, 399·
7. Martin v. Jansen, 193 P. 674 (Wash. 1920).
8. Bularzik, "Sexual Harassment at the Workplace," 36.
9. Ibid.
10. Life and Labor, vol. 4, no. 8, August 1914, 242 (publication of the National Wom-
en's Trade Union League).
II. Maud Nathan, The Story of an Epoch-Making Movement (New York: Doubleday,
1926),15-16.
12. "Striking Flint: Genora Dollinger Remembers the 1937 Sitdown" (oral history in-
terview by Susan Rosenthal in February 1995), in Sol Dollinger and Genora Johnson
Dollinger, Not Automatic: Women and the Left in the Forging of the Auto Workers'
Union (New York: Monthly Review Press, 2.000), 114.
2.01
202 Notes to pp. 2-6
13. Glenna Matthews, The Rise of Public Woman: Woman's Power and Woman's Place
in the United States, 1630-1970 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992), 5.
14. Mary Conyington, "Relations Between Occupation and Criminality of Women," in
U.S. Congress. Senate, Report on Conditions of Women and Child Wage-Earners in
the United States, 61 st Cong., 2d sess., Document #645 (Washington, D.C.: Gov-
ernment Printing Office, I9II), vol. 15, 53,65,81-114; Helen Campbell, Women
Wage-Earners, Their Trades and Their Lives (Boston: Roberts Brothers, 1887).
15. Judith Baer, The Chains of Protection: The Judicial Response to Women's Labor
Legislation (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1978); Susan Lehrer, Origins of Pro-
tective Labor Legislation for Women, 1905-1925 (Albany: State University of New
York, 1987).
16. Doug McAdam, John D. McCarthy, and Mayer N. Zald, Comparative Perspectives
on Social Movements (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996).
17. Nancy Whittier, "Meaning and Structure in Social Movements," in Social Move-
ments: Identity, Culture, and the State, eds. David S. Meyer, Nancy Whittier, and
Belinda Robnett (New York: Oxford University Press, 2002), 292.
18. Ibid., 291.
19. Winifred Breines, The Trouble Between Us: An Uneasy History of White and Black
Women in the Feminist Movement (New York: Oxford University Press, 2006);
Nancy MacLean, Freedom is Not Enough: The Opening of the American Work-
place (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2006), Il7-54; Kimberly Springer,
Living for the Revolution: Black Feminist Organizations, 1968-1980 (Durham,
NC: Duke University Press, 2005); Benita Roth, Separate Roads to Feminism:
Black, Chicana, and White Feminist Movements in America's Second Wave (New
York: Cambridge University Press, 2004); Premilla Nadasen, "Expanding the
Boundaries of the Women's Movement: Black Feminism and the Struggle for Wel-
fare Rights," Feminist Studies 28 (2002): 271-301; Maria Bevacqua, "Anti-Rape
Coalitions: Radical, Liberal, Black, and White Feminists Challenging Boundaries,"
in Forcing Radical Alliances Across Difference: Coalition Politics for the New
Millennium, ed. by Jill Bystydzienski & Steven P. Schacht (New York: Rowman &
Littlefield, 2001), 163-76; Dennis A. Deslippe, "Rights, Not Roses": Unions and
the Rise of Working-Class Feminism, 1945-1980 (Urbana: University of Illinois
Press, 2000); see also Rosalyn Baxandall and Linda Gordon, eds., Dear Sisters:
Dispatches from the Women's Liberation Movement (New York: Basic Books,
2000); Kimberle Williams Crenshaw, "Mapping the Margins: Intersectionality,
Identity Politics, and Violence Against Women of Color," in The Public Nature of
Private Violence, eds. Martha Albertson Fineman and Fixanne Mykitiuk (New
York: Routledge, 1994), 93-118.
20. Lee Ann Banaszak, "Women's Movements and Women in Movements: Influencing
American Democracy from the 'Outside'?" Presented at the annual meeting of the
Midwest Political Science Association, Chicago, IL, 20-23 April 2006, (noting
scholarship by Nancy Whittier, Mary Bernstein, and Jo Reger that show how
diversity of identity can benefit movement groups).
21. Cynthia Harrison, "Creating a National Feminist Agenda: The Women's Action
Alliance and Feminist Coalition Building in the 1970S," in Feminist Coalitions:
Historical Perspectives on Second- Wave Feminism in the United States, ed. Stephanie
Gilmore (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2007); Springer, Living for the
Revolution; Wendy Kline, "'Please Include This in Your Book': Readers Respond
to Our Bodies, Ourselves," Bulletin of the History of Medicine, 79 (2.005): 8I-IIO;
Notes to pp. 6-I3
Roth, Separate Roads to Feminism; Anne Enke, "Smuggling Sex Through the Gates:
Race, Sexuality, and the Politics of Space in Second Wave Feminism," American
Quarterly 55.4 (2003): 634-67; Gilmore, "The Dynamics ofthe Second-Wave Fem-
inist Activism in Memphis"; Nadasen, "Expanding the Boundaries of the Women's
Movement"; Judith Ezekiel, Feminism in the Heartland (Columbus: Ohio State
University Press, 2002); Kathy Davis, "Feminist BodylPolitics as World Traveller:
Translating Our Bodies, Ourselves," The European Journal of Women's Studies
9(3): 223-47; Bevacqua, "Anti-Rape Coalitions"; Valk, "'Mother Power"'; Naples,
Grassroots Warriors; Amy Farrell, '''Like a Tarantula on a Banana Boat': Ms. Mag-
azine, 1972-1989," in Feminist Organizations: Harvest of the New Women's Move-
ment, eds. Myra Marx Ferree and Patricia Yancey Martin (Philadelphia: Temple
University Press, 1995), 53-68.
22. Sara M. Evans, "Beyond Declension: Feminist Radicalism in the 1970S and 1980s,"
in The World the 60S Made: Politics and Culture in Recent America, eds. Van Gosse
and Richard Moser (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2003), 52-66; Sara M.
Evans, "Re-Viewing the Second Wave," Feminist Studies 28:2 (Summer 2002): 264.
Chapter I. Articulating the Wrong: Resistance to Sexual Harassment in the

Early 19705
1. Nancy Cott, Public Vows: A History of Marriage and the Nation (Cambridge: Har-
vard University Press, 2000), II-I2, 160; Linda Gordon, Heroes of Their Own
Lives: The Politics and History of Family Violence (New York: Penguin Books,
1988), 255; Jean Bethke Elshtain, Public Man, Private Woman (Princeton: Prince-
ton University Press, 1981).
2. Nancy Cott, The Bonds of Womanhood: 'Woman's Sphere' in New England, 1780-
1835 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1977), 64-67.
3. Patricia Hill Collins, Black Feminist Thought: Knowledge, Consciousness, and the
Politics of Empowerment (New York: Routledge, Chapman, and Hall, 1991);
Kimberle Crenshaw, "Whose Story Is It Anyway? Feminist and Antiracist Appropria-
tions of Anita Hill," in Race-ing Justice, En-Gendering Power, ed. Toni Morrison
(New York: Pantheon Books, 1992),411.
4. Bradwell v. Illinois, 83 U.S. (16 Wall) 130 (1873); Muller v. Oregon, 208 U.S. 412
(1908); Goesaert v. Cleary, 335 U.S. 464 (1948); Nadine Taub and Elizabeth M.
Schneider, "Women's Subordination and the Role of Law," in Feminist Legal The-
ory: Foundations, ed. D. Kelly Weisbert (Philadelphia: Temple University Press,
1993),9- 2 1.
5. D'Emilio and Freedman, Intimate Matters.
6. Alice Kessler-Harris, In Pursuit of Equity: Women, Men, and the Quest for Eco-
nomic Citizenship in 20 th -Century America (New York: Oxford, 2001).
7. Sara M. Evans, Born for Liberty: A History of Women in America (New York: Free
Press, 1989), 302.
8. Teresa Amott and Julie Matthaei, Race, Gender, and Work: A Multicultural Eco-
nomic History of Women in the United States (Boston: South End Press, 1991).
9. Charles E. Marske, Steven Vago, and Arlene Taich, "Combatting Sexual Harass-
ment: A New Awareness," USA Today, March 1980, p. 47.
10. Aileen C. Hernandez, "The Women's Movement: 1965-1975," p. 9 (paper pre-
sented at the Symposium on the Tenth Anniversary of the United States Equal
Notes to pp. 13-18
Employment Opportunity Commission, Rutgers University Law School, 28-29

November 1975), University of California Library, Santa Barbara, CA.
II. MacLean, Freedom Is Not Enough, 129; Dorothy Sue Cobble, The Other Women's
Movement: Workplace Justice and Social Rights in Modern America (Princeton:
Princeton University Press, 2004), 209-II; Drew Whitelegg, "Cabin Pressure: The
Dialectics of Emotional Labour in the Airline Industry," Journal of Transport History
23(2002): 73-86; Flora Davis, Moving the Mountain: The Women's Movement
in America Since 1960 (Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1999), 16-25; "Fly
Me," Time Magazine, 15 November 1971.
12. Roth, Separate Roads to Feminism.
13. Reed v. Reed, 404 U.S. 71 (1971); Frontiero v. Richardson, 4II U.S. 677 (1973);
Craig v. Boren, 429 U.S. 190 (1976).
14. Joan Hoff, Law, Gender, and Injustice: A Legal History of u.s. Women (New York:
New York University Press, 1991), 249.
15. Rogers v. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission, 454 F.2d 234 (5th Cir.
1971), cert. denied, 406 U.S. 957 (1972).
16. Charles and Barbara Whalen, The Longest Debate: A Legislative History of the
I964 Civil Rights Act (Washington, D.C.: Seven Locks Press, 1985): II5-18.
17. Jeffrey Toobin, "The Trouble With Sex," The New Yorker, 9 February 1998,48-55;
see also Whalen, The Longest Debate, 69, 115-16.
18. Whalen, The Longest Debate, 49.
19. A bipartisan coalition of five Congresswomen spoke in support of the amendment-
Frances P. Bolton (R-Ohio), Martha W. Griffiths (D-Mich.), Catherine May (R-
Wash.), Edna F. Kelly (D-N.Y.), and Katherine St. George (R-N.Y.).
20. 1I0 Congo Rec. 2584 (1964).
21. Doug McAdam has argued that the post World War II American government
responded to the civil rights movement at least in part because the movement
framed "American-style racism as a profound threat to the realization of foreign
policy aims." Institutionalized racism compromised America's view of itself as the
leader of the free and democratic world. Doug McAdam, Political Process and the
Development of Black Insurgency, I930-I970, 2nd ed. (Chicago: University of
Chicago Press, 1999), xxiii-xxiv.
22. Barnes v. Train, 13 Fed. Empl. Prac. Cas. 123 (D.D.C. 1974), rev'dsub nom, Barnes
v. Costle, 561 F. 2d 983 (D.C. Cir. 1977); Corne v. Bausch and Lomb, 390 F. Supp.
161 (D. Ariz. 1975), vacated and remanded, 562 F.2d 55 (9th Cir. 1977), cert.
denied, 434 U.S. 956 (1977); Garber v. Saxon Business Products, I4 Empl. Prac.
Deci. 7586 (E.D. Va. 1976), rev'd and remanded, 552 F.2d 1032 (4 th Cir. 1977);
Williams v. Saxbe, 413 F. Supp. 654 (D.D.C. 1976), rev'd in part and vacated in
part, sub nom. Williams v. Bell, 587 F.2d 1240 (D.C. Cir. 1978); Miller v. Bank of
America, 418 F. Supp. 233 (N.D. Cal. 1976), rev'd, 600 F.2d 21I (9th Cir. 1979);
Tompkins v. Public Service Electric and Gas Company, 422 F. Supp. 553 (D.N.J.
1976), rev'd, 568 F.2d 1044 (3rd Cir. 1977).
2.3. Affidavit of Diane Rennay Williams (Exhibit 3), Administrative Record, Joint Ap-
pendix at 36, Williams v. Bell, 587 F.2d 1240.
24. Brief for Appellant, Miller v. Bank of America, 600 F. 2d 21 I.
25. Complaint, Filed 29 September 1975, Tomkins, 422 F. Supp 533, rev'd, 568 F.2d
10 44.
26. Anna-Marie Marshall, "Closing the Gaps: Plaintiffs in Pivotal Sexual Harassment
Cases," Law and Social Inquiry 23 (Fall 1998): 785-86.
Notes to pp. I8-22 2. 0 5
27. Defendant Russell E. Train's Motion for Summary Judgment, Barnes v. Train, 13
FEP 123 at 6--9.
28. Plaintiffs Memorandum of Points and Authorities in Opposition to Defendant's
Motion for Summary Judgment, Barnes v. Train, 13 FEP 123 at 9-13 (quoting
Sprogis v. United Airlines, Inc., 444 F.2d 1194 [7th Cir. 1971)).
29. Defendants' Brief in Support of the Motion to Dismiss, Williams v. Saxbe, 413 F.
Supp. 654 at 5-6.
30. Plaintiffs Motion for Judgment, Williams v. Saxbe, 413 F. Supp. 654 at 8.
31. Thomas H. Watkins, "Briefs from the Publisher's Desk: About Black Women ... "
N. Y. Recorder, 8 May 1976; Maudine Rice Cooper, interview with author, tape
recording, Washington, D.C., 24 February 2000; Ann Schneider, "Sexual Harass-
ment Brief Bank and Bibliography," Women's Rights Law Reporter 8 (Fall 1985):
294·
32. Thomas H. Watkins, "Briefs from the Publisher's Desk: About Black Women ... "
N. Y. Recorder, 8 May 1976.
33. Brief of the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission as Amicus Curiae in
Opposition to Defendants' Motions to Dismiss, Dated 17 January 1975, Corne v.
Bausch and Lomb, 390 F. Supp. 161.
34. Brief in Support of Motion to Dismiss the Sex Discrimination Allegations of the
Plaintiffs Complaint as to Defendant, Public Service Electric and Gas Company,
Tompkins, 422 F. Supp. 553 at 5·
35. Ibid., 6.
36. Ibid.
37. Memorandum in Opposition to Defendant Company's Motion to Dismiss Plain-
tiffs Title VII Claim, Tompkins, 422 F. Supp. 553, cited in Catharine MacKinnon,
Sexual Harassment of Working Women (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1979),
70 .
38. Right before oral arguments in the case, Taub solicited support from the EEOC. An
EEOC attorney from Washington joined Taub at oral arguments. Taub also had
several of her clinical students in court during oral arguments. Nadine Taub, tele-
phone interview by author, tape recording, Newark, NJ, 21 March 2001; Tomkins,
422 F. Supp. at 557 (referring to EEOC's participation at oral arguments).
39. Barnes, 13 FEP at 124.
40. Corne, 390 F. Supp. at 163.
41. Miller, 418 F. Supp. at 235,236.
4 2 • Tomkins, 422 F. Supp. at 557.
43. Ibid., 55 6.
44. Barnes, 13 FEP at 124.
45. Corne, 390 F. Supp. at 163.
46. Ibid., 164.
47. Miller, 418 F. Supp. at 236.
48. Ibid., 557.
49. As early as August 5, 1974, Judge Richey ruled that Williams had produced evi-
dence of discrimination and that therefore the government had the burden of affir-
matively establishing the absence of discrimination by the clear weight of the
evidence.
50. Williams, 413 F. Supp. at 655-56.
51. Ibid., 657.
p.. Ibid., 660.
53. Ibid. at 659 n. 6.

54. Judge Charles R. Richey Papers: news articles, 1971 March 3-1996 May 13, Index,
at 262-267, Ohio Wesleyan University Manuscript Collection #2.
55. Ibid., 268-75·
56. See, for example, Art Buchwald, "Those Are Stunning Socks You're Wearing,
Callihan," Washington Post, 27 April 1976, § B, I.
57. See also Ralph de Toledano, Editorial, Naugatuck Daily News, 18 May 1976.
58. "Sex Rears Its Mixed-Up Head," Los Angeles Times, 26 April 1976.
59. "The Law and Threats to Virtue," Wall Street Journal, 27 April 1976, 22; Judge
Charles R. Richey Papers: news articles, 1971 March 3-1996 May 13, Index at 273,
275, Ohio Wesleyan University Manuscript Collection #2.
60. Dick Hitt, "One More Rule to Remember," Dallas Times Herald, 22 April 1976.
61. Jim Wright, "Now, Guidelines for That, Too," Dallas Morning News, 4 May 1976,
§ D, I.
62. See, for example, Everywoman: Sexual Harassment on the Job (Washington, D.C.:
WDVM-TV, 1976) (highlighting the case of Williams v. Saxbe).
63. Stanley Sporkin, "In Memoriam: Charles R. Richey," George Washington Law
Review 66 (April 1998): 744.
64. Testimony of Dianne Williams, Sexual Harassment in the Federal Government:
Hearings before the Subcommittee on Investigations of the Committee on Post
Office and Civil Service, U.S. House of Representatives, 96th Congress, First Ses-
sion, October 23, November I, 13, 1979, 69-88 (hereafter cited as 1979 Hanley
Hearings on Sexual Harassment).
65. The judges ruling in these early sexual harassment cases were generally older con-
servative white males. President Richard Nixon appointed the judges who presided
in Corne, Williams, Miller, and Tomkins. Judge William C. Frey, appointed in 1970,
was 56 when he ruled in Corne. Judge Charles Richey, appointed in 1971, was 53
when he ruled in Williams. Judge Spencer Williams, appointed in 1971, was 54
when he ruled in Miller. Judge Herbert Jay Stern, appointed in 1973, was only 39
when he ruled in Tomkins. Judge Stern had a law and order reputation, earned for
gaining convictions in political corruption cases while serving in the office of the
United States Attorney in Newark. Alfonso A. Narvaez, "Judge's Years with U.S.:
From Malcolm X to Berlin," New York Times, 9 November 1986, § I, part 2, p. 56.
The judge in Barnes, Judge John Lewis Smith, Jr., was a Republican appointed to the
federal bench in 1966 by President Lyndon B. Johnson and was 61 at the time of
the decision. The judge in Garber, Judge Oren Ritter Lewis, was appointed to the
federal bench in 1960 by President Dwight D. Eisenhower and was 74 at the time
of the decision.
Chapter 2. Speaking Out; Collective Action against Sexual Harassment in the

Mid-I 970S
1. McAdam, Political Process, xxi.
2. This account comes from the following sources: Transcript of Hearing, February 18,
1975, In re Carmita Wood, Case No. 75-92437, New York State Department of
Labor, Unemployment Insurance Referee Section, Decision and Notice of Decision,
7 March 1975, 15 (hereafter Hearing Transcript In re Carmita Wood); Brief for
Claimant-Appellant and Affidavit of Carmita Wood~ In re Carmita Wood, Appeal
Notes to pp. 28-3I 2. 0 7
No. 2.07.958, New York State Department of Labor, Unemployment Insurance

Appeal Board (6 October 1975) (hereafter Wood's Appellate Brief and Affidavit
of Carmita Wood).
3. Hearing Transcript In re Carmita Wood.
4. Wood's Appellate Brief; Affidavit of Carmita Wood at 3.
5. Affidavit of Carmita Wood at 15-21, 2.7, 30.
6. Ibid., 34; Wood's Appellate Brief.
7. Hearing Transcript In re Carmita Wood.
8. Susan Meyer, telephone interview by author, tape recording, New York, New York,
17 February 2.001; Susan Brownmiller, In Our Time: Memoir of a Revolution (New
York: Dial Press, 1999), 2.79-80.
9. Rat was a leftist newspaper that radical feminist women took over because it was
sexist. Meyer, telephone interview, 17 February 2.001.
10. Meyer, telephone interview, 17 February 2.001; Brownmiller, In Our Time, 2.79-80;
Lawrence Stessin, "Two Against Harassment," New York Times, 2.3 December
1979, § 3,7·
I I. Karen Sauvigne, telephone interview by author, tape recording, Brooklyn, New
York, 4 February 2.001; Brownmiller, In Our Time, 2.79-80; Lawrence Stessin,
"Two Against Harassment," New York Times, 2.3 December 1979, § 3,7. Meyer
and Sauvigne were lesbian partners. Their relationship ended in 1982.. Sauvigne
does not believe that her sexual identity was significant to her activism on the issue
of sexual harassment and that it did not play much of a role in her recognition of
sexual harassment as a form of exploitation.
12.. Lin Farley, Sexual Shakedown: The Sexual Harassment of Women on the Job (New
York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1978), 11-12..
13. Brownmiller, In Our Time, 2.8 I.
14. Karen Sauvigne, telephone interview by author, tape recording, 4 February 2.001,
Brooklyn, NY.
15. Ibid.; Meyer, telephone interview, 17 February 2.001.
16. Letter to "Mauri," Dated 2.8 March 1975, (from Karen Sauvigne), Working Wom-
en's Institute Collection (hereafter Mauri Letter). This account of the formation of
Working Women United is based on the following sources: the archives of Working
Women's Institute, located at the Barnard Center for Research on Women in New
York City (hereafter Working Women's Institute Collection); Papers of Karen
Sauvigne, Brooklyn, NY (hereafter Karen Sauvigne 's Private Papers); Karen Sauvigne,
telephone interviews by author, tape recording, Brooklyn, NY, 4,12. February 2.001
and 2.5, 2.6 June 2.001; Meyer, telephone interview, 17 February 2.001; Peggy Crull,
telephone interview by author, tape recording, New York, NY, 2.7 February 2.001;
Brownmiller, In Our Time, and media accounts as cited.
17. Susan Brownmiller quotes Sauvigne describing the meeting as follows: "Eight of us
were sitting in an office of Human Affairs brainstorming about what we were going
to write on posters for our speak-out. We were referring to it as 'sexual intimida-
tion,' 'sexual coercion,' 'sexual exploitation on the job.' None of those names
seemed quite right. We wanted something that embraced a whole range of subtle
and unsubtle persistent behaviors. Somebody came up with 'harassment.' Sexual
harassment! Instantly we agreed. That's what it was." Brownmiller, In Our Time,
2.8 I. The earliest written use of the term "sexual harassment" in the Working
Women's Institute archives appears in a March 2.8, 1975 letter from Karen Sauvigne
to Mauri Heins, Mauri Letter,
2.08 Notes to pp. JI-38
18. Barbara Geehan, "Women Fight 'Intimidation,'" Ithaca Journal, 5 April 1975,4;
L. Scott, "Protest Sexploitation," Ithaca New Times, 13 April 1975; Brenda Jacobs,
"Working Women Form Campaign to Expose Sexual Harassment," Cornell Daily
Sun, 18 April 1975, 15.
19. Carmita Wood, "Opinion Editorial: Reach Out and Touch Them," Ithaca Journal,
2.4 April 1975; Publicity Letter from Carmita Wood, Working Women's Institute
Collection.
2.0. L. Scott, "Protest Sexploitation," Ithaca New Times, 13 April 1975 (WSKG-TV,
Binghamton, 15 April 1975; WCIC-TV, 2.2. April 1975; "The Time is Now,"
WNYS-TV, Syracuse).
2.1. "NOW President Lauds Speak-out," Ithaca Journal, I May 1975, 6.
2.2.. Testimony of Lin Farley, Commission on Human Rights of the City of New York,
Hearings on Women in Blue-Collar, Service, and Clerical Occupations, "Special
Disadvantages of Women in Male-Dominated Work Settings," 2.1 April 1975;
Barbara Geehan, "Ithacan Testifies on Job Sexual Harassment," Ithaca Journal, 2.2.
April 1975,6; "Women's Organized Labor Pains," New York Post, 2.2. April 1975;
Enid Nemy, "Women Begin to Speak-out Against Sexual Harassment at Work,"
New York Times, 19 August 1975, 38.
2.3. Brownmiller, In Our Time, 2.82; Farley, Sexual Shakedown (discussing the speak-
out testimony).
24. Sauvigne, telephone interview, 4 February 2.001.
2.5. WWU later distributed the questionnaire to female food service workers who were
members of the Civil Service Employee Association in Binghamton, New York.
2.6. Working Women's Institute, "Sexual Harassment on the Job: Results of Preliminary
Survey," Research Series, Report No. I, Fall 1975.
27. "Our First Issue" and "Why Working Women United," Labor Pains I, no. 1 (August
1975): 2.-3·
2.8. "Issue Draws National Support," Labor Pains I, no. 1 (August 1975): 10.
29. Enid Nemy, "Women Begin to Speak-out Against Sexual Harassment at Work,"
New York Times, 19 August 1975, 38.
30. Susan Brownmiller and Dolores Alexander, "How We Got Here: From Carmita
Wood to Anita Hill," Ms., JanuarylFebruary 1992,70-71.
31. "Sexual Harassment: Now a National Issue," Labor Pains I, no. 2 (November
1975): 7·
32. Mary Bralove, "A Cold Shoulder, Career Women Decry Sexual Harassment by
Bosses and Clients," Wall Street Journal, 19 January 1976, 1.
33. "A Redbook Questionnaire: How Do You Handle Sex on the Job?" Redbook 146
(January 1976): 74-75.
34. Rhoda Koenig, "The Persons in the Office: An Ardent Plea for Sexual Harassment,"
Harper's Magazine, February 1976, 87-88, 90.
35. Working Women United Institute Board of Director's Meeting, May II, 1976,
Working Women's Institute Collection. According to these minutes, Sauvigne and
Meyer had moved the Institute's files out of the HAP office to their own house
"because of the mistrust in HAP."
36. According to Susan Brownmiller's 1999 book, In Our Time, another point of
contention was over who had come up with the phrase "sexual harassment." Farley
contended that she had coined the term "sexual harassment," but Sauvigne and
Meyer believed that "if eight people were tossing around words in one room, the
eureka moment belonged to the group." Brownmiller, In Our Time, 285. Credit for
Notes to pp. 38-4L
the term has been attributed to many people over time. A 1979 Washington Post
article reported that Catharine MacKinnon claimed she coined the term "sexual
harassment." Carol Krucoff, "Careers: Sexual Harassment on the Job," Washington
Post, 25 July 1979, § B, 5. A 1979 New York Times article reported that Meyer and
Sauvigne had coined the term. Lawrence Stessin, "Two Against Harassment," New
York Times, 23 December 1979, § 3, 7. In a 1980 documentary film on sexual
harassment with Lin Farley, host Ed Asner stated that Farley had coined the term.
The Workplace Hustle: A Film About Sexual Harassment of Working Women (San
Francisco: Clark Communications, Inc., 1980), videocassette.
37. In her publications, Farley repeatedly gave credit for the speak-out survey to the
women's section of HAP, referring to the survey as the "Cornell poll," never men-
tioning Working Women United. See, e.g., Lin Farley, "Sexual Harassment," New
York Sunday News, 15 August 1976, 10.
38. Sauvigne, telephone interview, 4 February 2001.
39. Ann Crittenden, "Women Tell of Sexual Harassment at Work," New York Times,
25 October 1977, 35; Letter Protesting Comments of Stanley Siegel on WABC-TV,
Dated 27 October 1977, Working Women's Institute Collection; "N.Y. Speak out:
Women Describe Indignities They Face at Work," Women's Agenda, December
1977,9 (published by the Women's Action Alliance); "Sex on the Job: Where We
Are Now," Redbook, April 1978,38; Merrill Rogers Skrocki, "Sexual Pressure on
the Job," McCall's, March 1978,43; Letty Cottin Pogrebin, "The Working Woman:
Sex Harassment," Ladies Home Journal 94, June 1977, 24; Janet Harris, "Dealing
With Bosses," Family Circle, 24 April 1978, 191; Susan Hobart, "Awareness Helps
Women Overcome Sexual Indignities," The Oregonian, 23 January 1978, § B, I;
Dorothy Austin, "Institute Fights Sex Harassment," Milwaukee Sentinel, 2 June
1978, 10; Patsy Miller, "Fighting Harassment a Job," Fort Worth Star-Telegram,
7 June 1978; Jane See White, "Sexual Harassment: New Groups Fighting Problem,"
Pueblo (Colorado) Star-Journal and Sunday Chieftain, 20 August 1978. Meyer and
Sauvigne appeared on the David Hartmann morning news show in New York.
Meyer, telephone interview, 17 February 2001.
40. 1979 Annual Program Report and Audited Financial Statement, p. I, Papers of
Karen Sauvigne, Brooklyn, New York (hereafter 1979 Annual Report); "Sexual
Harassment on the Job," Phil Donahue Show (Princeton: Films for the Humanities
and Sciences, 1988) (1977 Phil Donahue show with Susan Meyer and Karen
Sauvigne); Meyer, telephone interview, 17 February 2001.
41. Letter to Karin Lippert of Ms. Magazine from Karen Sauvigne, Dated 17 August
1978, Working Women's Institute Collection.
42. Crull, telephone interview, 27 February 2001; Responses to Fair Employment Prac-
tices Agencies to Sexual Harassment Complaints: A Report and Recommendations,
Research Series, Report No.2 (New York: Working Women's Institute, 1978);
Peggy Crull, The Impact of Sexual Harassment on the Job: A Profile of the Expe-
riences of 92 Women, Research Series, Report NO.3 (New York: Working Women's
Institute, 1979).
44. The first office of AASC was at 575 Massachusetts Avenue in Cambridge. They later
moved to 120 Boylston Street in Boston, on the Boston Commons. This account
about the formation of Alliance Against Sexual Coercion is based on the following
sources: Freada Klein, interview by author, tape recording, 26 March 2001, I, 13
April 2.00I (San Francisco, CAl, 2.S June 2.001 (New York City); Alliance Against
210 Notes to pp. 4I-43
Sexual Coercion Ephemeral Materials, 1976-77, Wilcox Collection of Contempo-

rary Political Movements, Schlesinger Library, Radcliffe College, Cambridge (here-
after AASC Materials at Schlesinger); Lynn Wehrli, "Sexual Harassment at the
Workplace: A Feminist Analysis and Strategy for Social Change," (Master's Thesis,
Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 1976) (hereafter Wehrli Master's Thesis);
"Working Women Unite!" FAAR News, September/October 1976, 7; Freada Klein
and Lynn Wehrli, "Sexual Coercion on the Job?" Sister Courage, October 1976, 6;
"Interview with the Alliance Against Sexual Coercion," Sister Courage, June 1977;
"Dear Sir: That's Not Part of My Job," FAAR News, May/June 1977, 13; Jane
Albert, "Tyranny of Sex In the Office," Equal Times, 7 August 1977, 7; Alliance
Against Sexual Coercion, Sexual Harassment at the Workplace (Cambridge: Alli-
ance Against Sexual Coercion, 1977); Rochelle Lefkowitz, "Help for the Sexually
Harassed: A Grass-Roots Model," Ms., November 1977,49; "All About the Alli-
ance Against Sexual Coercion," Aegis, July/August 1978, 27-28; "Sexual Harass-
ment and Coercion: Violence Against Women," Aegis, July/August 1978, 28-29;
Martha Hooven and Freada Klein, "Is Sexual Harassment Legal?" Aegis, Septem-
ber/October 1978, 27-30; Martha Hooven and Nancy McDonald, "The Role of
Capitalism: Understanding Sexual Harassment," Aegis, NovemberlDecember
1978, 31-33; Freada Klein, "Book Review, Sexual Shakedown: The Sexual Harass-
ment of Women on the Job by Lin Farley," Aegis, NovemberlDecember 1978, 33-
35; Constance Backhouse and Leah Cohen, The Secret Oppression: Sexual Harass-
ment of Working Women (Toronto: Macmillan, 1978); Alliance Against Sexual
Coercion, University Grievance Procedures, Title IX and Sexual Harassment on
Campus (Cambridge: Alliance Against Sexual Coercion, 1980); Laurie Dubrow,
Sexual Harassment and the Law (Cambridge: Alliance Against Sexual Coercion,
1980); Alliance Against Sexual Coercion, Fighting Sexual Harassment: An Advo-
cacy Handbook (Boston: Alyson Publications, Inc. and Alliance Against Sexual
Coercion, 1981); Alliance Against Sexual Coercion, "Organizing Against Sexual
Harassment," Radical America 15 (July/August 1981): 17-34.
45. According to Klein, the protocol of rape crisis centers was advocacy with the police,
the hospital, the district attorney, and the court, none of which was relevant in the
employment context.
46. Freada Klein and Lynn Wehrli, "Sexual Coercion on the Job?" Sister Courage,
October 1976, 6.
47. Wehrli Master's Thesis at 55-79; Catharine MacKinnon cited Wehrli's thesis in her
1979 book, Sexual Harassment of Working Women, in which MacKinnon develops
a dominance theory of sexual harassment. MacKinnon, Sexual Harassment of
Working Women, 48,281 n. 39, 264 n. 152.
48. AASC chose to make contact with women workers independently through a tele-
phone hotline rather than by working through unions or other workplace organ-
izations because only eleven percent of women workers were unionized at the
time and unions were not initially interested in addressing sexual harassment.
Alliance Against Sexual Coercion, "Organizing Against Sexual Harassment,"
26,29·
49. Karen Lindsey, "Sexual Harassment on the Job," Ms., November 1977,78.
50. Rochelle Lefkowitz, "Help for the Sexually Harassed: A Grass-Roots Model,"
Ms., November 1977,49. Freada Klein and some other AASC members attended
the October 1977 speak-out in New York City. Klein, telephone interview, 26
March 2001.
Notes to pp. 44-49 2.1 I
51. Portions of this brochure and later publications by AASC were often reproduced in
corporate training manuals and other sexual harassment publications. Klein, tele-
phone interview, 13 April 2001.
52. Alliance Against Sexual Coercion, Sexual Harassment at the Workplace, 4-5.
53. Ibid., I r.
54. Bularzik, "Sexual Harassment at the Workplace," 2.5; Mary Bularzik, "An Historical
Analysis of Sexual Harassment in the U.S.," Aegis, JanuaryIFebruary 1979, 26-30.
Freada Klein participated in monthly meetings of leaders and founders of groups
opposing violence against women. Klein, telephone interview, 13 April 2001.
55. Alliance Against Sexual Coercion, Sexual Harassment at the Workplace, 2.
56. Freada Klein, "Book Review, Sexual Shakedown: The Sexual Harassment of
Women on the Job by Lin Farley," Aegis, NovemberlDecember 1978, B.
57. Martha Hooven and Nancy McDonald, "The Role of Capitalism: Understanding
Sexual Harassment," Aegis, NovemberlDecember 1978, 3 I-B.
58. Martha Hooven and Freada Klein, "Is Sexual Harassment Legal?" Aegis, Septem-
ber/October 1978, 28.
59. Ibid.
60. Ibid.
61. Ibid.
62. Karen Lindsey, "A National Resource," Ms., November 1977, 49; Rochelle Lefkowitz,
"Help for the Sexually Harassed: A Grass-Roots Model," Ms., November 1977, 49;
Sauvigne, telephone interview, 4 February 2001.
63. Minutes of Meeting with AASC and WWUI, I April 1978, Working Women's In-
stitute Collection; Letter from Karen to AASC Sisters, Dated 13 April 1978, Work-
ing Women's Institute Collection.
64. There was an ownership dispute over the film between Margaret Lazarus and
AASC. Klein, telephone interview, 4 April 2001.
65. Nadine Brozen, "A Demand To Be More Than Just 'Office Girls,'" New York Times,
17 October 1975,45; "Office Workers to Hold Hearings," Majority Report, V, no.
I I (4-18 October 1975): 10; "WOW Speaks," Majority Report, 5, no. 13 (I-15
Nov. 1975): 5; "One Third of Office Workers Report Sexual Harassment on the
Job," Womanpower Newsletter, vol. 6, no. 2, February 1976, 1-2; Paula Bernstein,
"Sexual Harassment on the Job," Harper's Bazaar, August 1976, 12.
66. Mimi Kelber, "Sexual Harassment ... The UN's Dirty Little Secret," Ms., Novem-
ber 1977, 51; see also, "Handling Sex in the Office," Personal Report for the Pro-
fessional Secretary, 28 October 1976, 1-4 (published by the Research Institute of
America, New York, NY, reporting on letters received in response to questions
about sexual harassment posed to readers).
67. The naming of sexual harassment illustrates discourse theory's claim that "dis-
courses operate at the level of meaning, shaping what is thinkable, possible, com-
prehensible." Whittier, "Meaning and Structure in Social Movements," 303.
Chapter 3. A Winning Strategy: Early Legal Victories against Sexual Harassment

r. After the district court had dismissed Barnes' case, her attorney, Warwick Furr,
asked the Lawyers' Committee for Civil Rights Under Law to find another lawyer
to handle the appeal. LCCRUL found Linda Singer through the WLDF. Marshall,
"Closing the Gaps," 786 (based on interviews with Linda Singer and Warwick Furr).
2. Marshall, "Closing the Gaps," 786; Heather Sigworth, "Abortion Laws in the
Federal Courts: The Supreme Court as Supreme Platonic Guardian," Indiana
Law Review 5 (1971): 130; Heather Sigworth, "The Legal Status of Antinepotism
Regulations," AAUP Bulletin (Spring 1972): 31-34; Laks v. Laks, 540 P.2d 1277
(Ariz. Ct. App. 1975). Before Corne was decided, Sigworth was appointed Deputy
Attorney General for the State of Arizona, so Mary-Lynne Fisher from the Center
for Law in the Public Interest in Los Angeles took over the case. Notice of Appear-
ance, Filed June 27,1977, Corne v. Bausch and Lomb, Inc., 562 F.2d 55.
3. Notes from Conversation with Heather Sigworth, Dated 28 April 1975, Working
Women's Institute Collection; Taub, telephone interview, 21 March 2001; Mar-
shall, "Closing the Gaps," 786 (based on interviews with Simon, Taub, Dunlap,
and Singer); Klein, telephone interview, 13 April 2001; Reply Brief of Appellant at
16, Miller v. Bank of America, 600 F.2d 2II (filed 9 March 1977); Plaintiff-Appel-
lant's Appeal Brief at 16, Tomkins v. Public Service Electric and Gas Co., 568 F.2d
1044; Brief on Behalf of Plaintiffs-Appellants at 19-21, 27, Alexander v. Yale, 631
F.2d 178 (2 nd Cir. 19 80).
4. Brief for Appellant at 13, Barnes v. Costle, 561 F.2d 983.
5. Appellants' Reply Brief at 7-8, Corne, 562 F.2d 55.
6. Plaintiff-Appellant'S Appeal Brief at 16, Tomkins, 568 F.2d 1044.
7. Plaintiff-Appellant'S Appeal Brief at 14-18, Tomkins, 568 F.2d 1044.
8. Brownmiller, In Our Time, 286.
9. Plaintiff-Appellant's Appeal Brief at 20-21, Tomkins 568 F.2d 1044 (citations
omitted).
10. Plaintiff-Appellant'S Appeal Brief at 22, Tomkins, 568 F.2d 1044.
II. Ibid., 23.
12. Brief of Equal Rights Advocates, Inc. and Mexican-American Legal Defense and
Education Fund, as Amici Curiae at 18-21, Tomkins, 568 F.2d 1044.
13. Ibid.
14. In Garber, all three judges were appointed by Johnson. In Barnes, Judge Spottswood
was appointed by Johnson, Judge Bazelon by Truman, and Judge MacKinnon by
Nixon. In Tomkins, Judge Aldisert was appointed by Johnson and Judges Rosenn
and Garth were appointed by Nixon. In Miller, Judge Duniway was appointed by
Kennedy, Judge Kilkenny was appointed by Eisenhower, and Judge McGovern was
appointed by Nixon.
15. In a 1990 New Yorker Magazine interview, MacKinnon reported that she gave
a copy of a paper she had written for an independent study course at Yale to
a law clerk assigned to the Barnes case. According to MacKinnon, this paper
became the basis for MacKinnon's 1979 book, The Sexual Harassment of Working
Women. Jeffrey Toobin, "The Trouble With Sex," New Yorker, 9 February 1998,
50. No amicus curiae briefs were recorded on the docket in the Barnes case.
16. Barnes v. Costle, 561 F.2d 983, 990.
17. According to Shepard's Federal Citations, Barnes v. Costle has been cited, discussed,
or mentioned in over 450 cases, articles, and books.
18. "Sex and Judicial Progress," National Review, 3 March 1978, 299.
19. Farley, Sexual Shakedown, 176-77; Shelby White, "The Office Pass (Continued),"
Across the Board, March 1978, 51.
20. Taub, telephone interview, 21 March 2001; Adrienne Tomkins, "Sex Discrimina-
tion: Adrienne Tomkins, Stenographer," Civil Liberties Review (September/October
1978): 22. According to Shepherd's Federal Citations, Tomkins has been discussed,
Notes to pp. 55-60 2. 1 3
cited, or mentioned in over eighty cases and in hundreds of secondary sources. See,
for example, Marie Nardino, "Note: Discrimination: Sex-Title VII-Cause of
Action Under Title VII Arises When Supervisor, With Employer's Knowledge and
Acquiescence, Makes Sexual Advances Toward Subordinate Employee and Condi-
tions Employee's Job Status on Favorable Response-Tomkins v. Public Service
Electric and Gas Co., 568 F.2d 1044 (3d Cir. 1977)," Seton Hall Law Review 9
(1978); Diane K. Shah, "A Steno Who Said 'No!'" Newsweek, 30 April 1979,72..
2.1. Civil Docket, Williams v. Civiletti, Case No. 74-186, United States District Court
for the District of Columbia, at supp. 14-15; Cooper, personal interview, 2.4 Feb-
ruary 2000.
22. Munford v. James T. Barnes and Co., 441 F. Supp. 459, 466 (E.D. Mich. 1977).
23. Munford's trial was the first jury trial in a sexual harassment case in federal court.
The jury ruled against Munford on the state law claims and sat as an advisory jury on
Munford's Title vn claim, finding five-to-one against her. The judge concluded that
Munford had not proved that she was sexually harassed. Munford, 441 F. Supp. 459.
24. Gedaliahu H. Harel and Karen Cottledge, "Combatting Sexual Harassment: The
Michigan Experience," Human Resource Management 21 (Spring 1982): 2.
25. Ludington v. Sambo's Restaurants, Inc., 474 F. Supp. 480, 483 (E.D. Wisc. 1979).
26. Neely v. American Fidelity Assurance Company, 17 Fair Employment Prac. Cas.
482 (W.O. Okla 1978).
27. 19 Fair Empl. Prac. Cas. (BNA) 828 (D.D.C. 1979). See also Cordes v. County of
Yavapai, 17 Fed. Empl. Prac. Cas. 1224 (D. Ariz. 1978) and Shanks v. Harrington,
21 Fed. Empl. Prac. Cas. 590 (N.D. Iowa 1979) (both denying relief).
28. EEOC Decision No. 77-36, 1974-83 CCH EEOC DECISIONS 6588 at 4456
(1977)·
29. Alexander v. Yale, 459 F. Supp. 1 (D. Conn. 1977).
30. Letter from Phyllis Crocker, Dated March 1978, in Alexander v. Yale: Collected
Documents from the Yale Undergraduate Women's Caucus and Grievance Com-
mittee (New Haven: Yale University, 1978) (ERIC No.: EDI80385): 18-19 (here-
after Alexander v. Yale: Collected Documents); Billie Wright Dziech and Linda
Weiner, The Lecherous Professor: Sexual Harassment on Campus (Boston: Beacon
Press, 1984), 163 (noting that the case "startled campus communities across the
country into realizing that they needed to deal with the sexual harassment issue").
3 I. Alexander v. Yale: Collected Documents, 27; Anne Simon, telephone interview by
author, tape recording, 25 April 2001, Oakland, CA.
32. Alexander v. Yale: Collected Documents, 1-27; Simon, telephone interview, 25
April 2001.
33. Alexander v. Yale, 459 F. Supp. I. Magistrate Latimer later denied Price's motion for
class certification because her claim would not likely become moot and any equi-
table relief would benefit others. The Second Circuit subsequently denied the plain-
tiffs' appeal based in part on mootness.
34. Memorandum of Decision, Civil. No. N-77-277, 2 July 1979 (Judge Ellen Bree
Burns).
35. Two amicus curiae briefs were filed by the American Civil Liberties Union, the
Women's Equity Action League Educational and Legal Defense Fund, Working
Women's Institute, the National Conference of Black Lawyers, Black Women Orga-
nized for Political Action, Equal Rights Advocates, Inc. and Women Organized
Against Sexual Harassment, a student group at the University of California at Berkeley.
36. Alexander II. Yale, 631 F.z.d 178.
37. See, for example, "2 Yale Faculty Accused of Sex Harassment," Washington Post,
19 July 1977, § A, 5; Diane Henry, "Yale Faculty Members Charged With Sexual
Harassment," New York Times, 22 August 1977, 30; Diane Henry, "Yale Student
Withdraws from Lawsuit," New York Times, 10 September 1977, 52.; "Yale and
Woman Senior Reach an Accord on Suit," New York Times, 15 January 1978,40;
"Ex-Student Wins Right to Sue Yale on Sex Charge," New York Times, I December
1978, § C, 26; "A College Woman Loses Test on Sexual Harassment," New York
Times, 12 July 1979, § B, 6.
38. Russell Baker, "The Courts of First Resort," New York Times, 26 July 1977,
§ A, 29.
39. Diane Henry, "Yale Faculty Members Charged With Sexual Harassment," New
York Times, 22 August 1977, 30.
40. "Bod and Man at Yale," Time, 8 August 1977, 52-53. Jose Cabranes was later
appointed to the United States District Court for the District of Connecticut by
President Jimmy Carter and to the u.s. Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit by
President William Clinton.
41. Anne Nelson, "Sexual Harassment at Yale," Nation, 14 January 1978, 7-10.
42. Alice Dembner, "A Case of Sex Discrimination," Yale Graduate Professional, 8
March 1978, I.
43. See, for example, "Sexual Harassment in Education," National NOW Times, Feb-
ruary 1978, 14-15; Marcia Rockwood, "The Yale Suit: On To Round Two," Ms.,
July 1978, 85; "Sexual Harassment Challenged," Off Our Backs, December 1979,
8; "Court to Hear Argument In Sexual Harassment Appeal," National NOW
Times, June 1980, 14.
44. Simon, telephone interview, 25 April 2001.
45. Press Release Issued by the Yale Undergraduate Women's Caucus Grievance Com-
mittee, Not Dated, Alexander v. Yale: Collected Documents, 13-14.
46. Statement Issued by Pamela Price, December 21,1977, Alexander v. Yale: Collected
Documents, 16-17.
47. Ronni Alexander, Pamela Price, and Linda Hoaglund, "Alexander v. Yale,"
Alexander v. Yale: Collected Documents, 4.
48. Alexander v. Yale: Collected Documents, 21-22.
49. Letter from Phyllis L. Crocker for the Grievance Committee of the Yale Undergrad-
uate Women's Caucus, March 1978, Alexander v. Yale: Collected Documents, 18.
51. Franklin v. Gwinnett County Public Schools, 523 U.S. 60 (1992).
52. See, for example, WOASH v. University of California, Berkeley, Office of Civil
Rights Case No. 09-79-2048 (San Francisco Region, Department of Education,
1980); Elizabeth Markson, "Sexual Harassment: Self-Reports by Women Members
of the Eastern Sociological Society," New England Sociologist 1 (Fall 1978): 45-57;
Kenneth S. Pope, Hanna Levenson, and Leslie R. Schover, "Sexual Intimacy in
Psychology Training: Results and Implications of a National Survey," American
Psychologist 34 (August 1979): 682-89; Jo Ann Livingston, "Sexual Harassment
of Working Women," Master's Thesis, University of Vermont, 1979.
53. Senate Report No. 91-II37, 91st Congress, 2 nd Session 15 (1970); Farley, Sexual
Shakedown, 75-76, citing to Susan C. Ross, The Rights of Women, An American
Civil Liberties Handbook (New York: Avon Books, 1973),33-38.
54. Whittier, "Meaning and Structure in Social Movements," 310.
55. Ibid., 303.
Notes to pp. 67-7I 21 5
Chapter 4. Blue-Collar Workers and Hostile Environment Sexual

Harassment
I. Molly Martin, ed., Hard-Hatted Women: Life on the Job (Seattle: Seal Press, 1997),
195·
2. Clara Bingham and Laura Leedy Gansler, Class Action: The Story of Lois Jenson
and the Landmark Case that Changed Sexual Harassment Law (New York: Dou-
bleday, 2002), chapter 3.
3. Martin, Hard-Hatted Women, 33-34, 51, 257; see also Jean Reith Schroedel, Alone
in the Crowd: Women in the Trades Tell Their Studies (Philadelphia, PA: Temple
University Press, 1986); Susan Eisenberg, We'll Call You If We Need You: Experiences
of Women Working Construction (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1999).
4. Construction Contractors, Affirmative Action Requirements, 42 Federal Regis-
ter 41381 (1977) (codified at 41 C.ER. Ch. 60) (proposed on 16 August 1977).
5. This account is based on the following resources: Joan Graff, telephone interview by
author, tape recording, San Francisco, CA, 14 February 2001; Trudy Levy, tele-
phone interview by author, tape recording, Washington, D.C., 14 February 2001;
Katherine Mazzaferri, telephone interview by author, tape recording, Bethesda,
MD, 10 February 2001; Trudy Levy Papers, Falls Church, VA (private collection);
Katherine Mazzaferri Papers, Bethesda, MD (private collection); Georgia Dullea,
"Women Win Fight for More Construction Jobs, Less Harassment," Washington
Post, 23 August 1977, 30.
6. Katherine Mazzaferri, telephone interview by author, tape recording, Bethesda,
MD, 10 February 2001.
7. Advocates for Women et al. v. Usery et at., Civil Action No. 76-0862, U.S. District
Court for the District of Columbia (filed 14 May 1976) (later known as Advocates
for Women v. Marshall).
8. Women Working in Construction etal. v. Usery etal., Civil Action No. 76-527, U.S.
District Court for the District of Columbia (filed 13 April 1976) (later Women
Working in Construction v. Marshall).
9. Plaintiffs' Memorandum of Points and Authorities in Opposition to Defendants'
Motion for Summary Judgment, 25-27, Advocates for Women v. Marshall, (with
attached affidavits).
10. These organizations included Skilled Jobs for Women in Madison, WI, the Tucson
Women's Commission, the Chicana Service Action Center in Los Angeles, Women
in Apprenticeship Program in San Francisco, and the Chicana Rights Project of the
Mexican American Legal Defense and Education Fund in San Antonio, TX.
II. Women in Construction, 43 Federal Register 14891 (1978) (DOL's summary of
comments submitted by women's groups on the proposed guidelines).
12. Women in Construction, 43 Federal Register 14888 (7 April 1978), codified at 41
C.ER. § 60-4 (1978); Equal Opportunity in Apprenticeship, 43 Federal Register
20760 (12 May 1978), codified at 29 C.ER. § 30 (1978).
13. 41 C.ER. § 60-4.3 (7a) (1978) (effective 8 May 1978).
14. Raymond M. Lane, "A Man's World: An Update on Sexual Harassment," Village
Voice, 16-22 December 1981, 22; Order, Advocates for Women v. Marshall, and
Women Working in Construction v. Marshall (5 December 1978).
15. Wider Opportunities for Women, A Territorial Issue: A Study of Women in the
Construction Trades (Washington, D.C.: Wider Opportunities for Women and
the Center for National Policy Review, 1982), 16. The Carter Administration
2.16 Notes to pp. 7I-75
debarred eighteen contractors from future business with the federal government for
noncompliance, while all other administrations had debarred only twelve compa-
nies. Peter Behr and Joanne Omang, "Impact of Regulation Freeze is Unclear;
Targets Not Yet Identified," New York Times, 30 January 1981, § A, 4.
16. WOW, A Territorial Issue, 74.
17. Graff, telephone interview, 14 February 2001.
18. 44 Federal Register 77006 (29 December 1979).
19. Department of Labor, Office of Federal Contract Compliance Programs, Final Rule,
45 Federal Register 862.16 (30 December 1980).
20. Department of Labor, Office of Federal Contract Compliance Programs, Final Rule,
46 Federal Register 42968 (1981); Peter Behr and Joanne Omang, "Impact of
Regulation Freeze is Unclear; Targets Not Yet Identified," New York Times, 30
January 1981, § A, 4.
21. This account is based on documents in the Coal Employment Project Records.
Archives of Appalachia, Sherrod Library, East Tennessee State University, Johnson
City, IN. (hereafter Coal Employment Project Collection).
22. Maggie Prieto, "Women Coal Miners Fight Sexual Harassment," Off Our Backs,
August/September 1983, 2.
23. "Women Coal Miners Fight Sexual Harassment," Off Our Backs, August/Septem-
ber 1983, 3. The conference was in Beckley, WV.
24. Ibid.; Sexual Harassment in the Mines Workshop, Second National Conference of
Women Coal Miners, Beckley, West Virginia, May 1980 (videocassette), Coal Em-
ployment Project Collection (Accession 355, Tape 59).
25. The ten states were Alabama, Illinois, Indiana, Kentucky, Ohio, Pennsylvania,
Tennessee, Virginia, West Virginia, and Wyoming.
26. Connie White, Barbara Angle, and Marat Moore, Sexual Harassment in the CoalIn-
dustry: A Suroey of Women Miners (Oak Ridge, IN: Coal Employment Project, 1981).
27. Marat Moore and Connie White, Sexual Harassment in the Mines-Legal Rights,
Legal Remedies (Oak Ridge, IN: Coal Employment Project, 1981); Coal Employ-
ment Project, Sexual Harassment in the Mines-Bringing the Issue to Light (Oak
Ridge, IN: Coal Employment Project, 1981).
28. "Combat Sexual Harassment on the Job," Aegis, May/June 1979, 24.
29. Marcia L. Greenbaum and Bruce Fraser, "Sexual Harassment in the Workplace,"
Arbitration Journal, 36, no. 4 (December 1981): 30-41.
30. Elaine Weeks, et aI., "The Transformation of Sexual Harassment from a Private
Trouble into a Public Issue," Sociological Inquiry 56 (1986): 437 n.2; American
Federation of State, County and Municipal Employees, On the Job Sexual Harass-
ment: What the Union Can Do (Washington, D.C.: American Federation of State,
County and Municipal Employees, 1981), 25-26; see also In the Matter of: De-
partment of Personnel and Department of Administrative Services, Charging Par-
ties, and American Federation of State, County and Municipal Employees, Council
31, Respondent, Case No. ULP-129-0CB, State of Illinois, Office of Collective
Bargaining, 28 March 1980 (discussing distribution of pamphlet on sexual harass-
ment by AFSCM member).
31. Alliance Against Sexual Coercion, "Organizing Against Sexual Harassment,"
28-29.
32. See, for example, "Combat Sexual Harassment on the Job," Hammer House: Voice
of the International Association of Machinists Rank and File-Local 774.
Notes to pp. 75-80 21 7
NovemberlDecember 1978 (Cessna Aircrah Plant, Wichita, Kansas); Sarah Slaugh-

ter, "Sexual Favors to Foreman: It's Not My Job!" Local 1010 Steelworker, Febru-
ary 1980; Karl Mantyla, "The Hazards of Sexual Harassment," Solidarity, March
1981, 12 (UAW newsletter); Marcia Hams, "Electrical Workers Wildcat Over Sex-
ual Assault on Union Member," Labor Notes, 25 June 1981, 7; Elissa Clarke, et a!.,
Stopping Sexual Harassment: A Handbook (Detroit: Labor and Education Re-
search Project, 1980), 2.6 (discussing using union newspapers to combat sexual
harassment); "Sexual Harassment on the Job: How to Fight Back Within the
Law," Women in the Trades News, Winter 1983,4.
33. Statement of William C. Marshall, Michigan State AFL-CIO, 2.5 April 1979, Coal
Employment Pro;ectColiection (Accession 355, Box 73, Folder 19); Alliance
Against Sexual Coercion, "Organizing Against Sexual Harassment," 28; Clarke,
et aI., Stopping Sexual Harassment, 24-25; UAW-Chrysler, Agreement Between
Chrysler Corporation and the UAW, 1979; Douglas A. Fraser, President, Interna-
tional Union, UAW, "Policy on the Elimination of Sexual Harassment at the Work-
place," UAW Administrative Letter, 15 January 1981, I; Karl Mantyla, "The
Hazards of Sexual Harassment," Solidarity, February 1981, 12; Michele Noah,
"Sexual Harassment on the Job," Sister Courage, May 1978, 9.
34. Clarke, et aI., Stopping Sexual Harassment.
35. Alliance Against Sexual Coercion, "Organizing Against Sexual Harassment," 2.8;
Clarke, et aI., Stopping Sexual Harassment, 2.5.
36. Alliance Against Sexual Coercion, Fighting Sexual Harassment, 80, 84;
Clarke, et aI., Stopping Sexual Harassment, 2.2.-2.4; Peggy Crull, "Sexual Harass-
ment and Women's Health," in Double Exposure: Women's Health Hazards on the
Job and in the Home, ed. Wendy Chavkin (New York: Monthly Review Press,
19 84),114-1 5.
37. EEOC Decision No. 70-401, Case No. YAT9-2.II, 1968-73 CCH EEOC DECI-
SIONS '6100 (1970); EEOC Decision No. 71-2725, 1968-73 CCH EEOC DECI-
SIONS ,6290 (1971); EEOC Decision No. 72.-0679, 4 Fair. Empl. Prac. Cases
(BNA) 441, 442 (1971); EEOC Decision No. 76-72, 1974-83 CCH EEOC DECI-
SIONS ,6652 (1975).
38. Macey v. World Airways, 14 Fair Empl. Prac. Cas. (BNA) 142.6 (N.D. Cal.
1977)·
39. Judith Via deck of Elias, Vladeck, and Lewis in New York City represented the
plaintiff. Kyriazi v. Western Electric Company, 461 F. Supp. 894 (D.N.j. 1978).
Ms. magazine reported on this case. Eric Matusewitch, "Kyriazi v. Western Electric:
Court Fines Five Bosses for Sexual Harassment," Ms., April 1980, 27.
40. Continental Can Company v. Minnesota, 297 N.W.2d 241, 246 (Minn. 1980).
41. Brief of Amici Curiae of the National Organization for Women and Working
Women's Institute at 16 n. 6, Continental Can Co., 297 N.W.2d 241.
42. Pantchenko v. C. B. Dolge Co., 18 Fair Empl. Prac. Cas. 686 (D. Conn. 1977), affd
in relevant part, 594 F.2d 852 (2d Cir. 1978).
43. Smith v. Rust Engineering Co., 20 Fair Empl. Prac. Cas. 1I72 (N.D. Ala. 1978).
44. Marshall, "Closing the Gaps," 781.
45. Bundy v. Jackson, 19 FEP 828 at 12.
46. Ibid.
47. Susan M. Hartmann, The Other Feminists: Activists in the Liberal Establishment
(New Haven: Yale University Press, 2000): 46-52.
Chapter 5. Expansion of the Movement against Sexual Harassment in the Late 1970S
1. The account of Working Women's Institute is based on the following sources:
Working Women's Institute Collection; Karen Sauvigne's Private Papers; Sau-
vigne, telephone interviews, 4, 12 February 2001 and 25, 26 June 2001; Meyer,
telephone interview, 17 February 2001; Crull, telephone interview, 27 February
2001; K. C. Wagner, interview with author, tape recording, New York, NY, 28
February 2000, 25 June 2001; Brownmiller, In Our Time; Working Women's In-
stitute reports and publications most of which are contained in the Barnard col-
lection; and contemporaneous media accounts.
2. Some of the organizations that received training were Jobs for Youth, National
Council of Negro Women, United Tradeswomen, Displaced Homemakers Pro-
gram, the National Congress of Neighborhood Women, Hunter College School
of Social Work, the New York City Commission on Human Rights, and the Long
Island Center for Women's Rights. "Sexual Harassment Lands Companies in
Court," Business Week, 1 October 1979,120; Nancy Josephson, "Sexual Harass-
ment on the Job: Why More and More Women Are Fighting Back," Glamour, May
1980, 288-89, 33 8-4 1.
3. Working Women's Institute staff members conducted educational programs for
Princeton University, New York University, California Polytechnic University, the
American Federation of Government Employees, the Business and Professional
Women's Association, Office Workers of New Haven, Hoffman-LaRouch, Bell Labs,
the Professional Secretaries International Convention, Ramsey County Affirmative
Action Council in St. Paul, MN, Loyola University Law School, Chrysalis, A Center
for Women in Minneapolis, MN, and the National Association of Accountants.
4. Karen Sauvigne spoke on sexual harassment at the Women and Law Conference
almost every year from about 1976 to 1985. At the start and the end of her
presentations, Sauvigne would ask the audience how many had ever experienced
sexual harassment and invariably more people would raise their hands at the end
of her presentation once they had reflected on the range of harassing behavior.
Susan Meyer appeared on the Phil Donahue Show in 1977 and 1979 and on
National Public Radio in 1981. Katherine Davis, Beware of the Boss: Sexual
Harassment on the Job (New York: National Public Radio, 1981), audiocassette.
5. Peggy Crull, "Responses to Fair Employment Practices Agencies to Sexual Harass-
ment Complaints: A Report and Recommendations," Research Series, Report No.
2 (New York: Working Women's Institute, 1978); Crull, The Impact of Sexual
Harassment on the Job; WWI, Sexual Harassment on the Job and in Education: A
Comprehensive Bibliography (New York: Working Women's Institute, Fall 1979);
and the following articles from the Working Women's Institute Collection: "Re-
search Clearinghouse" (New York: Working Women's Institute, 1981); "General
Resource Materials" (New York: Working Women's Institute, 1982); "Sexual Ha-
rassment Resource Materials" (New York: Working Women's Institute, n.d.);
"Sexual Harassment on the Job and in Education: Resource Materials: Adden-
dum" (New York: Working Women's Institute, n.d.). Two of the pamphlets were
produced in Spanish.
6. "Sex Harassment Legal Back-Up Center Opens," Spokeswoman, April 1980, 13.
Vermeulen had graduated from Rutgers Law School in 1975, where she had been
a student of Nadine Taub's. Vermeulen brought in several law students as legal
interns to assist in the legal work of the Institute. After leaving Working Women's
Notes to pp. 84-88 2.11}
Institute, she became the Acting Director of Rutgers Women's Rights Litigation
Clinic in 198 r.
7. Letter from Joan Vermeulen to "Dear Friends," Dated 1 March 1980 (on new
National Sexual Harassment Legal Back-Up Center), NOW Collection, Schle-
singer Library, Radcliffe Institute, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA (hereafter
NOW Collection). The panel members included Mauri Heins (Carmita Wood's
attorney), Jill Laurie Goodman, Jan Leventer (Maxine Munford's attorney), Catharine
MacKinnon, Linda Singer (Paulette Barnes' attorney), Nadine Taub, and Stuart Wein
(Margaret Miller's attorney). Program Opening Celebration for the National Sexual
Harassment Legal Backup Center, 21 February 1980, Karen Sauvigne, Private Papers.
8. Sauvigne, telephone interview, 12 February 200r.
9. This account about the formation of Alliance Against Sexual Coercion is based on
the following sources: Klein, telephone interviews, 26 March 2001, I, 13 April
2001, 25 June 2001; Lynn Rubinett, telephone interview by author, tape record-
ing, 23 June 2001, Austin, TX; AASC Materials at Schlesinger; Constance Back-
house, et al., Fighting Sexual Harassment: An Advocacy Handbook (Cambridge:
Alyson Publications, Inc. and Alliance Against Sexual Coercion, 1981); Alliance
Against Sexual Coercion, Fighting Sexual Harassment: An Advocacy Handbook
(Cambridge: Alliance Against Sexual Coercion, 1979) (this earlier edition was
written and coordinated by Connie Backhouse, Rags Brophy, Alice Friedman, Beth
Johnson, Freada Klein, Margaret Lazarus, Anne Lopes, Martha Hooven, Denise
Wells, and Kate Swann), and contemporaneous media accounts.
10. AASC did not pursue grants because they wanted to shape their programs in-
dependent of control by grantors.
11. In 1979, AASC responded to about ten calls a week, which was double the number
they had received the year before. "Sexual Harassment Lands Companies in
Court," Business Week, I October 1979, 120.
12. "Sexual Harassment Lands Companies in Court," Business Week, I October
1979,120 (appearing in the social issues section); "How to Tame the Office Wolf
- Without Getting Bitten," Business Week, I October 1979, 107-8 (in the per-
sonal business section).
13. AASC also organized a women's picket against sexual harassment at the Actor's
Workshop in Kenmore Square. "Actor's Workshop Accused of Sexual Harass-
ment," Equal Time, 10 June 1979.
14. Statement of Donna Lenhoff, 1979 Hanley Hearings on Sexual Harassment, 3-9;
Hearings on Pressures in Today's Workplace, 152-169; Arkie Byrd and Donna
Lenhoff, Testimony of the Women's Legal Defense Fund Before the D.C. Com-
mission for Women: Public Hearing on Sexual Harassment, Washington, D.C., 3 I
January 1981 (describing the law of sexual harassment); Donna Lenhoff, "Sexual
Harassment: No More Business as Usual," Trial 17 (July 1981): 42; Women's
Legal Defense Fund, Legal Remedies for Sexual Harassment (Washington, D.C.:
Women's Legal Defense Fund, 1983).
15. "Sexual Harassment Project," Equal Rights Advocate (March 1981): 2.
16. Women's groups that provided referrals were 9-to-5 in Boston, Cambridge Wom-
en's Center and Vocations for Social Change in Cambridge, MA, and Cleveland
Women Working. Examples of organizations publishing guides were the Women
in the Work Force Committee of the American Friends Service Committee, the
Federation of Organizations for Professional Women, and the Women's Labor
Project in San Francisco.
17. Sexual Harassment on the Job: A Fact Sheet (Arlington, VA: New Responses, Inc.,
1978); Mary Ann Largen, Report on Sexual Harassment in Federal Employment,
November 1978-July 1979 (Arlington, VA: New Responses, Inc., 1979); 2; Mary
Ann Largen, What to Do If You're Sexually Harassed (Arlington,VA: New
Responses, Inc., 1980); Mary Ann Largen and Alyce McAdam, The Sexually
Harassed Woman: A Counselor's Guide (Arlington, VA: New Responses, Inc.,
1980).
19. Information in this paragraph is based on documents in the NOW Collection.
20. "Sexual Harassment Challenged," Off Our Backs, December 1979, 8.
21. Jerrold K. Footlick, "Legal Battle of the Sexes," Newsweek, 30 April 1979, 75;
Jeannette Orlando, Sexual Harassment in the Workplace: A Practical Guide to
What It Is and What to Do About It (Los Angeles: Women's Legal Clinic, Center
Against Sexual Harassment, 1981 ), 51-52.
22. "Harassment of Women on the Job: Survey," The WREE- View, November-Decem-
ber 1978, 5; "Blue Collar Women: Harassed, Forced Out: WREE Clearing House
to Collect Data and Push for Protection," The WREE- View, September-October
197 8 .
23. Columbus Committee Against Sexual Harassment, Combating Sexual Harass-
ment (Columbus, OH: Committee Against Sexual Harassment, 1981).
24. Janet Harris, "Dealing With Bosses," Family Circle, 24 April 1978, 191.
25. Kimberly K. Greene and Susan B. TamalI, Sexual Harassment of Working Women in
Kentucky: "She Gave at the Office": A Handbook (Louisville: Kentucky Commis-
sion on Women, no date); Kentucky Commission on Human Rights, Sexual Harass-
ment on the Job Is Against the Law (Louisville: Kentucky Commission on Human
Rights, June 1980); Kentucky Commission on Human Rights, Stop Sexual Harass-
ment on the Job (Louisville: Kentucky Commission on Human Rights, no date).
26. Alisa Fuller, "City Is Fighting Sex Harassment," Center City Welcomat, 19 No-
vember 1980, 6; Letter from Robin Robinowitz, Director, WAJE, to Karen Sau-
vigne, Dated 7 April 1981 (with attached draft of a funding proposal), Working
Women's Institute Collection.
27. Everywoman: Sexual Harassment on the Job (Washington, D.C.: WDVM-TV,
1976); "Sexual Harassment on the Job," Phil Donahue Show (Princeton: Films
for the Humanities and Sciences, 1988) (including appearance by Adrienne
Tomkins); Diane K. Shah, "A Steno Who Said 'No!'" Newsweek, 30 April 1979,
72 (Adrienne Tomkins); Katherine Davis, Beware of the Boss: Sexual Harassment
on the Job (Washington, D.C.: National Public Radio, 1981) audiocassette (inter-
viewing Diane Williams and Adrienne Tomkins); 1979 Hanley Hearings on Sexual
Harassment, 87-88; Hare! and Cottledge, "Combatting Sexual Harassment," 2;
1981 Hatch Hearings on Sex Discrimination, 59<r95, 682-84; Laura A. Kiernan,
"Barry Says District Will Not Tolerate Sex Harassment, Abuse of Employees,"
Washington Post, 27 April 1979, §B, 1.
28. See Dziech and Weiner, The Lecherous Professor, 27-28; Donna J. Benson and
Gregg E. Thomson, "Sexual Harassment on a University Campus: The Confluence
of Authority Relations, Sexual Interest, and Gender Stratification," Social
Problems 29 (February 1982): 236-5 I; Working Women's Institute Survey of
Women Organized Against Sexual Harassment, May 1979, Working Women's
Institute Collection; "Women Devise Ways to Combat Sexual Harassment," On
Campus With Women (SummerlFaIl 1979): 12; Women Organized Against Sexual
Notes to pp. 92-94 221
Harassment, Sexual Harassment: What Is It, What To Do About It (Berkeley, CA:

Women Organized Against Sexual Harassment, 1979); Women Organized
Against Sexual Harassment, Conditions for a Title IX Grievance Procedure
(Berkeley, CA: Women Organized Against Sexual Harassment, 1980).
29. Coalition Against Sexual Harassment, Checklist and Position Paper (Minneapo-
lis: Coalition Against Sexual Harassment, 1981). Professionals from social service
agencies throughout the Minneapolis/St. Paul area came together in December
1978 to form CASH, which served not only students but also women in the
community experiencing sexual harassment in employment and other contexts.
CASH engaged in public education, consultation about grievance procedures,
advocacy for adult victims of harassment, gathering data, and sharing informa-
tion. "Women Devise Ways to Combat Sexual Harassment," On Campus With
Women (SummerlFall 1979): 12; James C. Renick, "Sexual Harassment at Work:
Why It Happens, What to Do About It," Personnel Journal, August 1980, 662.
30. Joint Committee to Study Sexual Harassment, Final Report (Tempe: Arizona State
University, 1980); WASH moved off campus after several male professors objected
to the organization's practice of maintaining confidential files describing harass-
ment incidents, which the professors called, "another form of McCarthyism."
"Students Organize to Batrle Sexual Harassment," On Campus With Women
(Spring 1980): 12.
3 I. "Equity Forum on Teacher/Student Violence and Sexual Harassment," Artists for
Responsible Theater, 23 June 1980, Working Women's Institute Collection;
"Committee Re: Women Holds Forum on Sexual Harassment and Violence,"
Equity News, August 1:980, 9.
32. See, for example, Donna Benson, "The Sexualization of Student-Teacher Relation-
ships," unpublished paper, University of California, Berkeley, 1977 (reporting on
a survey of students at the University of California at Berkeley); Markson, "Sexual
Harassment," 45-57; Pope, Levenson, and Schover, "Sexual Intimacy in Psychol-
ogy Training," 682-89; Livingston, "Sexual Harassment of Working Women"
(surveying women employed in a New England university); Judy Charla Oshinsky,
"Sexual Ha:rassment of Women Students in Higher Education" (Ph.D. diss., Uni-
versity of Florida, 1980) (surveying 1,1 I I women students at the three largest
state universities in Florida).
33. Jodi L. Short, "Creating Peer Sexual Harassment: Mobilizing Schools to Throw
the Book at Themselves," Law and Policy 28 (January 2006): 31-59; Project on
the Status and Education of Women, Sexual Harassment: A Hidden Issue (Wash-
ington, D.C.: Project on the Status and Education of Women, 1978), 6; Freada
Klein and Nancy Wilber, Who's Hurt and Who's Liable: Sexual Harassment in
Massachusetts Schools. A Curriculum and Guide for School Personnel (Boston:
Massachusetts State Dept. of Education, 1981).
34. Alexandra Buek, Sexual Harassment: A Fact of Life or Violation of Law? Uni-
versity Liability Under Title IX (Washington, D.C.: National Advisory Council on
Women's Educational Programs, I JulYI978); "Extension of Call for Information
on Sexual Harassment of Students," National NOW Times, May 1980, 13; Frank
Till, Sexual Harassment: A Report on Sexual Harassment of Students (Washing-
ton, D.C.: National Advisory Council on Women's Educational Programs, August
1980); Dziech and Weiner, The Lecherous Professor, 19-20.
35. Project on the Status and Education of Women, Sexual Harassment: A Hidden
Issue; Susan Howard, Title VII Sexual Harassment Guidelines and Educational
Employment (Washington, D.C.: Association of American Colleges Project on

Status and Education of Women, August 1980).
36. Dziech and Weiner, The Lecherous Professor, 163, 173, 198-99; Phyllis Franklin,
Helene Moglen, Phyllis Zatlin-Boring, and Ruth Angress, Sexual and Gender
Harassment in the Academy: A Guide for Faculty, Students, and Administrators
(New York: Modem Language Association of America, 1981); "Women Devise
Ways to Combat Sexual Harassment," On Campus With Women (SummerlFall
1979): 12.
37. Sara Terry, "U.S. Colleges Respond to Sexual Harassment Problem," Christian
Scientist Monitor, 24 March 1980, 10 (reporting on how MIT, University of
Washington, and other universities were dealing with sexual harassment); Dziech
and Weiner, The Lecherous Professor, 13-14, 163-64; Bloustein, Edward J.,
President, Rutgers University, "Memo Regarding Issue of Sexual Harassment,"
Dated 5 February 1979; John R. Martin, Vice President for University Personnel,
Rutgers University, "Memo Regarding Sexual Harassment: Procedures for the
Handling of Complaints," Dated 28 June 1980 (Rutgers University, Newark,
NJ); "Women Devise Ways to Combat Sexual Harassment," On Campus With
Women (SummerlFall 1979): 12 (discussing procedure at Brown University);
Kenneth S. Pope, Hanna Levenson and Leslie R. Schover, "Sexual Behavior
Between Clinical Supervisors and Trainees: Implications for Professional Stand-
ards," Professional Psychological II (February 1980): 157-62 (discussing how in
1979, Stanford University formed a committee to handle sexual harassment
complaints).
38. Bularzik, "Sexual Harassment at the Workplace," 26.
39. AASC, Sexual Harassment at the Workplace, 4-5; see also AASC, "Sexual Ha-
rassment: A Form of Violence Against Women," FAAR and NCN Newsletter, July/
August 1978, 28-29 (precursor to Aegis).
40. AASC, "Three Male Views on Harassment," Aegis, Winter/Spring 1980, 52;
AASC, "Sexual Harassment and Coercion: Violence Against Women," Aegis,
Winter/Spring 1981, 18; AASC, "Organizing Against Sexual Harassment," 18.
41. Rochelle Lefkowitz, "Sexual Harassment at Work," Sister Courage, October
1975,9·
42. "Referrals Wanted," FAAR News, November/December 1977, 7.
43. Statement of Mary Largen, 1979 Hanley Hearings on Sexual Harassment, 47,51.
Largen had previously worked on the Prince Georges County rape task force. Ibid.
44. MacKinnon, Sexual Harassment of Working Women, 217-18.
45. Ibid., 26r.
46. Crull, "Sexual Harassment and Women's Health," II6.
47. Peggy Crull, "Sexual Harassment and Male Control of Women's Work," Research
Series, Repon NO.5, Fall 1982 (New York: Working Women's Instirute, 1981),
Working Women's Institute Collection, published in Women: A Journal of Liber-
ation 8 (1982): 4-5 (quoting 1981 publication); Suzanne C. Carothers and Peggy
Crull, "Understanding Sexual Harassment: A Way For Women to Gain Control of
the Conditions of Their Work," (New York: Working Women's Institute, 1982):
5-7, Working Women's Institute Collection; Peggy Crull, Karen Sauvigne, and
Marilyn Cohen, "Combatting Sexual Harassment on the Job: The Social and Legal
Basis for the U.S. Movement," 27 (unpublished paper), Working Women's Insti-
tute Collection.
48. Crull, "Sexual Harassment and Male Control of Women's Work," 6.
Notes to pp. 96-IOO :z.:z·.l
49. See, for example, AASC, "Sexual Harassment and Coercion: Violence Against
Women," Aegis, Winter/Spring 1981; AASC, "Organizing Against Sexual Harass-
ment," 24; AASC, University Grievance Procedures, 28.
50. Martha Hooven and Nancy McDonald, "The Role of Capitalism: Understanding
Sexual Harassment," Aegis, November/December 1978, 31-33; Hammer House,
"Combat Sexual Harassment on the job," Aegis, May/June 1979,24-28; AASC,
Fighting Sexual Harassment, 1981 ed., 90.
5I. Backhouse and Cohen, The Secret Oppression.
52. Freada Klein, "Book Review of Sexual Shakedown: The Sexual Harassment of
Women on the Job by Lin Farley," Aegis, NovemberlDecember 197 8, 34.
53. Lin Farley, "Response to Sexual Shakedown Review," Aegis, january/February
1979,25·
54. AASC, Fighting Sexual Harassment, 85-87; Dubrow, Sexual Harassment and the
Law, 25 (arguing that employer anti-sexual harassment policies are "primarily to
protect the companies from liability, rather than out of genuine concern about
women"); AASC, University Grievance Procedures, 8 (arguing that educational insti-
tutions adopted grievance procedures primarily to protect themselves from liability).
55. AASC, Fighting Sexual Harassment, 91.
56. Ibid. However, AASC also acknowledged that a "strategy that most expediently
stops the harassment of an individual woman is not necessarily the same tactic that
challenges the power structures and ideologies that allow and create harassment."
Nevertheless, AASC remained "committed to a woman's right to decide what
action to take in a given situation." Ibid., 26.
57. Dubrow, Sexual Harassment and the Law, 25; AASC, "Organizing Against Sexual
Harassment," 3 3 .
58. AASC, "Organizing Against Sexual Harassment," 31,32.
59. Ibid., 28, 33 (arguing that employers had used sexual harassment as a "union-
busting technique").
60. Ibid. AASC's handbook on the law of sexual harassment also emphasized that
feminists should not rely on the law or employers and that they should not aban-
don direct action. The handbook provided a section on extra-legal tactics for relief
from sexual harassment. Dubrow, Sexual Harassment and the Law, 2, 25,47-49.
61. Thomas Watkins, "Briefs From the Publisher's Desk: About Black Women ... "
N. Y. Recorder, 8 May 1976.
62. Statement Issued by Pamela Price, 21 December 1977, Alexander v. Yale: Col-
lected Documents, 16.
63. Ibid., 17.
64. july 1978 Statement, Alexander v. Yale: Collected Documents, 2-3.
65. judy Trent Ellis, "Sexual Harassment and Race: A Legal Analysis of Discrimina-
tion," Journal of Legislation 8 (1981): 32.
66. Ibid., 35.
67. Ibid., 42.
68. MacKinnon, Sexual Harassment of Working Women, 32, 40.
69. This latter argument was very similar to the dominance theory of sexual harass-
ment developed by Lynn Wehrli in her 1976 Master's Thesis at MIT. Wehrli
Master's Thesis. This argument was later developed more fully by MacKinnon
in Feminism Unmodified: Discourses on Life and Law (Cambridge: Harvard Uni-
versity Press, 1987) and Toward a Feminist Theory of the State (Cambridge:
Harvard University Press, 1989).
22.4 Notes to pp. IOO-IOI
70. MacKinnon, Sexual Harassment of Working Women, 156-58, 174-92. MacKinnon's

later works explored the role of capitalism in the subjugation of women. See
MacKinnon, Toward a Feminist Theory of the State.
71. Farley, Sexual Shakedown, 60-63 (white women), 63-68 (African-American
women); MacKinnon, Sexual Harassment of Working Women, 30-3 I, 53-54,
176-77 (race), 29, 175 (class); Backhouse and Cohen, The Secret Oppression,
13-17,48, 61, 63-68; Dierdre Silverman, "Sexual Harassment: Working Wom-
en's Dilemma," Quest: A Feminist Quarterly 3, no. 3 (1976-77): 15-24;
Goodman, "Sexual Demands on the Job," 56 (describing experiences of women
at a shipyard); Michele Noah, "Sexual Harassment on the Job," Sister Courage,
May I978, 9 (auto plan workers); "Sexual Harassment Challenged," Off Our
Backs, December 1979, 9 (discussing harassment of women coal miners and
workers at a plywood plant).
72. Weeks, et al., "The Transformation of Sexual Harassment," 440. This paper pro-
vides a graph of the number of articles on sexual harassment in selected news-
papers, magazines, and journals from 1970 to I982. Articles began appearing in
the mid-1970S, increased dramatically in 1980 when the EEOC issued guidelines
on sexual harassment, peaked in 1981, and dropped off in 1982. A Lexis-Nexis
search of New York Times articles mentioning sexual harassment revealed a sim-
ilar pattern: I975-2; 1976-1; 1977-8, 1978-2, 1979-7; 1980-34; 1981-50;
1982-27. Lexis-Nexis search of the New York Times by the author, 27 December
2006.
73. As early as 1971, the New York Times had an article about street harassment of
female New York City government workers. "Women Are Tired of Being Har-
assed," New York Times, 7 September 1971,44.
74. Weeks, et al., "The Transformation of Sexual Harassment," 444.
75. "Executive Sweet: Many Office Romeos Are Really Juliets," Time, 8 October
1979,7 6 .
76. William Raspberry, "Just What Is Sexual Harassment?" Washington Post, 22
September 1980, § A, 15.
77. Madeline Rogers, "Is The Office Affair Worth It?" MBA, February 1978, 65;
Marylin Bender, "Changing Rules of Office Romances," Esquire, 24 April 1979,
46; Robert E. Quinn and Noreen A. Judge, "Office Romance: No Bliss for the
Boss," Management Review, July 1978, 43-49; Beatryce Nivens, "The Office
Romance: Should You or Shouldn't You?" Essence, February 1978, 16; Robert
Quinn, "Coping with Cupid: The Formation, Impact, and Management of Ro-
mantic Relationships in Organizations," Administrative Scientific Quarterly
(March 1977): 40-45·
78. See, for example, Enid Nemy, "Women Begin to Speak-out Against Sexual Ha-
rassment," New York Times, 19 August 1975, 38 (family/style section); Carol
Krucoff, "Careers: Sexual Harassment on the Job," Washington Post, 25 July
1979, § B, 5 (style section); "Sexual Harassment Lands Companies in Court,"
Business Week, 1 October 1979, 120 (social issues section); Jill Bettner, "How to
Tame the Office Wolf-Without Getting Bitten," Business Week, I October 1979,
107.
79. Paula Bernstein, "Sexual Harassment on the Job," Harper's Bazaar, August 1976,
12; see also Shirley J. Longshore, "Job Frustrations: How To Solve Them Quickly,
Diplomatically, Out of Court," Glamour, October 1977, 218 (also focusing on
women's behavior).
Notes to pp. ror-roJ
80. Joyce Dudley Fleming, "Shop Talk About Sex," Working Woman, July 1979, 31-
34; see also Margaret Hennig and Anne Jardim, "Survival Strategy in the Mostly
Male Office," Working Woman, March 1977, 40-41 (focusing on individual
solutions to sexual advances in the workplace, ignoring male/female, boss/sub-
ordinate power relations) but see Susan Jacoby, "The Awful Truth About Office
Affairs," Working Woman, May 1977, 28-31 (arguing that office affairs tend to
backfire on women because women are economically vulnerable if affairs do not
work out).
8!. Rosemary Kent, "Should You Sleep With Your Boss?" Harper's Bazaar, November
1975, 147 (one of the first magazine articles on sexual harassment); Sally Platkin
Koslow, "Are You Crazy-in-Love or Simply Crazy To Be Involved in an Office
Romance," Glamour, September 1979, 250; Jane Adams, "The Sexual Triangle:
Women, Success, and Men," Glamour, October 1979, 60.
82. Letty Cottin Pogrebin, "Love on the Job," Ladies Home Journal, March 1980, 10,
14; Letty Cottin Pogrebin, "The Working Woman: Sex Harassment," Ladies
Home Journal 94, June 1977, 24; see also Letty Cottin Pogrebin, "8 Hours
a Day, 5 Days a Week, 50 Weeks a Year: The Intimate Politics of Working with
Men," Ms., October 1975,48 (quoting women from a variety of professions about
working with men).
83. Cheryl Bentsen, "Women Men Coach Women-Do They Have To Score?" Ms.,
August 1976, 24-3 I; see also Peggy Magner Holter, "The College Couch," Play-
girl, October 1977, 35-37 (instructing readers how to seduce their college pro-
fessors); Adrienne Munich, "Seduction in Academe," Psychology Today, February
1978,82.
84. Claire Safran, "What Men Do To Women on the Job: A Shocking Look at Sexual
Harassment," Redbook, November 1976, 220.
85. "Sex on the Job: Where We Are Now," Redbook, April 1978, 38.
86. Margaret Mead, "A Proposal: We Need Taboos on Sex at Work," Redbook, April
197 8 , 31, 33, 3 8 .
87. Letty Cottin Pogrebin, "The Working Woman: Sex Harassment," Ladies Home
Journal 94, June 1977,24.
88. Karen Lindsey, "Sexual Harassment on the Job and How to Stop It," Ms., No-
vember 1977, 47; Karen Lindsey, "A National Resource," Ms., November 1977,
49; Rochelle Lefkowitz, "Help for the Sexually Harassed: A Grass-Roots Model,"
Ms., November 1977, 49; Mimi Kelber, "Sexual Harassment ... The UN's Dirty
Little Secret," Ms., November 1977, 51; "Update: Sexual Harassment on the Job,"
Ms., July 1978, 85-88; Marcia Greenwood, "The Yale Suit: On to Round Two,"
Ms., July 1978, 85; Jacqueline Bernard, "A Meeting of the [Women) Miners,"
Ms., November 1979, 33; Eric Matusewitch, "Kyriazi v. Western Electric: Court
Fines Five Bosses for Sexual Harassment," Ms., April 1980, 27.
89. Merrill Rogers Skrocki, "Sexual Pressure on the Job," McCalfs, March 1978,43;
"My Problem and How I Solved It: My Boss Wanted More Than a Secretary,"
Good Housekeeping, April 1978, 28; Janet Harris, "Dealing With Bosses," Family
Circle, 24 April 1978, 191; Marilyn Achiron, "Solving Your Problem: Sexual
Harassment on the Job," Mademoiselle, October 1979, II6; Jane Williamson,
"I'm Being Sexually Harassed. What Can I Do?" Working Woman, November
1979, 30; Joan Faier, "The Working Woman's 7 Biggest Problems and How to
Solve Them," Harper's Bazaar, August 1979, 90; see also Karen Levett Andes,
NOn CampuI: Sexual Harassment," Mademoiselle, February 1979, 174
226 Notes to pp. 103-104
(discussing sexual harassment in educational institutions); "Sexual Discrimination

and Harassment," Today's Secretary, February 1979, 9-10 (quoting Karen
Sauvigne).
90. Ann Crittenden, "Women Tell of Sexual Harassment at Work," New York Times,
25 October 1977, 35; Lawrence Stessin, "Two Against Harassment," New York
Times, 23 December 1979, § 3, 7; Enid Nemy, "Center Helps Fight Sexual Ha-
rassment," New York Times, 2 March 1980, § D, 7; see also "Most Women in
Survey in Illinois Report Sex Harassment at Work," New York Times, 9 March
1980, 42, (discussing survey and proposed legislation to combat sexual harass-
ment); Susan Hobart, "Awareness Helps Women Overcome Sexual Indignities,"
The Oregonian, 23 January 1978, § B, I; Dorothy Austin, "Institute Fights Sex
Harassment," Milwaukee Sentinel, 2 June 1978, 10; Patsy Miller, "Fighting Ha-
rassment a Job," Fort Worth Star-Telegram, 7 June 1978; Jane See White, "Sexual
Harassment: New Groups Fighting Problem," Pueblo (Colo.) Star-Journal and
Sunday Chieftain, 20 August 1978; Mike Winerip, "C'mon Guys, Cut Out the
Sexist Jibes," Miami Herald, 22 October 1978, 6G; Charles E. Marske, et aI.,
"Combatting Sexual Harassment: A New Awareness," USA Today, March 1980,
45-48 (quoting Lin Farley and Karen DeCrow) (despite the sympathetic text, the
illustration was not sympathetic); Aric Press, "Abusing Sex at the Office," News-
week, 10 March 1980, 81-82 (quoting San Francisco lawyer Judith Kurtz, Eleanor
Holmes Norton, Karen Sauvigne, Susan Blumenthal of NOWLDEF, Nadine Taub
of Rutgers School of Law, Erin Sneed of Women for Change, Inc. of Dallas, and
Catharine MacKinnon); "Sexual Harassment: No Longer a Hidden Issue," Rich-
mond Times-Dispatch, 1-4 June 1980; Eileen Colianni, "Sex at Work," Pitts-
burgh, May 1978,43.
91. See, for example, Thomas Watkins, "Briefs from the Publisher's Desk: About
Black Women" N. Y. Recorder, 8 May 1976; Wista Johnson, "On the Job: Women
Seek Advances in Work, Not Sex," New York Amsterdam News, 9 June 1979;
"Sexual Harassment on Job Now Illegal: EEOC's Norton," Jet, I May 19 80, 55;
"Sex Harassment Ruled in Firing of D.C. Woman," Jet, 29 May 19 80, 49;
"Woman Wins $I 5G on Sexual Advances," New York Amsterdam News, 15
January 1983, I.
92. Yla Eason, "When Your Boss Wants Sex," Essence, March 1981, 82.
93. Caryl Rivers, "Sexual Harassment: The Executive's Alternative to Rape," Mother
Jones, June 1978, 21-25.
94. Diane K. Shah, "A Steno Who Said 'No!'" Newsweek, 30 April 1979, 72; see also
Jerrold Footlick, "Legal Battle of the Sexes," Newsweek, 30 April 1979,68-75.
95. See, for example, "Professor Says Sex Charges Forced Him to Resign," Chronicle
of Higher Education, 23 January 1978, 2 (reporting that former professor was
suing New York Law School for forcing him to resign because of rumors he made
sexual advances toward students); Erika Munk, "A Case of Sexual Abuse," Village
Voice, 22 October 1979, I; "Fighting Lechery on Campus," Time, 4 February
1980, 84j Sara Terry, "U.S. Colleges Respond to Sexual Harassment Problem,"
Christian Science Monitor, 24 March 1980, 10j Maria Riccardo, "Harassment on
Campus," Boston Globe, 21 December 1980, §D, I; Noel Epstein, "When Pro-
fessors Swap Good Grades for Sex," Washington Post, 6 September 1981, §C, 1.
96. Diane Henry, "Yale Faculty Members Charged With Sexual Harassment," New
York Times, 22 August 1977, 30; Diane Henry, "Yale Student Withdraws from
Lawsuit," New York Times, 10 September 1977. 5:z.; "Yale and Woman Senior
Notes to pp. I04-I05
Reach an Accord on Suit," New York Times, 15 January 1978,40; "Ex-Student

Wins Right to Sue Yale on Sex Charge," New York Times, I December 1978, § C,
26; "A College Woman Loses Test on Sexual Harassment," New York Times, 11.
July 1979, § B, 6; see also, Deborah Markow, "Obnoxious Professors" (Letter to
the Editor), New York Times, 27 August 1977, 20; "Bod and Man at Yale," Time,
8 August 1977, 52; Anne Nelson, "Sexual Harassment at Yale," Nation, 14 Jan-
uary 1978, 7-10.
97. Mary D. Faucher and Kenneth J. McCulloch, "Sexual Harassment in the Work-
place: What Should the Employer Do?" EEO Today (Spring 1978): 38-44; "Is
Sexual Harassment Sex Discrimination?" EEO Review, September 1978, 6-8;
Patricia A. Somers and Judith Clementson-Mohr, "Sexual Extortion in the Work-
place," Personnel Administrator, April 1979, 23-28 (providing contact informa-
tion for WWI, AASC, Cleveland Working Women, 9-to- 5 in Boston, and
Vocations for Social Change in Cambridge); "Sexual Harassment on the Job,"
Personnel Management - Policies and Practices Report Bulletin, 10 July 1979,
437-38 (quoting Karen Sa uvigne); James C. Renick, "Sexual Harassment at Work:
Why It Happens, What to Do About It," Personnel Journal, August 1980, 660;
Shelby White, "The Office Pass," Across the Board, April 1977,17; see also Shelby
White, "The Office Pass (Continued)," Across the Board, March 1978, 48-51
(reporting on Barnes v. Costle); Jill Bettner, "How to Tame the Office Wolf-
Without Getting Bitten," Business Week, I October 1979, 107; "Sexual Harass-
ment Lands Companies in Court," Business Week, I October 1979, 120-2I.
98. Georgia Dullea, "Women Win Fight for More Construction Jobs, Less Harass-
ment," Washington Post, 23 August 1977, 30; William J. Easton, "Hard Hat
Women Make a Dent in Jobs," Los Angeles Times, 20 May 1978, I; Allanna M.
Sullivan, "Women Say No to Sexual Harassment," Coal Age, August 1979, 74-78;
Ben Franklin, "Women Work in Mines Assail Harassment and Unsafe Conditions,"
New York Times, I I November 1979; "Women Miners Reassured," Washington
Post, 13 November 1979, § A, 4; "Women Fight Sex Bias, Superstition in Mines,"
Baltimore Sun, 17 July 1980, § K, 12; Jerry W. Williamson, "A Deep Vein of
Hostility," In These Times, 27 August to 2 September 1980, 24; Bob Dvorchak,
"Women Miners: It's a Long Haul," Pittsburgh Press, 8 August 1982, § C, 2; Kipp
Dawson, "Women Miners Meet," Bentworth Times, 3 August 1982, I; Raymond
M. Lane, "A Man's World: An Update on Sexual Harassment," Village Voice, 16-
22 December 1981, I; Estelle Jackson, "Mother Had Same Problem," Richmond
Times, 3 June 1980, I; "Jeers, Threats and Assaults Reported to Occur Regularly,"
Baltimore Sun, 16 December 1979, I; "Army Recruits Most Open to Abuse,"
Baltimore Sun, 17 December 1979, I; "Harassment at Fort Meade Makes Base
'Hell' for Women Soldiers and Civilians," Baltimore Sun, 17 December 1979, Ij
"First Lesson in the Army: Don't Report Harassment," Baltimore Sun, 17 Decem-
ber 1979, I; "Women Soldiers Angry Over Sex Discrimination and Sexual Harass-
ment," Enlisted Times, April 1979, 5; "Army Survey Finds Sexual Harassment of
Military Women Overseas," Baltimore Sun, 26 March 1980,7; "Woman Soldier is
Jailed: Convicted of Sexual Harassment," Washington Post, 23 April 1980, § A, 5.
99. Everywoman: Sexual Harassment on the Job, prod. Shirley Robson, Washington,
D.C.: WDVM-TV, 1976, videocassette (focusing on case of Williams v. Saxbe);
Sexual Harassment on the Job, prod. Phil Donahue (Princeton: Films for the
Humanities and Sciences, 1988), videocassette (aired in 1977 including appear-
ance by Adrienne Tomkins); Sexual Harassment: No Place in the Workplace,
228 Notes to pp. I05-II4
Michigan Media, 1979, videocassette; The Workplace Hustle: A Film About Sex-
ual Harassment of Working Women (San Francisco: Clark Communications, Inc.,
1980); Katherine Davis, Beware of the Boss: Sexual Harassment on the Job (Wash-
ington, D.C.: National Public Radio, 1981), audiocassette.
100. Internet Movie Database Ltd., The Top Grossing Movies of All Time at the USA
Box Office, as of March 13, 2001, available from httip:llus.imdb.comlboxofficel
alltimegross, accessed 20 July 2005.
101. Women in the Mines (New York: CBS-TV, 1982), videocassette.
Chapter 6. Government Policy Develops

I. "Sexual Harassment Lands Companies in Court," Business Week, I October
1979, 120-2.1.
2.. Laura A. Kiernan, "Barry Says District Will Not Tolerate Sex Harassment, Abuse
of Employees," Washington Post, 2.7 April 1979, § B, I; D.C. Commission for
Women, "Commission for Women Tests Survey Questionnaire on Sexual Harass-
ment," Press Release, 4 June 1979, Working Women's Institute Collection; Orga-
nization of Black Activist Women, "Sexual Harassment in Employment," Flyer,
June 6, 1979, Working Women's Institute Collection.
3. Laura A. Kiernan, "Barry Says District Will Not Tolerate Sex Harassment, Abuse
of Employees," Washington Post, 2.7 April 1979, §B, I; Helen Lewis, "Initial
Survey Results Point to Evidence of Sexual Harassment," City Hall New Times,
2.5 June 1979, I; Milton Coleman, "Barry Acts to Bar Sex Harassment in District
Jobs," Washington Post, 25 May 1979, § B, I. The task force members included
Judith Rogers, Acting Corporation Counsel; Anita Shelton, Acting Director of the
Office of Human Rights; Burrell Jefferson, Chief of Police; Jose Gutierrez, Acting
Director of Personnel; and E. Veronica Pace, Chairperson of the Women's Co-
ordinator Program. 1979 Hanley Hearings on Sexual Harassment,s 5-64 (con-
taining the final report from the Mayor's Task Force on Sexual Harassment, Dated
18 May 1979, and Mayor Barry's Executive Order 79-89, Dated 24 May 1979).
4. Mike Causey, "Sex and the GS-3: Favors, Favoritism," Washington Post, 3I July
1979, § C, 2.; see also Nancy Josephson, "Sexual Harassment on the Job: Why More
and More Women are Fighting Back," Glamour, May 1980, 341; Al Louis Ripskis,
"Sexual Harassment at HUD," Impact 7 (May/June 1979): I; AI Louis Ripskis,
"Sexual Harassment Rampant at HUD," Impact Journal 7 (July/August 1979): I.
5. Sexual Harassment in the Federal Government (Part 11), A Hearing before the
Subcommittee on Investigations of the Committee on Post Office and Civil Ser-
vice, U.S. House of Representatives, 96th Congress, Second Session, September
25,1980,39 (statement of Representative James Hanley) (hereafter Hanley Hear-
ings on Sexual Harassment [Part 1If).
6. James M. Hanley, Chairman, Subcommittee on Investigations of the Committee
on Post Office and Civil Service, U.S. House of Representatives, Letter to Alan K.
Campbell, Director, U.S. Office of Personnel Management, October 9, 1979, I; State-
ment of Representative Hanley, 1979 Hanley Hearings on Sexual Harassment
(explaining how Ripskis' survey led to hearings); Mike Causey, "Hill Panel Probes
Sexual Harassment," Washington Post, 8 August 1979, at § B, 2..
7. 1979 Hanley Hearings on Sexual Harassment, 1-3.
8. Ibid., 4I.
9. Ibid., 130-3 8.
Notes to pp. II5-II9 11<)
10. Ibid., 138-53.

II. Ibid., 91, 93.
12. Sexual Harassment in the Federal Government, A Report from the Subcommittee
on Investigations of the Committee on Post Office and Civil Service, U.S. House of
Representatives, 96th Congress, Second Session, 30 April 1980 (hereafter Sexual
Harassment Report).
13. Letter from Gene Taylor to James Hanley, Dated 18 April 1980, ibid., P-32
(published at the end of the subcommittee's report).
14. At the time the EEOC adopted the guidelines, the commission members were
Chair Eleanor Holmes Norton, Vice Chair Daniel E. Leach, Ethel Bent Walsh,
Armando M. Rodriguez, and J. Clay Smith.
15. James C Miller, III, Introduction to A Conversation with Commissioner Eleanor
Holmes Norton (Washington, D.C: American Enterprise Institute, 1979), I.
16. "The Mess at EEOC," Washington Post, 18 April 1987, § A, 12.
17. 45 Federal Register 25024-25025 (II April 1980).
18. The EEOC received 168 letters commenting on the guidelines, plus commentary
from other federal agencies. J. Clay Smith, Jr., "Prologue to the EEOC Guidelines
on Sexual Harassment," Capital University Law Review 10 (1981): 472. Joan Ver-
muelen of Working Women's Institute (WWI) submitted comments on behalf of
Working Women, National Association of Office Workers, the National Employ-
ment Law Project, the Women's Justice Center, the Women's Litigation Clinic of
Rutgers School of Law, and the National Emergency Civil Liberties Committee.
Susan Blumenthal of NOW Legal Defense and Education Fund (NOWLDEF) and
Donna Lenhoff of Women's Legal Defense Fund (WLDF) submitted comments on
behalf of those organizations and the National Organization for Women, the
National Women's Political Caucus, the New York City Commission on the Status
of Women, the Center for National Policy Review, the Women Employed Institute,
and the Women's Equity Action League Educational and Legal Defense Fund.
Comments were also submitted by Alliance Against Sexual Coercion, Equal
Rights Advocates, Inc., Brooklyn Chapter of the National Organization for
Women, National Council of Jewish Women, National Advisory Council on
Women's Educational Programs, Rhode Island Rape Crisis Center, and Women
in the Trades in New York City.
19. Joan Vermuelen, Working Women's Institute, "Comments on the Equal Employ-
ment Opportunity Commission's Proposed Amendment Adding Section 1604.11,
Sexual Harassment, to Its Guidelines on Sexual Discrimination," Women's Rights
Law Reporter 6 (Summer 1980): 286 (hereafter WWI Comments).
20. NOW Legal Defense and Education Fund, Women's Legal Defense Fund, et aI.,
Comments on the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission's Interim Guide-
lines on Sexual Harassment, 10 June 1980, 6, Working Women's Institute Collec-
tion (hereafter NOW/WLDF Comments).
21. 45 Federal Register 74676 (10 November 1980); 104 Labor Relations Reporter
(BNA) 148, 23 June 1980.
22. 45 Federal Register 74676 (10 November 1980), codified in 29 CER. §1604.1I.
23. Smith, "Prologue to the EEOC Guidelines on Sexual Harassment," 473, 477; 1981
Hatch Hearings on Sex Discrimination, 338; Jan C Leventer, "Sexual Harassment
and Title VII: EEOC Guidelines, Conditions Litigation, and the United States
Supreme Court," Capital University Law Review 10 (1981): 484-85.
14. 45 Federal RIB/It., 74677 (10 November 1981).
Notes to pp. II9-121
25. Joann Lublin, "Guidelines-Happy at the EEOC?" Wall Street Journal, 28 August
1980,18.
26. Ruth Marcus, "EEOC Gets Slapped on Sex Harassment Regs," National Law
Journal, 7 July 1980, 4.
27. Bruce Jacobs, "Fixing the Blame for Sexual Harassment," Industry Week, 27
October 1980, 29.
28. David Seligman, "Sex in the Office," Fortune, 7 April 1980, 42.
29. Ronald Groeber, "A Survey of Sexual Harassment: A Wrong Redressable Under
Title VII Only When Discrimination is Shown," Northern Kentucky Law Review
8 (1981): 409.
30. See, for example, Nancy Fisher Chudacoff, "New EEOC Guidelines on Discrim-
ination Because of Sex: Employer Liability for Sexual Harassment Under Title
VII," Boston University Law Review 61 (1981): 535; Leventer, "Sexual Harass-
ment and Title VII," 481-97; Robert Martin, "EEOC's New Sexual Harassment
Guidelines: Civility in the Workplace," Nova Law Journal 5 (Spring 1981): 405-
19; Marta-Ann Schnabel, "Sexual Harassment in the Workplace: New Guidelines
from the EEOC," Loyola Law Review 27 (1981): 512-31; Lynne Stanley-Elliott,
"Sexual Harassment in the Workplace: Title VII's Imperfect Relief," Journal of
Corporation Law 6 (Spring 1981): 625-56.
31. 22 Fair Empl. Prac. Cas. (BNA) 1627 (W.D. Okla. 1980).
32. Bundy, 641 F.2d 9304.
33. Bundy, 641 F.2d at 944, citing EEOC v. Rogers, 454 F.2d 2304, 238, cert. denied,
406 U.S. 957 (1972).
H. See, e.g., Merrick T. Rossein, "Sex Discrimination and the Sexually Charged Work
Environment," NYU Review of Law and Social Change 9 (1979-1980): 271; Judy
Mann, "The 'Delicate Situation' Now Has Another Name," Washington Post, 27
April 1979, § B, I; Laura A. Kiernan, "Ruling Widens Protections in Sex Bias
Cases," Washington Post, 13 January 1981, § A, I.
35. Department of Labor, Office of Federal Contract Compliance Programs, Final
Rule, 45 Fed. Reg. 86216 (1980); Department of Labor, Office of Federal Contract
Compliance Programs, Proposed Rule, 46 Fed. Reg. 42968 (1981).
36. See, for example, Conn. Gen. Stat. § 46a-60(8); Policy Statement on Sexual Ha-
rassment, Washington State Human Rights Commission, 23 December 1980;
Guidelines on Sexual Harassment, Pennsylvania Human Relations Commission,
31 January 1981; Kentucky Administrative Regulations Service, Title 104, Ch. I,
effective I April 1981.
37. See, for example, Martin, "Memorandum to Members of the University Commu-
nity," 28 June 1980 (using the definition of sexual harassment in EEOC's interim
guidelines).
38. EEOC Case Nos. 81-16 (26 January 1981),81-17 (6 February 1981), and 81-18 (3
April 1981) (all unpublished). By April of 1981, EEOC had 130 sexual harassment
cases awaiting action, 1 I 8 of which had corroborating evidence. Smith, "Prologue
to the EEOC Guidelines on Sexual Harassment," 474, 477; Hanley Hearings on
Sexual Harassment (Part II), 43 (statement of Eleanor Holmes Norton).
39. CCH EEOC DECISIONS (1983)~' 6756, 6756, 6757, 6827, 6829, 6830 (decided
in 1981); CCH EEOC DECISIONS (1983) n 6818, 6842, 6834 (decided in 1982).
40. 1981 Hatch Hearings on Sex Discrimination, 3045, HI; Hanley Hearings on
Sexual Harassment (Part II), 43-44, 46-47 (statement of Eleanor Holmes
Norton); Sexual Harassment Report, 16.
Notes to pp. I2I-I25 2.3 1
41. Alan K. Campbell, Director, U.S. Office of Personnel Management to Heads of

Departments and Independent Agencies, Re: Policy Statement and Definition of
Sexual Harassment, Il. December 1979.
42. Ibid.
43. Ibid.
44. 1979 Hanley Hearings on Sexual Harassment, 159.
45. Hanley Hearings on Sexual Harassment (Part II), 31-39.
46. 1979 Hanley Hearings on Sexual Harassment, 32 (statement of Julie M. Sugar-
man, Deputy Director, Office of Personnel Management).
47. United States Office of Personnel Management, Workshop on Sexual Harassment:
Trainer's Manual. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1980, 2 (in-
cluding participant materials).
48. Ibid., 3.
49· Ibid., 47 (Handout #1).
50. Ibid., 53 (Handout #2).
51. Merit Systems Protection Board, Sexual Harassment in the Federal Workplace: Is
It A Problem?: A Report of the u.S. Merit Systems Protection Board, Office of
Merit Systems Review and Studies (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Of-
fice, 1981).
52.. MSPB Doc. PH075209077, 25 January 1980; MSPB Doc. DA075209096, 13
February 1980; MSPB Doc. AT075209026, 30 May 1980.
53. Statement by Representative Cavanaugh, 1979 Hanley Hearings on Sexual Ha-
rassment, 125 (stating that "the public consciousness heightening that these hear-
ings have initiated is overwhelming").
54. The Power Pinch: Sexual Harassment in the Workplace (Northbrook, IL: MTI
Teleprograms, Inc., 1981), videocassette; Preventing Sexual Harassment (Rock-
ville, MD: BNA Communications, Inc., 1980), videocassette; No Laughing Mat-
ter: High School Students and Sexual Harassment (Boston: Boston Women's
Teachers Collective and Media Works, Inc., 1982), videocassette; Katherine
Davis, Beware of the Boss: Sexual Harassment on the Job (Washington, D.C.:
National Public Radio, 1981); Workplace Hustle (San Francisco: Clark Commu-
nications, Inc., 1980), videocassette.
55. Klein, telephone interview, 13 April 2001.
56. Klein, telephone interview, 13 April 2001. The conference was titled Discrimina-
tion and Harassment of Women in Employment. Correspondence to author from
Grazyna T. Elwell, The Johnson Foundation, Racine, WI, Dated 18 April 2001.
57. National Commission on Unemployment Compensation, Consideration of the
Issue of Sexual Harassment and Disqualification: Hearings, 28 June 1979 (here-
after Unemployment Compensation Hearings); Pressures in Today's Workplace
(Vol. Il), Oversight Hearings before the Subcommittee on Labor-Management
Relations of the Committee on Education and Labor, U.S. House of Representa-
tives, 96th Congress, First Session, December 4 and 6,1979,152-169.
58. Women in the Military, Hearings before the Military Personnel Subcommittee of the
Committee on Armed Services, U.S. House of Representatives, 96th Congress, First
and Second Sessions, 13-16 November 1979 and I I February 1980, 22.-25, 298-350.
59· Ibid., 32.4·
60. Racial Discrimination and Sexual Harassment in the U.S. Postal Service: Hearings
before the Subcommittee on Postal Personnel and Modernization of the Commit-
tee on Po,t Office and Civil Service, U.S. House of Representatives, 97th
23 2 Notes to pp. I25-L28
Congress, First Session, 1 July 1981 (hereafter Racial Discrimination and Sexual
Harassment in the U.S. Postal Service Hearings); Equal Employment Opportunity
and Sexual Harassment in the Postal Service, Hearings before the Committee on
Post Office and Civil Service, U.S. House of Representatives, 96th Congress,
Second Session, 27 October 1980.
61. Racial Discrimination and Sexual Harassment in the U.S. Postal Service Hearings, I.
62. Antonio J. Califa, Memorandum to Regional Civil Rights Directors, Regions I-X,
Office for Civil Rights, United States Department of Education, Re: Title IX and
Sexual Harassment Complaints, 31 August 1981.
63. Wis. Stat. Ann. §108.04(7)(i) (1979) (West) (sexual harassment is "good cause"
under unemployment compensation law); Wis. Stat. §III.32.(5)(g)(4)(1979) (pro-
hibiting sexual harassment in employment).
64. Harel and Cottledge, "Combatting Sexual Harassment," 2.; Michigan Task Force
on Sexual Harassment in the Workplace, Conference Report: Sexual Harassment
at the Workplace (Ann Arbor: Program on Women and Work, 1979), 1 (reporting
on the 1978 meeting).
65. S. Gomez, R. Brown and L. Martin, "Public Hearings on Sexual Harassment in the
Workplace: Analysis of Testimony," Office of Women and Work, Michigan De-
partment of Labor, November 1979; "Sexual Harassment: Hazard in the Work-
place," Solidarity, 2. July 1979, 15 (describing the testimony of two sexually
harassed women who testified at the hearings); Testimony of Louise Smothers,
1979 Hanley Hearings on Sexual Harassment, IIO (testifying that the Michigan
Task Force on Sexual Harassment sponsored a seminar on sexual harassment the
previous Saturday with over 600 people attending); "Sexual Harassment on the
Job: How to Recognize It, How to Stop It, Who To Go to For Help," (Lansing:
Michigan Task Force on Sexual Harassment in the Workplace and WJBK-TV2.,
Detroit, no date), Coal Employment Project Collection (Accession 355, Box 73,
Folder 2.3); Harel and Cottledge, "Combatting Sexual Harassment," 3.
66. Amendment to the Elliott-Larson Civil Rights Act, Mich. Compo Laws Ann.
§37.2.103, as amended by Pub. Act No. 2.02., §I, 1980 Mich. Legis. Servo 62.6
(West); Act Concerning Harassment as an Unfair Employment Practice, Pub. Act
No. 80-285, 1980 Conn. Legis. Servo 634 (West) (codified as Conn. Gen. Stat.
Ann. §1-I26(a)(8)).
67. Harel and Cottledge, "Combatting Sexual Harassment," 5.
68. Ibid. at 8, Figure I.
69. Michigan Civil Rights Commission, Annual Report, 1979-1980 (I October
1979-2.0 September 1980), 7.
70. Petro V. United Trucking Company, No. 31422-S7F (State of Michigan Civil
Rights Commission, February 1980).
71. Testimony of Jan Leventer, Women's Justice Center, Detroit, MI, 1979 Hanley
Hearings on Sexual Harassment, 29.
72. Leventer, "Sexual Harassment and Title VII," 481; Martindale-Hubbell Law Di-
rectory (Reed Elsevier, Inc., 2.001).
73. Marentette V. Michigan Host Inc., 506 F. Supp. 909 (E.D. Mich. 1980).
74. Michigan Task Force, Conference Report; Clarke, et aI., Stopping Sexual
Harassment.
75. Testimony of Jan Leventer, Women's Justice Project, submitted to 1979 Hanley
Hearings on Sexual Harassment, 2.7-29; Leventer, "Sexual Harassment and Title
VII," 481-97.
76. The organizations were Rape Information Counseling Center, Center for Policy
Studies and Program Evaluation of Sangamon State University, Women's Studies
Committee of Sangamon State University, AFSCME Illinois Council 31, Fair Em-
ployment Practices Commission, and Labor Union Women Committee of the
Illinois Commission on the Status of Women. See Press Release Dated 4 March
1980 of the Illinois Task Force on Sexual Harassment in the Workplace, Working
Women's Institute Collection; "Most Women in Survey in Illinois Report Sex
Harassment at Work," New York Times, 9 March 1980, 42.
77. Testimony of Barbara Hayler, Member of Illinois Task Force on Sexual Harass-
ment in the Workplace and Assistant Professor, Sangamon State University, before
the Illinois House Judiciary II Committee (March 4,1980). Of the 4,859 women
surveyed, approximately fifteen percent of the women employed by the State of
Illinois, 1,495 completed questionnaires, a response rate of 31 percent.
78. Sexual Harassment, Illinois Executive Order 80-1, 24 January 1980.
79. Pub. Act No. 80-285, 80-422, Conn. Gen. Stat. Ann. § 31-I26(a)(8) (1980), later
recodified at Conn. Gen. Stat. § 46a-60(8) (1999).
80. Elizabeth Sullivan, "Survey Shows Few States Have Systems to Resolve Sexual
Harassment Complaints," Intergovernmental Personnel Notes, NovemberlDe-
cember 1979, 3. The Maryland Commission on Women conducted a study of
sexual harassment in 1980.
8 I. See Backhouse and Cohen, The Secret Oppression, 144 (mentioning that bills were
pending in Virginia, Florida, and Minnesota). In 1979, Assemblywoman Mary
Newburger, a women's rights activist, introduced a bill to allow unemployment
compensation for an employee who quits because of sexual harassment. See A.7236
N.Y. State Legislature, 1979-80 Sess. Senators Winikow, Berman, Bernstein, Con-
ner, Gold, Mendez, and Ohrenstein introduced similar legislation before
the Senate in the 1979-80 session. A.50Il N.Y. State Legislature, 1979-80 Sess.
Working Women United Institute helped to develop and supported a similar bill in
1977. See Working Women's United Institute Letter to Legislators dated 27 April
1979, Working Women's Institute Collection. Representatives in New Jersey and
Ohio also introduced sexual harassment legislation. Working Women's Institute,
"Discussion of Legislation, Executive Order, Policies and Procedures Regarding
Sexual Harassment in Employment," August 1981, Working Women's Institute
Collection.
82. Utah Executive Order on Sexual Harassment, 29 December 1980; Executive Or-
der No. 80-9, issued by the Governor of Rhode Island on 24 March 1980, CCH
Emp. Prac. Guide (CCH) §27,680 (1980); Florida Executive Order 81-69 (1981);
Oregon Executive Order 81-7 (1981); South Dakota Executive Order 81-08
(1981); Indiana Executive Order 6-82 (1982); Kansas Executive Order 82-55
(1982); Montana Executive Order No. 7-82 (1982); Massachusetts Executive
Order No. 240 (1984).
83. Policy Statement on Sexual Harassment, Washington State Human Rights Com-
mission, 23 December 1980; Guidelines on Sexual Harassment, Pennsylvania Hwnan
Relations Commission, 31 January 1981; Kentucky Administrative Regulations
Service, Title 104, Ch. I, effective 1 April 1981.
84. California Fair Employment and Housing Commission Rules § 7287.6, Cal.
Admin. Code. tit. 2, div. 4 (West 1980), effective 1 May 1980.
8S. Rule 80.II, Sex Discrimination Rules, Colorado Civil Rights Commission, 31
October 1980.
234 Notes to pp. I30-I32
86. New Hampshire Advisory Committee, Agenda and Notice of Open Meeting, 45
Fed. Reg. 64226 (1980); New Hampshire Advisory Committee, Agenda and No-
tice of Open Meeting, 45 Fed. Reg. 21797 (1981); Maine Advisory Committee,
Agenda and Open Meeting, 46 Fed. Reg. 8632 (1981); Vermont Advisory Com-
mittee, Agenda and Notice of Open Meeting, 46 Fed. Reg. 37299 (1981); Mas-
sachusetts Advisory Committee, Agenda and Notice of Public Meeting, 48 Fed.
Reg. 22768 (1983); Massachusetts Advisory Committee, Agenda and Public
Meeting, 48 Fed. Reg. 32616 (1983). In New Hampshire and Massachusetts,
the State Advisory Commissions to the U.S. Commission on Civil Rights published
sexual harassment guides for employers. "Sexual Harassment on the Job," On
Campus With Women (Spring 1985) (describing Massachusetts guide); "Em-
ployee Harassment," On Campus With Women (Summer 1983) (describing
New Hampshire guide).
87. "States Enlist to Battle Sexual Harassment," On Campus With Women (Summer
19 80 ): 14·
88. Kentucky Commission on Human Rights, Sexual Harassment on the Job Is
Against the Law; Kentucky Commission on Human Rights, Stop Sexual Harass-
ment on the Job.
89. Public Hearings on Sexual Harassment before the Kentucky Commission on Hu-
man Rights, 10 July 1980, Frankfort, KY (videocassette), Coal Employment Pro-
ject Collection (Accession 355, Tape 193)'
90. Barbara Geehan, "lthacan Testifies on Job Sexual Harassment," Ithaca Journal, 22
April 1975,6; Enid Nemy, "Women Begin To Speak-out Against Sexual Harass-
ment," New York Times, 19 August 1975, 38.
91. Letter from Donna McKittrick, Chair of the Fresno City-County Commission on
the Status of Women, Dated I June 1981, with Survey of Sexual Harassment in the
Private Sector Within Fresno County by Marilyn Watts, NOW Collection.
92. D.C. Commission on Women, "Commission for Women Tests Survey Question-
naire on Sexual Harassment," 4 June 1979 (press release), Working Women's
Institute Collection.
93. 1979 Hanley Hearings on Sexual Harassment, 66-67; D.C. Commission on
Women, Public Hearing on Sexual Harassment, 30 January 1981; District of
Columbia Commission for Women, "Projects and Outreach," in Annual Report,
12th, April 1980 (Washington, D.C.: District of Columbia Commission for
Women, 1980): 51-61.
94. Crull, Sauvigne, and Cohen, "Combatting Sexual Harassment on the Job," un-
published paper, 15, Working Women's Institute Collection.
95. Clarke, et aI., Stopping Sexual Harassment, 48.
96. Greene and Tatnall, Sexual Harassment of Working Women in Kentucky. The
commission based their questionnaire on Redbook's 1976 survey on sexual ha-
rassment. Ibid., 6.
97. James T. Prendergast, "Sexual Harassment Bills: Definitions Keep Changing,"
National Law Journal, 21 April 1980, 6.
99. See Weeks, et aI., "The Transformation of Sexual Harassment," 446.
101. Ibid., 84, 81-88.
102. Brownmiller, In Our Time, 288 (quoting Eleanor Holmes Norton).
103. Ibid., 86.
104. Klein, telephone interview, 26 March 2001. According to Peggy Crull, "once the
issue becomes something that the popular culture has taken up and that people
accept as a real issue, then the organizations that are more connected with busi-
nesses are the ones who get the jobs." Crull, telephone interview, 27 February
2001.
106. Mary Coeli Meyer and Jeanenne Oestreich, The Power Pinch: Sexual Harassment
at the Workplace, Film, Leader's Guide for Conducting a Sexual Harassment
Workshop and Manager's Handbook for Handling Sexual Harassment in the
Workplace (Northbrook, IL: MTI Teleprograms, Inc., 1981).
107. Ibid., 86.
108. Linda Gordon, "The Politics of Sexual Harassment," Radical America (july/
August 1981): 10, 13, 14.
109. For a discussion of how legal remedies can co-opt collective change-oriented
approaches to social problems, see Thomas Geoghegan, Which Side Are You
On? Trying To Be For Labor When It's Flat On Its Back (New York: Farrar,
Straus, Giroux, 1991).
110. The EEOC, and Norton's leadership in this agency, is an example of what Nancy
Whittier describes as the "interpenetration of institutional and extra-institutional
agents of social change. Whittier, "Meaning and Structure in Social Movements,"
294·
I I I. The differences between WWI and AASC illustrate how the beliefs and identities
of groups influence their organizational structure and strategies for social change.
Ibid., 296.
II2. Walter Berns, "Terms of Endearment: Legislating Love," Harper's 261 (October
1980): 18, 20.
113. I98I Hatch Hearings on Sex Discrimination, 396-427.
Chapter 7. Fighting the Backlash: Feminist Activism in the 1980s

I. Eliza G. C. Collins and Timothy B. Blodgett, "Sexual Harassment ... Some See It ...
Some Won't," Harvard Business Review (March/April 1981): 76 (quotation from
survey conducted by Harvard Business Review and Redbook magazine).
2. I98I Hatch Hearings on Sex Discrimination, 333-706. The bill defined sexual
harassment as "the unsolicited, non-reciprocal, offensive sexual behavior that
exploits an employee's or prospective employee's sex role such that his/her perfor-
mance andlor potential as a worker is impaired." The bill provided that "an
employer who knowingly, by an act of omission or commission, encourages, fails
to prevent, or redress the practice or incident of sexual harassment shall be liable
for violations." Orrin Hatch, "Sexual Harassment Awareness and Prevention Act"
(draft), United States Senate, 96th Congress, 2nd Session, Working Women's In-
stitute Collection. This bill was never introduced.
3. I9 8I Hatch Hearings on Sex Discrimination, 369.
4. Ibid.
5. Ibid., 400.
6. Karen Sauvigne remembers being very impressed because Betty Jean Hall, who
testified on behalf of women coal miners, "completely broke any of their stereo-
typed imagel" by wearing a pink pastel suit. Sauvigne. telephone interview. 4
February 2.00I.
Notes to pp. 137-140
7. 1981 Hatch Hearings on Sex Discrimination, 465.

8. Ibid., SOL-II.
9· Ibid., 513.
10. Testimony was also submitted by the Center for Women's Policy Studies, New
Responses, Inc., Federally Employed Women, the American Federation of State,
County and Municipal Employees, the American Federation of Government
Employees, the Project on the Status and Education of Women of the Association
of American Colleges.
II. 1981 Hatch Hearings on Sex Discrimination, 701.
12. Ibid., 678.
13· Ibid., 73.
14. "Sexual Harassment," Congressional Quarterly Researcher, 9 August 1991, 548.
IS. EEOC Decision 82-13, 29 Fair Empt. Prac. Cas. 1855 (1982).
16. Brief for the United States and the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission
as Amici Curiae at 20, Meritor Savings Bank v. Vinson, 477 U.S. 57 (1986).
17. Executive Order 12291, 17 February 1981, 46 Fed. Reg. 13193 (1981); see also
Martha Derthick and Paul J. Quirk, The Politics of Deregulation (Washington,
D.C.: The Brookings Institute, 1985), 31-32.
18. Howell Raines, "U.S. Begins Deregulation Review on Rights and Ecology Guide-
lines," New York Times, 12 August 1981, § A, I.
19. Letter from Karen Sauvigne, Working Women's Institute, to David Stockman,
Office of Management and the Budget, Dated 21 August 1981, Working Women's
Institute Collection.
20. Letter from Susan Meyer, Executive Director, Working Women's Institute, to
Friends of Working Women's Institute (Donors), Dated 21 August 1981, Working
Women's Institute Collection; Letter from K. C. Wagner, Counseling Director,
Working Women's Institute, to Friends (former clients), Dated 21 August 1981
(to clients), Working Women's Institute Collection; Letter from Karen Sauvigne to
Friends (advocacy organizations), Dated 21 August 1981, Working Women's In-
stitute Collection.
21. Letter from Jean D. Linehan to Vice President George Bush, Dated 26 November
1981, Working Women's Institute Collection.
22. Letter from Addy Zeni to Vice President George Bush, Dated 14 September 1981,
Working Women's Institute Collection; Letter from Cynthia Butler to Vice Pres-
ident George Bush, Boyden Gray, David Stockman, Jim Miller, Edwin Harper, and
Nathanial Scurry, Dated 30 September 1981, Working Women's Institute
Collection.
23. Letter from Karen Sauvigne to Vice President Bush, Dated 30 July 1982, Working
Women's Institute Collection; Letter from Karen Sauvigne to Clarence Thomas,
Dated 30 July 1982, Working Women's Institute Collection.
24. Letter from Phyllis Berry, Acting Director of the EEOC, to Honorable Bill Bradley,
not dated, Working Women's Institute Collection; Equal Employment Opportu-
nity Commission, Meeting Notice, 48 Fed. Reg. 9417 (1983).
25. Peter Behr and Joanne Omang, "Impact of Regulation Freeze is Unclear; Targets
Not Yet Identified," New York Times, 30 January 1981, § A,4.
26. Raymond M. Lane, "A Man's World: An Update on Sexual Harassment," Village
Voice, 16-22 December 1981, 22.
27. Lani Guinier, The Tyranny of the Majority: Fundamental Fairness in Representa-
tive Democracy (New York: The Free Press, 1994), 23-24 (noting Reagan
Notes to pp. 140-143 2.37
appointed 366 predominately white male judges to the bench, filling over half the
federal judiciary, and that his advisors tested prospective judicial nominees by
using ideological litmus tests on civil rights issues such as school desegregation,
affirmative action, and other race-conscious remedies).
2.8. Philip Tyson, "Cassidy Wins," Potomac News, 2.2. September 1980, § A, I.
2.9. Barnes v. Oody, 514 F. Supp. 2.3 (E.D. Tenn. 1981).
30. Cheryl M. Fields, "Accused of Sexual Harassment, Male Professor Sues Female
Complainants for $2.3.7-Million," Chronicle of Higher Education," 4 May 1981,
I; Anne Field, "Harassment on Campus: Sex in a Tenured Position?" Ms., Sep-
tember 1981, 68; Elizabeth Gray, "Heading Them Off at the Passes," MacLeans
94 (1981): 2.6.
31. See Barbara Lindemann and David D. Kadue, Sexual Harassment in Employment
Law (Washington, D.C.: Bureau of National Affairs, Inc., 1992.), 52.0-34.
32.. "In Brief: Professor Says Sex Charges Forced Him To Resign," Chronicle of Higher
Education, 23 January 1978, 5; Van Arsdel v. Texas A&M University et al., 62.8
F.2.d 344 (5 th Cir. 1980) (male professor accused of sexual harassment by female
employee); Korf v. Ball State University et al., 72.6 F.2.d I2.2.2. (7 th Cir. 1984) (male
professor accused of sexual harassment by male students sued for violation of his
due process and e~ual protection rights); Levitt v. University of Texas at EI Paso,
759 F.2.d 122.4 (5 t Cir. 1985) (male professor accused of sexual harassment by
female students sued for violation of his due process rights).
33. Wiggins v. Whirlpool, Civil Action No. 85-2.2.00-S (D. Kan. 1985); Axelrad v.
Byoir & Associates, Inc. et at., No. 84 Civ. 8936-CSH (S.D.N.Y. 1985); Spisak
v. McDole, 472. N.E.2.d 347 (Ohio 1984); Equal Employment Opportunity Com-
mission v. Levi Strauss & Co., 515 F. Supp. 640 (N.D. Ill. 1981); Arenas v. Ladish
Co., 619 F, Supp. 1304 (E.D. Wise. 1985); Walker v. Gibson, 604 F, Supp. 916
(N.D. Ill. 1985) (dismissing the first amendment claim but allowing the other
claims); Arnold v. Burger King Corp. et al., 719 F,2.d 63 (4 th Cir. 1983); Green-
baum and Fraser, "Sexual Harassment in the Workplace," 30-41; Michael
Marmo, "Arbitrating Sex Harassment Cases," Arbitration Journal 35, no. 1
(March 1980): 35-40;
Lindemann and Kadue, Sexual Harassment in Employment Law, 391-401;
McNaughton v. Dillingham Corp. et at., 707 F,2.d 1042 (9 th Cir. 1983).
34. Lindemann and Kadue, Sexual Harassment in Employment Law, 530-32.; Huff v.
County of Butler, 524 F. Supp. 751 (W.D. Pa. 1981); Vane/Ii v. Reynolds School
Dist., 667 F2.d 773 (9 th Cir. 1982.); Downes v. Federal Aviation Administration,
77 5 F.2.d 288; Jackson v. Veterans Administration, 768 F,2.d 1325 (Fed. Cir. 1985);
Snipes v. U.S. Postal Service, 677 F,2.d 375 (4 th Cir. 1982.); Barkley v. State Per-
sonnel Board, Civ. No. 81-Ci-0690 (Franklin County, Ky. Cir. Ct., April 30,
1981); Flinn v. Gorden et at., 775 F,2.d 1551 (11th Cir. 1985).
35. Verta A. Taylor, "How To Avoid Taking Sexual Harassment Seriously: A New
Book That Perpetuates Old Myths: A Review of Sexual Harassment-by Mary
Coeli Meyer, Inge M. Berchtold, Jeanenne L. Oestreich, and Frederick J. Collins,"
Capital University Law Review 10 (1981): 678.
36. Mary Coeli Meyer, Inge M. Berchtold, Jeannenne L. Oestreich, and Frederick J.
Collins, Sexual Harassment (New York: Petrocelli Books, Inc. 1981), 109.
37· Ibid., 49·
38. See, for example, Letter from Gene Taylor to James Hanley, Dated 18 April 1980,
Sexual Haraum,"t Rlport, 31-32. (questioning whether sexual harassment was
really a problem and implying that feminists testifying as to the scope of the
problem were unreliable because they "represented a particular point of view").
39. Barbara Gutek, Sex and the Workplace: The Impact of Sexual Behavior and
Harassment on Women, Men, and Organizations (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass
Publishers, 1985), 5.
40. M. Dawn McCaghy, Sexual Harassment: A Guide to Resources (Boston: G. K.
Hall & Co., 1985), 28-43 (workplace), 75-86 (educational institutions).
41. Collins and Blodgett, "Sexual Harassment," 76; Merit System Protection Board,
Sexual Harassment in the Federal Government: An Update, (Washington, D.C.:
Government Printing Office, 1987); Louise F. Fitzgerald and Sandra L. Shullman,
"Sexual Harassment: A Research Analysis and Agenda for the 1990S," Journal of
Vocational Behavior 42 (1993): 8.
42. Walter Berns, "Terms of Endearment: Legislating Love," Harper's, October 1980,
14-16,18,20.
43. Charles E. Marske, Steven Vago, and Ariene Taich, "Combatting Sexual Harass-
ment: A New Awareness," USA Today, March 1980,45.
44. Sexual Harassment Report, 31.
45. Equal Employment Opportunity and Sexual Harassment in the Postal Service,
Hearings before the Committee on Post Office and Civil Service, U.S. House of
Representatives, 96th Congress, Second Session, 27 October 1980, 12.
47. Meyer, et aI., Sexual Harassment, xi.
48. Anita Hill, Speaking Truth to Power (New York: Doubleday, 1997).
49. Miller, 418 F. Supp. at 236.
50. Mary Bralove, "A Cold Shoulder, Career Women Decry Sexual Harassment by
Bosses and Clients," Wall Street Journal, 19 January 1976, 1.
52. Meyer, et aI., Sexual Harassment, 79.
53. Walter Berns, "Terms of Endearment: Legislating Love," Harper's, October 1980, 18.
H. Ibid., 396-99.
55· Ibid., 9.
56. Ibid., 13.
58. "Statement of Purpose," Working Women's Institute, 1977, Karen Sauvigne, Pri-
vate Papers.
59. White, Angle, and Moore, Sexual Harassment in the Coal Industry.
60. Speak-out on Sexual Harassment of Women at Work, May 4, 1975, Ithaca, NY,
(transcript), 12, Karen Sauvigne, Private Papers.
61. Gordon, "The Politics of Sexual Harassment," 12.
62. Carol Krucoff, "Careers: Sexual Harassment on the Job," Washington Post, 25
July 1979, § B, 5·
63. Catharine MacKinnon, "Introduction," Capital University Law Review 10
(1981): ii.
64. AASC, "Organizing Against Sexual Harassment," 21-22, 33.
65. Gordon, "The Politics of Sexual Harassment," 12.
66. Fairness Committee, "The Politics of Sexual Harassment," Aegis, Summer 1982, 1 I.
67. "Combat Sexual Harassment on the Job," Aegis, May/June 1979, 24; Gates v.
Brockway Glass Co., Inc., 93 L.R.R.M. 2367 (C.D. Cal. 1976). See discussion of
union responses to the issue in chapter 5.
68. The following description of this case is based on several articles, including Fair-
ness Committee, "The Politics of Sexual Harassment," Aegis, Summer 1982., 5;
Anne Field, "Harassment on Campus: Sex in a Tenured Position?" Ms. September
1981,68; Cheryl M. Fields, "Accused of Sexual Harassment, Male Professor Sues
Female Complainants for $2.3.7-Million," Chronicle of Higher Education, 4 May
1981, I.
69. Fairness Committee, "The Politics of Sexual Harassment," Aegis, Swnmer 1982., 10.
70. Ibid., 8-9.
71. Ibid., 6.
72.. Rita Arditti, interview by author, Orlando, FL, 10 June 2005; Estelle Disch, in-
terview by author, Orlando, FL, 10 June 2005.
73. Fairness Committee, "The Politics of Sexual Harassment," Aegis, Summer 1982,
II.
74. Ibid., 10.
75. Ibid., II.
76. Ibid., 8.
77. Cheryl M. Fields, "Accused of Sexual Harassment, Male Professor Sues Female
Complainants for h3.7-Million," Chronicle of Higher Education, 4 May 1981,4.
78. Stanko and Bunster v. Clark University, No.8 1-5088, Mass. Super. Ct., Middlesex
Cty. (filed 13 October 1981).
79. Dziech and Weiner, The Lecherous Professor, 2.8.
80. Lorenzo Middleton, "'Mean Little Cases' Give New Dimension to Controversies
over Academic Freedom," Chronicle of Higher Education, 28 April 1980, I. A
subsequent letter to the editor protested this characterization. Letter to the Editor
by Donna Moore and Betty Schmitz of Montana State University, Chronicle of
Higher Education, 2.8 May 1980.
81. AASC, "Organizing Against Sexual Harassment," 2.8, 33.
82.. Gordon, "The Politics of Sexual Harassment," II.
83. See Gwendolyn Mink, Hostile Environment: The Political Betrayal of Sexually
Harassed Women (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2000), 114-40.
84. Weeks, et al., "The Transformation of Sexual Harassment," 449 (based on an
interview with Maura T. Zlody).
85. Klein, telephone interview, 26 March 2.001; Rubinett, telephone interview, 23
June 2.001; Lynn Rubinett, "Sex and Economics: The Tie That Binds. Judicial
Approaches to Sexual Harassment as a Title VII Violation," Journal of Law and
Inequality 4 Uuly 19 86): 2.45-93·
86. According to Sauvigne, big foundations redirected their money to address the
urgent need to provide the social safety net that Reagan Republicans were dis-
mantling. Sauvigne, telephone interview, I2. February 2001. K. C. Wagner attrib-
uted this loss of foundation support to the "conservative backlash against
priorities, programs, and services to women." K. C. Wagner, "A Socialist Feminist
Perspective," in Not for Women Only: Social Work Practice for a Feminist Future,
eds. Mary Bricker-Jenkins and Nancy R. Hooyman (Silver Springs, MD: National
Association of Social Workers, 1986), 66; see also WWI 1982 Report, 2.. Working
Women's Institute Collection.
87. "Sexual Harassment Brief Bank and Bibliography," Women's Rights Law Re-
porter 8 (Fall 1985): 2.67-98.
88. WWI, Equal Employment Opportunity Commission: How to File a Job-Related
Sexual HarM,m,,.t Complaint (New York: Working Women's Institute, 1983);
2.4 0 Notes to pp. I54-I57
WWI, National Labor Relations Board: How to File an Unfair Labor Practice
Charge for Job-Related Sexual Harassment (New York: Working Women's Insti-
tute, 1983); WWI, New York City Commission on Human Rights and New York
State Division of Human Rights: How To File a Job-Related Sexual Harassment
Complaint (New York: Working Women's Institute, 1983); WWI, Tort and Con-
tract Law: How to File a Job-Related Sexual Harassment Complaint (New York:
Working Women's Institute, 1983).
89. Working Women's Institute Union Survey on Sexual Harassment, Working Wom-
en's Institute Collection.
90. Fact Sheet: Joint Project on Sexual Harassment/Sex Discrimination in Employ-
ment, Working Women's Institute Collection.
91. "Sexual Harassment," Congressional Quarterly Research, 9 August 1991, 545.
92. "Sexual Harassment in the Mines Workshop," Second National Conference of
Women Coal Miners, Beckley, WV, May 1980 (videocasette), Coal Employment
Project Collection (Accession 355, Tape 59).
93. "Sexual Harassment Workshop," Third National Conference of Women Coal
Miners, 1981 (videocasette), Coal Employment Project Collection (Accession
355, Tape 66).
94. "Sexual HarassmentlDiscrimination and CEP Legal Referral Network," Eleventh
National Conference of Women Coal Miners, June 1989, IL, Coal Employment
Project Collection (Accession 35 5, Tape 14, Series XII A).
95. Letter from Joyce Dukes to Jerry King, Dated 4 August 1980, with attached Coal
Employment Project Proposal, Coal Employment Project Collection (Accession
355, Box 2., Folder 14); Jan Hoffman, "Digging in Hell: The Story of Women Coal
Miners," Mademoiselle, May 1983, 166; Raymond M. Lane, "A Man's World: An
Update on Sexual Harassment," Village Voice, 15-22 December 1981, 1; "Sexual
Harassment Cases Against Coal Companies Increase, n Coal Age, November
19 8 4,19.
96. "No Gentleman," Mail (Charleston, WV), 30 September 1982.
97. Diane Nelson, "Ending Sexual Harassment," Dominion Post (Morgantown, WV),
May 1983; "What Are the Men Doing Down There?" News (Welch, WV), May
1983; Jan Hoffman, "Digging in Hell: The Story of Women Coal Miners," Ma-
demoiselle, May 1983, 166; Maggie Prieto, "Women Coal Miners Fight Sexual
Harassment," Off Our Backs, August/September 1983,2; "Goes With the Job,"
60 Minutes, 3 October 1982., Coal Employment Project Collection (Accession
355, Tapes 153-154); "Woman to Woman," KTLA, Los Angeles, CA, 8 Novem-
ber 1983, Coal Employment Project Collection (Accession 355, Tapes 156);
"Burns Sexual Harassment Suit," Newswatch 4, WOAY-TV 4, Thomas Broad-
casting Company, Oak Hill, WV, undated, Coal Employment Project Collection
(Accession 355, Tapes 163, 167).
98. Molly Martin, "City Light: Women Workers File Suit," Seattle Post Intelligencer,
in Coal Employment Project Collection (Accession 355, Box 73, Folder 23); see
also Martin, Hard-Hatted Women.
99. "Sexual Harassment of Women in Law Enforcement," Equal Rights Advoc;ate
(Winter 1985): I.
100. "Declaring War on Sexual Harassment," Annual Meeting of the National Orga-
nization for Women, 1987, Ohio (audiocassette), NOW Collection.
101. Bernice R. Sandler, Writing a Letter to the Sexual Harasser: Another Way of
Dealing With the Problem (Washington, D.C.: Project on the Status and Education
Notes to pp. 157-159
of Women, 1983); Project on the Status and Education of Women, Sexual Harass-
ment on Campus (Washington, D.C.: Association of American Colleges, 1985)
(articles on sexual harassment reprinted from On Campus With Women, Summer
1982 to Spring 1985); Simon, telephone interview, 25 April 2001; Phyllis L.
Crocker, "Annotated Bibliography on Sexual Harassment in Education," Wom-
en's Rights Law Reporter 7 (Winter 1982): 91-106; Journal of the National As-
sociation for Women Deans, Administrators, & Counselors (Winter 1983); Title
IX Line (Fall 1983); "AAUP Condemns Sexual Harassment and Offers Procedure
for Complaints," On Campus With Women (Fall 1983); "University Allocates
$7,500 to Prevent Sexual Harassment and Rape," and "How to Distinguish Sexual
Harassment from Flirtation," On Campus With Women (Fall 1983); Dzeich and
Weiner, The Lecherous Professor; Jean Hughes and Bernice Sandler, In Case of
Sexual Harassment-A Guide for Women Students (Washington, D.C.: Center for
Women Policy Studies, 1986).
102. Wendy Cole, "Students Reveal Instances of Sex Harassment at c.u.," Cornell
Daily Sun, 5 November 1981, 14; Wendy Cole, "Officials Discuss Grievance
Channels," Cornell Daily Sun, 6 November 1981, I; Wendy Cole, "Professors
Discuss Sexual Harassment," Cornell Daily Sun, 9 November 1981, 1.
103. Martha Chama lias, "Writing About Sexual Harassment: A Guide to the Litera-
ture," UCLA Women's Law Journal 4 (1993): 39; Rossein, "Sex Discrimination,"
271-305; Nadine Taub, "Keeping Women in Their Place: Stereotyping Per Se as
a Form of Employment Discrimination," Boston College Law Review 21 (January
1980): 345-418; Gary R. Siniscalco, "Sexual Harassment and Employer Liability:
The Flirtation that Could Cost a Fortune," Employee Relations Law Journal 6
(19 80-19 81 ): 277·
104. "Sexual Harassment Symposium," Capital University Law Review (Spring 1981):
445-606; "Beyond Nine to Five: Sexual Harassment on the Job," Journal of Social
Issues (Winter 1982): 1-148; "Sexual Harassment on Campus," Journal of the
National Association for Women Deans, Administrators, & Counselors (Winter
1983): I-5 0 .
105. The rate of sexual harassment iri the studies reviewed in the Gruber article ranged
from 28% to 75%. From this; Gruber estimated that 44% of women have been
sexually harassed. James E. Gruber, "Methodological Problems and Policy Impli-
cations in Sexual Harassment Research," Population Research and Policy Review
9 (1990 ): 23 8, 24 8.
106. Fitzgerald and Shull man, "Sexual Harassment," 8.
107. Gruber, "Methodological Problems," 235-54; McCaghy, Sexual Harassment, 28-
43, 75-8 5 (listing surveys); Kenneth R. Wilson and Linda A. Kraus, "Sexual
Harassment in the University," Journal of College Student Personnel (May
1983) (finding that one in three female students reported experiencing sexual
harassment by one or more male teachers); Barbara Gutek, Bruce Morasch, and
Aaron G. Cohen, "Interpreting Social-Sexual Behavior in a Work Setting," Journal
of Vocational Behavior 22 (1983): 30-48; Fitzgerald and Shullman, "Sexual Ha-
rassment," 12-13 (listing subsequent studies replicating this finding).
108. Inger W. Jensen and Barbara A. Gutek, "Attributions and Assignment of Respon-
sibility in Sexual Harassment," Journal of Social Issues (Winter 1982): 121-36; see
also Barbara Gutek, et aI., "Sexuality and the Workplace," Basic and Applied Social
Psychology (September 1980): 2.55-65; Barbara A. Gutek, Experiences of Sexual
Harassment: RlSults from a Representative Survey (Bethesda, MD: National
2.42. Notes to pp. I59-I64
Institute of Mental Health, 1981); Barbara Gutek and Bruce Morasch, "Sex Roles,
Sex-Role Spillover, and Sexual Harassment of Women at Work," Journal of Social
Issues (Winter 1982.): 30-48; Barbara Gutek and C. Nakamura, "Gender Roles
and Sexuality in the World of Work," in Changing Boundaries, ed. Elizabeth
Allgeier and Naomi McCormick (Palo Alto, CA: Mayfield Publishing Company,
1983); Gutek, Sex and the Workplace.
109. Collins and Blodgett, "Sexual Harassment," 76-95; Merit System Protection
Board, Sexual Harassment in the Federal Government: An Update; M. Martindale,
Sexual Harassment in the Military: I988 (Arlington, VA: Defense Manpower
Data Center, 1988); Donald E. Maypole and Rosemarie Skaine, "Sexual Harass-
ment of Blue Collar Workers," Journal of Sociology and Social Welfare 9 (1982.):
682.-95; James E. Gruber and Lars Bjorn, "Blue-Collar Blues: The Sexual Harass-
ment of Women Autoworkers," Work and Occupations 9 (August 1982.): 2.71-98
(finding that black women were more likely to be severely harassed); Muriet Faltz
Lembright and Jeffrey W. Riemer, "Women Truckers' Problems and the Impact of
Sponsorship," Work and Occupations 9 (November 1982.): 457-74; Edward
LaFontaine and Leslie Tredeau, "The Frequency, Sources and Correlates of Sexual
Harassment Among Women in Traditional Male Occupations," Sex Roles 15
(1986): 423-32; Beth E. Schneider, "Consciousness About Sexual Harassment
Among Heterosexual and Lesbian Women Workers," Journal of Social Issues
(Winter 1982): 75-98.
IIO. Dair L. Gillespie and Ann Leffler, "The Politics of Research Methodology in
Claims-Making Activities: Social Science and Sexual Harassment," Social Prob-
lems 34 (1987): 490-508; Gruber, "Methodological Problems," 237; Fitzgerald
and Shullman, "Sexual Harassment," 13-16, 19.
I I I. McAdam, Political Process, xxvi.
Chapter 8. Legal Victory: The Supreme Court and Beyond

1. Testimony of M. Vinson, Tr. Jan. 23, 1980, Vol. III at 50-59, 69, 81. Meritor
Savings Bank v. Vinson, 477 U.S. 57 (1986).
2. Judith Ludvic, an attorney who had represented Vinson in a divorce proceeding, re-
ferred Vinson to another attorney, John Meisburg, Jr., who initially represented her in
the district court. Meisburg withdrew in June of 1979, before the trial of the case.
Barry then represented Vinson in the district court, on appeal, before the
Supreme Court, and on remand. Brief for Mechelle Vinson at 4 & 32, Vinson v. Taylor,
753 F.2d 141 (D.C. Cir. 1985) (hereafter Vinson's Brief); see also Marshall, "Closing
the Gaps," 784; Lynn Simross, "An Endangered Species: Discrimination Law a Losing
Proposition, Says Attorney Pat Barry," Los Angeles Times, 6 April 1988, § 5, 1.
3. Vinson applied to appeal in forma pauperis, which would have waived the appeal
costs based on allegations of poverty, and she sought to have the United States pay
the cost of her trial transcript for use on appeal, but Judge Penn denied both
requests. Vinson v. Taylor, 27 Fair Empl. Prac. Cas. (BNA) 948 (1980).
4. Vinson's Reply Brief at 4-5, Vinson v. Taylor, 753 F.2d 14I.
5. Vinson v. Taylor, 753 F.2d at 141, 144-45. Judge Robinson cited Catharine
MacKinnon's Sexual Harassment of Working Women at 146 n. 37.
6. Ibid., 145.
7. Per Curiam Order Denying Appellees' Suggestion for Rehearing En Bane, 14 May
1985. Vinson v. Taylor, 753 F.2d.
Notes to pp. r65-r66
8. The sole female commissioner briefed the commission on the issue and suggested the
position later taken in the amicus brief, in contradiction to the recommendations of the
commission's Acting General Counsel. Memorandum from Commissioner R. Gaull
Silberman to Chairman Clarence Thomas, Commissioner Tony Gallegos, Commis-
sioner William Webb, and Commissioner Fred Alvarez, Dated 28 October 1985, Sub-
ject: Commission Participation as Amicus Curiae in PSFS Savings Bank, FSB v. Vinson,
No. 84-1979 (S. Ct.), reprinted in Daily Labor Report 210 (30 October 1985): E-I;
Memorandum from Johnny J. Butler, General Counsel (Acting), to Chairman Clarence
Thomas, Commissioner Tony Gallegos, Commissioner William Webb, Commis-
sioner Fred Alvarez, and Commissioner R. Gaull Silberman, Dated 24 October
1984, Subject: PSFS Savings, FSB v. Mechelle Vinson, et al. (Vinson v. Taylor,
753 F.2d 141), reprinted in Daily Labor Report 210 (30 October 1985): E-2.
9. Brief of Petitioner at 10, Meritor, 477 U.S. 57.
10. Brief for the United States and the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission as
Amici Curiae at Part A, Meritor, 477 U.S. 57 (hereafter United States and the EEOC
Brief).
II. U.S. Chamber of Commerce Brief, Meritor, 477 U.S. 57 at 2, 4, 7, 9, II, 15, 16.
12. Ibid., 5.
13. United States and the EEOC Brief at Part A.3.
14. Working Women's Institute wrote a brief joined by the Committee Against Sexual
Harassment in Sacramento, CA, the Connecticut Women's Educational and Legal
Fund, the Women's Rights Committee of the New York County Lawyers' Association,
New York State Committee on Pay Equity, Women on the Job of Port Washington, NY,
Women's Alliance for Job Equity of Philadelphia, Women in Self-Help of the New
York State Displaced Homemaker Program, New York Women Against Rape, the
Women's Counseling Project, Non-Traditional Employment for Women, the Sister-
hood of Black Single Mothers, the Women's Rights Project of the Instituto Puer-
torriqueno de Derechos Civiles, and the Workers Defense League. Brief of Working
Women's Institute, et al. as Amici Curiae at 8-37, Meritor, 477 U.S. 57, 65-66
(hereafter Working Women's Institute Brief). The Women's Legal Defense Fund
wrote a brief supported by the American Association of University Women, the
Asian Pacific American Bar Association of the Greater Washington, D.C. Area,
the Center for Constitutional Rights, the Employment Law Center of the Legal
Aid Society in San Francisco, Equal Rights Advocates, the Mexican American
Women's National Association, the National Conference of Black Lawyers, the
National Emergency Civil Liberties Committee, the National Institute for Women
of Color, the National Organization for Women, NOW Legal Defense and Educa-
tion Fund, the Organization of Pan Asian American Women, Inc., Wider Opportu-
nities for Women, the Women's Bar Association of D.C., Women Employed in
Chicago, Women's Law Project, and the National Board of the YWCA of the
USA. Brief Amicus Curiae of the Women's Legal Defense Fund, et al., Meritor,
477 U.S. 57, 65-66 (hereafter Women's Legal Defense Fund Brief). Other amici
included Equal Rights Advocates and Women Employed; women's bar associations
from Massachusetts, Minnesota, Michigan, Colorado, and New York; The Amer-
ican Federation of Labor and Congress of Industrial Organizations (AFL-CIO), the
Coal Employment Project, the Coalition of Labor Union Women, and the National
Education Association; the states of New Jersey, California, Connecticut, Illinois,
Minnesota, New Mexico, New York, Vermont, and the Pennsylvania Human Rela-
tions Commission; and twenty-nine members of Congress.
2.44 Notes to pp. I67-I70
15· Respondent's Brief, Meritor, 477 U.S. 57 at 17-18.

16. Ibid., 18.
17. Working Women's Institute Brief, 55-58.
18. Women's Legal Defense Fund Brief, Part I.
19. Working Women's Institute Brief, 2.4-2.6.
2.0. Ibid., 2.6-2.7.
2.1. Women's Bar Associations Brief at II, Meritor, 477 U.S. 57.
2.2.. Women's Legal Defense Fund Brief, Part I.
2.3· Vinson's Brief, 43.
2.4· Women's Bar Associations Brief at 9, II, Meritor, 477 U.S. 57.
2.5· Vinson's Brief, 45-46.
2.6. Working Women's Institute Brief, 2.4-2.6.
2.7· Meritor, 477 U.S. 57, 65-66.
2.8. Meritor, 477 U.S. 57, 67 (italics added). This standard, however, was more favor-
able to plaintiffs than the one set out in Henson, which required that the alleged
conduct must be "sufficiently severe and persistent to affect seriously the psycho-
logical well-being of employees." 682. F.2.d at 904.
2.9. "Vinson Vindicated," Legal Times, I4 October 1991, 3 (reporting that Vinson re-
ceived some money in the settlement and that one of her attorneys said she was
"very pleased" with the settlement).
30. Lynn Simross, "An Endangered Species: Discrimination Law a Losing Proposition,
Says Attorney Pat Barry," Los Angeles Times, 6 April 1988, § 5, I.
3 I. Ronni Sandroff, "Sexual Harassment in the Fortune 500," Working Woman, De-
cember 1988, 69, 71.
32. Sexual Harassment: Walking the Corporate Fine Line, New York: NOW Legal
Defense and Education Fund, 1987, videocassette; Sexual Harassment: No Laugh-
ing Matter, Advantage Media Inc., 1984, videocassette; Sexual Harassment Aware-
ness Programs, Philips Office Associates, 1983, videocassette.
33. "Harvard Women Subject to Harassment," On Campus With Women (Spring
1985); "Sexual Harassment at Penn State," On Campus With Women (Summer
1984); "Punishable at Princeton: University Adopts New Rules on Harassment,"
and "Sexual Harassment Study at Iowa State University," On Campus With Women
(Fall 1982.); "Harvard Releases Sexual Harassment Report," On Campus With
Women (Winter 1984); "Distinguishing Between Sexual Attraction and Sexual
Harassment: MIT," On Campus With Women (Spring 1983); "Sexual Harassment
and Professional Fitness," On Campus With Women (Fall 1983); "Professor Sus-
pended Without Pay for Harassing Student," On Campus With Women (Summer
1984); "Professor Violates Terms of Suspension for Sexual Harassment Charge,"
On Campus With Women (Spring 1984) (University of Minnesota); "Michigan,
Minnesota, and Idaho: Resignations Due to Harassment Charges," On Campus
With Women (Winter 1984); "Sexual Harassment Charges Cause Censure and
Suspension," On Campus With Women (Spring 1983) (president of Hillsborough
Community College in Florida received a ninety-day suspension for sexual harass-
ment of female employees and a student); "Minnesota Law School Settles Sexual
Harassment Suit for $300,000," On Campus With Women (Spring 1985);
"Minnesota Law School Charged in $3 Million Harassment Suit," and "Showing
Pornographic Film Leads to $4 Million Lawsuit," On Campus With Women (Sum-
mer 1984) (St. Louis University); "$2.30,000 Settlement in New Jersey Harassment
Suit," On Campus With Women (Spring 1984) (Ramapo College in New Jersey);
Notes to pp. T7o-I75
"A New Sort of Policy: Sexual Harassment Defense Insurance," On Campus With
Women (Spring 1983).
34. "Top Awards to Victims," Congressional Quarterly Researcher, 9 August 1991, 542.
35. "Firing Employee Who Helped Co-Worker File Harassment Complaint Violates
Law," On Campus With Women (Summer 1980): 14 Uordan v. Blaw Knox
Foundry and Machinery in Wheeling, WV).
36. Wright v. Methodist Youth Services, 511 F. Supp. 307 (N.D. Ill. 1981) (black male
was terminated from defendant social services agency because of his resistance to
homosexual advances from his supervisor); Goluszek v. H.P. Smith, 697 F. Supp.
1452 (N.D. Ill. 1988).
37. Craik v. University of Minnesota, 73I F.2d 465 (8 th Cir. 1984).
38. Shellhammer v. Lewallen, 770 F.2d 167 (6 th Cir. 1985); "Housing Law Used in Sex
Harassment Case," New York Times, I I December 1983, 20.
39. Lexis-Nexis search of the New York Times by the author, 27 December 2006. The
following years were: 1995-280, 1996-238, 1997-379, 1998-640, 1999-236,
2000-138,2001-140, 2002-115,2003-124, 2004-155, and 2005-99.
40. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission, Sexual Harassment Charges, EEOC &
FEPAs Combined: FY 1992-FY 2005, at htto:llwww.eeoc.govlstatslharass.html
(accessed 27 December 2006). The percentage of men filing cases has steadily risen
and in 2005 represented 14.3 % of all cases filed.
41. Harris v. Forklift Systems, Inc., 510 U.S. 17 (1993); Oncale v. Sundowner Offshore
Services, 523 U.S. 75 (1998);
42. Faragher v. City of Boca Raton, 524 U.S. 775 (1998); Burlington Industries v.
Ellerth, 524 U.S. 742 (1998).
43. Pennsylvania State Police v. Suders, 542 U.S. 129 (2004); Burlington North v.
White, 126 S. Ct. 2405 (2006) (case involving a white male supervisor harassing
a black female plaintiff).
44. Franklin v. Gwinnett County Public Schools, 523 U.S. 60 (1992); Gebster v. Lago
Vista Independent School District, 523 U.S. 274 (1998); Davis v. Monroe County
Board of Education, 526 S. Ct. 629 (1999).
45. Robinson v. Jacksonville Shipyards, 760 F. Supp. 1486 (M.D. Fl. 1991); Ellison v.
Brady, 924 F. 2d 872 (9 th Cir. 1991); DiCenso v. Cisneros, 96 F.2d 1004 (lh Cir.
th
1996); Jenson v. Eveleth Taconite, 842 F. Supp. 847 (1993), 130 F.3d I287 (8 Cir.
1997)·
46. North Country, Warner Brothers Entertainment Corp., 2005. The movie was based
on a book by Clara Bingham and Laura Leedy Gansler entitled Class Action: The
Story of Lois Jenson and the Landmark Case that Changed Sexual Harassment
Law.
47. Unruh Civil Rights Act, California Civil Code, § 51.9 (1995); California General
Education Code, § 212.5,48900.2 (1995).
48. Harriet Chiang, "Judge Halves $7.1 Million Award in Harassment Case But Bay
Area Woman Will Still Get Record Sum," San Francisco Chronicle, 29 November
1994, §A, 14; EEOC, EEOC Responds to Final Report of Mitsubishi Consent
Decree Monitors, 23 (Washington, D.C.: EEOC, May 2001) (EEOC press release).
49. The Street Harassment Project in New York City and Hollabac NYC are two
example of local collective action. The Street Harrassment Project at http://
www.strettharassmentpro;ect.org/; HollabanNYC at http://www.hollabacknyc.
blogspot.com/j see also Maggie Hadleigh-West's film War Zone (Media Educaiton
Foundation. 1998).
Notes to pp. L75-L89
50. Daphne Patai, Heterophobia: Sexual Harassment and the Future of Feminism
(Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 1998).
51. Jane Gallop, Feminist Accused of Sexual Harassment (Durham, NC: Duke Univer-
sity Press, 1997). See also Elizabeth Fox-Genovese, "Rethinking Sexual Harass-
ment," Partisan Review (1996): 366-74. Fox-Genovese was also accused of
sexual harassment by an employee who was a former graduate student.
52. National Council for Research on Women, Sexual Harassment: Research and
Resources, 3rd ed. (New York: National Council for Research on Women, 1995),
50.
H. 240 F.3d 200 (3 rd Cir. 2001).

I. McAdam, McCarthy, and Zald, Comparative Perspectives, 25.
2. Ibid.
3. Ibid. at 2.
4· Ibid. at 5·
5. Lacking the information and perspective that others afford, isolated individuals
would seem especially likely to explain their troubles on the basis of personal rather
than system attributions. The movement provided "system attributions" that
afforded the necessary rationale for resistance. Ibid. at 9.
6. Ibid.
7. Susan Brownmiller and Delores Alexander, "How We Got From Here: From Car-
mita Wood to Anita Hill," Ms., January/February 1992, 71.
8. Ellis, "Sexual Harassment and Race."
9. Kimberle Crenshaw, "Race, Gender, and Sexual Harassment," Southern California
Law Review 65 (1992): 1467, 1469-70; Crenshaw, "Mapping the Margins," 93-
II8.
10. John Beckwith and Barbara Beckwith, "Sexual Harassment: Your Body or Your
Job," Science for the People (July/August 1980): 6.
II. Yla Eason, "When Your Boss Wants Sex," Essence, March 1981, 82. Eason also
argued that, as the last hired and the first fired, African-American women have the
least to lose, noting that the most oppressed people tended to be in the forefront of
civil uprisings.
12. Brief for Appellant, Miller v. Bank of America, 600 F. 2d 211.
13. Joint Pre-Trial Statement at 7, Munford v. James T. Barnes and Co., 441 F. Supp.
459 (E.D. Mich. 1977)·
14. Continental Can Company, 297 N.W.2d at 246.
15. Crenshaw, "Whose Story Is It Anyway?" 421-34.
16. The Merit System Protection Board studies on sexual harassment in 1981, 1988,
and 1995 produced similar rates of sexual harassment. Merit Systems Protection
Board, Sexual Harassment in the Federal Workplace: Is It A Problem; Merit System
Protection Board, Sexual Harassment of Federal Workers: An Update; Merit Sys-
tem Protection Board, Sexual Harassment in the Federal Workplace: Trends, Prog-
ress, Continuing Challenges (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office,
1995). Rates of sexual harassment at educational institutions remain high also.
Michelle L. Kelley and Beth Parsons, "Sexual Harassment in the 1990S: A Univer-
sity-Wide Survey of Faculty, Administrators, Staff, and Students," Journal of Higher
Notes to pp. I89-I9I 2.47
Education 71 (2000): 548-69 (between 19% and 43% of females at Ohio State
University reported sexual harassment). Despite these high rates of harassment,
Freada Klein believes that sexual harassment is generally not as egregious today as
it was in the 1970s. Klein, telephone interview, 2.6 March 2001.
17. Mary F. Rogers, "Clarence Thomas, Patriarchal Discourse and PubliclPrivate
Spheres," Sociological Quarterly 39 (1998): 289-308 (describing how Thomas used
arguments about privacy to avoid inquiries into whether he sexually harassed Anita
Hill). Bill Clinton did the same thing. Both men also attributed political motives to
their accusers.
18. Mink, Hostile Environment, 77,115.
19. See, for example, Geoghegan, Which Side Are You On?
20. Hoff, Law, Gender, and Injustice, 255. She noted that the treatment of the female
employee in Meritor was so blatant that it would be difficult to apply to "'normal,'
on-the-job examples of gender-biased harassment of female employees in the work-
place." Ibid., 258-59.
21. Pamela Paul, Pornified: How Pornography is Transforming Our Lives, Our Rela-
tionships, and Our Families (New York: Times Books, 2005); Ariel Levy, Female
Chauvinist Pigs: Women and the Rise of Raunch Culture (New York: Free Press,
20°5)·
22. Nan Stein, "Bullying or Sexual Harassment? The Missing Discourse of Rights in an
Era of Zero Tolerance," Arizona Law Review 45 (Fall 2003): 783-99; James E.
Gruber and Phoebe Morgan, eds., In the Company of Men: Male Dominance and
Sexual Harassment (Boston: Northeastern University Press, 2005), x.
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Disch, Estelle, 10 June 2005, Orlando, FL
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266 Bibliography
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Equal Rights Advocate, December 198o-Winter 1985.
Feminist Alliance Against Rape Newsletter, 1974-1978.
Labor Pains, vol. I, no. 1 (May 1975), no. 2 (November 1975), no. 3 (March 1976).
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On Campus With Women, June 1978-Spring 1985.
On the Job, Summer 1982, Winter/Spring 1983.
Index
Abzug, Bella 35 American Psychological Association's

Advocates for Women in San Division of Psychology of Women
Francisco 69, 186 94
Aldisert, Ruggero John 54, 212 Arditti, Rita 148
Alexander v. Yale 58, 59, 60, 62, Arizona State University - Women
88,9 2 ,101, 1°4,194,195, Against Sexual Harrassment 93
196, 197,212, 213, 214, Artists for Responsible Theater 93,221
223 Asian Pacific American Bar
Alexander, Ronnie 59 Association 243
Alliance Against Sexual Coercion Asner, Ed 105, 209
(AASC) 3,4, 27, 4 1, 4 2 , 4 6, Association of American Colleges'
47,5°,74,82,85,93,1°3, 104, Project on the Status and
115,119,122,123,124,131, Education of Women 221,222,
134,15°,179, 18 4,19°,194, 236, 241
2°9,210,211,216,217,219, Augustine Petro v. United Trucking
229 Company 128
American Association of University
Professors 94, 157 Backhouse, Connie 87, 96, 185, 195
American Association of University Baker, Russell 60, 101
Women (AAUW) 166, 243 Baldwin, Pat 74,85,137,187
American Civil Liberties Union Barnes v. Castle 53, 59, 87, 164, 194,
(ACLU) 30, 34, 48,56,1°3,114, 197, 204, 212, 227
116, 184, 21 3 Barnes v. Oody 140, 237
Metropolitan Detroit Branch 56, Barnes v. Train 16, 49, 193, 197
199 Barnes, Paulette 16, 26, 36,49, 171,
Women's Rights Project 29, 39, 88, 180, 182, 183, 193, 197, 219
166, 181, 184,243 Barry, Marion 92, III, 112, 130, 181,
American Council on Education - 195,228
Office of Women 94 Barry, Patricia 154, 163, 166, 167,
American Enterprise Institute 134, 169,170 ,19 8,199,220,228,
144, 145 24 2, 244
American Federation of Government Bavar, Tamara 75, II4
Employees 2.3' Bazelon, David 53, loU
268 Index
Berkman, Brenda 85 Center for Law and Social Policy 69

Berns, Walter 134, 144, 235, 23 8 Center for National Policy Review 71,
Black Women Organized for Political 215, 2.2.9
Action 181,213 Center for Women in Government
Bloustein, Edward J. 94 2.59
Blumenthal, Susan :u.6, 229 Center for Women's Policy Studies 88,
Bolton, Frances P. 24, 204 23 6
Bork, Robert 164, 165, 166 Central Presbyterian Church, New
Bralove, Mary 36, 208, 238 York City 38
Brophy, Rags 44, 219 Chicana Service Action Center, Los
Brown v. City of Guthrie 120 Angeles 70, 80, 215
Brownmiller, Susan 34, 37, 52, 207, Chilton, Pamela 91
208,212,218,234,24 6 Chisholm, Shirley 37
Bruckman, Gilda 148 Civil Rights Act of 19643, II, 13, 14,
Buchwald, Art 22, 206 15, 2.5, 62., 77, 116, 193, 197,
Buckley, William F. 54, 101 199, 20 4, 23 2, 245
Bularzik, Mary 44, 94 Education Amendments of 1972 58,
Bundy v. Jackson 57,78, 113, 120, 193,197
164, 196, 198, 21 7 Equal Employment Act 14
Bundy, Sandra 78, 92, 112, 137, 160, Civil Rights Act of 1991 12.8, 262
180, 181, 182, 183, 198 Clark University 141,147,149,151,
Bunster, Ximena 147, 148, 181, 239 181,239
Burns, Ellen Bree 60, 61, 213, 240 Clarke, Elissa 76, 217, 232, 234
Burton, Judith 58 Clauss, Carin 69
Bush, George H.W. 139, 140, 160, Cleveland Women Working 219
176, 23 6 Clinton, President William J. 152,
16 4, 17 2 , 21 4, 247
Cabranes, Jose 60, 214 Coal Employment Project (CEP) 72,
Califa, Antonio J. 12.6, 232 73, 80, 89, 160, 166, 186, 187,
California 216,23 2 ,234,24°,243,25 1,
California Commission on Women 2.61
13 0 Coal Mining Women's Support Team
California State University Sexual 74
Harrassment Task Force 93 Coalition Against Sexual
Women Organized for Employment in Harrassment, University of
San Francisco 89 Minnesota 92, 221
Cambridge Rape Crisis Center 42 Coalition of Labor Union Women 187
Cambridge Women's Center and Cohen, Leah 87, 96, 195
Vocations for Social Change 219 Cohn-Stuntz, Elizabeth 41, 44,85,
Campbell, Alan K. 112, 115, 121, 18 4
122,228,23 1 Colorado Civil Rights Commission
Carter, President James E. 60, 69, 71, 130, 2.33
80,116,133,13 8,160, 163,178, Columbano, Louette 156
21 4, 21 5 Connecticut Act Concerning
Cavanaugh, John 115, 231 Harassment as an Unfair
Center Against Sexual Harrassment of Employment Practice 129,232
the Women's Legal Clinic 88, 220 Connecticut Women's Educational
Center for Constitutional Rights 38, and Legal Fund 243
60, 62, 166, 243 Connolly, Harriet 37, 38
Index lob')
Continental Can Company v. 30,36,51,52.,54,57,58,72.,76,

Minnesota 77, 21 7 7 8,80,84,86,88,89,9 1,9 8,
Cook, Alice 34 103,112.,115,116,118,119,
Cooper, Maudine Rice 19,98,181, 12.0, 12.1, 12.2, 12.4, 12.6, 12.7,
205, 21 3 128, 129, 130, 13 I, 132, 133,
Corne v. Bausch and Lomb 30, 36, 134,135,13 6 ,137,13 8,139,
193, 194, 198, 204, 205, 212 140, 14~ 146, 149, 158, 160,
Corne, Jane 17, 18, 19, 27, 30, 36, 162, 164, 165, 166, 168, 169,
193, 19 8 170,17 1,173,174,182., 18 5,
Cornell University Human Affairs 188,193,194,196,19 8,200,
Program (HAP) 28,38 204, 205, 213, 217, 2.2.4, 2.26,
Craig v. Boren 14, 204 229,23 0 ,2.35,23 6,2.43,2.45,
Crawford, Jan 36 259, 2.60
Crocker, Phyllis 6 I, 2 I 3, 214, 24 I Equal Pay Act in 19 63 I3
Crull, Peggy 40,67,84,96,153,154,185, Equal Protection Clause 14
207, 209, 217, 218, 222, 234, 235 Equal Rights Advocates, Inc. (ERA)
Cunningham, Lynn 69 49, 62., 69, 72., 80, 87, 92., 156,
16 3,166, 18 5,195,199,200,
Dannhauser, Werner J. 157 2.12, 213, 2.29, 2.43
DeCrow, Karen 30, 32, 34, 35 Evans, Benjamin L. 19, 181
DeVane, Geneva 17, 18, 19,30,50,
193, 198 Fair Employment Act 75, 12.6
Department of Education's Office for Farley, Lin 2.8, 2.9, 30, 31,32.,35,38,
Civil Rights 93 39,95,97,100, 105,115,118,
Disch, Estelle 148, 239 122.,130,184,185,193,195,
District of Columbia Commission on 207,208,2.09,210,211,2.12,
Women 88 214, 2.24, 22.6
District of Columbia Department of Faust, Angela 32
Corrections 78 Federal Executive Orders 11246 and
Doro, Sue 68 II375 68
Drapkin, Rita 76 Federation of Organizations for
Dubrow, Laurie 87, 210, 223 Professional Women 219
Dunlap, Mary 49,50,185,212 Feminist Alliance Against Rape 41,44,
Durham, Heidi 156 18 4
Dworkin, Andrea 148 Finger, Greg 38
Dzeich, Billie Wright 157, 241 Firey, Nina 156
Fisher, Mary-Lynne 198, 212
Eagle Forum 135, 136, 160 Firzpatrick, Colonel Thomas 125
Eckstein, Enid 76 Fleischer, Charles 164
Edelsberg, Herman 13 Flexner, Eleanor 52
Edna McConnell Clark and Robert Flinn, Gene 142., 237
Sterling Clark Foundation 71 Fonda, Jane 89, 105
EEOC v. Rogers sr, 54, 168, 169,230 Fraser, Douglas 75,217,237
Ellis, Judy Trent 98, 99, 182, 22.3, 245, Fresno City-County Commission
2.4 6 on the Status of Women 89, 130,
Employment Law Center of the Legal 234
Aid Society 166, 2.43 Frey, William C. 206
Equal Employment Opportunity Friedan, Betty 12., 13, 12.2.
Commission (EEOC) 13. 17. 19. The Feminist Mystique 12.l.
Index
Furr II, Warwick R. 18, 180, 187, Illinois

197 AFSCME Illinois Council 3 I
233
Garber, Darla Jeanne 17, 18, 55, 193, Illinois Task Force on Sexual
194, 19 8 Harassment in the Workplace
Garth, Leonard I. 54, 212 129, 233
Ginsburg, Ruth Bader 29 Stop Sexual Abuse of Students of the
Goldscheid, Julie 153 American Friends Service
Goodman, Jill Laurie 39, 158, 219, Committee 93
224 Women Employed in Chicago 163,
Gorden, Linda 237 166,243
Graff, Joan 69, 70, 71 Interfaith Project on Working Women
Gray v. Greyhound Lines 51 90
Greenberger, Marcia 69
Greenwald, Judith 37, 38 Jarvela, Judy 67
Gutek, Barbara 101, 124, 159, 238, Johnson, Rosemary 58
241
Kelson, Virginia 138
Hall, Betty Jean 74, 85,137,187,235 Kentucky Commission on Human
Hands, Venetia 83 Rights 72, 74,89,90,130,220,
Hanley, James M. 107, 112, 114, Il5, 234
116, 121, 122, 123, 125, 126, Klein, Freada 39,41,42,43,44,45,
144, 168, 187, 19~ 206, 219, 46,50,86,87,93,96,103,123,
220, 222, 228, 229, 230 124,152,184,209,210,211,
Hanten, Linda 50 212, 21 9,221,223,23 1,235,
Hard Hatted Women 76 239, 247
Harm, Mary Gay 83 Koenig, Rhoda 36, 208
Harper, Connye 76, 128 Kohn, Margaret 69, 197
Harris, Dorris 156 Korbel, Connie 3 2 , 35, 37
Harrod, George R. II 2 Kyriazi v. Western Electric Company
Hart Jr., George 79, II2 77, 19 8 , 21 7
Harvey, Kent 58
Hatch, Orrin 136, 137, 230 Labor Union Women Committee of
Hawkins, Willie Ruth 77, 78, 180, the Illinois Commission on the
18 3,186,19 8 Status of Women 233
Heins, Maurie 30, 31, 207, 219 Ladu, Elizabeth 83
Heneghan, John 70 Largen, Mary Ann 88, 95,113,220,
Herman, Alexis 70, 8 I 222
Hill, Anita 145, 152, 165, 171, 183, Latimer, Arthur H. 59,60,61,213
203,208,23 8,24 6,247 Law Students Civil Rights Research
Hitt, Dick 23, 206 Council (LSCRRC) 29,48,184
Hoaglund, Linda 61, 214 Lawyers' Committee for Civil Rights
Hodge, Diane 67 Under Law 18, 2II
Holtzman, Elizabeth 34, 37 League of Women Voters 80
Hooven, Martha 44, 45, 4 6,96,210, Education Fund Litigation Division
211, 219, 223 69
Horn, Susan 30 Leftkowitz, Rochelle 95
Howard, Libby 70 Leland, Mickey 125
Huff v. County of Butler 142, 237 Lenhoff, Donna 87, lOS. II3
Index
Leventer, Jan 56, 113, 118, 128, 158, Meyer, Susan 29. 30,31.32,34.35,
199, 21 9,229,23 0 ,23 2 38, 39.40,92, 10~ 103, 105.
Levy, Trudy 69, 2..I 5 139.153,184,185,202,107,
Lewis, Helen II3, 199, 228 208, 209,218,23 6,23 8,262
Lewis, Oren Ritter 206 Michigan
Lichtman, Judith 69 Michigan Civil Rights Act 127, 128
Linda Gordon 133, 145, 146, 151 Michigan Civil Rights Commission
Lindsey, Karen 39,103,210, 2II, 225 128,23 2
Lobrato, Mary 130 Michigan Department of Civil Rights
Ludington v. Sambo's Restaurants, 128
Inc. 56, 213 Michigan Department of Labor's
Lumbard, Joseph Edward 60 Office of Women and Work 126
Michigan Employment Security Act
MacKinnon, Catharine 30, 58,95,99, 127
100, 115, 12~ 124, 14~ 154, Michigan Employment Security
158, 166, 167, 169, 182, 196, Commission 128
197,199,205,209, 210, 21~ Michigan Nurses Association 127
21 9,222,223,224,226,23 8,24 2 Michigan Occupational Safety and
MacKinnon, George E. 53 Health Act 127
Macey v. World Airways 77, 217 Michigan Penal Code 127
Major, Elaine 18, 198 Michigan School Code 127
Mann, Paul 93 Michigan Taskforce on Sexual
Marentette v. Michigan Host, Inc. Harassment in the Workplace
128, 232 126, 187
Marshall, Ray 69, 70 Michigan United Auto Workers
Martinez, Vilma S. 50 (UAW) 75
Mazzaferri, Katherine 69, 70, 215 Michigan Women's Commission 127
McDonald, Nancy 45, 96, 210, 2II, Military
223 Aberdeen Proving Ground 173
McPheeters, Jean 37, 186 Andrews Air Force Base 130
Mead, Margaret 102, 147, 225 Fort Meade 12 5, 217
Meadows, Karen 156 Military Personnel Subcommittee of
Medina, William A. I I 4 the House Committee on Armed
Meisburg, Jr., John 242 Services 12 5
Melendez, Rose 67 Miller v. Bank of America 49, 50, 51,
Merit Systems Protection Board 88.145, 164,181,194,19 6,199,
(MSPB) 86, 112, 196,231,246 204, 212, 246
Meritor Savings Bank v. Vinson 88, Miller, Joyce 85
154,157,162, 171,175,181, Miller, Margaret 16, 18, 26,49, 50,
187,190,196,199,236,242 88, 180, 183, 194
Messinger, Ruth 139 Minnesota Department of Human
Mexican American Women's National Rights 78
Association 166, 181 Modern Language Association of
Mexican-American Legal Defense and America's 94
Education Fund (MALDEF) 50, Morgan, Robin 39, 59
62,179,195,115 Ms. Foundation 38
Meyer, Coeli 145 Ms. Magazine 38, 46, 123, 195,203,
Meyer, Mary Coeli 132., 143, 145. 109,117
2.35, 137 Mulligan. William Hughes 60
Index
Munford v. James T. Barnes and Co. National Women's Political Caucus

56, 126, 128, 195, 199 88, 18 5,229
Munford, Maxine 56,92, 126, 180, Neely v. American Fidelity Assurance
18 3,199 Company 57, 21 3
Myers, Frieda 72 Nelms, Dorothy I I4
Nelson, Anne 60, 61, 214, 227
NAACP rr6, 182 Nemy, Enid 32, 35, 36,100,194,208,
NAACP Legal Defense Fund 37 224, 226
Nakamura, Charles 101, 242 New Haven Law Collective 58, 59, 62,
Nale, Fayette 75 197
Napoleon, Kristi Fey 89 New Responses, Inc. 88,95,113,124,
National Advisory Council on 18 5,220,23 6
Women's Educational Programs New Way Community Center, Eagan,
93, 13 8,221, 229 Minnesota 77
National Association of Office New York City Commission on
Workers See also Working Human Rights 32, 35, rr6, 130,
Women - National Association of 193
Office Workers New York City Commission on the
National Association of Office Status of Women 229
Workers 88, 106, 113, 185, 229 New York Radical Feminist
National Black Feminist Organization Conference on Rape 29
116 New York Women Against Rape 153,
National Commission on 166, 243
Unemployment Compensation Newburger, Mary 233
75,128,23 1 Nine to Five 34, 42, 219, 227
National Conference of Black Lawyers Non-Traditional Employment for
166, 181, 213, 243 Women 166, 187, 243
National Conference of Women Northrop, Edward Skottowe
Coal Miners 73,1°3,155,216, 164
240 Norton, Eleanor Holmes 32, 34,
National Congress of Neighborhood 35,37,112,115,116,119,
Women 37, 218 122, 123, 130, 131, 132, 133,
National Council of Jewish Women 137,153,160,181,182, 187,
88,229 188, 193, 19~ 226, 229, 230,
National Education Association 243 234,235
National Emergency Civil Liberties Nussbaum, Karen 106
Committee 166,229, 243
National Employment Law Project 88, Oakar, Mary Rose I I 3
229 Oehmke, Thomas H. 56, 199
National Institute for Women of Color Oestreich, Janet 3 I, 35
166, 181, 243 Oestreich, Jeanenne 132, 143
National Organization for Women Office of Civil Rights of the United
(NOW) 13, 30, 4 8, 50,78, 89, States Department of Education
114,127, rs6, 166, 179, 185, 126,15 8,174, 21 4
198, 217, 229, 240 Office of Equal Opponuniry of the
Brooklyn Chapter 89, 229 Environmental Protection Agency
Legal Defense and Education Fund, 16, 197
Inc. 80, 88, 89, II4, 156, 166, Office of Personnel and Management
243 (OPM) lIS, 134
Index 2.7.1
Ohio Rehnquist, William 169

Columbus Working Women Reifler, Margery 59
Organizing Project, Cleveland Rhode Island Rape Crisis Center 2.2.9
88, 18 5 Rhodes, Frank H.T. 157
Committee Against Sexual Rich, Adrienne II5, 148, 150
Harassment (CASH) 86,89,139, Richey, Charles 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 55,
15 6,220 101, 178, 187, 194, 200, 205,
Olivarius, Ann 58, 59 206
Olivera, Jody 156 Ripskis, Al Louis II2, 114, 187, 228
Organization of Black Activist Women Robinowitz, Robin 90, 220
19, I I I, 200, 228 Robins, Melvin 83
Organization of Pan Asian American Robinson III, Spottswood W. 53, 54,
Women, Inc. 181,243 120, 164, 178, 18~ 187, 197,
199, 200
Pantchenco v. c.B. Dolge Co. 78 Roe v. Wade 14
Parton, Dolly 89, 105 Rosenn, Max 54, 212
Peck, Sidney M. 147, 148, 149, 150, Rougeau, Weldon 71
IF Rowe, Mary 124
Penn, John Garrett 163 Rubinett, Lynn 85,152,219,239
Pennsylvania Ruggiero, Mary 68
Pennsylvania Commission for Women Rutgers University 94, 204
13 0
Philadelphia Commission on Human Safran, Claire 102, 225
Relations 9 I Sanchez, Joseph A. 114, II5, IF
Task Force Against Sexual Sandler, Bernice Resnick 93,240, 241
Harassment, Harrisburg, Sangamon State University 233
Pennsylvania 89 Sauvigne, Karen 29,30,31,32,34,
Phoenix Institute 138, 187 35,37, 3 8 , 39,40,4~ 50 ,9 2 ,
Piercy, Marge 59 IO~ 103, 124, 137, 139, 140,
Pinsky, Jane II 3 153,184,185,2°7,2.08,2°9,

Pinzler, Isa belle Katz I I 3 21 I, 218, 2.19, 220, 222, 226,
Pogrebin, Letty Cottin 102, 209, 225 227,234,235,23 6 ,23 8 ,239
Pressman, Sonia 13 Scalia, Antonin 164
Price, Pamela 59, 60, 61,98,180,181, Schiffer, Lois 69
195,197 Schlafly, Phyllis 134, 135, 13 6, 144,
Prokop, Ruth II2, 115, 122, 123 145
Providence Human Relations Schlei, Norbert 15
Commission 130 Schneider, Elizabeth 60, 203, 242
Schroeder, Patricia 37, III, 125
Radical Shapiro, Susan 69
Cell 16 13 Shellhammer v. Lewallen 171, 245
Lesbian Feminist Liberation 29, Sigworth,Heather 18, 30, 50, 51, 185,
18 4 198,212
New York Radical Feminists 29, 31, Silverman, Diedre 33, 224
40, 18 4 Simon, Anne 58, 60, 61, 62, 89, 157,
Redstockings 13 167,197,212,213,214,220,
Ramos, Anna 70 241
Rape Information Counseling Center Singer, Linda 36, 49,5°,167,185,
233 197
274 Index
Sisterhood of Black Single Mothers District 65 of the Distributive Workers

166, 181,243 of America 37
Slaughter, Jane 76 Federally Employed Women 75, II4,
Smith v. Rust Engineering Company 23 6
7 8 , 21 7 International Chemical Workers
Smith, Abbe 61 Union 76
Smith, Clay 136, 158,229,230 International Union of Electrical,
Smith, Howard W. 15 Radio and Machine Workers
Smith, Jr., John Lewis 206 (IOE) 75, II4
Smith, Randall 164 International Woodworkers of
Smothers, Louise 114, 232 America 76
Sombrotto, Vincent R 75, 114 National Association of Letter
Somson, Barbara 75, 114 Carriers 75, II4
Spears, Adrian Anthony 60 Radio and Machine Workers 75
Stanko, Betsy 149, 150, 151, 239 Union MinoritieslWomen Leadership
Starr, Kenneth 164 Project 127, 186
Stein, Nan 93, 247 United Auto Workers in Michigan 75,
Steinem, Gloria 39, 105 114,128
Stern, Herbert Jay 55, 206 United Auto Workers 75,85
Stewardesses for Women's Rights 4, 13 United Trade Workers Association
Stockman, David 139, 236 in Tacoma, Washington 69,
Stone, Lisa 59 186
Swerdlow, Marian 67 Women's Committee of Local 201 of
Swygert, Luther Merritt 120 the International Union of
Electrical Workers 75
Taub, Nadine 18, 20, 50, 51, 52,60, United Church of Christ 83
167,185,197,200,2°3,2°5, United Methodist Women 84
212, 218, 226, 241 United Nations Ad Hoc Group on
Taylor, Gene 115, 144, 229, 237 Equal Rights for Women 46
Taylor, Sidney 162, 163, 165, 168 United Nations 36, 103
Thomas, Clarence 138, 140, 145, 152, United States Chamber of Commerce
160, 165, 171, 183 14 2, 164
Tomkins v. Public Service Electric and United States Department of
Gas 50, 51, 52, 54, 55, 56,88, Commerce 70
181,194,195,200,212, 21 3 United States Department of
Tomkins, Adrienne 55,92,104,105, Health, Education and Welfare
137,160,193,200 88,9 2
Troll, Robert 164 United States Department of Housing
and Urban Development (HUD)
Unions 112, 114
AFL-CIO 75, II4, 21 7, 243 United States Department of Justice
American Federation of Government 88, II3, 1I5
Employees 75, Iq, 218, 236 United States Department of Labor 68,
American Federation of State, County 69,7°,7 1,72,80,112,186,195,
and Municipal Employees 74, 216,23 0
216, 236 Bureau of Apprenticeship and
Coalition of Labor Union Women Training 70
75, 85, 114, 127, 166, 186, 187, United States Department of Women's
243 Affairs 114
Index
United States Merit Systems Women Against Campus Harassment

Protection Board. See Merit at the University of Wisconsin 92
Systems Protection Board (MSPB) Women Employed Institute 88, 185,
University of Michigan's Institute of 229
Labor and Industrial Relations Women for Racial & Economic
126 Equality (WREE) 89, 186
University of Rhode Island Sexual Women in Self-Help of the New York
Harassment Committee 93 State Displaced Homemaker
Urban League 19,77,139 Program 166, 218, 243
Women in the Trades 118, 215, 217,
Vermeulen, Joan 229 229
Vinson v. Taylor 242, 243 Women in the Work Force Committee
Vinson, Mechelle 154, 162, 163, of the American Friends Service
164, 165, 166, 167, 168, 170, Committee 219
180, 182, 183, 242, 243, 244 Women Lawyers Association of
Michigan 56, 199
Wagner, K. C. 83, 86, 139, 153, 154, Women Office Workers 46,89
218,23 6,239 Women on the Job of Port
Wald, George 150 Washington, New York 166
Warling, Cliff 77 Women Organized Against Sexual
Washington Human Rights Harassment (WOASH) 92
Commission 76 Women Working in Construction 69,
Washington, D.C. Rape Crisis Center 70,80,186, 21 5
41,45, 18 4 Women's Alliance for Job Equity
Wehrli, Lynn 41, 42, 43, 44,85,184, (WAJE) 90,166,185,243
18 5,194,210,223 Women's Bar Association 243, 244
Wein, Stuart 18, 199, 219 Women's Counseling Project 153, 166,
Weiner, Linda 157, 213, 220, 221, 243
222, 239, 241 Women's Equity Action League
Wells, Denise 85, 86, 219 Educational and Defense Fund
Western Kentucky Coalmining (WEALEDF) 213,229
Women's Support Team 85,137, Women's Justice Center, Detroit,
18 7 Michigan 56, 62, 76, 88, 113,
Whyte, William Foote 34 118,127,128,158,185,199,
Wider Opportunities for Women 69, 229, 232
71,138,166,186,187,215,243 Women's Labor Project in San
Wilber, Nancy 87, 221 Francisco 219
Williams 58, II I Women's Law Project, Philadelphia,
Williams v. Saxbe 16, 18,20,21,22, Pennsylvania 91, 166,243
24,25,55,101,113,181, 187, Women's Legal Defense Fund (WLDF)
194,195,200, 2°4, 2 °5,206,227 49,62,69,87, 1°5,113,139,
Williams, Diane 16, 17, 18, 19, 21, 22, 166, 167, 168, 179, 185, 198,
24,25,55,92,98,1°4,1°5,113, 21 9, 229, 243, 244
114,115,171,180,182, 183,193 Women's Rights Committee of the
Winkler, John 59 New York County Lawyers'
Wisconsin Association 166, 243
Action Against Sexual Harassment in Women's Rights Litigation Clinic at
Employment and Education Fair Rutgers Law School 18,62,185,
Employment Act H!l/ 197,200
Index
Women's Rights Project of the 102, 103, 115, 119, 134, 137,
Instituto Puertorriqueno de 139,143,14 6 ,15 2 ,153,154,
Derechos Civiles 166, 243 158,163,166,167,179,182,
Wood, Carmita 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 190,198,207,208,209,211,
35, 37, 193, 20 7 213, 218,22.0,228, 229, 233,
Workers Defense League 166, 187, 243 235, 23~ 23 8, 239, 243
Working Women United (WWU) 3, Metropolitan Sexual Harassment
27, 3 0 ,3 1 , 35,3~ 3 8,47, 50 Project 83
Working Women United Institute Working Women - National
(WWUI) 4, 34, 37, 40, 46, 50, Association of Office Workers 88
102, 103,194,195,208,233 Wright, J. Skelly 120, 164,
Boehm Foundation 84 18 7
Exxon Foundation 83 Wright, Jim 23
Ford Foundation 83
John Hay Whitney Foundation 84 Yale
Ms. Foundation 38 Council of Third World Women at
National Institute of Mental Health Yale 59
37 Undergraduate Women's Caucus,
New York Foundation 40,83 Grievance Committee 58, 59, 61,
Public Interest Law Foundation 84 213, 214
United Presbyterian Church Council YWCA 46, 83, 89, 139, 166,
on Women 84 243
Working Women's Institute (WWI) 27,
40, 50, 52,78,8~ 83,85,95, Zinn, Howard 150

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The Women's Movement against Sexual Harassment

The Women's Movement against Sexual Harassment recounts the story of

Carrie N. Baker is a Visiting Assistant Professor of Women's Studies at

Cambridge University Press

© Carrie N. Baker 2008

This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception

First published 2008

Printed in the United States of America

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data

ISBN 978-0-521-87935-4 hardback

Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or

Introduction: Enter at Your Own Risk I

PART I: RAISING THE ISSUE OF SEXUAL HARASSMENT

I Articulating the Wrong: Resistance to Sexual Harassment

4 Blue-Collar Workers and Hostile Environment Sexual Harassment 67

PART III: THE MOVEMENT'S INFLUENCE ON PUBLIC POLICY

6 Government Policy Develops III

Conclusion: Entering the Mainstream I77

2.1 Sexual Harassment Speak Out Poster, 1975 page 33

I have vivid memories of October 1991, during my first year of law

AASC Alliance Against Sexual Harassment, Cambridge, MA

WAJE Women's Alliance for Job Equity, Philadelphia, PA

of the early sexual harassment cases and actively participated in developing

political intersectionality shaped women's experiences of sexual harassment

conclusion assesses the history of the movement against sexual harassment.

RAISING THE ISSUE OF SEXUAL

Articulating the Wrong: Resistance to Sexual Harassment

Resistance to sexual harassment emerged in the form of several lawsuits filed

violence against women, as well as women's sexual autonomy and pleasure,

EARLY SEXUAL HARASSMENT CASES

African-American men while working for federal agencies in Washington, D.C.

there was no employer policy or regulation supporting the alleged discrimina-

an isolated personal incident but "created an artificial barrier to employment

trivialized the decision by focusing on Richey's footnote on bisexuality, rumi-

Speaking Out: Collective Action against Sexual

WORKING WOMEN UNITED

workers, professionals, waitresses, clerical workers, executives, and domestics.

addressed "the problems and concerns of working women," encouraged all

In addition to working on the NIMH grant, WWUI assisted attorneys work-

Sauvigne received the Mademoiselle Award in I977. They also began to

ALLIANCE AGAINST SEXUAL COERCION

females, males' greater access to instruments of power, the absence of sanctions,

produced a well-researched and theoretically sophisticated twenty-three-page

individuals' rights to sexual autonomy, the issue of sexual harassment in the

A Winning Strategy: Early Legal Victories against

SEXUAL HARASSMENT IN THE WORKPLACE

that coercive sexual advances in the workplace had a disparate impact on

SEXUAL HARASSMENT IN EDUCATION

Alexander v. Yale was significant in several regards. First, despite Price's

In 1964, employment discrimination tended to be viewed as a series of isolated and

Judges initially viewed sexual harassment as merely a personal problem, an "iso-

GROWTH OF A MOVEMENT AGAINST

Blue-Collar Workers and Hostile Environment

intimidation, and coercion and required contractors to assign two or more

the public comment period, DOL received twenty-eight comments from

WOMEN COAL MINERS

Unionized women in other industries also worked to combat sexual harass-

leadership in techniques for responding to sexual harassment complaints. In

HOSTILE ENVIRONMENT LAWSUITS