Chapter 3 Fluids in Motion--

- The Bernoulli Equation

(Elementary Fluid Dynamics –The Bernoulli Equation)

- - In previous chapter, the fluid is considered as stationary.

- - In this chapter, the fluid is considered as motions (fluid dynamics) in

an elementary way.

- - The fundamental law that governs the motion of fluid particles is

 
F =m a (Newton's second law)
 Obtain the celebrated Bernoulli equation, and
apply it to various flows, involving some assumptions.

- -The Bernoulli equation is appropriately called

" The most used and the most abused equation in fluid mechanics. "
§3.1 Newton’s Second Law

- - Newton' s Second law of motion

 
F=ma

where F = net force acting on the fluid particle

a = acceleration of fluid particle
m = mass of fluid particle

- - In this chapter, viscous effects will be ignored

( viscous force  pressure difference or gravity force )
 Inviscid fluids  µ  0
(  thermal conductivity of fluid  0)
(  no heat transfer)
  Net pressure force   Net gravity force   particle   particle 
=>   +   =     
 on a particle   on particle   mas   acceleration 
  
=> － p   g   a

Coordinate System commonly used, 3-D 2-D

─ Rectangular coordinates (x, y, z)  (x, z)

─ Cylindrical coordinates (r,  , z)   (r, )
─ Spherical coordinates (r, ,  )  (r,  )

 
─ The motion of each fluid particle is described in term of its velocity vector, V .

 dr 
V r  position vector
dt
 
 magnitude= V = V


 direction
－ As the particle moves, it follows a particular path, the shape of which is
governed by the velocity of the particle.
－The location of the particle along the path
 f ( where the particle started at the initial time, its velocity along the path)

－ If the flow is steady ( i.e ; nothing changes with time at a given location in the
flow field ), each successive particle that passes through a given point [ Such as
point (1) in fig.3.1a ] will follow the same path.

－ The lines that are tangent to the velocity vectors throughout the flow field are
called streamlines.
Streamline Coordinates (S, R)
─ Distance S = S(t) from some convenient origin.
ds
=> V =
dt
─ Local radius of curvature of the streamline , R = R ( s )
=> shape of the streamline.
─ the coordinate normal to the streamline, n.
To apply Newtons second law to a particle flowing along its streamline ,

   dv
F ma where a 
dt
In x - z plane
  a s  along the streamline (streamline acceleration)
a 
a n  normal to the streamline (normal acceleration)

dv v dt v ds v dn
a   
dt t dt s dt n dt
v v v dn v v v2
  v   ( )v 
t s n dt t s R

dV V ds  V  
as     V 
dt s dt  s  
2 (3.1)
an 
V 
R 
where R  local radius of curvatureof the streamline
s  distance measuredalong the streamlinefrom some arbitraryinitial point.
 V
a S  0 if 0
s
a n  0 if R   ( R   straight line)
Gravitational force
  primary concern
as  
 Pressure force 
 a 
an   F 
 Viscous forces 
 Surface tension effects 
negligible
 §3.2 F= ma Along a Streamline

  V 
 FS  ( m )( a S )     V
  S




 Gravity force (weight)
 FS 
 Net pressure force

The gravity force  w   g     

wS
sin  
w
=>  w S  - w sin  or  w S  -  sin 
The net pressure force in the streamline direction
p s
Fps  ( p  p s )ny  ( p  p s )ny (p s  )
s 2
 2p sny
p p
 sny   V
s s
v
 ws  F ps  V (v )
s
p v
 V sin   V  V (v )
s s
( Equation of motion along streamline)
p v
  sin    v  (3.4)
s s
p v
or  g sin    v
s s
Example 3.1
Given :
Inviscid, incompressible, steady flow along
the horizontal streamline A - B
a3
V  V0 (1  3 )
x
Determine :
P = f(x) from A ( x A  -, VA  V0 )
to B ( x B  -a, VB  0 )
Solution :
From equation of motion along streamline,
p V
 g sin    V  (3.4)
s s
Since   0, s  x
p V
  V
x x
 a3     a 3 
 V0 1  3  V0 1  3 
 x  x   x 

2 a3  3 2 a3  a3
 
 V0 1  3  a  3 x 
4
 3V0 1  3  4
 x   x x
p 2 a3  a3 p
  3V0 1  3  4 for x  a 0
x  x  x x
p
for x  1.205a  0.619V02 / a
x
a3 a3
p  3V (1  3 ) 4 x
0
2

x x
a3 a3
0 p    3V0 (1  3 ) 4 x
P x 2

x x
 ( a )6 
a
 p  V02 ( ) 3  x 
 x 2 
 
 P V
From Eq(3.4) Such as   sin    V
s s
dz
Since sin   (along the streamline)
ds
dV 1 dV 2
V 
ds 2 ds
 p   p 
dp   ds   dn
 s   n 
(dn  0 sin ce along the streamline)
 p 
  ds
 s 
p dp
 
s ds
 dz dp 1 dV 2
    
ds ds 2 ds
1
 dp  d (V 2 )  dz  0 (along a streamline)  (3.5)
2
Integration
dp 1 2
  V  gz  c (along a streamline)  (3.6)
 2
If   const. (for liquid and also gases if speed is ”not too high ”)
1
 p  V 2  gz  const (along a streamline)  (3.7)
2
The above equation is the celebrated Bernoulli equation.
Assumptions involved
(1) Viscous effects are assumed negligible.
(2) The flow is assumed to be steady.
(3) The flow is assumed to be incompressible.
(4) The equation is applicable along a streamline.
Example 3.2
Consider the flow of air around a bicyclist moving through still air with velocity V0 as
is shown in figure. Determine the difference in the pressure between points (1) and (2).

Solution :

Bernoullis equation along a streamline

1 1
p1  V12  gz1  p2  V22  gz2
2 2
a coordinate system fixed to the bike,
 V2  0, V1  V0 , z1  z2
1
 p1  V02  p2
2
1
 p2  p1  V02
2
Garden hose Nozzle

1 1
p1  V12  gz1  p 2  V22  gz 2
2 2
Since z1  z 2
1 1
 p1  V12  p 2  V22
2 2
1
 p1  p 2   (V22  V12 )
2
If p1  p 2  V2  V1
Airfoil

1 1 1
p1  V1  gz1  p2  V2  gz2  p3  V32  gz3
2 2

2 2 2
1 1
 p2  V2  gz2  p3  V32  gz3
2

2 2
 p3  p2   V22  V32   g ( z2  z3 )
1
2
Since V2  V3 & z2  z3  p3  p2
  
3.3 F  m a Normal to a streamline

For example, the devastating low - pressure region at the center of a tornado can be
explained by applying Newtons Second Law across the nearly circular streamlines of
the tornado.
Force balance on the fluid particle shown in fig 3.3
 
in the normal direction, n ,

 F  m a
n n
2
  F ( )
V
n
R
 F n  wn Fpn
Note : wn  gravity force
Fpn  pressure force
wn  w cos   g cos
Fpn  ( p  pn )sy  ( p  pn )sy
 2pnsy
p p n
 sny ( where pn  )
n n 2
p
  
n
p
 Fn   g cos  n
(3.9)
 P V2
  g cos    ( )
n R
P V2 dz
  g cos   (sin ce cos  )
n R dn
dz p V 2
  g   (3.10)
dn n R

Equation of motion along the normal direction

Equation of motion along the normal direction
dz p V 2
 g    (3.10)
dn n R
dz
 g 0
dn
if (1) gravity is neglected, or (2) The flow is a horizontal
p V 2
 
n R
p V 2
or 
n R
Note : the positive n direction points toward the " inside " of the curved streamline.

If the pressure increase with distance away from the center of curvature.
 The pressure outside a tornado (typical atm. pressure ) is larger than it is near the
center of the tornado (where an often dangerously low partial vacuum may occur).
 Example 3.3
Given : V(r) = c 1 r for case (a)
c2
V(r) = for case (b)
r
Where c 1 and c 2 are constants
Determine :
Pressure distribution p = p(t)
for each case given that p = p 0 at r = r0

Solution :
Equation of motion along the normal direction of streamline
dz p V 2
 g   (3.10)
dn n R
Streamlines in the horizontal plane  dz/dn  0
p V 2 sin ce
p p
 p V 2

    

n r

n R r r
case (a) V(r)  c 1 r
p c12 r 2
 
r r
 p0 p  r0 c1 rr
p r 2

1 2
p  p 0  c12 (r  r02 )
2
1 2 2
 p  c1 (r  r02 )  p 0
2
c2
case (b) V(r) =
r
p  c 22
 
r r r 2
p 1
or  c 22 3
r r
p  c 22 r 3 r
3
P0  p  c 2 r0 r r
P 2 r

1 2 1 1 
 p c 2  2  2   p 0
2  r0 r 
Equation of motion along the normal direction
dz P V 2
 g    (3.10)
dn n R
V 2 p dp
 gdz  dp  dn (  if S  cons tan t )
R n dn
dp V 2
 dn  gz  0
 R
dp V 2
  dn  gz  Cons tan t across the streamline  (3.11)
 R
If   const.
p V2
 dn  gz constant across the streamline (3.12)
 R
§3.4 Physical Interpretation

Bernoulli equations (Equations for work per unit volume)

or Bernoulli equations (Equations for force per unit area)
1
p  V 2  gz  constant along the streamline (3.13)
2
V2
p  R
dn  gz  constant across the streamline (3.14)

where p [] pressure force/area ;

V2
 R
dn[]mass  acceleration / area ;

gz[]gravity force / area

Assumption : (1) Steady state

(2) Inviscid
(3) Incompressible
Equation for work per unit mass
p 1 2
 V  gz  cons tan t along the streamline
 2
p V2
  dn  gz  constant across the streamline
 R
p
where []work by pressure force ;

V2
 R dn[]kinetic energy of the particle ;
gz[]work done by gravitation force (or work done by the weight)
" Work - energy Relation ? "
  
From F  ma
Also, the 1st and 2nd of thermodynamics (the energy and entropy equations)
From Eq.(3.13)
p V2
   z  cons tan t on a streamline
g 2 g
p V2
where [] pressure head ; []velocity head ; z[]Elevation head
g 2g

1
p  V 2  gz  constant along the streamline
2
1
where p[] static pressure ; V 2 []Dynamic pressure ; gz[]Hydrostatic pressure
2
§3.7 The Energy Line and the Hydraulic Grade Line
Bernoulli equation
1
p  V 2  gz  constant along the streamline
2
p V2
   z  constant on a streamline  H  total head
g 2 g
[] ft or meter head  Energy line
p V2
where []pressure head ; []velocity head ; z []elevation head
g 2g

Note：
p v2
Energy line (EL) =  z
g 2 g
p
Hydraulic grade line (HGL)   z  piezometric head
g
 Example 3.4

Given:

Discuss :
The energy of the fluid at points (1), (2), and (3) by using the Bernoulli equation.
Solution :
Bernoulli equation along a streamline
1
p  V 2  gz  const.
2
1 1 1
 p1  V12  gz1  p2  V22  gz2  p3  V32  gz3  cons tan t
2 2 2
Pressure ( max) at (1)  p between (1) & (2)
 Velocity ( max) (2)
 Gravity
Deceleration

Velocity  0 at (3)
potential  max .

Assuming no friction
Example 3.5
Given :
(a) Right figure
(b) Inviscid, incompressible and steady flow
Describe :
The pressure variation between points (1) & (2) , and points (3) and (4)
Solution :
(1) A - B section . R = 
Equation of motion along the normal direction
P dz V2
  g 
n dn R
V2
Integration   p   
  const .
dn  gz  constant across the streamline
R
R    p  gz  const.
p1  gz1  p 2  gz 2  p1  p 2  g ( z 2  z1 )
or p1  p 2  gh2 1 ( p 2  0)
(1) C - D section
V2
p R
dn  gz  constant across the streamline

dn  dz
z3 V 2 z4 V 2
p3   
z0 R
(dz )  gz3  p4    z0 R
(dz )  gz 4

z4 v 2 z3 v 2
p3  p 4     dz   gz 4     dz   gz3
z0 R z0 R
v2
 dz   g ( z 4  z3 )
z4
 p4    z3 R
v2
 dz   gh43
z4
 p3  p 4    z3 R
( where p4  0)
 §3.5 Static, Stagnation, Dynamic and Total Pressure
Bernoulli e quations
1
p  V 2  gz  constant along the streamline (total pressure) [] psi, lb/ft 2 , or N/m 2
2
where p[]Thermodynamic pressure (static pressure)
1
V 2 []Dynamic pressure
2
gz[]Hydrostatic pressure

Static pressure
From example 3.5
p1  p3  gh31 

p3  gh43  p4 ( p4  0)

 p1  gh43  gh31  gh

( static pressure)
Static pressure
p1  p3  gh31 
  p1  gh43  gh31  gh ( static pressure)
p3  gh43  p4 ( p 4  0) 

Hydrostatic pressure
gz - It is not actually a pressure , but does represent the change in
pressure possible due potential energy variation of the fluid as
a result of elevation changes.

Dynamic pressure
1
V 2 at point (2) , V2  0 (assuming z 1  z 2 )
2
 1
p 2  p1  V12
2
where p 2 [] pressure at the stagnation (stagnation pressure)
p 1 [] static pressure
1
V12 [] Dynamic pressure
2
Bernoulli equation
1
 Total pressure ( p  V 2  gh  p total ) remains constant along a streamline.
2
Knowledge of static pressure (p)
 imply
 fluid speed (V ) can be calculated
stagnation pressure (p  V 2 ) 
1
2 

pitot  static tubic is based
 1
p V 2  gz  pT  constant along a streamline
2
Along a streamline
1
p 2  p1  V12
2
where p 2 [] stagnation pressure
p1 [] static pressure
1
V12 [] Dynamic pressure
2

Inside the tube P2  P3

Outside the tube P1  P4
V1  V
1
p 3  p 4  V 2
2
2( p 3  p 4 )
V

Example 3.6
Given :
V = 100 mi/hr
Elevation = 10,000ft
Determine :
(1) p 1  ?
(2) p 2 (stagnation) = ?
(3) p indicated by a pilot - static probe.

Solution :
From table C.1 (P.764) for elevation  10,000ft
p1  10.11psia  1456lbf /ft2(abs)
1  0.001756slug /ft3

From Bernoulli Equation

1 1
p1  V12  gz1  p 2  V22  gz 2  constant along the streamline
2 2
1
Since coordinate is fixed to the airplane constant  V22  0
2
Since z 1  z 2
1
p 2  p1  V12
2
lb f 1 slug ft ) 2
 1456  ( 0.001756 )  (146.7
ft 2 2 ft 3 s
lb f
 (1456  18.9) (abs )
ft 2
lb
 18.9 f 2 ( gage)  0.1313 psig
ft
p 2  p1  0.1313 psig
§3.6 Example of Use of the Bernoulli Equation

Bernoulli equation, between points (1) and (2) , on a streamline

1 1
p1  V12  gz1  p 2  V 22  gz 2  (3.17)
2 2
Assumptions : (1) steady state
(2) Inviscid
(3) In compressible flow .

Bernoulli equation 
  to slove problem
Conservation of mass (in most cases)
§3.6.1 Free Jets

Along streamline
1 1
p1  V12  gz1  p2  V22  gz 2
2 2
where p1  patm ; p2  patm ; gz 2  0
1
V22  gz1  gh
2
V22  2 gh
Across the streamline
V2 V2
p2    dn  gz 2  p 4    dn  gz 4
R R
p2  p4

Along streamline
1 1
p1  V1  gz1  p 5  V52  gz 5
2

2 2
1
V52  gz1  g (h  H )  V5  2 g (h  H )
2
Kinetic energy  Potential energy
 §3.6.2 Confined Flows

- The fluid is physically constrained within a device so that its pressure

cannot be prescribed a priori as was done for the free jet examples above
- Bernoulli e quation
with
Conservation of mass

Mass flowrate  m [] slug
s

m  Q  VA where Q [] ft 3 / s
 
 m Inlet  m Outlet   1 A1V1   2 A2V 2 (   cons tan t )
 A1V1  A2V 2 or Q1  Q 2
 Example 3.10
Given : TH 2O  60 0 F p atm  14.7 Psia
Determine V3  ?
H max  ?

Solution
Bernoulli Equth (1) & (3)
1 1
p1  V12  gz1  p 3  V32  gz 3
2 2
( p1  0 V1  0 p 3  0)
1
V32  g ( z1  z 3 )
2
V.  2 g ( z1  z 3 )  2  32.2  [15  (5)]  35.9 ft / s
  cons tan t
Conservation of mass :  2V 2 A2   3V3 A3    V 2 A2  V3 A3
 V 2  V3 (sin ce A2  A3 )
Bernoulli equation between points (2) & (3)
1 1
p2  V22  gz 2  p3  V32  gz3
2 2
Vapor pressure of H 2 O = 0.256 psia at temp = 60 F (Table B.1 P.761)
lb f
p2  0.256 144 ;V2  V3 , z 2  z3  ( H  5)ft
ft 2
1 2 1
p2  v2  gz 2  p3  v32  gz3
2 2
0.256 *144  g ( z 2  z3 )  14.7 *144
g ( H  5)  (14.7  0.256) *144
 H  28.2 ft
§3.6.3 Flow rate Measurement

Principles involved in the Bernoulli equation to measure fluid velocity and flow rates.
- The pilot static tube ( not included in the following slides)
- Other examples discussed below.
- In pipes and conducts
- In open channels (Such as flumes and irrigation ditches)
 ─Flowrate Measurement in pipes

Bernoulli e quation for z1  z 2

1 1
p1  V1  p2  V22
2

2 2
Conservation of mass
Q  A1V1  A 2 V2 where A 2  A1
Q Q
or V1  ; V2 
A1 A2
2( p1  p2 )
 Q  A2  Qtheoretical result  Qmeasurement
A
[1  ( 2 ) 2 ]
A1
─Flow rate measurement in open channels
(Such as flumes and irrigation ditches)
─ slice gate
Q = f(z1 , b, a) b = width；
a = gate opening

Bernoulli equation
1 1
p1  V12  gz1  p2  V22  gz2
2 2
Conservation of mass
Q  A1V1  A2V2 or Q  (bz1 )V1  (bz2 )V1
Since p1  p2
2 g ( z1  z2 ) for z  z
 Q  z 2b   Q  z2b 2 gz1 (or V2  2 gz1 )
1 2

1  ( z2 ) 2
z1
- Weir 堰
Q = f(p w , b, H )
It is an approximation the flow which is quit complex
Q  C1Hb 2gH where C1 is a constant to be determined.
§3.8 Restrictions on the Use of the Bernoulli Equation.

Newtons second law  Bernoulli equation

V 1
 ds  dP  d (V 2 )  gdz  0 along a streamline
t 2

V
§3.8.1 Compressibility effect (steady state 0 )
t
1
dp   (V 2 )  gdz  0 along a streamline
2
dp 1
  dV 2  gdz  0
 2
 p
(a) Ideal gas p  RT   
RT
RT 1
dp  dV 2  gdz  0
P 2
1
Integration  RTnP  V 2  gz  constant along a streamline
2
p 1 1
or RTn( 1 )  V12  gz1  V 22  gz 2
p2 2 2

(b) Isentropic ( constant entropy) flow of a perfect gas.

A reversible adiabatic process no friction or heat transfer.
p
 C (where k is the specific heat rats; C  constant)
 R

1
k
dp 1 C 1
 dV  gdz  0  1 dp  dV 2  gdz  0
2

 2 k
2
p
k p1 V12 k p 2 V 22
Integration  ( )   gz1  ( )  g
k  1 1 2 k 1  2 2
 k p1 V12 k p 2 V 22
( )   gz1  ( )   gz 2
k  1 1 2 k 1  2 2
considering the stagnation point flow V2  0 & z 1  z 2
k p1 V12 k p2 p1 k  1 V12 p 2
( )  ( )  ( ) 
k  1 1 2 k 1  2 1 k 2 2
K 1 K 1
C1/ K k  1 V12 C 1 / K 1 / K k  1 V12
 1 / K p1  ( )  1/ K p2 p 1
K
C ( )  p2 K
p1 k 2 p2 k 2
K 1
C 1 / K k  1 2
K 1 K 1
 1 1 1k  k 1 2 K 1

p 1
K
 V1  p 2 K p 1
K
  2 p 
 2 V1  p 2
K
k 2  C1 
K 1
K 1 K 1 K 1 K 1 K 1
p K
k 1 2 k  1 V12
p 1
K
 1
2
V1  p 2 K p 2
K
p 1
K
 2
p1 K
C 1 2 2 C1
k 1
p  k k  1 V12
  2   1
 p1  2 C12
k
p2  k 1 V 2
 k 1
  1  1

p1  2 C 1
2 

k
p 2  p1  k  1 2  k 1
  1  Ma   1 (3.25)
p1  2 
For isentropic fluid
p
 C  cons tan t
 k

1 C 1 C1/ K
 k    1/ K
 p  p

Ev
C  sound  velocity

kp


kp p 
C  2
 2 
 C k
1 1 p1/ k 1 p 1
 2 p  
C k C1/ k C 2 p 1 / k kC 1 / k
C 1 / k
1 1
1 1 k 1 1 1 k
 2 p    2 p
C kC 1 / k k C
For incompressible perfect gas
Considering the stagnation point flow V2  0 & z 1  z 2

Bernoulli equation
p1 V12 p 2 V 22
  gz1    gz 2
1 2 2 2
p1 V12 p
   2
1 2 2
p2 p1 V12
  1   2  
  2
p2 V12 1
  1
p1 2 p1 / 
p2 V12 p
  1 ( where p  RT   RT )
p1 2 RT1 
p2 V12 Ev
 1  ( where C  ( sound speed )
p1  C12  
2 

 k 
kp C2
  kRT  C  kRT  RT 
2
)
 k
p 2  p1 k 2
  M a1  (3.26)
p1 2
 §3.8.2 Unsteady effects

From Bernoulli equation

V 1
 ds  dp  dV 2  gdz  0 along a streamline
t 2
V
For steady state V  V ( s ) ; a s  V
s
V V
For unsteady state V  V ( s, t ) ; a s  V
t s
For incompressible flow
1 1 s V
p1  V12  gz1  p 2  V 22  gz 2   s12 ds
2 2 t
Example :
The oscillation of a column of
liquid in a U - tube
Open tube p1  p 2  0
V1  V 2  V
V
 gz1  gz 2   s12
s
ds
t
s V dV s 2 dV
where s12 ds  s1 ds  l
t dt dt
dV
 g ( z1  z 2 )  l
dt
dV
 2 gz  l
dt
dV
l  2 gz  0
dt
d 2 z 2g
 2  z0  harmonic motion
dt l
Equation of motion along the streamline direction

p v
 g sin    v (note : sin   dz / ds )
s s

1
 p  v 2  gz  cons tan t 1
2 p  V 2  gz  const.
2

Equation of motion along the normal direction

P V2 dz
  g cos   (note : cos  )
n R dn

V2
p   dn  gz constant
R
Equation of motion along the normal direction

P V2 dz
  g cos   (note : cos  )
n R dn

p V2
  dn  gz constant
 R
 Equation of motion
Along
a streamline
p v
  V  g  V sin    V ( v )
s s
p v
   g sin   v
s s
p dz v
  g  v
s ds s
1
 p  v 2  gz  const
2
along a streamline
Across a streamline
p v2
  V   g  V cos    V
n R
p v2
    g cos   
n R
p dz v2
  g  
n dn R
v2
 p  dn   gz  const across a streamline
R
Assumptions involved
1. viscous effects are assumed negligibled
2. the flow is assumed to be steady
3. the flow is assumed to be incompressible
4. the equation is applieable along (or across) a streamline
Equation for work per unit mass
p 1 2
 V  gz  cons tan t along the streamline
 2
p V2
  dn  gz  constant across the streamline
 R
p
where []work by pressure force ;

V2
 R dn[]kinetic energy of the particle ;
gz[]work done by gravitation force (or work done by the weight)
" Work - energy Relation ? "
§3.7 The Energy Line and the Hydraulic Grade Line
Bernoulli equation
1
p  V 2  gz  constant along the streamline
2
p V2
   z  constant on a streamline  H  total head
g 2 g
[] ft or meter head  Energy line
p V2
where []pressure head ; []velocity head ; z []elevation head
g 2g

Note：
p v2
Energy line (EL) =  z
g 2 g
p
Hydraulic grade line (HGL)   z  piezometric head
g